(Wireless Communications and Networking Technologies_ Classifications, Advancement and Applications) Prashant Ranjan, Ram Shringar Rao, Krishna Kumar, Pankaj Sharma - Wireless Communication. Advanceme

i
Wireless Communication
This reference text will benefit readers in enhancing their understanding of the recent
technologies, protocols, and challenges in various stages of development of wireless
communication and networking.
The text discusses the cellular concepts of 4G, 5G, and 6G along with their challenges.
It covers topics related to vehicular technology, wherein vehicles communicate with
the traffic and the environment around them using short-range wireless signals. The
text comprehensively covers important topics including use of the Internet of Things
(IoT) in wireless communication, architecture, and protocols. It further covers the
role of smart antennas in emerging wireless technologies.
The book
• Discusses advanced techniques used in the field of wireless communication.

• Covers technologies including network slicing, 5G wireless communication,
and TV white space technology.
• Discusses practical applications including drone delivery systems, public
safety, IoT, virtual reality, and smart cities.
• Covers radio theory and applications for wireless communication with ranges
of centimeters to hundreds of meters.
• Discusses important topics including metamaterials, inductance coupling for
loop antennas, bluetooth low energy, wireless security, and wireless sensor
networks.
Discussing latest technologies including 5G, 6G, IoT, vehicular technology and TV
white space technology, this text will be useful for senior undergraduate, graduate
students, and professionals in the fields of electrical engineering, and electronics and
communication engineering.
ii
Wireless Communications and Networking

Technologies: Classifications, Advancement and Applications
Series Editor: D.K. Lobiyal, R.S. Rao and Vishal Jain
The series addresses different algorithms, architecture, standards and protocols, tools
and methodologies which could be beneficial in implementing next generation mobile
network for the communication. Aimed at senior undergraduate students, graduate
students, academic researchers and professionals, the proposed series will focus on
the fundamentals and advances of wireless communication and networking, and their
such as mobile ad-hoc network (MANET), wireless sensor network (WSN), wireless
mess network (WMN), vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANET), vehicular cloud net-
work (VCN), vehicular sensor network (VSN) reliable cooperative network (RCN),
mobile opportunistic network (MON), delay tolerant networks (DTN), flying ad-hoc
network (FANET) and wireless body sensor network (WBSN).
Cloud Computing Enabled Big-Data Analytics in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks

Sanjoy Das, Ram Shringar Rao, Indrani Das, Vishal Jain and Nanhay Singh
Smart Cities
Concepts, Practices, and Applications
Krishna Kumar, Gaurav Saini, Duc Manh Nguyen, Narendra Kumar and Rachna Shah
Advancements and Challenges
Prashant Ranjan, Ram Shringar Rao, Krishna Kumar and Pankaj Sharma
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Wireless%20

Communications%20and%20Networking%20Technologies/book-series/WCANT
iii
Advancements and Challenges
Prashant Ranjan, Ram Shringar Rao, Krishna Kumar

and Pankaj Sharma
iv
First edition published 2023

by CRC Press
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© 2023 Prashant Ranjan, Ram Shringar Rao, Krishna Kumar and Pankaj Sharma
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ISBN: 9780367751593 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032020655 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003181699 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
v
Contents
Preface........................................................................................................................xi
Readers.....................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter Organization................................................................................................ xv
About the Authors...................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Internet of Things (IoT)......................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Internet of Things Vision............................................... 1
1.1.2 Evolution and Rapid Adoption of IoT........................... 2
1.1.3 The Need for M2M Connectivity.................................. 2
1.1.4 The Chicken and Egg Analogy...................................... 3
1.2 The Continuing Evolution of IoT...............................................3
1.3 The Key Drivers of Rapid Adoption of IoT................................ 4
1.4 How Does IoT Work................................................................... 5
1.5 Importance of IoT....................................................................... 6
1.6 Benefits of IoT to Businesses...................................................... 6
1.6.1 Consumer and Enterprise IoT Applications.................. 7
1.6.2 Engineering, Industry, and Infrastructure...................... 7
1.6.3 Home Applications........................................................ 8
1.6.4 Wearables...................................................................... 8
1.6.5 Healthcare and Medicine............................................... 9
1.6.6 Smart Cities................................................................... 9
1.6.7 Smart Grid and Smart Meters...................................... 10
1.6.8 Agri-tech...................................................................... 11
1.6.9 Tyre Air Pressure Detection........................................ 13
1.6.10 Personal IoT Applications........................................... 13
1.6.10.1 Gesture Control Armband......................... 13
1.6.10.2 Smart Glass............................................... 13
1.6.10.3 Smart Eye.................................................. 13
1.6.10.4 Pulse Oximeter.......................................... 13
1.7 Potential of IoT......................................................................... 14
1.8 Architecture of IoT................................................................... 18
1.8.1 Smart Device/Sensor Layer......................................... 18
1.8.2 IoT –Technology and Protocols.................................19
1.8.3 RFID and NFC............................................................ 19
1.8.4 Low-Energy Bluetooth (BLE)..................................... 19
1.8.5 Low-Energy Wireless.................................................. 19
1.8.6 Radio Protocols........................................................... 19
1.8.7 LTE-Advanced............................................................19
1.8.8 NB-IoT........................................................................ 20
1.8.9 LoRa............................................................................ 20
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1.8.10 SigFox.........................................................................20
1.8.11 TV White Space.......................................................... 20
1.8.12 WiFi-Direct.................................................................. 20
1.8.13 Gateways and Networks.............................................. 21
1.8.14 Management Service Layer......................................... 21
1.8.15 Application Layer........................................................ 22
1.8.16 IoT Software................................................................ 22
1.8.17 Data Collection............................................................ 23
1.8.18 Device Integration....................................................... 23
1.8.19 Real-Time Analytics.................................................... 23
1.8.20 Applications and Process Extension...........................24
1.9 IoT Standards and Frameworks................................................ 24
1.10 Enabling Technologies for IoT................................................. 25
1.11 Future Technological Developments for IoT............................ 27
1.12 Future Application Areas.......................................................... 29
1.13 Pros and Cons of IoT................................................................ 32
1.14 IoT Security and Privacy Issues................................................ 33
1.15 Tips to Help Secure User’s Smart Home and IoT Devices....... 33
1.16 Future Challenges for IoT......................................................... 34
1.16.1 Privacy and Security.................................................... 34
1.16.2 Cost versus Usability................................................... 35
1.16.3 Interoperability............................................................ 35
1.16.4 Data Management.......................................................36
1.16.5 Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on IoT...................... 36
1.17 Conclusion................................................................................ 40
Chapter 2 Application of IoT for Pandemic Detection........................................ 43

2.1 Introduction............................................................................... 43
2.2 Emergency Care System........................................................... 43
2.3 Previous Works......................................................................... 45
2.4 Application of IoT and Smart Technology for Pandemic
Detection................................................................................... 48
2.5 Conclusion................................................................................ 50
Chapter 3 TV White Space (TVWS) Technology................................................ 53

3.1 Introduction............................................................................... 53
3.2 Underutilised Spectrum............................................................ 54
3.3 Evolution of TVWS.................................................................. 58
3.4 Standardisation of TVWS......................................................... 62
3.5 Regulations on TVWS.............................................................. 66
3.5.1 Regulation in the USA................................................ 66
3.5.2 Regulation in Singapore.............................................. 67
3.5.3 Regulation in the UK................................................... 71
3.5.4 Regulation in Canada.................................................. 72
3.5.5 Regulation in Colombia............................................... 72
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Contents vii
3.5.6 Regulation in South Africa.......................................... 75

3.5.7 Regulation in Ghana.................................................... 76
3.5.8 Regulation in New Zealand......................................... 78
3.5.9 Regulation in South Korea.......................................... 78
3.5.10 Draft Regulation in Uganda........................................ 80
3.5.11 Draft Regulation in Nigeria......................................... 80
3.5.12 Draft Regulation in Kenya........................................... 81
3.5.13 Draft Regulation in the Philippines............................. 81
3.5.14 Draft Regulation in Brazil........................................... 82
3.5.15 Draft Regulation in Brunei.......................................... 84
3.5.16 TV Spectrum Allocation in India................................ 84
3.5.17 Draft Regulation in Pakistan....................................... 87
3.5.18 Draft Regulation in Australia...................................... 88
3.6 The Limitations of TVWS Regulation...................................... 89
3.7 Commercial Pilots and Trials of TVWS................................... 92
3.7.1 Botswana Pilot Project (March 2015)......................... 92
3.7.2 Ghana Commercial Pilot (May 2014)......................... 92
3.7.3 Namibia Trial (August 2014)...................................... 92
3.7.4 The Philippines (July 2013)........................................ 92
3.7.5 India Pilot Trials (Nov 2015)....................................... 93
3.7.6 South Africa Commercial Pilot (July 2013)................ 93
3.7.7 Tanzania Commercial Pilot (May 2013)..................... 93
3.7.8 Kenya “Mawingu” Commercial Pilot
(February 2013)........................................................... 93
3.7.9 Singapore Commercial Pilot (April 2012).................. 93
3.7.10 Cambridge White Spaces Trial (June 2011)................ 94
3.7.11 Claudville, Virginia (September 2009)........................ 94
3.8 Applications and Use Cases of TVWS..................................... 95
3.8.1 Cost Comparison and Performance
Comparison of TVWS Compared to Alternate
Solutions for Various Applications.............................. 98
3.9 SWOT Analysis......................................................................... 99
3.10 Conclusion................................................................................ 99
Chapter 4 Health Monitoring and Pandemic Detection Using IoT and

Wireless Communication Technologies............................................ 105
4.1 Introduction............................................................................. 105
4.2 Previous Works....................................................................... 107
4.3 Proposed Model...................................................................... 110
4.4 Conclusions............................................................................. 113
Chapter 5 V2V: The Future of VANET’s Communications............................... 115

5.1 Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET)..................................... 115
5.2 Communication Domains of VANET..................................... 116
5.3 VANET’s Characteristics........................................................ 117
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5.4 VANET’s Challenges.............................................................. 118

5.5 VANET Applications.............................................................. 119
5.5.1 Safety Applications................................................... 119
5.5.2 Commercial and Comfort Applications..................... 119
5.5.3 Entertainment Related Applications.......................... 119
5.5.4 Urban Sensing and Health Monitoring
Applications.............................................................. 120
5.6 Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication (V2V)............................. 120
5.7 Working of V2V Communication........................................... 121
5.7.1 Vehicle-to-X Communication (V2X)........................ 122
5.8 Benefits of V2V Communications.......................................... 123
5.9 V2V Tracking and Reporting.................................................. 124
5.10 V2V Security in Communication............................................ 124
5.11 Future of V2V Communication.............................................. 125
5.12 Conclusion.............................................................................. 126
Chapter 6 IoT Based Flood Control and Disaster Management System

for Dam and Barrage......................................................................... 129
6.1 Introduction............................................................................. 129
6.2 Investigations on Dam and Barrage Monitoring..................... 133
6.3 Circuit Configuration for Monitoring and Control of
Dam/Barrage........................................................................... 136
6.4 Conclusions............................................................................. 136
Chapter 7 An Overview of Smart Antenna Technology for Wireless

Communication................................................................................. 139
7.1 Introduction............................................................................. 139
7.2 Smart Antenna......................................................................... 139
7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Smart Antennas................ 141
7.3.1 Advantages of Smart Antenna................................... 141
7.3.2 Disadvantages of Smart Antenna.............................. 142
7.4 Types of Smart Antenna System............................................. 142
7.4.1 Switched Beam System............................................. 143
7.4.2 Digitally Adaptive Beamforming (DAB) System..... 145
7.5 Difference Between Switched Beam System and
Digitally Adaptive Beamforming System............................... 147
7.6 Applications of Smart Antenna System.................................. 148
7.7 Conclusions............................................................................. 148
Chapter 8 UAV: Communication and Object Detection System........................ 151

8.1 Introduction............................................................................. 151
8.2 Application Scenarios of UAVs.............................................. 152
8.2.1 Research Trends and Technologies........................... 153
8.2.2 Construction and Infrastructure Investigation........... 154
8.2.3 Media and Entertainments......................................... 154
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Contents ix
8.2.4 Product Delivery........................................................ 154

8.2.5 Onboard Health Planning.......................................... 154
8.2.6 Smart City Management............................................ 154
8.2.7 Reconnaissance and Patrolling.................................. 154
8.3 Major Issues and Challenges of UAVs.................................... 155
8.3.1 Mobility Models........................................................ 155
8.3.2 High Reliability......................................................... 156
8.3.3 Routing...................................................................... 156
8.3.4 Path Scheduling......................................................... 156
8.3.5 Quality of Service (QoS)........................................... 156
8.3.6 Security Issues........................................................... 156
8.3.7 Energy Constraint...................................................... 157
8.4. UAV Communications............................................................ 157
8.4.1 Object Detection System........................................... 157
8.4.2 Limitations of Automating the Utilization of
Aerial Imagery........................................................... 159
8.5 Conclusion.............................................................................. 159
Chapter 9 Smart Pole System: A Connectivity to City Services........................ 163

9.1 Introduction............................................................................. 163
9.2 Limitations of Conventional Pole System..............................165
9.3 Benefits of Smart Pole System................................................ 165
9.3.1 Improving City Operations........................................ 165
9.3.2 Decreasing Emergency Response Time.................... 166
9.3.3 Environmental Aspects.............................................. 166
9.3.4 Data Monetization Probabilities................................ 166
9.3.5 International Market.................................................. 166
9.4 Smart Pole System Design...................................................... 166
9.4.1 5G Enabled Smart Pole with LED Street
Lighting..................................................................... 166
9.4.2 PIR Sensor................................................................. 167
9.4.3 Wi-Fi Hotspot Services............................................. 167
9.4.4 CCTV Surveillance Camera...................................... 168
9.4.5 Traffic Control Management..................................... 168
9.4.6 Air Pollution Sensors................................................ 168
9.4.7 Electronic Vehicle Charger........................................ 169
9.4.8 Fast EV Charging...................................................... 169
9.4.9 Smart Billboard......................................................... 170
9.4.10 Mobile Applications.................................................. 171
9.4.11 Integration with Command and Control Centre........ 171
9.4.12 Integrated Antenna on Smart Pole............................. 172
9.5 Conclusion.............................................................................. 172
Index....................................................................................................................... 177
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Preface
Today and in the future, wireless technology plays a significant role in human life.
New forms of emerging wireless technologies include self-driving vehicles, 5G and
beyond cellular technology, backscatter-networking technology, network slicing, IoT,
etc. Keeping this in mind, the present book aims to explore the various technologies
emerging in wireless communication. The concept of technological advancements
and issues related to them will be discussed in detail.
5th generation cellular network (5G) is a new global wireless technology after 1G,
2G, 3G, and 4G networks. 5G provides a new kind of network which is designed to
connect virtually everyone and everything, including devices, objects, and machines.
Billions of smart objects being connected through the cellular network is the vision
of the Internet of Things. It needs to address the problem of uninterrupted power con-
sumption. Backscatter networking technology is a solution to the limited battery life
problem and enables future battery-free communications for combatting the energy
issues for devices in emerging wireless networks. Uses of the Internet of Things for
industrial plants’ real-time monitoring and operation may help optimize the system’s
performance.
Both self-driving and conventional cars will need to communicate with each other
and also with road infrastructure. This will be facilitated by Vehicle-to-everything
(V2X) wireless technology. V2X technology is to pass the information from a vehicle
to any object that may affect the vehicle and vice versa. The main motivations for
V2X are traffic efficiency, energy savings, and road safety.
Smart antenna have an important influence on the optimization of service quality,
the cost minimization during establishment of new wireless networks, efficient use
of the spectrum, and recognition of transparent operation through multi technology
wireless networks.
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xiii
Readers
This book is helpful for researchers, academicians, and developers working in the
area of wireless communication, intelligent transport systems, IoT applications, and
smart antennas.
The main features of the book are:
• It has covered all the latest developments and future aspects of wireless
technologies.
• This book is very useful for the new researchers and developers working to
learn the best-performing methods quickly.
• The book is concisely written, lucid, comprehensive, application-based, graph-
ical, schematics and covers all aspects of wireless communication.
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xv
Chapter Organization
In Chapter 1, the evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the architecture
have been discussed. The available technological challenges for IoT have also been
discussed in detail. In Chapter 2, the application of IoT for pandemic detection and
emergency care systems has been discussed. One IoT-based architecture has also
been suggested for pandemic detection.
A detailed discussion on TV white space (TVWS) technology has been discussed
with their standardization and limitations in Chapter 3. This chapter has also discussed
the existing regulation on TVWS, commercial pilots & trials, and SWOT analysis.
The discussion on health monitoring and pandemic detection using IoT and wireless
communication Technologies has been presented in Chapter 4.
In Chapter 5, the future of VANET’s communications, vehicular Ad-hoc network
(VANET), Communication Domains of VANET, VANET’s Characteristics, Vehicle-
to-Vehicle Communication (V2V), and V2V Security in Communication has been
discussed in detail. IoT-based flood control and disaster management system for dam
and barrage and circuit configuration have been discussed in Chapter 6.
In Chapter 7, an overview of smart antenna technology and adaptive beamforming
system has been discussed. The UAV communication, object detection system, and
their issues have been discussed in Chapter 8. In Chapter 9, smart pole system and
their limitations of design have been discussed.
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xvi
About the Authors

Dr. Prashant Ranjan is presently working as
an Associate Professor in the Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering,
University of Engineering and Management Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India. He received his M.Tech and
Ph.D. degree from Motilal Nehru National Institute
of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh,
India. He has more than five years of teaching
experience. He has published numerous research
papers in international journals and conferences,
including IEEE, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis. His
present area of research includes the design and
development of UWB filtering antennas, vehicle-to-vehicle wireless technology,
Non-Invasive RF Sensors, Agricultural & Medical Applications.
Dr. Ram Shringar Rao received his Ph.D.

(Computer Science and Technology) from School
of Computer and Systems Sciences, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi, India. He has
obtained his M. Tech (IT) and B. E. (CSE) 2005 and
2000 respectively. He has worked as an Associate
Professor in the Department of Computer Science,
Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (A
Central University, MP) from April 2016 to March
2018. He is currently working in the Department
of Computer Science and Engineering of Netaji
Subhas University of Technology, East Campus,
Delhi, India. He has more than 18 years of teaching, administrative and research
experience. Currently, he is associated with a wide range of journals and conferences
as chief editor, editor, chairs and members. Dr. Rao has published more than
100 research papers including edited books with good impact factors in reputed
International Journals and Conferences including IEEE, Elsevier, Springer, Wiley
& Sons, Taylor & Francis, IERI Letters, American Institute of Physics, etc. He has
supervised 25 M. Tech and four PhD students for their dissertation and thesis work.
His current research interests include Mobile Ad hoc Networks, Vehicular Ad hoc
Networks, Flying Ad-hoc Networks and Cloud Computing.
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newgenprepdf
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xviii About the Authors
Er. Krishna Kumar is presently working

as a Research and Development Engineer at
UJVN Ltd. Before joining UJVNL he has
worked as Assistant Professor at BTKIT,
Dwarahat. He received his B.E. (Electronics
and Communication Engineering) from
Govind Ballabh Plant Engineering College,
Pauri Garhwal, M.Tech (Digital Systems)
from Motilal Nehru NIT Allahabad. He
is presently pursuing his Ph.D. from the
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. He
has more than 11 years of experience and
has published numerous research papers in international journals like IEEE,
Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, Springer, and Wiley. His research areas include
Renewable Energy and Artificial Intelligence.
Mr. Pankaj Sharma is M.Sc. (Physics),

M.Tech. (Microwave Electronics) from
University of Delhi & MBA from Lancaster
University (UK). He was a senior researcher
at A*STAR (Singapore’s premium research
organization) and developed many wireless
communication technologies & products with
Indian and Singapore technology companies.
He led many deployment projects in many
countries. He filed many patents and published
various research papers in reputed journals
and conferences. He is currently CTO &
Co-Founder of Whizpace Pvt. Ltd., a spin-off from A*STAR and running the
company and secured many projects in Singapore & overseas, connecting the
unconnected. Harnessing the power of TV White Space technology.
1
1 Internet of Things (IoT)
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The concept of IoT was invented in 1999 by the Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) research group member and has recently become more applicable to society,
essentially due to the rise of mobile phones, embedded systems and ubiquitous
networking, data processing and cloud computing [1]. In the near future, there will be
billions of devices sensing, interacting, and exchanging information, connected over
private or public Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The interconnected devices collect
data on a regular basis, which is then processed and action initiated accordingly.
This provides a large quantity of information for strategy, management, and decision-
making. This is the world of IoT [3].
IoT can be broadly categorized into three categories as below:
1. Things/things to things/machine, interacting through the internet.

2. People to people.
3. People to machine/things.
1.1.1 Internet of Things Vision

IoT is a concept that recognizes the ubiquitous presence in wired and wirelessly
connected devices and has special addressing schemes capable of communicating
with each other to build new applications and services. However, there are enormous
R&D challenges to create a smart world. We are creating a world where tangible
objects and virtual services are converging to create smart ecosystems to make energy
consumption, transport management, cities operation, and many other areas more
intelligent [4].
Another definition of IoT refers to the general idea of things, mostly everyday
objects that are readable, recognised, located, addressed through information
sensing device, and controlled by smartphones or internet, irrespective of the com-
munication means. These means could be RFID, WiFi, and wide area networks
(WAN). These artefacts include electronic devices, items of deep-tech growth, such
as auto industry and heavy machinery, and non-electronics items, such as food,
water, clothes, furniture, plants, livestock, etc. IoT is a modern Internet movement
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-1 1
2
2 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges
in which devices are recognised and receive information by making context-based

decisions [4]. Besides, they can express their criteria and view knowledge that has
been aggregated from other items. This transformation of communication is con-
current with the transition from the Internet to IPv6 with unlimited addressing cap-
acity and cloud computing evolution [4]. The IoT aims to make it possible for
devices to be linked to something and anyone, anywhere, preferably using any ser-
vice, path, or network.
1.1.2 Evolution and Rapid Adoption of IoT

The concept of IoT is not new and is now one of the fastest business success generators.
It is important to hear more about how IoT has grown over the last two decades and
became part of mainstream business now.
1.1.3 The Need for M2M Connectivity

The idea of connecting the physical systems or machines has been a matter of interest
to technological innovators, and numerous developments have been made since then.
RFID has been used for a very long time by suppliers of consumer products and
retailers on costly goods and palettes for quick inventory control. The word “IoT” was
not envisaged at the time. The essential context of making multiple machines interact
with each other over a distance to increase performance has always been the ideal
means of operation. Nevertheless, the concept of integration RFID with networking
technologies by MIT professor Kevin Asht was a breakthrough when he incepted the
Internet of Things (IoT) term (Figure 1.1). As soon as IoT started to incorporate the
connecting and remotely tracking methods of different organizations into a shared
system, it was not possible to look back.
FIGURE 1.1
From RFID to IoT (Source: Mojix).
3
Internet of Things (IoT) 3
FIGURE 1.2
Inception of IoT is similar to the chicken-egg problem (Source: Pinterest).
1.1.4 The Chicken and Egg Analogy

It makes sense to compare the IoT evolution and RFID to the chicken or egg caus-
ality problem (Figure 1.2). While Ashton coined the term IoT to describe connecting
physical objects via RFID, the concept of linking physical structures existed well
before that.
1.2
THE CONTINUING EVOLUTION OF IOT
Below is the evolution of IoT development timelines:
Year 1999: Kevin Ashton, co-founder of the MIT Auto-ID Centre, invented the
word “Internet of Things”. Its concept of IoT was based on integrating RFID
with networking technology by connecting devices to the internet using the
RFID symbol.
Ashton had the vision to create a system “where computers would be capable
of gathering information without human help and deliver it into useful infor-
mation, which would be possible with technologies like sensors and RFID
that enable computers to observe, identify and understand the world.”
Year 1999: Device to Device (D2D) connectivity definition was conceived by Bill
Joy for his “Six Webs” system of the World Economic Forum.
Year 2000: World’s the first internet-connected refrigerator, LG Wireless Digital
DIOS, was invented with an IP networking LAN port.
Year 2001: A modern object recognition system, the Electronic Product Code
(EPC) instead of the standard Universal Product Code (bar code) for specific
identification and monitoring of objects over the entire product life cycle using
the network was proposed by David Brock (co-director of the Auto-ID Center
in MIT).
Year 2003: “Project JXTA-C: Enabling a Web of Things” was presented by Bernard
Traversat and his team at the 36th Annual Hawaii International Conference. The
JXTA project aimed to define a common series of protocols for the ad-hoc, ubi-
quitous, peer-to-peer computing as the basis for the upcoming Web of Things.
4
McCormick Place Conference Center established unique network to link

millions of tags that existed at that time in the world. It was introduced to the
delegates from all over the field of retail, technology and academics engaged
in unveiling the electronic product code (EPC) network. They aimed to replace
global barcodes with a standardized framework with unique identification for
every device in the world. People started calling this network ‘the Internet of
Things.’
Year 2005: A single-board microcontroller used in immersive projects was built by
Faculty of Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, Italy. Later in the same year, the
ITU released a paper entitled “The Internet of Things”.
Year 2008: A variety of industry players have come together to support connected
devices. This was a massive step in IoT being introduced in a real manufacturing
plant for the large-scale enterprise.
Beyond 2016: IoT has spread its wings across many industries, such as connected
homes, connected vehicles, IoT enabled factories, connected offices, and IoT
based solar trackers. Thus, a newer term “Industrial IoT (IIoT)” was launched,
which includes devices used in industries. It was postulated that there would
be around 50 billion connected devices by 2020. With the new technological
inventions, IoT’s scope and definition have changed from what Ashton had
envisioned. However, the basic principle of connected devices interacting with
each other in a network to analyse the collected information using internet
remains unchanged. The IoT system based on RFID model has not gained
adequate publicity over the years due to restricted networking opportunities
and high costs for hardware and infrastructure. Besides, the RFID-based system
was not ideal for large-scale industrial automation. Nevertheless, the IP-based
wireless network and many other technological developments helped IoT con-
tinue developing for many applications.
1.3
THE KEY DRIVERS OF RAPID ADOPTION OF IOT [5]
Below are the key drivers for the rapid adoption of IoT across various industries:
a) Networking capabilities evolution: Currently, various wireless technologies

such as WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, Z-Wave, DECT and Thread enable con-
nectivity between users. In addition to these technologies, the peer-to-peer
networking technologies AllSeen, DLNA, and UPnP are also available.
b) Cloud computing development: The rapid development in cloud computing
is also a significant factor in making IoT available. The cloud provides low-
cost storage and retrieval of data and info. Availability of accessible cloud
infrastructure has enabled streamlined unloading of IoT network storage and
processing activities on cloud servers. This made many companies imple-
ment IoT more effortlessly. IoT and cloud are now inseparably connected and
applied to streamline complicated market issues.
c) Cost reduction: The availability of various sensors and connected devices at
low cost has benefited mid-size and small-scale businesses.
5
FIGURE 1.3
The IoT adoption and evolution of big data connection.
d) Advances in data processing and analysis: Data handling and data analysis
capability have increased tremendously over the last decade. Data processing
and interpretation are the USP of IoT based devices. Advances in data analysis
have also opened new instances in IoT applications. Many embedded devices
communicate and share a massive amount of data in several data formats. The
magic of translating data to make sense and making money from it is achiev-
able by introducing significant data processing software.
Various data analytics methods, such as Time Series, Spatial, and Streaming Analytics,
are used to analyse data that differ in both structure and formats. These make use of
structured and unstructured data, such as location and time-based data. Advances in
data analytics have enabled companies to embrace IoT broadly and have opened new
possibilities for market growth and expansion, as depicted in Figure 1.3. In addition,
the rapid implementation of IoT was made possible by:
1. Improvement in the field of data traffic, processing and storage, and data
amounts,
2. Innovation of newer norms for networking from nodes to edges and software
from different provider.
1.4
HOW DOES IOT WORK
The IoT ecosystem consists of nodes with sensors, internet-enabled smart edge
devices integrated with embedded systems, such as sensors, processors, and commu-
nication module, to transmit, receive and process the parameters these devices
acquire from the nodes. IoT devices share the sensor data they collect and send to
a gateway or an edge device through wireless communication protocols. Data may
be sent to the cloud to be analysed (on cloud services) or might be analysed locally
6
Wireless Link
Nodes with
SSen
ensorss
ensor
Sensors
On-Premises
Gateway On Cloud
IoT Network #1 Cloud

Services
Wireless Link UI/UX
Nodes with
Sensors
Gateway
IIoTT Network
N t k #2
FIGURE 1.4
Typical IoT network.
(on-premises). These devices sometimes communicate with other peer devices and
process the information they get from each other in a mesh topology. The devices get
connected to the cloud through edge without any human intervention, though humans
can setup and access the data. So, there is a need for two-way communication from
IoT sensors to analysing device and vice-versa.
Connectivity, networking, and communication protocols used by edge devices rely
on the deployed IoT use cases. IoT may also allow machine learning (ML) and artifi-
cial intelligence (AI) to help make data collection processes more dynamic and sim-
pler. Figure 1.4 provides an overview of how the standard IoT system operates from
data collection to execution.
1.5
IMPORTANCE OF IOT
IoT helps people’s life and work smarter and more productively. Not only can these
smart devices simplify households, but IoT is also vital for companies. IoT provides
organisations with real-time info on how the operational process is carried out and
delivers insight into device efficiency distribution activities and supply chain. IoT also
allows businesses to simplify processes and reduce manpower costs. It further increases
service quality, decreases waste, lowers the expense of making and distributing
products, and provides accountability in consumer purchases. In plantation, IoT helps
increase yield and efficiency. IoT is one of the most important innovations to pick up.
1.6
BENEFITS OF IOT TO BUSINESSES
IoT provides a range of incentives to businesses. Some of the advantages are industry-
specific, and some are common to many sectors. The expected benefits of IoT enabled
companies are to [6]:
7
• save time and money,

• monitor their overall business processes,
• make better business decisions,
• enhance employees’ productivity,
• improve the customer experience,
• integrate and adapt business models, and
• generate more revenue.
The IoT can help to monitor operations surrounding infrastructures, such as changes
in the structure of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure using adequate sensors.
IoT offers advantages such as reduction of cost, time savings, quality of people’s life,
improvements in the organization’s process, and a paperless workflow.
IoT related to home automation helps to track and manage electrical and mech-
anical equipment in a house. Smart cities will help people minimize pollution and
energy use and improve their quality of life on a larger scale. IoT covers all industries,
including healthcare, finance, retail, and manufacturing enterprises.
1.6.1 Consumer and Enterprise IoT Applications

The applications of IoT are spread across all markets and industries. It covers users
from technology freaky individuals, who care and want to have an energy-efficient
home to those who want to streamline their operations and improve efficiency in
large organizations. IoT usage is becoming useful and critical in many industries.
IoT is especially important in factories, transportation, logistics, and public utility
organizations. However, IoT has also applications for organizations dealing with
infrastructure, agriculture, and home automation, leading some organizations towards
digital transformation.
1.6.2 Engineering, Industry, and Infrastructure

Consumer IoT, commercial IoT, manufacturing, and industrial IoT are just a few
examples of real-world internet of things applications (IIoT). IoT applications can
be found in a variety of industries, including telecommunications, automotive, and
energy. Marketing, production, safety, and service delivery are just a few of the
areas where IoT may help. IoT allows for the monitoring of numerous operations as
well as true transparency, resulting in more visibility and improved prospects. IoT’s
deep level of control allows for faster and more action on those opportunities, which
include non-conforming items, clear client needs, equipment faults, distribution net-
work difficulties, and more.
One of the examples in a manufacturing facility is in the shields used for manufac-
turing equipment. When the function of the shields and regulations changes for
the specifications of composition, the new appropriate requirements are programmed
automatically in the robots deployed in the factory, and engineers are alerted about
these changes. Another example is seamless communication where a robot is
engaged in carrying out a real-time job in a factory environment. As per Industry
8
FIGURE 1.5
Seamless OT connectivity to robot (Source: Whizpace).
4.0 guidelines, the IT (information technology) and OT (operational technology)

networks must be isolated to avoid any delay and congestions. Figure 1.5 illustrates
one of the deployments with OT connectivity to a moving robot.
1.6.3 Home Applications
In our daily lives, the Internet of Things increases our overall enjoyment, productivity,
and health and safety. IoT can assist us in customizing our working space in order to
maximize our productivity. Smart homes have smart appliances, smart thermostats,
lighting, connected heating, and electrical gadgets that can be managed remotely via
computers and smartphones in the consumer market. Sensors that identify how many
people are in a room are used in smart buildings to decrease energy expenses. If
sensors identify a full or empty conference room, the temperature might adjust auto-
matically, turning the air conditioner on or off, and even bringing the heat down if
everyone left the office.
The Internet of Things (IoT) combines lighting control with mesh networking to
create large-scale, dependable wireless lighting systems for households. The inbuilt
sensors can also detect the presence of individuals and turn off the lights when they
are not there. This lighting system is intended for use in both home and business
settings to reduce energy consumption.
IoT appliances that aim to provide intelligence for the user through sensors and
devices found in the local area in a home to connect to an aggregator and then to cloud
via a WiFi router, as illustrated in Figure 1.6.
1.6.4 Wearables
Wearable devices with sensors collect and analyse users’ data, send messages to
other technologies about the person to make users’ lives safer and more comfortable.
9
FIGURE 1.6
Smart home connectivity with IoT sensors.
Wearables are also useful for public safety as they provide optimized routes and vital
escape signs in emergencies. These wearables are also very useful for tracking the
people during the pandemic of COVID-19. Figure 1.7 depicts the contact tracing
during COVID-19 and a wearable. These wearables are also used for significant
events such as Tomorrowland in Belgium and football stadiums.
1.6.5 Healthcare and Medicine

IoT offers access to our imagined future of medicine, offering a fully integrated net-
work of advanced medical instruments. Today, IoT will significantly change medical
science, treatment, equipment, and emergency care. The incorporation of all the above
components into the hospital allows greater precision, quick responses to incidents,
more attention to detail and continuous change, while at the same time reducing the
usual overhead of medical research and organizations.
IoT helps a critically injured patient to be taken to the emergency department by
ambulance. The machine identifies the patient and registers the patient. Paramedical
equipment collects vital information delivered to the hospital. The framework ana-
lyses data in real-time and previous documents to provide a leading approach. The
status of the patient is changed every second in the system during travel to the emer-
gency. The system advises hospital workers to approve system actions for the delivery
of medications and preparing medical supplies. Figure 1.8 demonstrates the imple-
mentation of IoT in the healthcare sector.
1.6.6 Smart Cities
IoT sensors such as smart streetlights and smart meters are deployed, helping con-
serve electricity, alleviate traffic, monitor and address environmental concerns, and
improve sanitation in a smart city. IoT deployments for government and safety allow
10
FIGURE 1.7
Contact tracing using wearables (Source: Sostark).
FIGURE 1.8
IoT in healthcare (Source: Zetakey).
improved law enforcement, city planning, traffic management, water supply control
and economic management, as illustrated in Figure 1.9. The technology also helps fill
in the current gaps, correct many current flaws, and expand these efforts’ reach. IoT
can help city planners have a clearer view of the design’s impact so that government
agencies have a better idea of the local economy.
1.6.7 Smart Grid and Smart Meters

A grid becomes smart only when there is two-way connectivity to monitor and analyse
the stream of energy from solar panels, wind turbines, and powerhouse to the edge.
Usually, there is dust deposition on solar panels, which deteriorates the efficiency
11
FIGURE 1.9
Concept of Smart Cities (Source: Starhub).
Power Grid
WhizNano
Head End MDMS System Gateway +
• Manage Asset WhizMesh as
• Data Analysis backhaul
• Tariffs Calculation WhizNano
• Time of Use Aggregator
• Billing connecting to
broadband Industrial
Central Control Centre

WhizMesh for long distance backhaul
FIGURE 1.10
Smart grid connectivity (Source: Whizpace).
of panels. There might be partial faults in the panel with p-n junctions, reducing the
efficiency. Once the efficiency is low, the panels must be cleaned to reduce the energy
wastage. Similarly, there is two-way communication with users’ electricity meters to
analyse the usage patterns and Power Supply Controllers (PSC). The generated energy
is used to power up telecommunications devices, computers, consumer products, and
solar power installations. So, monitoring and optimizing performance and efficiency
in solar plants are critical use cases in the smart grid. Figure 1.10 illustrates the IoT
deployments in smart grid and smart meters.
1.6.8 Agri-tech
IoT-based smart farming systems can help monitor a few parameters such as light,
temperature, humidity and soil moisture of crop fields using connected sensors. IoT
devices’ ecosystem enables farmers to know precise and real-time information about
soil nutrition, their crops’ yields, the infestation of pests, rainfall and more for them to
take any preventive or corrective actions. Smart farming also gives farmers the ideas
12
FIGURE 1.11
A typical deployment of connectivity from plantation to the base station
(Source: Whizpace).
FIGURE 1.12
Sensor layer, last mile and back haul connectivity in large plantation,
greenhouse and connectivity with Base station (Source: Whizpace).
on modified farming techniques according to prevailing conditions to make the best

harvest. Though this technology is a game-changer, the farmers need to be educated
on its implementation. Sugarcane yield has increased up to 300% in Maharashtra
(India) after using IoT sensors in the field [7].
IoT is also instrumental in automating irrigation systems and by making farmers’
job more manageable. The IoT sensors can collect data on rainfall, temperature,
humidity, fertilizers, soil content, and other factors automating farming techniques.
Farmers can save a lot on the cost of fertilizers and water by feeding at an adequate
level and have improved yield. Wireless connectivity for backbone layer, last-mile
layer and sensor layer is required for end-end connectivity from the sensor to cloud.
Figure 1.11 illustrates a typical deployment of IoT sensors connectivity from plan-
tation to the base station through an aggregator or gateway. Figure 1.12 illustrates
the plantation’s actual deployments, where various IoT sensors are planted with
node devices. These devices send the data to an aggregator that is either stationary
and deployed on a truck. As soon as a truck reaches any plantation division, it
aggregates all the data wirelessly from the nodes and then sends the data to cloud
from the truck.
13
1.6.9 Tyre Air Pressure Detection

This is one of the unique IoT applications, wherein the pressure sensors can detect the
air pressure in the tyres of the vehicle and send the information of under-inflated tyres
to the dashboard. These sensors are embedded in the tyres and sense the pressure.
Once the driver observes a drop in tyre pressure, he can take corrective actions for
the safe driving conditions, where most people can be warned of under or over-
inflated tyres.
1.6.10 Personal IoT Applications

IoT devices are largely used for personal applications, including the following:
1.6.10.1 Gesture Control Armband

Another wearable gadget used for gesture control is an armband that detects muscle
activity and allows users to control any device connected to the IoT network simply
by making gestures or motions. Electrodes in these armbands monitor muscle acti-
vation as well as relaxation and contraction when the hands are in motion. These
actions are directed to the backend program, which decodes and converts the data into
commands and performs the action.
1.6.10.2 Smart Glass

The Internet of Things (IoT) technology does not always have to be oriented to any-
thing enormous or global; even something as simple as personal care can have a huge
impact on our daily lives. This application demonstrates that the Internet of Things
can be useful in personal situations as well. These glasses might serve as a reminder
to individuals who do not drink enough water on a daily basis. The glass keeps track
of how much water you use and gives you alerts when you don’t have enough. It can
also sense the current temperature and keep the water at the optimum temperature.
A smartphone can be used to sync this smart glass.
1.6.10.3 Smart Eye

The smart eye application is remarkably similar to Google’s ambitious Glass pro-
ject. This use case is outfitted with sensors and connectivity options ranging from
WiFi to Bluetooth, allowing for a variety of options and accessible features to be
shown in front of the user without being distracting. Opening maps, reading emails or
messages, surfing the internet, capturing moments, and more are all possible.
1.6.10.4 Pulse Oximeter

Pulse oximeters are useful gadgets that guides use to assess oxygen levels anytime
one rises to a significant height while walking in high altitude mountains. The results
indicate whether the hiker is physically capable of ascending or should remain at
a lower elevation. With a pulse oximeter attached, the device may notify a doctor
through cloud about oxygen administration without having to visit a clinic. This
could be useful as a preventative step for a variety of chronic illnesses.
14
FIGURE 1.13
Overall ranking: Most IoT projects in Smart City (Source: IoT Analytics).
Figure 1.13 illustrates the use of IoT in every sector in 2018 as per IoT Analytics
data, and this shows that smart city projects capture a giant pie [8].
1.7
POTENTIAL OF IOT
There is enormous current and future potential for IoT devices. Users mostly use
mobile phones to connect with IoT devices, such as smart speakers and thermostats.
Associated devices provide ease, help users plan for savings, make a grocery list, turn
on or off the households even away from home. The way IoT is proliferating, people’s
dependency on the internet is rising. It is no longer about connecting smartphones and
computers, but various devices that we use in our everyday lives also need the internet
to support people.
Ten predictions for the future of IoT:
a)
There will be more than 21 billion IoT devices by 2025
According to IoT Analytics, there were 4.7 billion IoT devices in 2016. About 17
billion devices were connected to the internet worldwide in 2018. Out of which the
number of IoT devices were 7 billion (excluding the devices such as smartphones and
laptops). There was a rise to almost 11.6 billion IoT devices in 2021 and there will
be 21 billion devices by 2025. As per Statista Research Department’s forecast, 75.44
billion devices will be connected to IoT worldwide by 2025. IDC (International Data
Corporation) predicted that IoT devices would produce 79.4 Zettabytes of data in
2025 [8]. IoT will also grow at a CAGR of 28.7% from 2020 to 2025. The IoT market
globally is expected to reach $1.6 billion by 2025. IoT is the big step forward in
15
FIGURE 1.14
Growth of IoT devices worldwide (Source: IoT Analytics).
making the world a connected place. In its Ericsson Mobility Report November 2018,
Ericsson estimated that the total number of IoT devices would grow to more than 22
billion by 2024, with a CAGR of 17% [9].
Most of the businesses and industries are banking on the exponential growth of
IoT, as it not only enables business ideas but also reduces business operational cost.
Utilities, logistics, manufacturing, and transport industries alone were expected to
spend a sum of around US$40 billion on IoT infrastructure by 2020. Other indus-
tries, such as healthcare, insurance, energy and retail storage, process, B2C, and other
industries, are also spending a huge amount on IoT infrastructure [10]. Figure 1.14
illustrates IoT devices’ growth worldwide, the technology used to connect them to
the gateway.
b)
More cities will become “smart”
IoTs are used for connecting sensors in smart cities. Cities and companies are increas-
ingly adopting smart technologies to save time and money. This means that the cities
will be able to remotely manage, automate, and collect data through visitor kiosks,
video camera surveillance systems, bike rental stations, and taxis. Figure 1.15 shows
the surveillance cameras with wireless connectivity to Network Center, checking the
vehicles crossing the Singapore checkpoint.
c)
Artificial intelligence continues to be a big thing
IoT transfers an enormous amount of collective data over a network, and many
organizations have no idea how to handle this vast data. All household equipment such
as Smart home hubs, lighting systems, thermostats, washing machines, refrigerators,
and coffee makers gather data on preferences and usage patterns. The voice-controlled
16
FIGURE 1.15
Surveillance cameras checking vehicles (Source: Whizpace).
devices are set up, and the data is recorded on the cloud. All the usage patterns are
also stored locally or on the cloud to promote ML further. Machine learning is a
form of AI that lets computers learn without a human being needing to program it.
Machines are configured in a way that relies on the data they have received, and this
data can help the computer learn the expectations and change it accordingly.
The organizations will implement this data as it applies to clients and their personal
information. Computers are designed to focus on the data they have obtained from the
devices and learn from the data they have received to consider the consumers’ needs
and learn accordingly. To address this volume of consumer data, IoT lets the data flow
between the system and AI that can handle this data without any human error. AI is a
crucial catalyst for the success of the IoT revolution.
d)
5G networks continues to fuel IoT growth
Currently up to 5500 to 6000 NB-IoT devices can be accommodated by the 4G/LTE

network in a single cell. Most cellular providers are introducing 5G networks. 5G
is offering more incredible speed and the potential to connect more mobile devices
simultaneously. This faster network will allow more data to be accumulated by smart
devices and then it is processed, analysed, and handled in a higher order. This fuels
innovation and boosts customer demand for new products. Up to one million users
can be managed in a single 5G mobile network. Over ten years, from 2020 to 2030,
IoT devices are projected to expand to more than 100 billion, and migration from a
4G to 5G network will continue to close the gap [11].
e)
Cars are getting even smarter
The 5G network will shift the automobile industry to a higher gear. Due to extremely
low latency on the connected vehicles, the recent development of driverless cars will
benefit from data moving seamlessly. New cars will increasingly analyse the data and
connect with other IoT devices, including the devices on board.
17
f)
5G networks will also open the floodgates on concerns related to security
and privacy
5G enabled IoT devices will directly connect to the Telco’s 5G network, instead of
connecting via a WiFi router. This direct connection will make those devices more
vulnerable to security attack. All IoT devices at home will connect directly, bypassing
the home router. So, all the data will be stored on the cloud, which will give hackers
new targets to breach.
g)
Cybercriminals will use IoT devices to facilitate DDoS attacks
The first IoT malware to infect connected devices such as surveillance cameras,
DVRs, and more was experienced in 2016. Another malware, Mirai, used default
passwords and usernames to enter the computers. Later, the malware converted the
affected devices into a botnet to enable Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks.
This attack was targeted at swamp websites with massive internet traffic. This attack
flooded one of the most comprehensive website hosting providers, blocking many
big, well-known websites and services for a few hours.
h)
Routers will be more secure and smarter
Most IoT gadgets, such as smart TVs, surveillance cameras, door locks and others,
bring convenience and luxury to life. These devices reside at home and usually do not
have security features installed, and they can be vulnerable to attacks and hence are
unsafe. Some manufacturers bring their devices to the market soon, so that protec-
tion can be an afterthought. Home routers have a pivotal role to play in this case. The
router is the gateway of the internet to the house. Since most of the devices are not
secured, the router will secure the home entry point. Typical commercial routers pro-
vide protections, such as firewalls, password protection, and the ability to customize
them to allow restricted devices on the home network. Router manufacturers will
continue to search for new ways to improve security in routers.
i)
IoT-based DDoS attacks will be more dangerous
Compromised IoT devices were used by Botnet-powered distributed denial of service

(DDoS) attacks to swamp websites. In future, there could be a chance of attempts
to harm IoT devices. A potential example might be shutting down the power grid or
thermostats in an enemy state during a harsh winter.
j)
Security and privacy concerns drive for legislation and regulations
The growth in IoT devices is one of the reasons for raising security and privacy issues.
The European Union adopted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in
mid-2018. GDPR has led projects around privacy and protection in many countries
around the world. California has recently enacted a more stringent privacy rule. Such
initiatives could allow consumers more power over their data.
18
1.8
ARCHITECTURE OF IOT
The IoT architecture consists of various levels of technologies supporting IoT. It
illustrates how different technologies connect and how they express the modularity,
scalability, and configuration of IoT implementations in various scenarios. Figure 1.16
illustrates the different layers of the architecture of IoT. The functionality of all tech-
nology layers is discussed below:
1.8.1 Smart Device/Sensor Layer

The lowest IoT layer comprises sensors and smart devices. The sensors are connected
to the physical and digital environment and transfer real-time information to be
processed. There are various types and they are used for a plethora of applications.
These sensors can read parameters such as temperature, humidity, speed, air quality,
flow, movement, pressure, current, etc. Some sensors may also come with memory,
enabling some measurements to be recorded or signal strength indication to be
received (RSSI). Sensors measure the physical properties of the environment and the
devices they are connected with and convert them into a digital signal. Sensors are
grouped according to their purposes such as body sensors, vehicle telematics sensors,
environmental sensors, home appliance sensors etc.
Sensors using low data rate and low power usually form the network, termed as
wireless sensor networks (WSNs). These WSNs are wide-spreading as they support
SMART SMART SMART SMART SMART SMART SMART SMART

Application LIVING CITIES ENERGY TRANSPORT HEALTH INDUSTRY BUILDING HOME
Layer Fleet Asset Supply People

Mgmt Mgmt Chain Tracking Surveillance Environmental
OSS Analytics Platform BPM

Statistical In -Motion
-Device Modelling Data Mining
Analytics
-Workflow
Analytics
-Device & cfgn Mgmt -Process Modelling
In -Memory Predictive
-Performance Mgmt Test Mining
Analytics Analytics
-Process Simulation
Management -Security Mgmt -Process Execution
Service
Data Security BRM
BSS -Data Governance -Access Controls -Rule Definition
-Billing -Data Anonymity -Encryption -Rule Modelling
-Reporting -Data Repository -Identity Access -Rule Simulation
-Data Quality Mqmt Mgmt -Rule Execution
Networking Capability Transport Capability

Embedded &
Network/ Gateway Signal Processor
OS SIM Module Microcontroller
Communication
WiFi GSM/GPRS Ethernet LTE
Layer Gateway Network
TVWS 5G NB -IoT Bluetooth
Sensor Networks
S WiFi ZIGBEE ETHERNET Bluetooth UWB Wired

e
n LTE 5G LoRa SigFox TVWS GSM/GPR S W
Smart Device/ s S
Sensor Layer o Analog Digital RFID Electro -Mech Photo -Electric N
r
s GPS Solid State Infra -Red Gyroscope Electro -Chemical
Devices
FIGURE 1.16
IOT Architecture (Source: http://ijesc.org/ & IDA).
19
many sensor nodes while spanning broad areas and maintaining sufficient battery
life. Many sensors need node access to the gateways. This gateway has a Local Area
Network (LAN) such as an Ethernet and WiFi link or a Personal Area Network (PAN)
such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, TVWS and Ultra-Wideband (UWB).
1.8.2 IoT –Technology and Protocols

IoT uses standard protocols and networking techniques to establish a network.
However, the leading technologies and protocols used by IoT are NFC (Near Field
Communication), RFID (RF Identification), low-energy wireless, low-energy radio
protocols, low-energy Bluetooth, LTE, NB-IoT, LoRa, SigFox, TVWS, and WiFi-
Direct. All these solutions support an IoT system’s special networking features
instead of a standard uniform network of typical systems [12].
1.8.3 RFID and NFC

• RFID and NFC offer simple, low-energy, and access tokens and payment
options.
• RFID uses a two-way transceiver to recognize and monitor the tags.
• NFC uses communication protocols to connect electronic devices such as hand-
held devices or standard devices.
1.8.4 Low-Energy Bluetooth (BLE)

• BLE enables low-power, long-term use of IoT features, using standard tech-
nology that is supported across networks.
1.8.5 Low-Energy Wireless
• This technology is also used for IoT network to make it less power-hungry
when sensors and communication nodes go to sleep or deep sleep mode and
wake up only during data transmission.
• This system is used for low power consumption and extends the device life.
1.8.6 Radio Protocols
• Z-Wave, ZigBee, and Thread are some of the radio protocols which are used to
form low data-rate private area network.
• Unlike many similar technologies, these technologies are lower power con-
sumption and provide better throughput.
1.8.7 LTE-Advanced
• LTE-A (or LTE Advanced) delivers the upgraded LTE technology by increasing
the coverage and throughput while reducing the latency.
• LTE-A makes IoT an effective system by expanding the range. The longer-
range introduces significant applications such as vehicle, UAV, and drones.
20
1.8.8 NB-IoT
• NB-IoT mainly covers indoor with high connection density, longer battery life,
and low cost.
• It uses the fraction of the LTE band, but bandwidth is limited to 200 kHz.
• It uses SC-FDMA for uplink and OFDM modulation for downlink [13].
1.8.9 LoRa
• LoRa (Long Range) is an LPWAN protocol developed by Semtech and its
alliances.
• This technology is based on chirp spread spectrum (CSS) modulation
technology.
• LoRa uses license-free ISM bands such as 433 MHz in many countries, 868
MHz in Europe, Middle East and Africa, 920 MHz in North America and
Australia, 865 MHz in India and 925 MHz in some part of Asia.
• It covers long-range (more than 10 km) with low power consumption.
• LoRa covers the physical layer, while LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area
Network) occupies the upper layer. The data rate can be achieved from 300 bps
to 27 kbps, depending on the spread factor [14].
1.8.10 SigFox
• SigFox continuously transmits a small amount of data, such as smartwatches
and electricity meters.
• It uses DBPSK and Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK), enabling com-
munication in the ISM radio band using 868 MHz in Europe and 902 MHz in
the US.
• Uses a wide- reaching signal that passes from solid objects called “Ultra
Narrowband,” which needs little LPWAN energy.
• The network operated by the mobile operator to carry the traffic generated
based on a single-hop star topology [15].
1.8.11 TV White Space

• TV White Space (TVWS) technology uses the frequency spectrum in the range
of VHF & UHF bands under-utilized by broadcasters.
• The coverage is extended due to usage of the sub-GHz band. The capacity is
high as the available spectrum is more than 200 MHz.
• Narrowband TVWS devices are used for data communication.
• This is a license exempted band, so with very low deployment and recurring cost.
1.8.12 WiFi-Direct
• WiFi-Direct allows peer-to-peer connections with lower latency, and it
eliminates the requirement of an access point.
21
• It does not have a single point of failure, and it does not compromise on speed
and throughput of the network.
Some sensors connect to backend servers/applications without a need for an aggre-

gator. This connectivity can be supported via WAN, such as GSM, GPRS, ZigBee,
LTE, LoRa, SigFox, NB-IoT and TVWS. As plotted in Figure 1.17, all the above
technologies have pros and cons. Discussing the characteristics of technologies, WiFi
and ZigBee have a high capacity, but the coverage is very limited. LoRa, SigFox and
NB-IoT have more extended coverage, but the capacity is meagre. LTE, 3G and NB-
IoT have adequate coverage, but the capacity is limited, and since these services are
Telco’s dependent, so there is a monthly subscription. TVWS happens to have the
advantage in terms of capacity and coverage with no subscription, making the recur-
ring charges minimal.
High
Capacity
Low
Low Coverage High
FIGURE 1.17
Wireless technologies used for IoT (Source: Whizpace).
1.8.13 Gateways and Networks

The large amount of data generated by these sensors requires secure and high-
performance wireless or wired connectivity for the transport of info. Networks are
also connected to different protocols used to support M2M networks. To facili-
tate broader deployment of IoT systems and applications such as context-aware
applications, high-speed transactional services, etc., multiple networks with various
technologies and connection protocols are expected to work with each other in mixed
and heterogeneous configurations. These networks can be public, private or hybrid
models and are designed to support connectivity requirements. Various gateways with
microcontrollers or microprocessors and gateway networks (WiFi, GPRS, GSM, etc.)
are illustrated in Figure 1.16.
1.8.14 Management Service Layer

The management service delivers the data that can be accessed by analytics, access
controls, process modelling and system management. One of the critical aspects of
this layer is to communicate and interact with objects and devices to provide infor-
mation such as incidents or weather, traffic data and current location. Some of these
aspects include the filtering, routing, and normalization of periodic data. Any of the
material includes responding to urgent emergencies, such as attending to the health
22
conditions of the patient. The rule engines help to formulate the real-time decision
logics. The rule engines present a very responsive IoT system by prompt interactive
and automated processes. Data analytics tools extract relevant information from
the enormous amount of raw data and are processed without a time lag. In-memory
analytics reduces the time required for data query, making decision making faster,
and allows this enormous amount of data to be cached in RAM without storing it in
physical disks. Streaming analytics helps in the analysis of data, which is data-in-
motion and is required to be carried out in real-time so that the decisions can be made
without any latency.
Data management controls the flow of information. It helps in accessing, inte-
grating, and controlling information. Higher layer systems should be protected from
the need to process unnecessary data and reduce the possibility of privacy. Data filtering
methods, such as data synchronization, data integration and data anonymization, are
used to mask knowledge specifics by presenting just the information required for the
specific applications. Data abstraction helps extract and offer a common enterprise
interpretation of data to improve agility and reuse across domains.
Security is another tool in the management layer to be enforced in all dimensions,
from the device layer to the application layer. Device security prevents the system
from breaching and compromising unauthorized employees in order to reduce the
risk factor.
1.8.15 Application Layer
The application layer is the interface between the user and the device [16]. This layer
covers smart environments such as in Agriculture, City, Building, Transportation,
Lifestyle, Retail, Grid, Factory, Warehouse, Emergency, Healthcare, User Interaction,
Supply Chain, Culture and Tourism, Environment and Energy. Figure 1.18 shows
a typical end to end IoT network using narrowband TVWS solution with four key
stages:
i) Nodes send the sensor parameters in the form of MAC ID and data format to
the gateway. The gateway forwards the received data pair from the nodes to
any of the cloud services (Azure in this example)
ii) IoT Central receives the data pair from the gateway. In some cases, this data
pair is sent to a server or a PC for on-premises solution for the more secure
network.
iii) User views data through IoT Central in-built user interface (for Azure) or on-
premises user interface.
1.8.16 IoT Software
IoT software is critical for networking and connectivity to partner systems, platforms,
middleware, and embedded systems. These applications are used for device integra-
tion, data collection, real-time analytics, application, and process extension within the
IoT framework. They exploit integration with critical business systems in the execu-
tion of related tasks with the below processes:
23
FIGURE 1.18
Schematics of a typical IoT network (Source: Whizpace).
1.8.17 Data Collection
Data collection manages sensing, measurements, light data filtering, light data
security, and its aggregation. It utilizes various protocols to connect sensors in real-
time M2M networks. Also, data is collected from multiple devices and distributed
in the following settings. It also works in reverse order by distributing data to the
devices. The system finally transmits all collected data to a central server.
1.8.18 Device Integration
Software supporting integration binds all system devices to create the IoT net-
work, ensuring the necessary cooperation and enabling stable networking. These
applications compile the software technology of the IoT network to complete. This
integration manages the various protocols, applications, and limitations of each
device to allow communication in the range.
1.8.19 Real-Time Analytics
This application takes data or input from various devices, converts it into viable
actions, and makes sensible human analysis patterns. They analyse information
based on various settings and designs to perform automation-related tasks or pro-
vide industry data. This analysis can be performed on the cloud or on-premises. The
most common and popular real-time analytics are Microsoft’s Azure, Google Cloud
Protocol (GCP) and Amazon Web Services (AWS).
24
1.8.20 Applications and Process Extension

These applications extend the reach of software to allow a broader and more effective
system. They integrate predefined devices with specific purposes and allow certain
mobile devices access. They also support improved productivity and more accurate
data collection.
1.9
IOT STANDARDS AND FRAMEWORKS
Below are some of the emerging IoT standards [17]:
• IPv6 over 6LoWPAN is an IETF defined standard. This standard enables low-
power radios to connect to the cloud, including BLE, 804.15.4, and Z-Wave for
home automation.
• ZigBee is based on IEEE 802.15.4 standards and is the low-data rate, low-power
wireless technology primarily used in the industrial environment. The ZigBee
Alliance has developed Dotdot, a universal language for IoT. This allows smart
objects to function safely on every network.
• LiteOS is a Unix-like WSN operating system. LiteOS is supported on wearables,
phones, smart homes, smart manufacturing applications, and the Internet of
Vehicles (IoV). LiteOS has also been used as a platform for the advancement
of smart devices.
• OneM2M is M2M service layer embedded in software and hardware to connect
the devices. OneM2M was developed as a reusable standard to facilitate IoT
applications across different verticals to communicate with devices.
• Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an opensource standard
for asynchronous messaging, facilitating encrypted and interoperable
communications between organizations and applications. The protocol is used
for server-client communications and IoT system control.
• Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a network protocol which used
constraint-bandwidth and constraint-network and applications with minimal
access in M2M communication. CoAP is also a transmission protocol for
documents that operates via the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) [16].
• Data Distribution Service (DDS) is a versatile peer-to-peer networking protocol
that runs from small devices to high-performance network connections. It
increases reliability, eliminates complexity, and streamlines deployment. DDS
has been developed by the Object Management Group (OMG) and is an IoT
standard for real-time, scalable, and high-performance M2M communication.
• HTTP is based on the request-response paradigm and thus does not satisfy the
needs of IoT applications. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
is a lightweight application-layer messaging protocol based on a Publishing/
Subscribing (Pub/Sub) model. In the pub/sub model, multiple sensor clients
will connect to a central server termed as a broker and subscribe to topics of
interest to them. Clients, with the specific topic of their interest, can also pub-
lish messages via the broker. The broker is an app for linking and sharing data
with sensor devices. MQTT utilizes a TCP link on the transport layer to connect
the sensors to the broker, making the communication robust.
25
• MQTT messages are only released on topics that represent the destination
address. The client can subscribe as well as publish multiple themes. Any client
who has subscribed to the topic gets all the messages released on the topic.
As a common procedure, subjects can adopt a hierarchy using a slash (/) as a
separator. This facilitates conceptual grouping/arrangement for a network of
sensors. For example, the theme “room/sensor/indoor” simply conveys the hier-
archy of human information through a thermal sensor in the room. The IoT
sensor network in a modern room can have multiple sensors, each with mul-
tiple sensed data. Themes then obey this hierarchical array. Topics thus adopt
this hierarchical structure for quick interpretation and logical arrangement of
sensor variables [18].
• LoRaWAN is designed to serve big networks, such as smart cities and
plantations, with numerous devices.
• The IoT structures shall contain the following:
• Amazon launched an IoT cloud hosting platform called Amazon Web
Services (AWS). This architecture is designed so those smart devices are
conveniently connected and safely interacted with the AWS cloud.
• Arm Mbed IoT is another IoT application development focused on ARM
processors. This platform’s objective is to offer a connected, scalable and
secured environment for the integration of Mbed tools and resources with
IoT devices.
• Google’s cloud platform is designed for the fast deployment of IoT
applications with the following two key pillars:
• Brillo is an Android-based operating system for low-power embedded
devices, and
• Weave serves as a communication language between IoT devices and
the cloud.
• Ericsson released an open-source IoT framework, Calvin, designed to
create and manage numerous applications that allow devices to talk to each
other. Other features of Calvin are the development framework for web
designers with a runtime environment for operating applications.
• Microsoft’s Azure IoT Suite offers a portal consisting of a series of services
that enable users to communicate with and receive data from IoT devices
on the network. This platform performs various operations on the data
collected, such as multidimensional analysis, aggregation and transform-
ation, and visualization of appropriate parameters for business purposes.
1.10
ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT
Through the IoT, connectivity is spread across the internet to all the objects that
surround us. The IoT is much more than a machine-to-machine (M2M) connectivity
and consists of sensor networks, WSN, 2G/3G/4G, GPRS, GSM, RFID, WiFi, GPS
and microcontrollers. All these supporting technologies make IoT implementations
feasible. Of the 22 billion IoT cellular connections predicted for 2024, more than 4
billion are anticipated. According to ABI Research, embedded SIM (eSIM) will be
one of the biggest cellular IoT enablers, with 420 million new connections annually
by 2022. “This is the moment industry providers (such as the eSIM provider, mobile
26
network operator and device manufacturer) have been waiting for. With both Apple
and Google deploying smart devices, adoption of eSIM technology is only going
to speed up,” said Tania Ferreira, KNect365’s e-SIM Connect senior official. Other
participants, such as Microsoft, Samsung, and Huawei, are a few to offer eSIM con-
nectivity [10].
IoT enabling can be grouped into three categories [19]:
a) “Things” acquiring contextual information enabling technologies
b) “Things” processing contextual information enabling technologies, and
c) Technologies are improving privacy and security.
The categories first and second are used as functional building blocks required to build
“intelligence” into “things”, which differentiate the IoT from the typical internet. The
third category is a mandatory requirement, without which the penetration of the IoT
would be severely compromised.
The IoT consists of a combination of different hardware & software technologies.
The IoT network provides solutions based on integrating operational technology (OT)
and information technology (IT), which includes software and hardware for storing,
retrieving, and processing data. IoT also consists of communications technology with
electronic systems used for communication between groups and individuals.
The IoT network consists of a diverse combination of connectivity technologies
which need to be tailored to satisfy different applications, such as speed, energy con-
sumption, reliability, and protection. A variety of manageable networking solutions
that meet the IoT applications implemented on the market will be scaled to the extent
of diversity. These applications have also been seen to be serviceable and enabled
by robust infrastructure partnerships. Many of the hardware examples of standards
in these categories include wired and wireless systems such as Ethernet, WiFi,
Bluetooth, GPRS, ZigBee, GSM, NBIOT, LTE-m, TVWS, LoRa, SigFox, and 5G.
The key enabling technologies for the IoT is illustrated in Figure 1.19.
System Integration Sensor Network

Cost Effective Software Embedded System Future Internet
Interoperability Security & Privacy Protocol/Standards
Identification Data & Signal Processing Communication
Nanoelectronics Data Management Cloud Computing
Hardware Network Management Network Tech
Discovery Service Power & Energy Storage
Semiconductor Electronics
FIGURE 1.19
IoT enabling technologies.
27
1.11
FUTURE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS FOR IOT
The enhancement of the above discussed enabling technologies allows upcoming
technological advancement environment where everything will be connected all the
time everywhere. The technologies have been categorized into three groups, as per
IoT layers.
I. The first group, impacting the devices and microcontroller chips:

a. Low power sensors for energy sustainability and power
b. The intelligence of sensors deployed in the field
c. Wireless sensors network (WSN) for sensor connectivity
d. Miniaturisation of chips
II. The second group, comprising the network sharing, address capacity, and
latency concerns:
a. Network sharing includes software-defined radios (SDR) and cognitive
networks
b. Network technologies are addressing capacity and latency concerns such
as TVWS, LTE or 5G.
III. The third group, impacting the management services:
a. Real- time decision-making technologies such as context- aware com-
puting, predictive or preventive analytics, complex event processing, and
behavioural analytics
b. Speed of data processing technologies such as in-memory and streaming
analytics.
Table 1.1 shows future development & future research needs for enabling technolo-
gies of IoT.
TABLE 1.1
Future Developments and Research Needed
Technologies Future Development Research Needed

Hardware • Nanotechnology Low-cost modular devices
Devices • Miniaturisation of chipsets Ultra-low power EPROM
• Ultra-low power circuits Autonomous circuits
Sensor • Smart Bio-Chemical sensors Self-powering sensors
• More tiny sensors Intelligence of sensors
• Low power sensors
• Wireless sensor network for sensor
connectivity
Communication • On-chip antennas for different Protocols for mteroperability
Technology technologies & frequency bands Multi-protocol chips
• Broad-spectrum and spectrum Gateway convergence
aware Protocols On-chip networks
(continued)
28
TABLE 1.1 (Continued)

Future Developments and Research Needed
Technologies Future Development Research Needed

• Unified protocol over a broad Longer range (sub-GHz band)
spectrum 5G developments
• Multi-functional, reconfigurable
chips
Network • Self-aware and self-organising Grid/Cloud network
Technology networks Software-defined networks
• Self-learning, self-repairing Service-based network
networks Need-based network
• IPv6-enabled sealability
• Ubiquitous IPv6-based IoT
deployment
Calibration • The sensors get out of calibration Find a way to auto-calibrate the
with time sensors to have correct
• The sensor data varies and gives parameters
wrong parameters
Software & • Goal-oriented software Context-aware software
Algorithms • Distributed intelligence. Evolving software
problem-solving Self-reusable software
• User-oriented software Autonomous things:
Self-configurable
Self-healing
Self-management
Data & Signal • Context-aware data processing and Common sensor ontology
Processing data responses Distributed, energy-efficient
Technology • Cognitive processing and Data processing
optimisation Autonomous computing
• IoT complex data analysis
• IoT intelligent data visualisation
• Energy, frequency spectrum aware
data processing
Discovery and • Automatic route tagging and Scalable Discovery services for
Search Engine identification management centres Connecting things with services
Technology • On-demand service discovery and
integration
Security • User-centric context-aware privacy Low cost, secure and high-
& Privacy and privacy policies performance identification/
Technologies • Privacy-aware data processing Authentication devices
• Privacy and security profiles Decentralised approaches
selection based on security and to privacy by information
privacy need localisation
29
1.12
FUTURE APPLICATION AREAS
The IoT has diverse and numerous potential applications, pervading essentially all
areas of everyday life for:
1. The individuals,
2. The enterprises,
3. The community of citizens.
The IoT application encompasses “smart” ecosystems such as Lifestyle, Transportation,

Buildings, Communities, Cities, Supply Chains, Retails, Warehousesies Agriculture,
Emergency, Healthcare, Culture and Tourism, User interactions, Climate and
Electricity. Following are a few of the IoT applications for the future [20].
a) IoSL (Internet of smart living):

• Smart Home Appliances: The LCD on the refrigerators can display the
food availability inside, food about to expire, ingredients to be bought and
all the available information on a smartphone. Washing machines can be
monitored for the laundry status remotely, and kitchen appliances with an
interface to a mobile phone allowing remote control of the oven’s self-
cleaning feature,
• Remote Control Appliances: The appliances can be switched on/ off
remotely to save energy and avert accidents,
• Weather: The outdoor weather environments such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, wind speed, and rain levels can be displayed over long
distances,
• Intrusion Detection Systems: The doors and windows openings are
detected, and the system can detect intruders’ infringement,
• Safety Monitoring: Home alarm systems and cameras make users feel
safe, monitoring toddlers, kids, or parents at home,
• Water and Energy Use: Real-time monitoring of water and energy con-
sumption to obtain advice on saving cost and natural resources.
b) IoSC (Internet of smart cities):
• Structural Health: Material conditions and vibrations in bridges,
buildings, and historical monuments can be monitored and preventive
actions can be taken,
• Lift monitoring: Monitoring the status of lifts and take preventive actions
to avoid accidents,
• Lightning: Intelligent and weather adaptive lighting in streetlights,
• Smart lamps: Make lamps as smart lamps, which are used not only as
streetlights, but also as WiFi hot-spots, announcement poles and digital
hoardings,
• Safety: Digital video monitoring, public announcement systems, fire con-
trol management,
30
FIGURE 1.20
Use cases in Smart City (Source: IoT Analytics).
• Transportation: Deployment of warning messages and diversions

according to climate conditions and unexpected events such as traffic jams
and accidents on smart Roads and Intelligent Highways,
• Smart Parking: Real-time checking of availability of parking lots in the
vicinity so that riders can identify and reach the closest available lots,
• Waste Management: Detection of rubbish levels in the smart bins to opti-
mize the routes of trash collection. RF tags or sensors are mounted on the
garbage cans and recycle bins, allowing the sanitation staff to see when the
bins are full and need to be cleared.
Figure 1.20 illustrates various IoT applications in smart cities application with
most of the projects used in traffic management.
c) IoSE (Internet of smart environment):

• Weather monitoring: Monitors the weather conditions such as tempera-
ture, humidity, pressure, wind speed, rain, and even early detection of
earthquakes,
• Air Pollution Monitoring: Control of polluting gases and sewage from
industrial units, pollution emission from vehicles and toxic gases emitted
in the farms,
• Water Quality: Study and purification of water in rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
underground water or sea if it is suitable for drinking,
• River Floods: Monitor the water level variation in drains, dams, rivers,
and reservoirs during rainy days to monitor and control flood,
• Forest Fire Detection: Monitors the combustion of gases and pre-emptive
fire conditions to identify possible fire alert zones and avert the possibility
of fire,
31
FIGURE 1.21
Use of IoT in Industry 5.0 (Source: International Business Center for Suitable
Development).
• Protecting wildlife: Wildlife animals are tagged with tracking devices

through GPS/GSM to locate and track and communicate their coordinates
in real-time.
d) ISI (Internet of smart industry):
• Explosive and Hazardous Gases in industries: Detection of level and
leakage of gas, monitoring of oxygen levels and toxic gas inside chemical
plants to ensure human and goods safety, surroundings of chemical fac-
tories and inside mines, monitoring of water, oil and gas levels in storage
tanks and the possibility of corrosion,
• Maintenance and repair: The sensors are installed on the machines.
These sensors detect the faults and help to predict, and schedule service
maintenance and equipment malfunctions before actual failure. These
sensors also help the equipment to monitor, send reports and prevent faults,
• Industry 5.0: The fifth industrial revolution (Industry 5.0) focuses on
cooperation between machine and man, as human intelligence works in
coordination with cognitive computing (Figure 1.21). Human intelligence
shall be used to teach collaborative robots to upskill workers to provide
value-added production tasks. This will lead to mass customization and
personalization for customers [21].
e) IoT (Internet of smart health):

• Patients Surveillance: Monitors the conditions of patients in older
people’s home and hospitals,
• Medical Fridges: Monitors and controls the conditions inside fridges
storing medicines, vaccines, and organic elements -very low-temperature
refrigerators are needed for storing the COVID-19 vaccines.
• Fall Detection: Detects and assists elderly or disabled people who are
living independently,
• Dental: Toothbrushes with Bluetooth connects with a smartphone to analyse
the brush usage and gives information about the brushing habits on the mobile
phone for personal information or for sharing the statistics to the dentist,
32
• Physical Activity Monitoring: The sensors are mounted all along with
the mattress. These sensors sense body smaller motions such as heart
rate and breathing and larger motions caused by turning during sleep.
These sensors provide data for sound or deep sleep through an app on
the smartphone.
f) USA (Internet of smart agriculture):
• Green Houses: Control micro-climate conditions and quality of fruits and
vegetables to maximize the production, send the fertilizer’s ingredients in
water in aquaculture to head office,
• Compost: Controls the temperature and humidity levels in alfalfa, straw,
hay, etc. to prevent mould and other microbial impurities in the compost,
• Animal Farming/Tracking: Identification and location of animals grazing
in the open meadows or location of animals in big stables. The installed
sensors are also used for the study of air quality and ventilation in farms
and detection of toxic gases,
• Offspring Care: Control of the conducive conditions of offspring in
animal farms to ensure their health and survival,
• Field Monitoring: Reduction of the crop wastage and spoilage with proper
monitoring, management of the agriculture fields, and accurate ongoing
data obtaining. This also helps in better control of electricity, water, and
fertilizers.
1.13
PROS AND CONS OF IOT
Some of the pros of IoT are listed below:
• improved connectivity between electronic devices.

• access the information from any device, anywhere, and at any time.
• transfer of data over a connected network which saves money and time; and
• automated tasks help to improve the quality of service of an enterprise with
reduced need for human intervention.
Some of the cons of IoT are listed below:
• With the exponential increase in connected devices, more information is shared

between devices, and hence the potential of hacking the confidential informa-
tion also increases.
• Enterprises will eventually have to deal with massive numbers of IoT devices of
the order of multi-millions. To collect and manage the massive amount of data
from all those devices will be a challenge.
• A small bug in the system will corrupt all connected devices.
• Since there is no single international standard of compatibility for IoT, it is
challenging to manage the network for devices from different sources to
communicate.
33
1.14
IOT SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES
The IoT connects billions of devices and involves the massive data points to the
internet. All this data needs to be secured. Due to significant exposure, IoT security
privacy is a major concern. In 2016, one of the most infectious IoT attacks, Mirai, a
botnet that intruded the domain name server provider Dyn. This attack turned down
many websites for a long duration in one of the most significant DDoS attacks ever
experienced. Hackers got access to the network by exploiting weakly secured IoT
devices. The threat posed by IoT botnets, such as Mirai to unsecured IoT devices
remains very high.
Mirai, BASHLITE, Amnesia, Persirai, Hajime, and similar botnets attacked IP
camera and DVR systems via SSH or telnet and used a short list of commonly used
login credentials, such as root, admin and support and commonly used passwords
such as admin, 1234 or abcd. There were login attempts from different IP addresses
over 45 hours. Someone or something would log into it every two minutes using the
hacked credentials. After performing a Shodan search, it is revealed that the attacks
were mainly coming from Synology, TP-Link, D-Link, and AvTech. The distribu-
tion of attacks matched the earlier attacks with Mirai, but the researchers noted that
different variants hit the device. BrickerBot malware attempted to break the vulner-
able devices because most stuck devices cannot be malfunctioned by overwriting the
disk. However, it becomes unresponsive until a reboot. Sometimes, these devices are
very buggy, and the user keeps on rebooting the device, and the system works after
the reboot, and that is how the maintenance is performed by rebooting [23].
If a hacker exploits one device in a connected system, there is a susceptibility
to manipulate all the devices, and hence data delivery is unfeasible. Manufacturers
ought to update their devices regularly to safeguard vulnerability to cybercriminals.
Hackers also access users’ personal information, including names, phone numbers,
addresses, ages, social media accounts, and even company details and confidential
information through connected devices [17, 23].
1.15
TIPS TO HELP SECURE USER’S SMART HOME AND
IOT DEVICES [24]
a) Give the router a name: Avoid sticking with the manufacturer default
name as it might identify the make or model. Giving it an unusual name not
associated with an individual name is beneficial. The router should not be a
personal identifier.
b) Use strong encryption for WiFi: It is good to login with a robust encryption
technique, such as WPA2, WPA3, or SAE while setting up a WiFi router. This
will help keep communications and network security.
c) Set up a guest network: Keep the WiFi account private. Set up a guest net-
work for visitors to log into a separate network that does not tie into IoT
devices. Keep IT and IoT login separate.
d) Change default usernames and passwords: Cyber- criminals are aware
of the default logins and passwords of many IoT products. These default
34
passwords make it easy for them to access the IoT devices and, potentially,
the information on them. It is always advisable to use their own password,
which is easy to remember yet difficult to hack.
e) Password Strength of WiFi: The user is advised to use stronger and unique
passwords and avoid common words or easy to guess passwords, such as
“password”, “abcdef” or “123456” for WiFi networks. Instead, the user
should use unique and complex passwords made up of capital and small
letters, numbers, and symbols. One might consider using a password manager
to tighten their security plan.
f) Settings of the devices: The default settings of IoT devices usually are weaker
privacy and security. It is advisable to change those default settings as these
are beneficial for the manufacturers, not the users.
g) Disable undesirable features: The IoT devices have a number of default
features and services such as remote access activated. If the user does not need
them, it is advisable to disable them.
h) Keep the software up to date: Keep updating the latest software updates as
they might have patches for the bugs or security flaws. Security of mobile is
also vital as mobile devices access some networks. Keep updating IoT devices
also for the latest software from their respective websites.
i) Assessment of the IoT devices: User should check for the newer models of
the camera with the latest security features.
j) Do the two- factor authentication: Opting for two- factor authentication
(2FA) is a smart idea. Get the one-time password (OTP) on the mobile phone
for the secured network.
k) Avoid public WiFi networks: Using public WiFi is not a good idea. In case
there is no other option but to use public WiFi, use VPN. One can manage IoT
devices through a mobile device, rather than using public WiFi.
l) Watch for the outages: Make sure that the outage in hardware does not result
in an insecure state. More IoT devices shall be placed in home and offices.
These devices make life more convenient but remember to secure the smart
home, offices, and IoT devices.
1.16
FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR IOT
Some implications and key challenges to be addressed for mass deployment of IoT
in future.
1.16.1 Privacy and Security

As the IoT becomes a vital component of the internet in the future and IoT’s wide
operations need to address privacy and security features adequately. If not adequately
addressed, every new gadget brought into the home or office presents a potential
threat to the network. For instance, according to recent research, on average, the IoT
device is attacked every 120 seconds [25, 26]. New identified challenges for reli-
ability, privacy, and safety are:
35
TABLE 1.2
The Security Requirement at Different IoT Layers
IoT Layer Security Requirements
Application • Application-specific data minimisation
• Privacy protection and policy management
• Authentication
• Authorisation, Assurance
• Application specific encryption, cryptography.
Service Support • Protected data management and handling
• Search, Aggregation, Correlation, Computation)
• Cryptographic data storage
• Secured computation, In-network data processing, data aggregation
• Cloud computing
Network Layer • Secured sensors/cloud interaction
• Cross-domain data security handling
• Security of communication and connectivity
Smart object/sensor • Access control to nodes
• Lightweight encryption
• Data format and structures
• Trust anchors and attestation
Source: http://ijesc.org/
• To provide quality and security of the data in information sharing models to

facilitate reuse across various applications
• To provide protection mechanisms for vulnerable devices
• Providing secured transfer of data between IoT devices and users
Table 1.2 depicts various privacy and security requirements at different IoT layers.
1.16.2 Cost versus Usability

IoT connects physical objects to the internet using technology. The cost of components
needed to support capabilities such as tracking, sensing, and control mechanisms
needs to be cheaper in the coming years and with increasing volumes for IoT adoption
to grow.
1.16.3 Interoperability
Traditional internet interoperability is the most essential key value. The fundamental
criterion for internet connectivity is that all connected devices and systems must com-
municate in the same protocol and encoding language. Currently, different sectors
employ various standards to support their IoT applications. The adoption of common
interfaces between these disparate organizations becomes crucial when dealing with a
36
variety of data sources and heterogeneous devices. These interfaces are critical, espe-
cially for applications that span organizational and system boundaries. As a result,
IoT systems must be able to handle a high level of interoperability.
1.16.4 Data Management
Data management is another crucial aspect of the IoT. Considering a world of
interconnected devices and continually exchanging various types of information,
the volume of the generated data and the processes involved in handling those data
become very critical. So, research is needed to produce energy-efficient communica-
tion ICs.
1.16.5 Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on IoT

COVID-19 pandemic continues to threaten the world and has an unprecedented impact
on the economy and our society. As many states, countries, and regions installed and
lifted lockdowns and reopen businesses, the way forward requires using technologies
in different ways. There is a high likelihood of acceptance of various technologies
in the coming years because workforce is becoming more digitally oriented as they
accept technology while working from home. Industrial analytics and IoT devices
have abundant potential for helping companies explore this new normal [27]. The
following are some of the compelling examples:
i. Organizations to use cameras in new ways

• More installed cameras helped to reduce thefts on premises
• Some transport companies started using AI to detect riders and passengers
without a facemask
• IoT sensors are installed to control the entry and exit of people in the
shopping malls, office area or a stadium
ii. Help enterprises use analytics to explore actions
• Analytics makes the system run with reduced workforce and technicians
keeping tabs on essential characteristics such as vibration and flow rate
while maintaining social distancing
• Studying the data from a specialized industrial platform makes it easier for
organizations to determine when to send on-site crews to resolve imme-
diate issues
• For the meatpacking industry, data assists companies with screening
visitors and workers, with the sanitation needs and abiding by other essen-
tial practices to operate safely
iii. Give Companies More Ways to Meet Needs
• Supermarkets are coming with innovative ways such as a “virtual queue”
system to manage social distancing while in the queue. People register for
places in a virtual queue and can wait in their cars until their turn.
• IoT thermal imaging cameras can take the temperatures of groups from a
distance to speed up temperature checks in practical ways without com-
promising safety
37
• Industrial analytics platforms give enterprises real-time insights about the

products or services their customers demand most and anticipate and pre-
vent shortages or other order fulfilment delays
iv. Businesses to explore connected tools
• The wearables send an alert to management and in contact staff, if two or
more staff violate social distancing and come closer to each other
• The wearables help in contact tracing, along with other efforts to keep
people healthy. Some gadgets indicate users to wash their hands when
entering or leaving key areas, such as the restroom or cafeteria
• The data can be used for preparing timesheet of workers and their
productivity
v. Smart Analytics Can Keep People Safer
• All the above points show that there is much potential for the technology to
guide decisions and maintain safety. Companies should investigate the appro-
priate ways to implement technology for the benefit of everyone involved
vi. Elderly care, tracking & remote monitoring
• The thermal sensors can be mounted on the door, and it can detect how
many older people are at home at any time or for how long they were out
of the home
• This solution can also send the alarm to the local municipality if any person
under quarantine or stay home notice tries to go out or someone comes to
meet the person
vii. Processes are more automated.
• Businesses have been automating their processes more. The automa-
tion was considered a jobs snatcher as technologies such as autonomous
vehicles and robots were threatening to replace humans. But now this is
becoming a new norm to use automation with a reduced workforce
viii. Access to remote asset becomes essential [27]
• Video Conference tools such as Zoom are becoming very popular because
they connect people remotely. Zoom’s daily participation has increased
from 10 million to 300 million in 3 months at the start of the pandemic
[28]. Similarly, Librestream tool, connecting people with their assets and
machines, has recently reported a surge in their remote expert software
usage.
• Many establishments were affected by production, shipping, distribution
channels, and demand variation due to the pandemic. So, digital twins
create digital representations of the end-to-end logistic chain.
ix. New uses for drones
• Drones were a great help during the pandemic.
• Drone’s 300 flights delivered medicines related to the COVID-19 virus in
Xinchang County
• For monitoring of lockdowns and surveillance in public places
• For broadcasting and spreading relevant messages and information
• For spraying, a agricultural drone from XAG and Huawei converted their
2,600 drones and smart robots to disinfectant sprayers
x. Health applications surge
Research suggests that pandemic related digital health solutions are surging.
38
• Digital diagnostics. IoT devices are used to perform digital diagnostics.

There was a spike in usage of a digital thermometer, Kinsa, as the pan-
demic spread in the US
• Telehealth consultations. Telehealth has surged during the lock downs.
The digital visits in Stanford Children’s Health Hospital have increased
from 30 to 620 per day approximately
• Robot assistance. Robots were used to clean and disinfect hospitals to
avoid human interaction and to perform medicine delivery in China
xi. Trace and track solutions
• With huge disruption on supply chains and change in demand patterns,
the supply chain visibility became more critical. IoT technology providers
make use of this data and update the customers accordingly
• Vesseltracker.com and Geotag publish the updates on the global cruise ship
and freight and road transports respectively
• Singapore International Airlines (SIA) geared up to transport and deliver
COVID-19 vaccines [29]
xii. Smart City data platforms
• During the crisis, a predominant data platform was set up, and this became
one of the most vital tools in many Smart City initiatives
• Smart City Data Hub allowed epidemiologic investigators to obtain and
confirm data about coronavirus cases in South Korea
• Some cities, such as Boston, built new platforms to monitor the cases of
pandemic spread
xiii. Easy-to-install IoT retrofit solutions have increased [27]
• Easy to use retrofit IoT solutions are beneficial to organizations and end-
users who are not connected digitally
• Bosch’s smart meter retrofit is one of the good examples that enable utility
agencies to read meter reading
xiv. Delay in Technology roadmaps
• Many technology standards rely on face-to-face discussions and consensus
among a group of experts. The pandemic made it more difficult for these
experts to work together due to border restrictions. This issue has resulted
in delays in finalizing new technology standards
• 3GPP revealed that the Release 16 of 5G, significant for IIoT, is postponed
by a few months. This enhances reliability, network latency, and introduces
support for time-sensitive networking (TSN). Subsequently, Release 17
will also be further rescheduled
• The decisions of other organizations (e.g., IEEE) will have similar issues,
and further setbacks will happen
xv. Free supply of products/services from vendors
• Many IoT vendors offered free services, upgrades, or software during the
pandemic.
• Here is a long list of IoT products vendors who provided free products/ser-
vices during the pandemic such as ABB, Autodesk, AVEVA, GE, Hexagon,
and MachineMatrics Oden Technologies, Prosoft, PTC/Rockwell
Automation, and Siemens.
39
xvi. Shortage of skills became less of an issue

• IoT Analytics shows the survey data that the missing talent and skills
are the number one problem faced by IoT users and vendors during pro-
ject implementation. The challenge has intensified during recent years as
unemployment was low. The tech talent will be soon available to be hired
as many people lost their jobs due to the pandemic. With demand for new
jobs declining (Figure 1.22) and more talent available, “missing talent”
may soon not be the top challenge anymore after the pandemic is over.
xvii. The complete picture of COVID-19 IoT impact
• The complete picture of all effects of COVID-19 on the IoT is illustrated
in Figure 1.23. This illustrates the short-term and long-term effects (posi-
tive and negative) in various IoT fields.
FIGURE 1.22
Top 5 Industry 40 implementation challenges before the pandemic.
FIGURE 1.23
COVID-19 IoT impact: The complete picture (Source: IoT Analytics).
40
1.17
CONCLUSION
Internet of Things is a new paradigm shift in the field of the internet. It is a major
research field for researchers in embedded systems, information technology, and
computer science. This is owing to its diverse applications and diverse mix of various
embedded and communication technologies in its architecture. Like the famous quote
“Rome was not built in a day”, the evolution of IoT also has evolved gradually over
a period with a lot of research being carried out. The modern IoT is a convergence of
numerous technologies such as sensor interfaces and integration, wireless commu-
nication, data management, cloud computing, and data analytics. The digital world
does not come without loopholes and security risks. The IoT is no exception to the
risk of being hacked into the devices to steal valuable customer information and data.
Researchers need to address the current IoT issues such as security and privacy of the
devices and networks, cost of devices, interoperability, and power requirements [5].
COVID-19 has significantly changed the working habits of employees and
employers, and IoT helps in the new normal. So, there are various positive and nega-
tive impacts of IoT on the way we live and work. Finding a skilled workforce has
been the biggest challenge for Industrial IoT before the pandemic. However, the job
losses will lead to gaining skills in IoT, which might not be the biggest challenge for
IoT in the future.
REFERENCES
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things
[2] https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/defi nition/Internet-of-Things-IOT
[3] www.imda.gov.sg/-/media/imda/files/industry-development/infrastructure/technology/
internetofthings.pdf%3Fla%3Den
[4] “Internet of Things- IoT: Definition, Characteristics, Architecture, Enabling
Technologies, Application & Future Challenges”, IJESC, Preprint · May 2016. www.
researchgate.net/publication/330425585.
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its-rapid-adoption
[6] https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/defi nition/Internet-of-Things-IoT
[7] Avg. yields per hectare in India: https://data.gov.in/resources/yield-hectare-major-crops/
download
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COMMUNITY, October 7, 2019, Mehavarunan. https://thriveglobal.com/stories/the-fut
ure-of-IoT-4-predictions-about-the-internet-of-things/#:
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2019, Debora John. https://thriveglobal.com/stories/a-new-generation-of-connected-
devices/
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COMMUNITY, October 7, 2019, Mehavarunan. https://thriveglobal.com/stories/the-fut
ure-of-IOT-4-predictions-about-the-internet-of-things/#:
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41
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[14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LoRa
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of-things-iot/iot-technology-protocols/
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[18] Introduction to MQTT protocol for IoT applications. Concurrency, Digital
Transformation Realized. June 26, 2019. Siddharth Bhola www.concurrency.com/blog/
june-2019/introduction-to-mqtt-protocol-for-iot-applications
[19] Dr. Ovidiu Vermesan SINTEF, Norway, Dr. Peter FriessEU, Belgium, “Internet of
Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems”,
River Publishers’ series in communications, 2013.
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Things–From Research and Innovation to Market Deployment”, River Publishers’ series
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raconteur.net/manufacturing/manufacturing-gets-personal-industry-5-0/
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Community, April 24, 2019, Melissa Cook. https://thriveglobal.com/stories/debunking-
the-myths-that-surround-the-internet-of-things/
[23] IoT Device Hit by Credential Attack Every Two Minutes: Experiment. Ionut Arghire on
August 29, 2017. www.securityweek.com/iot-device-hit-credential-attack-every-two-
minutes-experiment
[24] 12 tips to help secure your smart home and IoT devices. Steve Symanovich for
NortonLifeLock. August 28, 2019. https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-iot-smart-
home-security-core.html
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[29] SIA gears up to transport and deliver COVID-19 vaccines. Straits Times. 06 December
2020. www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/singapore-airlines-to-prioritise-
capacity-for-transporting-covid-19-vaccines
42
43
2 Application of IoT
for Pandemic Detection
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Various countries around the world are in a vulnerable situation after the global
spread of the COVID-19 virus. Now almost every nation in the world is affected by
COVID-19. There have been unprecedented increases globally in the amount of test
reported coronavirus infections. Further to these issues, after the outbreak of COVID-
19, several misleading claims, rumors, and unfounded suspicions of coronavirus have
also been circulated regularly. They utilize many reputable outlets to study in-depth
many of the critical facets of the COVID-19 pandemic. The common symptoms of
COVID-19 are listed in Table 2.1.
The business sectors most affected by COVID-19 are automobile, transportation,
agriculture, construction, transport, food industry, safety, telecommunications, etc.
Now, there has been immense pressure on the healthcare system. To minimize the
spread of COVID-19, everyone has to follow some rules, such as avoiding touching
your face, washing hands regularly, using masks, and maintaining social distancing.
Furthermore, the latest technologies can be used to minimize the spreading of the
pandemic.
IoMT is an amalgamation of smart medical devices that offer extensive healthcare
services. Telemedicine is a method for using IoMT technology to allow remote
monitoring of the patients. This practice will enable physicians to assess, diagnose,
and treat patients without needing any patient’s physical presence. Many IoMT soft-
ware and telemedicine networks experienced a massive surge in traffic. The use of
telemedicine reduces the transmission of infection and traffic reduction. Several
telemedicine devices such as telemedicine carts, teleconsultation apps, and portable
tablets have proved their worth in combating the COVID-19 pandemic over the past
few months. However, telemedicine’s true potential can only be realized with 5G
cellular networks. During a pandemic, drones can provide many services. They can
ensure minimal human contact and can also be used to enter inaccessible places.
2.2
EMERGENCY CARE SYSTEM
The World Health Organization has developed an emergency care system frame-
work to understand the action process during an emergency. There are two striking
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-2 43
44
TABLE 2.1
Common Symptoms of COVID-19
Most Common Symptoms Less Common Symptoms

Fever Shorten of Breath
Dry Cough Myalgia
Fatigue Headache
Sputum Production Sore Throat
TABLE 2.2
Pathogen Adaptation and Pandemic Risk [1]
Transmission to Pathogen Simplified

Stage Humans Examples Transmission Diagram
Stage 1: animal None H3N8 equine
reservoir influenza virus
transmission only
Stage 2: primary Only from animals Anthrax
infection
Stage 3: limited Few human-to-human Marburg virus
outbreaks transmission chains
Stage 4: sustained Many human-to-human Pandemic

outbreaks transmission chains A (H1N1) 2009
influenza virus
Stage Human-to-Human Smallpox virus
5: predominant
human
transmission
characteristics of the more disaggregated collection of risk factors. First, several

risk factors may overlap and combine to affect the occurrence of various diseases
or accidents, all of which can lead to the development of ischemic heart disease,
such as smoking, food risks, and physical inactivity. Second, a small fraction of
cases of multiple diseases or accidents may be caused by particular risk factors; for
instance, outdoor air pollution may contribute, among other conditions, to chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. One consequence of these encounters
is that active regulation of a few major risk factors such as smoke from cigarettes
and air pollution will dramatically improve the population’s health. Pathogen
adaption and pandemic risk charts are shown in Table 2.2 to identify the risk of
virus transmission.
45
Application of IoT for Pandemic Detection 45
2.3
PREVIOUS WORKS
An extensive literature review has been done on pandemic detection using IoT, AI,
machine learning, etc. Many researchers have carried out a critical analysis of the
research on disease detection systems using IoT [2]. IoT can be used in healthcare
for maintaining quality control with real-time information with a statistical-based
approach, IoT becomes helpful in predicting this disease’s coming situation [3].
An IoT PCR system in real-time showed the sensitivity and reproducibility of the
unit [4]. In the early detection of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) work of two
firms, BlueDot and Metabiota, the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) demonstrate
how AI-driven algorithms can make future predictions and readings more accurate
by increasing data sharing [5]. Ebola virus spreads by transmission from human to
human. It is important to continuously detect and remotely track infected patients.
IoT-based healthcare systems and cloud computing technology is an efficient and
proactive approach that offers continuous remote patient monitoring. To detect and
track Ebola-infected patients, a novel architecture based on an RFID system, wear-
able sensor technology, and cloud computing is helpful, as shown in Figure 2.1 [6].
An IoT-based surveillance system for disease control can also be used [7]. The
COVID-19 pandemic is unprecedented and has devastated millions of lives across
the globe. The pandemic has opened up many scientific problems and opportunities
that our society must face to prepare itself for the future, architecture and AI-assisted
applications can be used to efficiently and timely implement community-based social
distance steps and maximize resource use in critical circumstances [8]. Large user-
specific social interaction has been generated by the advent and proliferation of
online social networks (OSNs) that generate comprehensive data that can be used as a
potential tool to identify a pandemic for a real-time surveillance system [9]. A model
tractable quantitative study of the ideal disease dynamic management strategy using
both lockdown and detection intervention levers can also be helpful [10].
FIGURE 2.1
An architecture based on RFID system.
46
The surveillance of influenza-like diseases can be used to determine the magnitude

of outbreaks, location, and timing. Advances in computational and information tech-
nology produces higher volumes of electronic data to be automatically collected and
analyzed in a more timely fashion than previously possible [11]. The comprehensive
indicators for preparedness at the national level are important to assess global vul-
nerability to disease and pandemic [12]. The moving average cumulative sums and
influenza-like disease (ILI) threshold methods are more sensitive and quicker [13].
The Google Scholar, Pubmed, and Scopus databases using the keyword COVID-
19 and Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be used to analyze and identify the applications
for pandemic detection [14]. Identifying and isolating infected persons in the crowd is
very difficult. IoT can be used to identify infected persons and help to maintain social
distancing. Data can be stored in the Cloud, which can be used for remote monitoring
and data analysis [15]. IoT can control, track, manage, distribute, and gather user
information to provide healthcare assistance. This technology will help people to
handle COVID-19 and possible pandemics better. Three stages need to be addressed
during this pandemic, including “Early Detection,” “Quarantine Period” and “After
Recovery.” Technology performance differs across connected devices, but it also has
its privacy concerns due to unstructured data collected from various devices [16].
AI and Big Data principles can help in the quick and efficient detection of COVID-
19. AI technologies can be used in the identification and diagnosis, tracking and
prediction of outbreaks, infodemiology, and infoveillance, biomedicine, and pharma-
cotherapy; large-scale COVID-19 disease technologies can also assist in the predic-
tion of outbreaks, surveillance of virus transmission, diagnosis and treatment, and
discovery of vaccines and drugs [17]. The Chinese cities and government have taken
a techno-driven approach, and a human-driven approach has been adopted by Western
governments to control the transmission of COVID-19. The findings demonstrate
that the techno-driven approach might be more effective in identifying, isolating, and
quarantining individuals [18] and using the Robust Weibull distribution model [19].
The mIoT revamps healthcare systems, as people have started using IoT to handle
their health needs, like for appointments, blood pressure monitoring, calories burnt, and
much more. The remote health management system is one of the best aspects of IoTs in
the healthcare sector, where patients can be tracked and consulted from anywhere. Real-
time location services are yet another major IoT offer approach. Doctors can conveni-
ently monitor the positions of devices by using the app, which significantly eliminates
the unnecessary time spent [20]. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data will assist
with the huge, immense volume of public health surveillance data produced, real-time
monitoring of outbreaks of disease, current trend/analysis, regular briefing and updating
from government organizations and agencies, and awareness of the use of health facil-
ities [21]. The molding of artificial intelligence (AI) along with geographic informa-
tion system (GIS) dimensions produces GeoAI. GeoAI’s infrastructure and healthcare
position is growing, as the location is an integral part of both population and individual
health [22]. COVID-19 has spread to 210 countries around the world. The health system
has been profoundly influenced by contemporary society’s economic, educational, and
social aspects. Different collaborative approaches between stakeholders have been
observed to develop novel ways of screening and detecting COVID-19 cases at a propor-
tionate rate among humans as the transmission rate continues to increase. Furthermore,
47
computational models associated with the 4th Industrial Revolution Technology are
helpful in achieving the desired feat [23]. The Big Data techniques for human devel-
opment in various contexts, including humanitarian crises (including disaster response
and migrant crisis), agriculture, poverty alleviation, food security, health care, and edu-
cation, will play a vital role in the future [24].
Recent developments have shown that collaboration between medical researchers
and engineers is crucial to developing expeditious and less expensive approaches
to pandemic management [25]. AI’s capacity to aid in diagnosing and monitoring
coronavirus development or resolution reliably for detecting, characterizing, and
monitoring COVID-19 development. Automated CT image analysis software based
on AI can achieve high accuracy in detecting positive coronavirus patients as well
as quantifying the burden of the disease. In a slice-based “heat screen” or a 3D
volume monitor for coronavirus patients, the computer generates quantitative opacity
measurements and a visualization of the larger opacities [26].
AI response helps bacteria to organize gene expression on a population-wide scale
and thus execute complex behaviors in unison, similar to multicellular organisms
[27]. Outbreaks of swine flu (H1N1) and avian flu (H5N1) jeopardize global health
in developing countries in the South-East Asia region, and there was an urgent need
for swift and effective screening methods [28]. Swine-born influenza was detected in
April 2009 in the US and Mexico. Rapid diagnosis of influenza is critical for the initi-
ation of antiviral therapy and quarantine steps, as antiviral therapy should be initiated
preferably within 24 hours after the first clinical symptoms of the patient appear [29].
Today, COVID-19, without an effective vaccine or treatment, is a global, highly
transmissible pandemic. With varying degrees of effectiveness, governments
around the world have synchronized programs based on containment and mitiga-
tion. Countries with low per capita mortality rates of COVID-19 prefer to share early
detection, inspection, touch monitoring, and strict quarantine strategies. The com-
plexity of planning and data analysis needed to adopt these strategies effectively was
focused on the introduction and application in the most prosperous nations of digital
technology into policy and healthcare [30].
A single bad flu pandemic could cost $3 trillion. To end extreme poverty or to
improve shared prosperity in developed countries is hard to imagine more danger.
Indeed, OECD sees a significant pandemic, among others, as a top global catastrophe
risk, one that is higher than the risk of terrorism. It will bring widespread suffering,
economic downturn, and global social disruption, with the poor and fragile states
hitting hardest. Setting a pandemic risk mitigation objective should be the first step
towards risk control, complemented by guidelines for international organizations
working towards the aim. Risk management could strengthen and bridge the public
veterinary and human health structures in developed countries to remove the weakest
links in global pathogens protection. Pandemic risk prevention is a public benefit that
the governments can only offer by their concerted acts. The provision of this service
will benefit from the systematic implementation of ‘supply science,’ primarily through
the use of One Health approaches for early successful control of contagion [31].
Wireless networks of the fifth generation (5G) will be launched globally as of
2020, and more features such as universal convergence, ultra-reliability, and low
latency are being standardized. However, 5G will not fulfill all feasible standards in
48
FIGURE 2.2
Sensors and their applications [32].
2030. Wireless communication networks of the sixth generation (6G) are expected
to have global scope, improved spectral/energy/cost performance, improved intelli-
gence and protection levels, etc. 6G networks should rely on emerging technology
that can satisfy these requirements, i.e., waveform architecture, multi-access, channel
coding schemes, multi-antenna systems [32] as shown in Figure 2.2.
Geospatial technology with best practices from China in the battle against COVID-
19 in Ghana is modeled on incessant mobility trends [33]. Industrial processes, com-
munication, networking technologies, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle technology
advancement have led to an increase in their use in political, industrial, and social
applications [34]. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the year 2020 is facing a global
health and economic crisis. Countries worldwide are using digital technologies to
address this global crisis, which depends heavily on the availability of wireless com-
munication systems in one way or another [35].
6G and beyond will fulfill the requirements of a fully connected world and provide
everybody with all-around wireless connectivity. In order to satisfy an ever-growing
number of smart devices and services, transformative technologies are expected to
drive acceleration. Major technological breakthroughs to achieve convergence object-
ives within 6G [36]. 6G is a ground-breaking technology for networking that, from
2030, will dominate the entire healthcare sector. It will govern not only the health
sector but also numerous industries. The most significant barriers to healthcare are
still time and space, and 6G will overcome those barriers. 6G can also be seen to be a
game-changing technology for healthcare [37].
2.4
APPLICATION OF IOT AND SMART TECHNOLOGY FOR
PANDEMIC DETECTION
IoT can be used effectively in telemedicine applications to monitor patient conditions
(as shown in Figure 2.3). It is very much required in such a COVID period. Online
49
FIGURE 2.3
Telemedicine architecture.
FIGURE 2.4
Emergency care system.
medical consultation can help to minimize the spread of the pandemic, it also helps
to minimize traffic jams, save fuel, and minimize air pollution. It can be more helpful
for children and old people to monitor their health condition regularly.
WHO has been implemented in one framework (shown in Figure 2.4) for effective
emergency care.
The development of digital infrastructures like 5G and 6G technology for
mobile communication, application of IoT sensors, and smart devices will enable
us to monitor real-time data from a remote location. Data analytics can be used to
50
FIGURE 2.5
Role of technology for pandemic detection.
understand the data better to extract the information and accurate prediction of future
trends. The application of telemedicine and drone technology can help make social
distancing to avoid spreading the pandemic. Technologies that can be used in pan-
demic detection are shown in Figure 2.5.
2.5
CONCLUSION
The outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic has intensified once again. Many Asian
and European countries have been dealing with the fourth wave of coronavirus in
recent weeks. The corona's omicron subvariant BA.2 is thought to be the cause of
the abrupt spike in new cases. Researchers have identified a new XE variation of
the corona in this hour of distress. The use of the latest technologies such as IoT,
Telemedicine, AI, 5G, and 6G technologies can help minimize the pandemic’s spread.
Also, IoMT can be used to monitor and control the pandemic remotely.
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53
3 TV White Space (TVWS)

Technology
3.1
INTRODUCTION
There has been much research in the past few years to tap the unutilized TV bands for
communication. As the allocated spectrum for TV band is quite huge, ranging from
400 to 900MHz [1–2]. Some channels utilize this band, and the rest is left unused or
called the “White Spaces”. White Spaces emerge as a research output of Cognitive
Radio (CR). In 2002, DARPA initiated a project for using this research area for
communication.
The demand for wireless communications has been growing exponentially over
the past few decades, with the advancement of technologies such as GSM, 2G, 3G,
4G, 5G and upcoming 6G for cellular communications and other applications such as
satellite, aeronautics, civil aviation, transport (including long-distance railways and
metro railways), maritime, military, security and surveillance, remote sensing, emer-
gency services and radio astronomy.
To date, activity on the internet has primarily consisted of communication between
people. So far, only 50% of the world’s population has wired, wireless or cellular
internet connectivity. The remaining 50% or 3 billion people (O3B) have no con-
nectivity at all. The United Nations Broadband Commission has set the goal to bring
broadband connectivity to 3.8 billion people worldwide, who are not connected to
the internet and unable to use social and economic resources in the modern world. To
achieve the target of “Connecting the Other Half”, the United Nations’ Broadband
Commission for Sustainable Development (UNBSD) has set ambitious 2025 goals.
At the Commission’s meeting and the 2018 Annual Meeting of the World Economic
Forum in Davos, these targets were launched [3]. One of the biggest reasons for
no connectivity is poor or no infrastructure in developing countries’ remote & rural
areas. Laying the fibre to these outlying flanged areas is too expensive and challen-
ging task. So, wireless is the only solution to provide connectivity to these areas.
Due to the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless connectivity is required
for a wide variety of sensors and control mechanisms supporting various applications.
These applications include smart cities, smart grid, smart meters, smart factories, and
precision agriculture. As per the Statista report, the number of intelligent connected
devices is likely to exceed 38.6 billion by 2025 and 50 billion by 2030 [4]. All the
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-3 53
54
above services need wireless communication to connect, and the spectrum is blood to
these communication needs.
3.2
UNDERUTILISED SPECTRUM
If one looks at the spectrum allocation chart of any country, it is a 100% allocated
spectrum. Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 illustrate the Spectrum allocation chart by FCC
in the USA and IMDA in Singapore. A study was carried out in Singapore and found
that the spectrum usage at any vicinity and time is only 6.5% of the actual allocation.
This measurement is plotted in Figure 3.3. Various agencies have carried out similar
measurements at many places, and the results are almost similar (within the range
FIGURE 3.1
Spectrum allocation chart by FCC (Source: FCC website).
FIGURE 3.2
Spectrum allocation chart by IMDA (Source: IMDA website).
55
TV White Space (TVWS) Technology 55
FIGURE 3.3
Actual usage of the spectrum at any time.
FIGURE 3.4
Type of spectrums.
of 5 to 15%). The reason for low usage of spectrum allocation is that a spectrum
is issued permanently to an agency or user. This phenomenon of spectrum allocation
and actual usage is very alarming and inefficient. There is an urge to make the
changes in the way the spectrum is allocated, and it is used.
The above discussion shows that even though the spectrum is 100% allocated
worldwide, the spectrum usage is significantly lower. With an increase in the spec-
trum demand, the spectrum’s allocation and usage should be dynamic and oppor-
tunistic. The licensed bands have to be used for essential services such as cellular
communication. The users own the spectrum, and there is no interference in this band.
Industrial, Scientific & Medical (ISM) bands should be used for non-essential ser-
vices such as WiFi, Bluetooth and other IoT services such as LoRa and Sigfox. These
are unlicensed bands where the spectrum is free to use for all users, but there are
chances of interference from other users.
There is a requirement of license-exempt spectrum growing in the past decade.
The user does not own this spectrum, and the user has to use the spectrum on a need
basis dynamically and opportunistically. These bands are known as White Spaces,
as depicted in Figure 3.4. TV White Spaces (TVWS) is the under-utilized spectrum
in the band allocated to TV broadcasters. Since digital transmission has better spec-
trum efficiency than analogue, the trend of converting from analogue to digital TV
has freed up more space in TV bands for TVWS worldwide (Figure 3.5). Sharing of
56
FIGURE 3.5
White Spaces in the TV band.
FIGURE 3.6
Spectrum overlay.
the spectrum by TVWS is an essential topic as it is the first step towards the effective
usage of spectrum in a dynamic and opportunistic manner. Figure 3.6 illustrates the
spectrum overlay for any instance with allowed transmitting power level. TVWS is
expected to be the first CR system. It has unrivalled propagation characteristics in the
very-high frequency (VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF) range. This long-range
of TVWS makes it an appealing choice for rural connectivity. Simultaneously, better
penetration gives it an advantage over other technologies for machine-to-machine
implementations in cluttered and dense regions. It also offers a strong choice as a
networking backbone for smart cities due to urbanisation. The favourable propaga-
tion characteristics of TVWS helps to make white space devices (WSDs) more potent
than their WiFi predecessors. White space technology would greatly increase the use-
fulness and help reduce the cost of using a license-exempted spectrum for broadband
connectivity. The deployment of last-mile connectivity in hard-to-serve areas is also
going to make it more accessible. These advantages have significant economic and
growth benefits [6].
57
TABLE 3.1
Affordability versus Reach Challenge Across the Billion Demography
Billions of People on Average Annual Affordable Monthly Spent on
Earth Income Communication
First billion $29206 $205
Second billion $12722 $53
Third billion $5540 $23
Fourth billion $2987 $12
Fifth billion $1771 $7
Sixth billion $1065 $4.4
Seventh billion $540 $2.25
Source: Richard Thanki, University of Southampton, from UN, ITU Data, WSA & IEEE.
FIGURE 3.7
Demographic coverage disparity in developing countries (Source: Whizpace).
Currently, urban areas have excellent connectivity, and suburbs have moderate con-
nectivity and almost no connectivity in most developing countries. The key reason for
this disparity is user affordability versus the Telco cost for providing the infrastructure.
The cost of installing infrastructure is cheaper in cities as one base station can cover a
significant population. Whereas in the rural area one base station covers a larger area
but a smaller population, making the cost of deployment per user more expensive. On
the other hand, the user affordability (paying capacity) in cities is much higher than
the villages, as depicted in Figure 3.7. Table 3.1 shows the average annual income and
monthly affordability on communication for every billion. This disparity makes Telcos
less interested in providing connectivity in the rural areas, as this does not make an
economic sense to the operators unless there is a government subsidy.
Since TVWS can propagate through a non-line of sight (NLOS) environment,
there is no need to erect a tower for the installation. The TVWS equipment is usually
cheaper than the 3G/4G base stations. This characteristic reduces the cost of deploy-
ment heavily, and hence Telcos can provide the connectivity at a lower cost even in
the rural demographics.
58
3.3
EVOLUTION OF TVWS
The first device for TVWS application was commercialised in 2011 by the Federal
Communication Commission (FCC) [7]. The product was officially deployed in
2012 in North Carolina as the first TVWS network device. West Virginia University
became the first campus in July 2013 to deploy a fully functional wireless broadband
within the university and adjacent areas using TVWS [8]. FCC laid out the guidelines
that the unutilized spectrum in the TV bands can only be used by TVWS equipment
explicitly designed to operate in the unlicensed band [9]. To determine the potential
and practical use of TVWS technology, the University of Cambridge put up a trial
named Cambridge White Space Trial. It mainly focused on promoting research in
TVWS without disturbing the licensed bands in the TV spectrum [10].
While performing free channel analysis on TVWS, even though Singapore
receives TV signals from its neighbouring countries, such as Malaysia & Indonesia,
multiple unused channels can be found at a lower frequency in 470-530 MHz and
some channels in the 530-698 MHz band.
The European Commission of communities also approved the use of TVWS in
2014 for research purposes and is working to commercialize the technology for
broadband deployment using TVWS [11]. Later, Microsoft came up with the idea
to implement TVWS in rural areas and provide resources to companies working in
TVWS. Microsoft’s FarmBeats is a project that integrates IoT sensors, data analysis,
and machine learning using TVWS [12].
Even though TVWS gives excellent RF propagation, the technology faces many
technological challenges emerging from such co- existence restrictions. These
restrictions enable users to avoid causing interference to primary users or each other.
COGEU (COGnitive radio systems for efficient sharing of TVWS in the EUropean con-
text) has devised the detailed framework to resolve the implementation issues faced by
TVWS technology, as outlined in Figure 3.8. COGEU [13] was a joint project designed
to exploit the ASO through the development of cognitive radio systems that utilise the
excellent propagation characteristics of TVWS through the implementation and pro-
motion of real-time secondary spectrum trading [14]. This model includes issues such
as technical feasibility, regularity feasibility and market potential in that country. These
issues lead to the generation of standards, patents, and technological know-how; spec-
trum policies and business models developed by system integrators and ISPs.
The availability of TVWS varies worldwide, depending on regulatory authorities’
policies, which is the critical drawback of the COGEU model. A framework is there-
fore required to explain the opportunities, strengths, and shortcomings of TVWS. The
commonly used SLEPT (Social, Legal, Economical, Political and Technological) tool
is used to analyse the existing challenges, and possible research concerns related to
database assisted TVWS solutions. Spurred by global pilot projects and deployments
conducted for TVWS, the COGEU framework’s shortcomings create a gap and need
comprehensive research using this approach. The contributions of the research can be
summarised as follows [14]:
a) Practical challenges faced by geolocation database (GLDB).

b) Challenges of TVWS networks using the SLEPT framework.
c) Emerging trends in TVWS technology, based on current developments.
59
FIGURE 3.8
COGEU TVWS Framework [15].
TABLE 3.2
Widely Used Propagation Models [17]
Model Description Frequency Range
Line of Sight (LOS) Simple model for viewing obstructions All frequency range
ITU-R P.525 Free Space Path Loss model 20 to 100,000 MHz
Irregular Terrain 'Longley Rice' Model. US Government 20 to 20,000 MHz
Model (ITM) general-purpose model used by FCC
Okumura-Hata Hata model for cellular communications 150 to 500 MHz
in urban areas
ECC33 (ITU-R P.529) ECC33 model for cellular and 700 to 3500 MHz
microwave communications
Stanford University SUE model is used for WiMax 1900 to 11000MHz
Interim (Sill) communications
COST231-Hata European COST231 is the frequency 150 to 2000 MHz
extension to Hata model for urban
Ericsson 9999 Ericsson 9999 model for cellular 150 to 1900 MHz
communications up to 1900MHz
Egli VHF/UHF' General-purpose VHF/UHF model. 30 to 1000MHz
More conservative than FSPL
Three tuples are required for the geolocation database to approximate the availability
of TVWS within a geographical area. These tuples are the availability of time, loca-
tion, and frequency. There is a variety of propagation models for different purposes,
and their brief comparison is tabulated (Table 3.2), and two popular TVWS propaga-
tion models are:
(i) Okumura-Hata Model. The Hata models were designed to support the fre-
quency range (150-1500MHz) for Urban cellular planning and are focused on
60
FIGURE 3.9
The simulation of TVWS coverage in (a) urban & (b) rural area with hilly
terrain.
the tower height more than 30m. This model assumes that the transmitter is at
more height than the average height of the rooftops [17].
(ii) Longley-Rice model and the irregular terrain model (ITM). This model is
widely used as it is ideal for any RF devices from handheld walkie-talkies
in VHF band to microwave links in SHF band. Electromagnetic parameters,
terrain, atmospheric diffraction, and ground cluttering are used to calculate
the radio signal’s attenuation at any point on the Earth [18].
The coverage area in a rural area is always longer than in an urban area, and
Figure 3.9 illustrates the area covered in urban and rural, keeping all other parameters
the same. The distance covered in rural areas and partially hilly terrain is up to ten
times more in urban areas.
SLEPT framework (Table 3.3) is used to discuss different parameters, such as
WSDs’ transmitting power, geolocation contours, the number of channels, channel
bandwidths, and whether the conservative or non-conservative approach is used.
Under the widely used database supported TVWS deployments, devices con-
sist of Master (or Access Point) and Slave (Station, or Client) WSDs. The master
device communicates with the database (GLDB) operator the GPS coordinates and
HAAT and obtains operational parameters such as frequency of operation and Tx
power. Whereas a Slave WSD can only access the parameters through a Master WSD.
Figure 3.10 illustrates a typical example of the functions and components of a GLDB
assisted TVWS network. This network can be described in the steps below [16]:
Step I: A GLDB-assisted master WSD queries the spectrum regulator to collect

official GLDB operators’ list. GLDB operators have completed the certifica-
tion process. The spectrum regulator checks the GLDB operators to ensure that
their databases can function within the specified operating terms and conditions
before permission is granted.
Step II: The spectrum regulator sends a reply with the list of approved GLDB
operators to the master WSD. The reply to query lists the certified GLDB
operators.
Step III: The master WSD sends the query to the GLDB operators for the avail-
ability of TVWS channels in the vicinity by providing its operational parameters
61
TABLE 3.3
Summary of SLEPT Indicators for Database Assisted TVWS technology
Components Indicators Performance Matrices

Social TWTS projects centric needs. Non- Successful implementation of
commercial approach. projects. Technical issues
such as self-coexistence and
heterogeneous co-existence are
not emphasised.
Legal SDR enablement. Legal certifications. Market-driven. Regulation driven.
TVWS parameters to be permitted.
Economic Real-time strategy-proof auction Strategy-proof real-time spectrum
mechanism for secondary spectrum trading. Complexity analysis.
market. Highly competitive
secondary spectrum price.
Political Spectrum regulation and policies. Spectrum measurement campaigns,
Enabling acts for dynamic pilot projects.
spectrum access.
Technology Incumbent co-existence. Self- The existence of TVWS databases.
coexistence. Heterogeneous Transmission power control
co-existence. mechanism. Dynamic spectrum
sharing.
such as the antenna configuration and the maximum transmission power, the
height above average terrain (HAAT), and the frequency range.
Step IV: The GLDB performs the necessary calculations on the queries based
on the set of operational parameters corresponding to that WSD and then
responds to it. The regulator then provides the GLDB operators with a database
for the occupied spectrum by DTT (Digital Terrestrial Television), licensed
programme-making and special events (PMSE), and wireless microphones.
The GLDB then informs the WSD of available channels with the highest
allowed transmission power in terms of EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power).
Step V: The slave WSD sends the query to the master WSD about the usage of
channel and EIRP. The slave device needs to provide its unique device identifier,
usually its MAC address. The slave device requests the operational parameters
specific to it, or this can use its generic parameters.
Step VI: Once the request from the slave device is received, the master device
sends the general operational parameters to the slave device. The slave device
must listen to the master device’s instructions before transmission. The slave
device will decide whether to request specific operational parameters or use
the generic parameters. Once the slave device requests any of the operational
parameters to the master device, it relays to the GLDB. GLDB would estimate
the optimal operational parameters for the slave device (Figure 3.10).
62
FIGURE 3.10
Database-assisted TVWS network architecture [16].
The next topics will be on the standardization, regulation scenarios in different

countries, trials, deployments, and applications of TVWS. The standardization is
different from the regulation. The standards help to set the operational limits to avoid
interference to the primary services such as TV transmission and microphones [18].
International bodies guide standards. Whereas the regulations help provide maximum
and interoperable protocols and devices for particular implementations using
the spectrum such as RANs, LANs, and Database Access specific countries control
regulations.
3.4
STANDARDISATION OF TVWS
The unrivalled propagation characteristics of TVWS results in more extended
coverage and superior penetration through obstacles. The extended coverage makes
TVWS an alluring technology for rural connectivity. Simultaneously, this improved
penetration and susceptibility to work in a multi-path environment gives TVWS an
edge over other options for narrowband (IoT applications) communication in a dense
and cluttered environment [19].
Since WSDs utilize TVWS, these devices should not cause interference
to the Primary Users (PUs) such as TV broadcasting station and microphones.
Geolocation database (GLDB), spectrum sensing or beacons are the techniques
for PUs protection from WSDs. All the above techniques have their pros and cons,
though there is more harmony on using GLDB to determine under-utilised TVWS
channels [19].
In addition to avoiding the interference using the above techniques, there must be a
process to avoid any possibility of interference caused due to spilling the spectrum of
63
FIGURE 3.11
Comparison of Spectrum masks (scaled) for WiFi, LTE with TVWS
(Source: Microsoft Research).
WSD. This spilling of spectrum is termed as out-of-band (OOB) emission and might
cause interference to the incumbent devices, including PUs. Meeting this OOB set by
regulators is one of the most challenging criteria for TVWS. One of the reasons for
stricter OOB set by FCC was due to technology uncertainty initially. Besides, existing
PUs protested on the potential interference to their current system. There were not
enough datasets to back these assertions, so FCC adopted a very cautious approach to
emission mask specifications [19]. With more studies conducted and Ofcom’s results
in the UK and IMDA in Singapore, emission masks’ requirements were relaxed in
the UK and Singapore [20, 21]. Moving forward, other regulators also are following
existing regulators [22].
Figure 3.11 depicts the stringent spectrum mask of TVWS and its comparison with
WiFi and LTE. The spectrum mask limit for TVWS is 35dB stricter than WiFi or 5000
times in absolute terms and 20dB stricter than LTE or 100 times in absolute terms.
A series of standards have been created to support White Space development.
802.11af is the standard issued by IEEE to govern and develop protocols in TVWS,
which is referred to as Super-WiFi [23, 24]. The physical layer development for
802.11af carries forward from 802.11ac in the lower frequency bands of VHF and
UHF in the range of 54 MHz to 790 MHz using Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing [25, 26].
In addition to 802.11af, the IEEE has standardised another TVWS standard, 802.22
[27]. While 802.11af is a wireless LAN standard designed for long-range connect-
ivity, 802.22 is a wireless regional area network (WRAN) standard, for ranges as long
as 100 km [28]. The co-existence of 802.11af and 802.22 standards can be applied
either in centralized or distributed manners and various co-existence techniques [29,
30]. There are other standards such as ECMA 392, 802.16h and DySPAN. Table 3.4
is the comparison of all TVWS standards.
newgenrtpdf
64
64
TABLE 3.4
Comparison of TVWS Standards [31]
IEEE 802.22
Features/ Standards ECMA 392 (Wi-FAR) IEEE 802.11af IEEE 802.15.4m IEEE 802.19.1
Key Feature Specifies MAC First cognitive radio for WLAN operation in Enabled for inexpensive, Allows discovery
sub-layer and unconnected geographic TVWS band low-rate WPAN systems services to discover
a PHY layer. locations on non- with a low power the neighbouring
Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

Also specifies a interfering channels consumption over the devices in the same
MUX sublayer short distance band
for higher-layer
protocols
Main applications Personal/ portable Rural connectivity Rural connectivity & M2M Local & Metropolitan
devices surveillance communications, smart grid Area Network
communications, and
sensor networks
Freq Range 54-862 MHz 54-862 MHz 54-862 MHz 54-960MHz & 2.4GHz Sub-GHz
Support for multiple No No Yes Yes No
frequency channels
Mobility support Yes No No No Yes
Max. Throughput 31.56 22.69 10-100 1.5625 >10
(Mbps)
Range (km) 10-30 10-30 <10 1-2 >10
Channelisation 6,7,8 6,7,8 6,7,8 0.1-0.38
(MHz)
Modulation OFDM OFDM OFDM FSK; NB-OFDM
Network Topology No Yes No Yes
Handover Support No No Yes Yes
newgenrtpdf
65
TV White Space (TVWS) Technology
Mesh Topology Yes No Yes Yes
Self-Coexistence Yes Yes Yes Yes
Multiple Access CSMA/CS, OFDMA with coding CSMA/CS, TDMA Slotted CSMA-CA for
Techniques TDMA support from BPSK, periodic beacons; else
QPSK, 16-QAM & 64- unslotted CSMA-CA
QAM with configurable
code rate
Spectrum Sensing Yes Yes No No Yes
Geolocation database Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Approval year 2012 2011 2012 2014 2016
Quite period for Yes Yes No Yes
sensing
Inter-System No No No Yes
Coexistence
65
66
Many countries are now considering the next step in the evolution of spectrum
policies through this spectrum’s license-exempt use.
3.5
REGULATIONS ON TVWS
The use of under-utilized spectrum in TV band has been gaining traction worldwide
over the last decade. In the RRC GE Geneva 2006 conference, the main discus-
sion point was the coordination on the transition from analogue to digital television
and implementing a strategy to fulfil more than 70,000 broadcasting criteria in all
European, African, and Asian countries. Initially, most of the initial requirements
were quite inconsistent. It took six years for experts from 100 countries to decide on
national proposals to submit and discuss. Finally, a joint reference plan was accepted
to design the national TV plans for digital broadcasting in the frequency bands of
174-230 MHz and 470-862 MHz [32].
Regulation is usually a top-down approach, being led by regulators in developed
countries such as FCC in the USA, OFCOM in the UK, IMDA in Singapore and IC
in Canada. Many regulators in different parts of the world have either released or are
working on the framework to release the spectrum to be used by secondary users.
The analogue to the digital switchover of TV transmission is still growing at a slow
pace, slowing down the regulation process with many regulators. TVWS applications
depend primarily on GLDB. There are still other requirements such as OOB emission,
self-positioning, and update times while TVWS networks are implemented in each
country as this criterion varies for different territories. Thus, suitable regulation is
necessary for TVWS deployment.
3.5.1 Regulation in the USA

FCC of USA was the front runner to propose using the unlicensed band to operate
in the TV spectrum at locations where these bands are not used [33]. In 2008, the
Commission authorized WSD operations in VHF and UHF broadcast bands for both
fixed and personal/portable WSDs. FCC took a few more steps to promote additional
opportunities to use spectrum in these bands for unlicensed WSDs in 2010, 2012,
and 2015 [34]. WSDs need to obtain channels available in that vicinity and allowed
Tx power to prevent interference to broadcasted TV reception and protected users at
that location. This information is administered from database entities approved by
the FCC. Fixed WSDs must incorporate a geolocation capability to access a data-
base. Portable WSDs either acquire channels available via another device (Mode I),
or themselves include geolocation and database access capabilities (Mode II) [33].
FCC came out with the White Spaces Order in 2015 with additional actions to pro-
mote WSDs transmission in the reassigned TV bands after the auction of broadcast
TV spectrum. The Commission also authorized WSD operations in the unused 600
MHz duplex gap, and unused channel 37 [33].
To promote greater flexibility for WSDs in rural areas, FCC relaxed the EIRP
from 4 watts to 10 watts in less congested areas. There was no change in the height
of fixed devices antennas that was not more than 30 meters above ground and 250
meters height above average terrain (HAAT) in this order. Later, in March 2019, FCC
67
adopted the White Spaces Report and Order and Order on Reconsideration, providing
more flexibility and allowing fixed WSDs to operate up to 100 meters above ground
in less congested areas, retaining the 250 meters HAAT limit [35].
On May 3, 2019, Microsoft requested the petition providing additional flexibility
for WSDs operations:
• Permit fixed devices in less congested areas to operate at higher radiated power,
up to 16 Watts EIRP, to support the expansion of broadband in rural America,
• Permit fixed devices to operate with higher HAAT, up to 500 meters, to improve
rural coverage,
• Examine the possibility of authorizing higher- power operations on first-
adjacent channels to TV operations, with appropriate safeguards to prevent
harmful interference,
• Permit higher power mobile operations within geo-fenced areas, and
• Adjust the rules to support narrowband IoT white space devices [36].
Based on the discussion, the Commission accepted the following conditional

requests [37]:
• WSDs are allowed to transmit up to 16 Watt EIRP for channels 2-35 for less
congested areas.
• WSDs can operate with higher HAAT of 500 meters for channels 2-35.
• It protects TV broadcasters. Commission proposed to stick to White Spaces
Order in 2015 and earlier for determining the minimum co-channel TV station
contours separation distances (Table 3.5). It includes HAAT values up to 500
meters and up to a 16-Watt EIRP level.
Similarly, the proposed Table 3.6 illustrates the separation distances from adjacent
channel TV station contours, as modified to include a 16-Watt power level and HAAT
values up to 500 meters.
To limit the potential of harmful interference caused by the portable devices, the
Commission proposed that the WSD check location every 60 seconds. If the port-
able device moves within 1.6 km to the device’s geofenced area, it does not have
to check the channel availability at multiple locations. The proposed limitation was
restricted for the movement less than 60 miles per hour. The Commission proposed
to permit narrowband WSDs to limit the conducted PSD (Power Spectral Density)
to 12.6 dBm/100 kHz. This PSD is equivalent to the allowed level for fixed devices
operating at the limit of 1-Watt conducted power in a 6 MHz channel bandwidth.
Narrowband devices must comply with the same maximum antenna gain regulations
as fixed devices and hence the EIRP. FCC also proposed to require narrowband WSD
to comply with OOB requirement of -42.8 dBm out of 6 MHz adjacent channels.
3.5.2 Regulation in Singapore
With one year of industry feedback gathering on TVWS, Singapore regulator IMDA
(then IDA) finalised the framework for TVWS to accelerate commercial deployments
68
TABLE 3.5
The Proposed Table for Co-Channel TV Station Contours Separation Distances
Fixed White Space Devices

Antenna Required separation in kilometers from co-channel digital or analog
height TV (full service or low power) protected contour based on fixed white
above space device EIRP
average
terrain of 20 24 32
unlicensed dBm dBm 28 dBm dBm
devices 16 dBm (100 (250 (625 (1600 36 dBm 40 dBm 42 dBm
(meters) (40 mV) mW) mW) mW) mW) (4 W) (10 W) (16 W)
Less than 3 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.5 5.0
3–10 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.8 6.1 7.3 8.5 9.4
10–30 4.2 5.1 6.0 7.1 8.9 11.1 13.9 15.3
30–50 5.4 6.5 7.7 9.2 11.5 14.3 19.1 20.9
50–75 6.6 7.9 9.4 11.1 13.9 18.0 23.8 26.2
75–100 7.7 9.2 10.9 12.8 17.2 21.1 27.2 30.1
100–150 9.4 11.1 13.2 16.5 21.4 25.3 32.3 35.5
150–200 10.9 12.7 15.8 19.5 24.7 28.5 36.4 39.5
200–250 12.1 14.3 18.2 22.0 27..3 31.2 39.5 42.5
250–300 13.9 16.4 20.0 23.9 29.4 35.4 42.1 45.9
300–350 15.3 17.9 21.7 25.7 31.4 37.6 44.5 48.4
350–400 16.6 19.3 23.2 27.3 33.3 39.7 46.9 51.0
400–450 17.6 20.4 24.4 28.7 35.1 41.9 49.4 53.8
450–500 18.3 21.4 25.5 30.1 36.7 43.7 51.4 55.9
and ease the demand for more spectrum. “Singapore has released its regulatory
framework for TVWS to facilitate the deployment of the technology and ease demand
for more bandwidth amid growing demand. Telecommunication regulators across the
globe have been searching for new, efficient ways to allocate and utilise spectrum.
This is essential with increasing demand for online and mobile communications”,
said Dr. Yaacob Ibrahim, then Minister for Communications and Information.
To encourage the adoption and deployment of TVWS, IMDA has been reviewing
and gathering industry feedback since 2009 to develop the framework. Singapore
White Spaces Pilot Group (SWSPG) was set up to drive commercial trials and
deployments. Three projects were initiated in 2012 that involved Singapore Island
Country Club (SICC), National University of Singapore (NUS), and near-shore WiFi
access to ships. The TVWS bands in 630-742 MHz was allocated to be used for
wide-area outdoor wireless coverage, the potential for high-speed connectivity, and
superior building penetration. The white space spectrum can be in the frequency
range of 470 MHz to 786 MHz.
The new regulations based on the gathered feedback from industry were in effect from
November 2012. The framework specified the WSD requirements, available channels for
TVWS, and how this equipment should align with geolocation databases (GLDB).
69
TABLE 3.6
The Proposed Table for Adjacent Channel TV Station Contours Separation
Distances
Fixed White Space Devices

Antenna Required separation in kilometers froth adjacent channel digital or
height analog TV (full service or low power) protected contour based on white
above space device EIRP
average
terrain of
unlicensed 24 dBm 28 dBm 32 dBm
devices 20 dBm (250 (625 (1600 36 dBm 40 dBm 42 dBm
(meters) (100 mW) mW) mW) mW) (4 W) (10 W) (16 W)
Less than 3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3
3–10 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
10–30 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
30–50 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0
50–75 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
75–100 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3
100–150 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5
150–200 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.7
200–250 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9
250–300 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.3
300–350 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.4
350–400 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.7
400–450 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 2.9
450–500 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.7 2.9
Later, SWSPG carried out a commercial deployment at Gardens by the Bay

(GBB), where TVWS was used as the backhaul to provide WiFi to visitors without
trenching at the newly built centre of attraction. Sentosa Island in Singapore also
deployed TVWS as backhaul for WiFi coverage and deployed security surveillance
cameras. TVWS was used to enable video monitoring for security on the rooftop and
car park compliance and view real-time video from lift systems in HDB (Housing
and Development Board) apartments. Real-time video archives allow for video pro-
cessing which allows various agencies to share the resources [38].
In October 2016, IMDA allocated VHF III spectrum of 174-230 MHz (Channels
5-12) after the analogue switch over (ASO) with 7 MHz bandwidth, UHF V 470 –
534 MHz (Channel 21-28) and 614-806 MHz (Channel 39-62) with 8 MHz band-
width. The allowed EIRP for Fixed WSD is 4 Watt (36 dBm) for Mode I WSD and
Mode II WSD is 100 mWatt (20 dBm). Once 698–806 MHz has been harmonized
and allocated for the IMT (International Mobile Telecommunications) services, ten
channels between 49-62 shall be removed from the usage of TVWS. The GLDB
shall block channels 25-26 until further field tests have been conducted on adjacent
channel interference. Channel 47 for microphone and channels 25 and 47 shall be
70
TABLE 3.7
Available TV Channels and Frequencies for TVWS in Singapore
Total Bandwidth /No. of

TV Channel Channels
Band Frequencies /Channel(s) Bandwidth Before ASO After ASO
VHF 174–181 MHz (Channel 5) 7 MHz 21 MHz 42 MHz
III 181–188 MHz (Channel 6) (3 channels) (6 channels)
195–202 MHz (Channel 8)
209–223 MHz (Channel 10 and 11)
UHF V 470–534 MHz (Channel 21 to 28) 8 MHz 168 MHz 144 MHz
614–622 MHz (Channel 39) (21 channels) (18 channels)
630–694 MHz (Channel 41 to 48)
790–806 MHz (Channel 61 and 62)
blocked from TVWS operations by the GLDB [39]. Table 3.7 shows the available
TVWS channels in Singapore [39].
The PSD from the WSD shall be within the specified limits, measured in any of the
100 kHz band within TV channel specified by GLDB or required by a master WSD:
(i) The EIRP limit for fixed WSD is 17.5 dBm (PSD in 100 kHz) in 7 MHz band,
or 17 dBm (PSD in 100 kHz) in 8 MHz band.
(ii) The EIRP for mode I or mode II WSD shall not exceed 1.55 dBm (PSD in 100
kHz) in 7 MHz bands; or 0.97 dBm (PSD in 100 kHz) in 8 MHz band.
Below are the requirements for Transmitter Unwanted Emission:
(i) Out-of-band Emissions:

OOB emissions limit is –56.8 dBm for the adjacent channel with a resolution
bandwidth (RBW) setting of 100 kHz. The OOB should be measured at adja-
cent and next to adjacent channels.
(ii) Spurious Emissions:
The limit for in-band spurii emissions from WSD is –54 dBm in the freq range
of 470–862 MHz or maximum detection of 200 μV/m at the distance of 3
m. Spurious emissions are measured in the range of 30 MHz to 4 GHz for out
of band emission [39].
Approved Database Providers by IMDA:

IMDA authorized three companies for TVWS Geolocation Database licenses to
provide commercial services in Singapore:
71
FIGURE 3.12
Snapshot of Network Genetics GLDB (Source: Network Genetics website).
1. Network Genetics Pte Ltd

2. Starhub Ltd
3. DNNA Solution Pte Ltd.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the snapshot of geolocation database for TVWS.
3.5.3 Regulation in the UK
The UK regulator, Ofcom launched a Digital Dividend Review in 2005 to assess the
usage of TV spectrum freed up after DSO and to share it for new services and released
a consultation paper on the usage of this unused spectrum in 2006. Ofcom stated that
it would allow interleaved spectrum by WSDs. In the first statement published on
technical parameters, WSDs will determine the availability of spectrum by sensing
technique, and/or WSDB (White Space Data Base). WSDB shall be considered as the
more acceptable method [40]. Beacons technique was considered as the least appro-
priate and hence was not considered. Since WSDB was critical, Ofcom released more
details on the WSDB parameters [41].
Ofcom classified WSDs into master and slave devices. Master WSDs gets the list
of available channels in the vicinity from WSDB while slave WSDs receive required
parameters from the master WSDs. The slave WSDs do not have to connect directly
72
to WSDB. The master WSDs estimate their location with 95% accuracy and the
boundary of slave WSDs. If the slave and master are different models, the master
must report the slave model number to WSDB. The master WSDs need to access the
list of available channels from Ofcom through WSDB at least once in 24 hours and
frequency of query to one of the WSDBs is once in every 2 hours. Once the master
WSD moves out of its authorized area, it needs to reaccess WSDB immediately. If the
slave WSD does not receive a response from the master WSDs within 5 seconds, the
slave WSD must stop operation. Also, the slave WSD has to stop transmission when-
ever the master WSDs request it [42].
3.5.4 Regulation in Canada
The regulatory agency of Canada, Industry Canada (IC), published a consultation
paper in 2011 on the technical framework and policy to use underutilized bands for
various applications. These consultation papers were released to obtain industry feed-
back on launching WSDs and to use freed-up channels. The feedback also includes
the possible amendments required for rural connectivity with licensed low power
wireless microphones in the same band. After receiving feedback from relevant
stakeholders, IC finalized and released the framework in 2012 and proposed the oper-
ation of TVWS in Canada to be allowed [43].
Like other regulators, IC developed preliminary regulations of WSDB-assisted
WSDs. Spectrum sensing might be considered in future when sensing technique
is more matured. The WSDs in Canada, especially near the USA border, will be
harmonized and classified with the WSDs in the USA. However, IC will determine
the technical rules for WSDs in Canada with its own established processes and based
on the consultations [42].
3.5.5 Regulation in Colombia
ITU recognized that there are connectivity issues in Colombia. The first issue is that
providing broadband connection in rural areas is not profitable for private operators.
The per capita income in those areas is meagre, and they live very far from each
other. So, setting up a tower by operator does not have the return of investment.
Some village schools are connected through the satellite, but this connectivity is pro-
hibitively expensive, and most residents cannot afford it. The terrain in Colombia
is very rough, most of the free spectrum bands are very congested, and licensing
cost for spectrum is very high. So, TVWS is the most suited solution to solve these
issues. National radio spectrum regulator (ANE), Education Ministry, ICT Ministry,
Microsoft, some radio manufacturers, and a prominent internet service provider were
instrumental in adopting TVWS in Colombia. In August 2017, ANE completed the
publication of TVWS regulations [44].
With recent regulation, many deployments came into force, such as [44]
(i) A rural municipality, Mesetas, was previously affected by the Colombian

armed conflict. A small TVWS deployment was carried out in two primary
schools and five coffee plantations to provide internet connectivity. This
73
deployment enhanced the quality of education and promoted agriculture eco-

nomic growth.
(ii) The local government of Antioquia, Gobernación de Antioquia, two remotely
located schools were connected with TVWS in a hilly rainforest area. The
successful trial test convinced the Gobernación to use TVWS to connect
around 4000 rural schools in Antioquia to improve education quality.
(iii) Gobernación de Caldas (the local government of Caldas) later signed an
agreement to provide connectivity to 15 public schools located in remote
mountainous zones for testing purposes through TVWS. This deployment
would benefit more than 1,000 primary students.
ANE came up with a resolution in August 2017, recommendations following tech-

nical conditions must be fulfilled by all WSDs that operate in the Colombian terri-
tory [45:]
(i) Operating Frequency

WSDs may only use the 470-698 MHz band segments that are available
following that established by the ANE.
(ii) Operation Mode
WSDs should operate only in locations fixed in the point to point or point to
multipoint modalities. The use of portable or mobile WSDs is forbidden.
(iii) Maximum Power Spectral Density
The power that a WSD delivers to the antenna is limited 12.6 dBm in a 100
kHz band.
(iv) Maximum Antenna Gain
The antenna’s gain connected to a WSD must not exceed 14 dBd.
(v) Limit of Unwanted Emissions
The unwanted emissions should be limited to a power of −42.8 dBm in any
100 kHz band.
(vi) Automatic Power Control
WSDs shall employ automatic power control techniques to transmit their
signals with the minimum power required to establish communication.
(vii) Maximum Antenna Height
Antenna height above the ground level of WSDs cannot exceed 50 meters.
(viii) Maximum Height Above Terrain Average
WSDs may operate at any geographical locations, where the average height
above the ground is not more than 800 meters.
(ix) Periodic Request for the List of Available Channels
Master devices should periodically obtain a list of available channels to
make use of the spectrum.
(x) Operating Restrictions
a) Operation of WSDs is prohibited in some geographical regions of the
country defined by the ANE, to avoid interference to PUs. The deter-
mination of said areas will be subject to changes without prior notice
from the ANE.
74
b) The use of specific channels at the national level cannot avoid interfer-
ence to telecommunications services operating in adjacent bands. The
determination of these channels by the ANE will be subject to changes
without prior notice.
(xi) Availability of Spectrum
There is no guarantee that once a WSD is installed, the device will always
have a channel available for use. Additionally, the availability of channels is
subject to change without prior notice.
(xii) Interference Solution
In case there is a doubt that a WSD generates interference to a primary or
secondary service, the ANE may perform the relevant technical verification.
In case it is determined that the said device is the cause of the interfer-
ence, the ANE will order the cessation of its transmission until the user of
such device presents the measures that will be used to mitigate the interfer-
ence, and ANE approves these. If the originator of the interference does not
present the measures used to stop the interference or does not meet those
that have been proposed, the user of the device will be subject to sanctions
provided for in Law 1341 of 2009.
GENERAL CONDITIONS, the following conditions must also be met when the
BDEB (Geolocation Database) goes into operation [45:]
(i) Use of the Spectrum

WSD can only connect to the BDEB designated by the ANE to make requests
for available channels. The ANE will publish the internet address of the BDEB
on its website in the year 2018.
(ii) Geolocation Capacity
Only use of white spaces that have capacity of automatic geolocation with a
margin of error less than ±50 meters.
(iii) Use of Multiple Channels
A white space device may use more than one unused that the BDEB
communicates.
(iv) Start of the Communication of Slave Devices
A slave device must use the same transmission channel of the device associated
master to perform the initial request of available channels to the BDEB. After
obtaining its list of available channels, the slave device must immediately use
a channel belonging to that list in order to continue its operation.
3.5.5.1 DTT and TVWS Systems Co-Existence In Colombia

In 2018, Tatiana Giraldo and German D. Castellanos devised a methodological and
technical study to avoid TVWS services’ interference to DTT. They proposed a
method for establishing security parameters like the Guard Band (GB) and Protection
Distance (PD) between primary and secondary services that helped the deployment
of automatic schemes for co-existence between the services and yet interference
avoidance [46].
75
TABLE 3.8
Client WSD Features
Internal Direct Access to an S-GLSD to Request
Geolocation & Receive Operational Parameters from
Client WSD Type Capability S-GLSD
Fixed WSD With No
Fixed WSD Without No
Nomadic WSD With No
Nomadic WSD Without No
Any Without Through Master WSD
3.5.6 Regulation in South Africa

ICASA in South Africa came up with the regulation on the use of TVWS in March
2018. The key features of this regulation are [47]:
1. WSD can operate in 470 MHz to 694 MHz band, excluding 606 MHz to 614
MHz channel for Radio Astronomy.
2. Setup the conditions for the function of Geolocation Spectrum Databases
(GLSDs) in the frequency band 470 MHz to 694 MHz, excluding 606 MHz to
614 MHz channel for Radio Astronomy.
3. The WSD wireless apparatus must be a Fixed WSD (intended to operate at a
fixed location only) or Nomadic device (intended to operate within an allowed
coverage area).
4. Categories of White Space Devices:
a. A Master WSD can either be a Fixed WSD or a Nomadic WSD. Both

will have internal geolocation capabilities and an internet connection to
query operational parameters from a secondary GLSD (S-GLSD).
b. A Client WSD must-have features as per Table 3.8.
Figure 3.13 illustrates the TVWS regulatory framework for GLSD connectivity.
ICASA also recommended using Protocol to Access White- Space (PAWS)
approach to use the database. PAWS allows secondary users to access the available
spectrum by unlocking the existing spectrum to maximize its utilization and provide
innovation opportunities, resulting in greater overall spectrum utilization [48]. Below
is the interpretation of requirements for PAWS messages:
+-------------------------+
| Message Type |
+-------------------------+
|Parameter: Type | Requirement |
+-------------------------+
76
FIGURE 3.13
TVWS Regulatory Framework -ICASA Ruleset for using GLSD
(Source: CSIR, South Africa).
• Message Type: PAWS message of a specific type

• Parameter: The name of a parameter that is part of a specific message
• Type: A valid type as per JSON [RFC 7159]
• Requirement: Keyword indicating a Requirement Level as per [RFC 2119],
e.g., REQUIRED, OPTIONAL [49]
The purposes of PAWS messages are depicted in Table 3.9.

All WSDs must transmit Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and radio
emissions complying with ETSI EN 301 598 standards, or successor directives with
below permitted transmission level (Table 3.10).
A WSD operating in the adjacent to broadcasting TV channels must have the
OOB limits based on the adjacent channel leakage ratios (ACLRs) limits for the
WSD emission classes as recommended in Table 3.11 complying with ETSI EN
301 598 standard, or successor directives. Figure 3.14 illustrates the wholistic
view of the TVWS regulatory framework for South Africa, as per the ICASA
ruleset.
3.5.7 Regulation in Ghana
Regulations in Ghana are similar to South Africa. The UHF Band IV (in the range
of 470 MHz to 528 MHz) and Band V (in the range of 528 MHz to 694 MHz)
allocated to broadcast television services are also allowed for WSDs to use, subject
77
TABLE 3.9
The Purpose of PAWS Messages
Message Purpose as per RFC 7545

INIT WSD initiate exchange of capabilities with GLSD
REGISTRATION Master WSD is required to send its registration information
to the GLSD before requesting operational parameters
AVAIL_SPECTRUM Master WSD obtains the available spectrum (operational
AVAIL_SPECTRUM_BATCH parameters) from GLSD, on its behalf and associated
Clients
SPECTRUM_USE Master WSD sends a notification to GLSD to indicate
anticipated use of spectrum, by itself or associated
Clients.
Source: ICASA, South Africa.
TABLE 3.10
Location-Specific WSD EIRP and EIRP Spectral Density Limits [49]
EIRP per 8MHz EIRP per 100 kHz

Location Type of WSD Channel (dBm) Channel (dBm)
Rural Fixed 41.2 22.2
Urban Fixed 36 17
Rural Nomadic 22 1
Urban Nomadic 22 1
TABLE 3.11
ACLR Limits Per Classes of WSD’s on the nth Adjacent TV Channel [49]
WSD Out-of-Band Power Falls

within the nth Adjacent TV
Channel (per 8 MHz Channels) ACLR (dB)
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
n=+/-1 74 74 64 54 43
n=+/-2 79 74 74 64 53
n≥+3 or n≤-3 84 74 84 74 64
to the protection from the interference protection as outlined in the technical rules
and regulations. WSDs shall use underutilized channels following the interference
avoidance mechanisms. If the TVWS database indicates that the broadcast television
stations use the channel, WSDs shall not operate on that region’s co- channel
78
FIGURE 3.14
The holistic view of TVWS Regulatory Framework -ICASA Ruleset
(Source: ICASA, South Africa).
basis. Client WSDs shall follow the master channel and only operate on the channels
determined by Master WSD.
The radiated power limits, conducted power limits, and out of band emissions
specifications are also similar to ICASA regulations.
3.5.8 Regulation in New Zealand

The Radio Spectrum Management (RSM) of New Zealand created a provisional
licensing scheme allowing trials of WSDs operating in the UHF band of TV spec-
trum. RSM released a consultation paper for TVWS in 2014 [50]. A suitable and
long-term regime shall be established after international regulations and frameworks
are established. WSDs should transmit with the transmission guidelines as per either
FCC Part 15, Subpart H standard [51] or the standard “ETSI EN 301 598 V1.1.1”
published by ETSI [52]. The consultation paper suggested that WSDs can transmit
with a limit of 10 dBW EIRP [53].
RSM recommended the WSDs signals arriving at a DTT receiver lower than -
106dBm for the 48dBμV/m coverage contour. This level is calculated with the thermal
noise floor for a 7.77MHz bandwidth and 6dB noise figure for DTT receivers. It also
recommended conducting calculations that WSDs signal at DTT receiver should be
6dB below the noise floor anywhere within a DTT transmitter’s coverage. Besides
considering ACLR from WSD and adjacent channel selectivity of DTT, the limits for
unwanted emission are depicted in Table 3.13 [19].
3.5.9 Regulation in South Korea

The South Korean government made unlicensed band- based TVWS regulatory
requirements to build a TVWS database that protects incumbent services such as
terrestrial DTV, licensed wireless microphone, and CATV services in 470-698 MHz
band. A notice of TVWS Rule was given in November 2016. In Korea, the TVWS
79
TABLE 3.13
Specified OOB for TVWS
Limits within DTV Bands (dBm/100 kHz, EIRP)

Fixed (conducted +6dBi Personal/portable adjacent
attenna gain) to occupied TV channels Other personal/portable
−36.8 −56.8dB −52.8dB
Services can be summarized by such service models like WiFi, IoT Sensor, and dis-
aster monitoring wireless CCTV applications. It also mentions that spectrum sharing
could address the scarcity of frequency resources, and increase public convenience in
the coming well-connected society. South Korea will develop and provide public ser-
vices for a remote area with local government involvement, such as Internet service
and wireless CCTV nationwide [54].
The main content of the TVWS policy formulation was to revise the frequency
allocation and radio technical standard for introducing TVWS services and set up
legal criteria:
(i) Protect the current operation

(ii) For efficient management and usage of the spectrum between emerging
services
(iii) Revision of frequency allocation table by adding a new application, for
allowing WSD to use DTV spectrum band (470- 698 MHz) based on
unlicensed usage
(iv) Revision of radio technology standard to make technical requirements of
TVWS wireless equipment through analysis of interference and actual
measurement
WS database was established to provide available channels. This database allocates

appropriate Korea’s spectrum environment with:
(i) Database establishment

(ii) Management and operation: Public organization is under consideration
TVWS technology may play a crucial role in achieving some critical strategic
initiatives regarding the Asia-Pacific Information Superhighway Master Plan for the
2019–2022 initiative:
(i) Enhancing communication and information technology infrastructure resili-

ence; and
(ii) Providing inclusive access to broadband internet.
(iii) TVWS could be useful to provide underserved communications in villages
and remote island with low-cost internet access infrastructure, as illustrated
in Figure 3.15 [55, 56].
80
FIGURE 3.15
TVWS system architecture for broadband connectivity in South Korea
(Source: www.tvws.kr/).
Bridging the digital divide: This document examines current policy and technology
approaches to bridge the digital divide in rural areas in OECD countries [57].
• Korea ranked the second-largest internet access rate in and remote areas among
all OECD countries.
• Some countries are planning to use TVWS technology for the broadband
program by themselves.
3.5.10 Draft Regulation in Uganda

Uganda Communication Commission (UCC) came with the regulation in
November 2019 that WSDs can operate in the TV broadcasting band of 470–694
MHz in Uganda. The channel bandwidth of 8 MHz is allowed, although higher
bandwidth may be achieved by channel aggregation. Database administrators
and all TVWS service providers shall pay nominal fees as shall be prescribed
by UCC. All WSDs devices shall operate in the freq band of 470-694 MHz and
comply with the parameters stated in Table 3.14 to ensure co-existence with other
communications services [58].
Rest all requirements are similar to ICASA requirements.
3.5.11 Draft Regulation in Nigeria

In 2019, the Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC) came up with draft
guidelines, in consultation with the Nigerian Broadcasting Commission (NBC) on
TVWS in Nigeria. The regulations are similar to ICASA, South Africa.
81
TABLE 3.14
TVWS Operational Parameters in Uganda
Transmission Power (EIRP) Fixed WSD Portable WSD

over a Channel 4 W (36 dBm) 100 mW (20 dBm)
Transmitter Unwanted OOB Emissions from the Spurious Emissions from a
Emission (EIRP) WSD shall be limited; WSD operating in 470-694
MHz shall be limited;
−56.8 dBm/100 kHz –54 dBm/100 kHz
Maximum Antennae Height 50 m 50 m
Above Ground Level
3.5.12 Draft Regulation in Kenya

Communication Authority of Kenya (CAK) came up with the following
recommendations:
• The WSDs should be type approved by CAK before installation and use.
• The user takes steps to eliminate the interfering protecting radio services. Upon
notification by the Commission, the user should immediately cease the trans-
mission if it causes interference until the interference is eliminated.
• The WSDs are installed and operated complying technical rules and inter-
national standards that ensure interference avoidance to any licensed devices.
• The user presents the report on the project review to the Commission after the
trial period’s expiry. The trial’s satisfactory performance and studies’ results
will help to conclude if the trial shall be transformed to an operating license.
• Figure 3.16 illustrates the setup to query the geolocation to access white spaces.
• Figure 3.17 depicts an example of available TVWS in Kitui (Kenya)
• CAK prefers to make simple sharing, and the overall approach for sharing is
summarised in Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.17 illustrates a typical diagram of TVWS Network and Figure 3.18 depicts
the framework for the use of TVWS in Kenya.
3.5.13 Draft Regulation in the Philippines

The Philippines regulator, ICTO promoted the deployment of wireless infrastructure
to provide WiFi access in public areas. ICTO decided to utilize TVWS for wireless
connectivity, in unserved and underserved areas. In utilizing TVWS, WSDs must not
interfere with TV broadcasters. The White Space Database (WSDB) is needed to
analyse TV channels’ availability and avoid the interference at each location. NICT
developed WSDB, which satisfies the requirements from other countries around the
world for technical evaluations. This WSDB keeps all the TV broadcasters information
82
FIGURE 3.16
A typical diagram of TVWS Network (Source: CAK).
FIGURE 3.17
Example of available TV White Spaces in Kitui in Kenya (Source: CAK).
in the Philippines and estimates their broadcasting areas. The WSD sends the query
to the WSDB with its location, the WSDB replies with the availability of channels to
the WSD, and it starts transmission in TVWS [60]. Figure 3.19 illustrates the WSDB
snapshot of the Philippines.
3.5.14 Draft Regulation in Brazil

Brazilian regulator ANATEL allocates to the Serviço Telefônico Fixo Comutado
(STFC), to the Serviço de Comunicação Multimídia (SCM) and Serviço Limitado
Privado (SLP), on a secondary basis, without exclusivity, the following radio fre-
quency bands [61]
I -54 MHz to 72 MHz band;

II -174 MHz to 216 MHz band;
III -470 MHz to 608 MHz band;
IV -614 MHz to 698 MHz band.
83
FIGURE 3.18
Framework for the use of TVWS [59].
FIGURE 3.19
NICT’s WSDB snapshot of the Philippines (Source: NICT website).
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Annex to the Resolution Draft
(i) WSDs should be stopped at the locations, regardless of the existence of users,
if new grants are issued for the provision of Serviços de Radiodifusão de
Sons and Imagens e de Retransmissão de Televisão in the same blocks and
the database of geolocation indicates incompatibility between transmissions.
Dynamic Spectrum Alliance (DSA) believes that this is not possible to stop
the transmission immediately. ANATEL’s proposal refers to using a database
automatically. These databases can be updated quickly and the blocks granted
may be indicated as unavailable a few days before the start of transmissions
when broadcasting equipment is already installed. To guarantee the protec-
tion of the other systems that operate in this range, the WSDs should use the
GLDB, responsible for identifying radio frequency blocks available in a par-
ticular location [61].
(ii) The maximum peak power of the WSDs, measured at the transmitter output,
may not exceed 1-Watt for 6 MHz channel.
(iii) There are requirements regarding out-of-band and spurious emissions limits.
There have to be some additional conditions for operating WSDs for narrow-
band applications, whose transmission signals occupy much less bandwidth
than the used channels. There are conditions for protecting the broadcasting
service, defined by the Superintendence Act responsible for administering the
radio frequency spectrum. DSA published a model of “Proposed technical
rules and regulations for the use of TV White Spaces” [62]. This model can be
a reference to the technical operating requirements of WSDs.
3.5.15 Draft Regulation in Brunei

Brunei is following the regulations from IMDA, Singapore.
Table 3.15 illustrates the regulations snapshots in different countries.
3.5.16 TV Spectrum Allocation in India

Prasaar Bharti holds all of the terrestrial TV broadcasting licenses for government’s
national broadcaster, Doordarshan. IIT Bombay organized Cognitive Radio Systems
(CRS) and TVWS seminar in 2013 to discuss how much TV white spaces are avail-
able in different parts of India and ongoing study for affordable and rural broadband
coverage in India. The study results showed that a minimum of 12 out of 15 channels
is always available at any place in 470-590 MHz spectrum. The participants believed
that mesh topology in the TV band would provide rural connectivity in India [63].
The Government of India (GoI) proposed creating Digital Highways through National
Optical Fiber Network (NOFN) to provide connectivity up to the Gram Panchayats.
ERNET India (an autonomous body under the Telecom Ministry) introduced the
trials on TVWS for connectivity in remote areas at a lower cost. The research results
show that unused channels can be for internet connectivity without interfering with
TV transmissions [64]. Additionally, TVWS can be used for connecting in rough
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TV White Space (TVWS) Technology
TABLE 3.15
WSDB Requirements in Various Regulations
Default
WSD Time Reserve
Parameter/ Channel EIRP Access Validity Location Channels
Country Freq. Range (MHz) Bandwidth (dBm) Info from DB to WSD Frequency of Data Accuracy for WSDs
USA 54-88, 6 MHz 16 Watt Available TV channels 20 min 1 hour 50m 1
174-216,
470-602
Canada 54–72, 76–88, 6 MHz 4 Watt Available TV channels Once a day Once a day ±50m 1
174–216, 470–608,
614–694
Singapore 181–188, 209–223, 7 MHz (VHF) 4 Watt Available TV channels 6 hours 6 hours 50m 2
502–518, 8 MHz (UHF)
614–622, 630–694
UK 470–550, 8 MHz 4 Watt Available TV channels 2 hours 2 hours 100m 0
614–790
South 470-606, 614-694 8 MHz 12 Watt GLSD to WSD with PAWS 60 seconds 24 hours 100m 1
Africa
Colombia 470-694 6 MHz 10 Watt Request by a master device 24 calendar 24 calendar ±50m 0
to BDEB for a list of hours hours
available channels
Brazil 54–72, 174–216, 470– 6 MHz 1 Watt Available TV channels Not Not Not 1
608, 614–694 specified specified specified
South 470-694 6 MHz 1 Watt Available TV channels with Not Not Not defined 0
Korea RRA (DB Est) defined defined
Nigeria 470-606, 614-694 8 MHz 12 Watt GLSD to WSD with PAWS 60 seconds 24 hours 100m 1
Ghana 470-694 8 MHz 10 Watt Available TV channels 60 seconds 24 hours 100m 0
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(continued)
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TABLE 3.15 (Continued)

WSDB Requirements in Various Regulations
Default
WSD Time Reserve
Parameter/ Channel EIRP Access Validity Location Channels
Country Freq. Range (MHz) Bandwidth (dBm) Info from DB to WSD Frequency of Data Accuracy for WSDs
Kenya 470–694 8 MHz 4 Watt Request to BSD for a list of 24 hours 24 hours ± 50m 0
available channels
Uganda 470–694 8 MHz 4 Watt Request to UCC defined 24 hours 24 hours ± 50m 0
GLDB for a list of
available channels
New 510–606 8 MHz 10 Watt Interim licencing regime is Not Not Not defined 2
Zealand replaced by a database defined defined
87
terrains, remote areas, and locations where fibre deployment is not feasible. It was also
recommended to use this technology as backhaul to WiFi operations in Panchayats
and villages.
ERNET India applied for the experimental licenses for using underutilized bands
to Department of Telecommunication (DOT)/Wireless Planning & Coordination
(WPC). ERNET India was launching ICT Centres for e-Learning in schools in tribal
and rural areas of Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh. ERNET convinced WPC to use TVWS
by setting up POC test-beds for these schools. The successful PoC was carried out
from July 2015 to June 2016 by connecting five schools with the 10 Mbps throughput.
This PoC was identified as a viable connectivity solution beyond NOFN termination
at Gram Panchayats. MeitY (Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology)
formed a Working Group Committee to frame a policy to use TVWS after gaining
various experimenters’ experience. ERNET obtained experimental license 60 MHz
(500-568 MHz, excluding 510-518 MHz) from DoT. ERNET carried out a Skype
video conferencing call over TVWS flawlessly in the presence of Mr Satya Nadella,
the CEO of Microsoft.
In March 2016, DoT allotted eight licences in the range of 470-582 MHz to
ERNET. Then Telecom Minister Mr Ravi Shankar Prasad gave a written reply in the
Rajya Sabha (Upper House of Parliament) that “Government has issued eight licences
for carrying out experiments at several places, using TV whitespace technology, in
the frequency band 470-582 MHz” [65]. However, DoT decided not to assign this
band for the commercial deployment in June 2016. DoT also decided that white space
band would not be de-licensed and the government would work out a pricing model
in the future. DoT also rejected Microsoft’s application for the grant of license for
the pilot project in Harisal, leading Microsoft to pull out of this project in July 2017.
The critical factor behind the DoT’s decision was that this frequency band should not
be limited to TVWS only but can be used for other technologies. Furthermore, COAI
suggested DoT against licensing of this band, commenting that band licensing would
cause distortions in the market and cause substantial losses to the national exchequer.
Moving forward, it was recommended that the government should organize a stake-
holder consultation to discuss its current position on licenses for the commercial
deployment of TVWS. The regulator will boost rural access to the internet in India
by doing so. While the absence of regulation on TVWS is a challenge, DoT can draw
upon the countries’ best practices, including USA, UK, Singapore and South Africa
where TVWS is currently being deployed.
3.5.17 Draft Regulation in Pakistan

The telecom sector in Pakistan started de-regulation in the year 2003. Government
of Pakistan (GOP) issued Telecom Policy 2015 to use joint spectrum, effectively,
and efficiently. The purpose of the Telecom Policy 2015 concerning spectrum was
“Allocation and assignment of spectrum to maximise social and economic benefits
derived from the use of this scarce resource” [66].
As per Telecom Policy 2015, the Spectrum Sharing Framework is to carry out
sharing of the spectrum to eligible users. This framework is developed for sharing
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conditions, sharing types, best use of spectrum, and interference avoidance caused by
spectrum sharing with the following considerations:
(i) The spectrum can be shared among licensees for similar or different service(s)
for a specific period or the license’s remaining term.
(ii) The spectrum can be shared only to the licensees who declare the application
for the shared spectrum.
(iii) The spectrum assigned to licensees shall be shared only when the Federal
Government’s Ministry of IT (MoIT) authorizes the sharing explicitly for
people’s benefit.
(iv) There can be three types of Spectrum Sharing:
a. Equal Rights, where all the licensees will have the same rights of spec-
trum usage
b. Primary Users (PU) shall have higher rights on the usage of spectrum. PU
will be protected against potential interference
c. The secondary user (SU) will be authorized to share the spectrum
avoiding potential interference or deteriorates the QoS to the PUs
(v) If all sharing licenses follow the necessary framework terms and conditions,
a license holder can share the assigned spectrum with other license-holders.
The agreement shall be in place with:
a. Interested licensee’s CEO or his/her authorized person will apply to PTA,
seeking permission for the spectrum sharing.
b. The spectrum can fully or partially be shared among licensees.
(vi) Sharing Terms and Prices can be negotiated between the concerned users, as
long as they comply with regulations.
(vii) The admin fees for license sharing will be Rs. 100,000 [66].
3.5.18 Draft Regulation in Australia

The ACMA has been following the development of TVWS technology and regulatory
arrangements for some time. ACMA surveyed the approaches used in eight regulatory
bodies worldwide to identify the best spectrum management practice. ACMA selected
examples from the regulators already implementing market-based, well-established
techniques for sharing the spectrum, facilitated by technical coordination techniques.
They implemented sharing mechanisms, licensed shared access (LSA) for TVWS.
Specialized coordination mechanisms used in sharing consist of dynamic spectrum
access (DSA), using GLDB to keep track of users, avoid spectrum usage in specific
locations and frequencies to protect existing users from interference. The tiered spec-
trum access approach was recommended, in which premium users can offer priority
rights for spectrum usage. While ACMA had conducted tests and trials of TVWS
technology in Australia, there has not been any interest expressed in commercial
deployments yet. As a result, ACMA has not formally considered or consulted about
developing regulatory arrangements to support TVWS devices in Australia.
However, a trial or demonstration of TVWS in the 520-694 MHz frequency range
used for digital terrestrial television in Australia is possible under existing regula-
tory arrangements. While the ACMA is required to prioritize planned broadcasting
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services in that band, it is possible to make a spectrum not required for planned
broadcasting services available for other purposes such as the fixed and mobile ser-
vices. Some of the considerations ACMA might consider are:
(i) User requirements such as wireless connectivity around the home, create
personal and local area network and support IoT applications.
(ii) Competitive environment: The network typically provides wireless con-
nectivity in a local area and should not compete with Telcos instead of
complementing their coverage.
(iii) Regulatory development environment: The GLDB approach shall minimize
the efforts needed to manage the sharing of spectrum. GLDB helps to make
the sharing ecosystem more flexible and ‘lightly licensed’.
(iv) Band characteristics: TVWS trials have mostly used UHF spectrum below
694 MHz, allocated to the primary users (e.g. the USA, the UK and Singapore)
and is not allocated for primary mobile use [67]. ACMA suggested the suit-
ability of TVWS on spectrum sharing in Table 3.16.
Figure 3.20 depicts the status of regulation and trials in different countries
worldwide. The green colour indicates the regulation ready countries such as USA,
Canada, Colombia, UK, Ghana, Singapore and South Korea. The orange colour
illustrates the countries with draft regulations. The countries in yellow show the
completed trials and pilots, whereas countries in blue show interest. Figure 3.21
illustrates the TVWS technology has captured a significant market since its incep-
tion. It has got interests from the countries covering 3.17 billion population with
41% of the world population.
3.6
THE LIMITATIONS OF TVWS REGULATION
Generally, more frequent WSDB or GLDB access makes the spectrum utilization
more efficient. However, more frequent access makes the system more complex and
hence there is a trade-off between efficiency and complexity. In future, the frequency
of accessing the spectrum opportunistically and dynamically might increase. So far, it
has been realized that there have been many limitations despite regulations happening
in many countries. The first limitation is that the adoption of FCC’s TVWS regulations
is too stringent and undesirable. TVWS is one of the most suitable technologies for
providing broadband access to billions of people in developing countries. So, this
technology should be a welcome opportunity in these countries. Thus, there have to
be alternative design options to promote network adaptability and flexibility, such as:
(i) Boosting the TVWS GLDB with spectrum sensing techniques to create a
more accurate map for channels available in the vicinity,
(ii) Relaxing the spectrum mask criterion in the sparsely used spectrum, and
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TABLE 3.16
Suitability of Various Approaches to Achieve Selected Priorities in Australia
Priority Issue TV White Space CBRS/Tiered Sharing Incentive Auctions Spectrum Parks LSA
5G Might suit where Might suit, subject to Might suit for Might be suitable Might be suitable in some
density of QoS and licence re-allocation of for test and bands (2.7–3.1GHz?)
deployment is low tenure sub-694MHz (if development /trials
(e.g. rural) allocated to mobile)

IoT Good Might suit for some Not likely to be Might encourage test Not suitable
solutions (e.g. relevant and development/
small cells in smart trials
cities)
DSA Good Good Not likely to be Might enable Some LSA implementations
relevant interference might feature DSA
coordination by
licensees
To facilitate new uses Suitable for some Might be suitable in Suitable to repurpose Might be suitable Might be suitable in some
in bands under bands (VHF?) some bands use from one service for test and bands (2.7–3.1GHz?)
review (VHF, 2.7– to another development/trials
3.1, 3.5–3.7GHz)
Key
Low High
suitability suitability
Source: Analysys Mason, 2017.

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FIGURE 3.20
Status of TVWS regulations & trials worldwide.
FIGURE 3.21
Growth of TVWS adopting countries.
(iii) Allowing flexibility in the choice of spectrum masks and other operation
parameters, so that a diverse and vibrant TVWS ecosystem can be promoted
while protecting the primary licensed user.
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In summary, perhaps due to being pioneers in crafting TVWS regulations, the

regulators have been rigid and conservative. As a result, the desired balance between
providing adequate interference protection to the primary user and effective advance-
ment of secondary users is not achieved. This imbalance resulted in an unmatured
TVWS ecosystem to take off, let alone thrive, like WiFi [68].
3.7
COMMERCIAL PILOTS AND TRIALS OF TVWS
For more than five years, many organizations have been working with government
organizations for viability and potential of TVWS, mainly led by Microsoft in
opening up the gates. This technology’s viability is established in over tens of com-
mercial deployments and trials worldwide, stretching from villages of Africa to the
dense urban centres of the USA, UK and Asia [69].
3.7.1 Botswana Pilot Project (March 2015)

In collaboration with Microsoft Corporation, the Botswana- UPenn Partnership
(BUP), Botswana Innovation Hub has launched a TVWS pilot project. The project,
Project Kgolagano (to be connected or networked), will provide telemedicine ser-
vices and internet connectivity to local clinics and hospitals, which will enable access
to specialized medicine in Gaborone and nearby locations.
3.7.2 Ghana Commercial Pilot (May 2014)

SpectraLink Wireless project provided low- cost wireless connectivity to faculty
and students at university in Koforidua, Ghana, and a joint research initiative with
Facebook. The pilot was part of Microsoft’s 4Afrika Initiative to improve Africa’s
competitiveness globally.
3.7.3 Namibia Trial (August 2014)

MyDigitalBridge Foundation has successfully trialled the Namibian TVWS pilot pro-
ject. The intention was to provide a blueprint of broadband internet connectivity for
the whole country. This ‘Citizen Connect’, the pilot project consists of a network
deployed to cover the area of 62 km × 152 km (9,424 km²). This was the biggest
TVWS project of its kind in terms of area coverage.
3.7.4 The Philippines (July 2013)

DOST-ICT Office and the private sector were looking to provide the connect-
ivity in rural areas with TVWS technology to connect rural areas in Bohol and
Leyte. The initial plan was to use TVWS as backhaul connectivity for public ser-
vice, eGovernment services, eHealth, education, environmental sensor networks
for NOAH project, and internet access in public areas, such as town plazas and
barangay halls.
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3.7.5 India Pilot Trials (Nov 2015)

Microsoft proposed to use TVWS to provide internet access to 500,000 Indian villages
at low-cost in 2015 and was allowed to carry out pilots in Harisal (Maharashtra),
Srikakulam (Telangana) and Varanasi (UP). DoT allocated eight licences in the 470-
582 MHz band in March 2016 to ERNET India, BHEL, IIT Bombay, IIT Hyderabad,
IIIT Bangalore, IIT Delhi, Tata Advanced Systems, and Amrawati to carry out the
experiments in TVWS technology [70].
3.7.6 South Africa Commercial Pilot (July 2013)

Microsoft Corporation launched a pilot project in the rural area of Limpopo in July
2013. This project aims to use TVWS to deliver high-speed and affordable broadband
to underserved communities in South Africa by 2020. The pilot was a joint effort
between the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the University
of Limpopo, Microsoft, and Multisource. Its trial used TVWS to provide wireless
connectivity to five secondary schools in Limpopo province’s underserved parts at
low cost.
3.7.7 Tanzania Commercial Pilot (May 2013)

In May 2013, Microsoft Corporation announced another pilot in Dar es Salaam
at the World Economic Forum on Africa. Microsoft partnered with the Tanzania
Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) and ISP UhuruOne to offer
affordable connectivity to university faculty and students using TVWS as backhaul.
Students and faculty were able to access the Windows 8 device and service packages
through the pilot. The initial deployment was targeted for the university and some
other universities through this pilot.
3.7.8 Kenya “Mawingu” Commercial Pilot (February 2013)

Microsoft Corporation, in collaboration with Indigo Telecom Ltd and Ministry of
Information and Communications in Kenya, launched a pilot project to deliver con-
nectivity to unserved locations near Kalema and Nanyuki in Kenya in February 2013
at low-cost. The network utilizes TVWS and solar-powered base stations to connect
to various applications such as education, healthcare, commerce, and government
services delivery. This pilot helped improve Africa’s competitiveness globally and
was part of Microsoft’s 4Afrika Initiative to connect the masses and empower African
entrepreneurs, students, developers and others to become digitally active citizens.
3.7.9 Singapore Commercial Pilot (April 2012)

With the Infocomm Development Authority (IDA) support, Singapore White Spaces
Pilot Group (SWSPG) was established in April 2012. This group’s objective was
to deploy TVWS technology pilots in Singapore, accelerating TVWS technology
adoption globally. This group was expanded to 18 members in 2013. Initially, the
94
group focused on three projects. It was extended to five later, demonstrating the var-
iety of commercial services that could be deployed in a terrain where traditional
wireless deployment would be challenging to connect:
• National University of Singapore (NUS): The third commercial deployment

was a collaboration between Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R) and Power
Automation (PA) to allow the NUS students in U-town to measure the usage of
air conditioners in the rooms and charge students staying in hostel according
to their usage.
• Gardens by the Bay: TVWS was used as the backhaul to provide WiFi connect-
ivity to the visitors in a cost-efficient and reliable manner in this newly built
iconic attraction. Three different sites at this garden (Canopy, Meadow, and
Supertree Grove) offer free WiFi connectivity to all visitors.
• Sentosa: Merlion complex, Belawang Beach, and Siloso Beach, in Sentosa
implemented a trial to deploy security surveillance cameras while exhibiting
the co-existence of multiple TVWS vendors in a single location.
• Singapore Island Country Club: The country club used this technology to
connect with deployed smart sensors, which help owners track golf buggies
and monitor the golf course’s moisture.
• Changi district near the airport: Initially, vessels near the port rely on satellite
communication to access the internet, voice, and emails. This mode of commu-
nication is expensive and subject to latency depending on weather conditions.
TVWS provides a cheaper and more reliable alternative.
• Housing & Development Board (HDB): This pilot project was deployed for
surveillance in car park enforcement, rooftop security, and receiving real-time
video from the lifts in HDB buildings, enhancing safety and security for the
residents.
• Eurokars Group: Singapore’s premium car dealer used TVWS to extend its net-
work to several far-flung buildings cost-effectively. This was also with unique
concierge services such as customer scheduled service management and test-
drive vehicle tracking.
3.7.10 Cambridge White Spaces Trial (June 2011)

Cambridge TVWS trial was designed to evaluate the technical capabilities of this tech-
nology and potential end-user applications. The consortium explored and measured
applications, such as urban pop-up coverage, rural wireless broadband, and the emer-
ging m2m communication. It was established that TVWS could be developed suc-
cessfully to satisfy the rapidly growing demand for wireless connectivity.
3.7.11 Claudville, Virginia (September 2009)

Microsoft Corporation was involved in the first US deployment of TVWS in
Claudville, Virginia. The TVWS trial offers a model by which the government might
95
better utilize scarce spectrum resources and an alternate broadband network to deliver
pervasive mobile broadband.
3.8
APPLICATIONS AND USE CASES OF TVWS
The excellent propagation and coverage characteristics of the TVWS band are the
most attractive parts to the major stakeholders. Not only 3.8 billion people need
connectivity, but connectivity is needed for broadband connectivity of devices such
as cameras, backhaul for WiFi routers, moving devices etc. TVWS is also needed
for the narrowband connectivity of many devices such as agriculture sensors, pre-
cision sensors, smart building sensors, smart meters, smart grid, smart city sensors,
lift sensors or solar panels. The broad applications for TVWS can be classified into
broadband connectivity and narrowband (IoT) connectivity:
A. Broadband connectivity
(i) Bridging Digital divide
Nowadays, people cannot live without internet access. To provide WiFi
in buildings is not difficult. However, setting up WiFi in outdoor areas
is challenging due to the high cost of cabling and the requirement of
many regulatory approvals. Aside from costing only a fraction (<1/3)
compared to cabling, the time taken to deploy public WiFi is also sig-
nificantly reduced.
(ii) Rural connectivity
In many developing countries, providing connectivity to the suburban
or rural areas is challenging as the cost of deployment is high, and the
return is limited. Traditional methods such as cabling/trenching and
microwave link are costly, and satellite incurs exorbitant recurring cost.
The Filipino government adopted the TVWS solution to provide con-
nectivity to the rural areas such as schools, clinic, etc. in a cost-effective
manner. By installing one device at the village and another at the nearby
town, the village gets connectivity within half a day.
(iii) Connecting remote islands in Singapore
A trial involving unmanned drones for the remote inspection and main-
tenance of Singapore’s Southern Islands was conducted as part of
Singapore’s smart nation sensor network roll-out. The six-month trial
tests the use of TVWS, to control the unmanned drones and transmit
video footage over long distances for real-time analysis. The three gov-
ernment agencies behind the initiative are the Government Technology
Agency of Singapore (GovTech), Singapore Land Authority (SLA), and
Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS) worked with technology
start-up Whizpace during the trial on the five Southern Islands of Kias
Island, St John’s Island, Seringat Island, Pulau Hantu Besar and Kusu
Island. Besides enabling island maintenance and inspections, TVWS
could also provide internet network connectivity for island visitors to
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St John’s and Kusu Islands, such as devotees, students, and tourists,

bringing them a more pleasurable experience [71, 72].
(iv) Network Diversity
Public networks are terminated at the same exchange, resulting in a
single point of failure. Laying dedicated fibre networks is way too
expensive. A TVWS base station was installed at the data centres, and
the TVWS clients were installed in the outlets. This makes the whole
wireless infrastructure network fully redundant from the existing
networks with no single point of failure; no recurring charges; build a
private and secured network. Such redundant links can be scaled up to
provide similar private and redundant networks for banks, post offices,
hotels or other corporates.
(v) Surveillance & crowd monitoring
For large ad-hoc events, controlling the crowd and ensuring safety is no
mean feat. Video surveillance is typically used to assist the tasks above,
and communicating real-time video is a challenge. Laying cable for the
ad-hoc event is non-trivial, deploying WiFi has limited range and prone
to obstructions, and using 4G in crowded areas is suicidal. TVWS is
used in the industrial area to automate security and maintenance ser-
vices by Concorde Security in Singapore.
(vi) Maritime communication
Even though connectivity on land is excellent in Singapore, the sea’s
connectivity is minimal despite being one of the world’s busiest and
smartest port. TVWS solution was to provide WiFi coverage to the sea
and successfully performed Skype & Facetime video calls from the boat
at various locations in the middle of the sea that is several km away
from the shore.
(vii) Connecting schools
In developing countries, some places do not have good connectivity.
This happens to some schools, which inevitably affects the students.
TVWS solutions were deployed to connect up schools. Leveraging
on schools with good connectivity, the internet is ‘extending’ to other
schools even with other buildings blocking in between the schools,
thanks to excellent penetration characteristics of TVWS.
B. Narrowband (IoT) connectivity
(i) Wireless Sensor Network
Wireless sensor networks play critical roles in smart cities. In clutter
environment and when the number of sensors is large, existing wireless
solutions find it hard to meet the requirements.
TVWS is test-bedded to understand the performance under such a scen-
ario. With TVWS, signals are stable even when travelling over long
distance and across obstacles. The same setup can be applied to many
infrastructure and asset monitoring systems.
(ii) Industry 4.0
The fundamental infrastructure to enable Industry 4.0 is communica-
tion networks in the factory. Due to cost, time, scalability, portability
97
and almost no disruption advantages, wireless is preferred over wired

networks for monitoring, command, and control applications. TVWS is
chosen to provide the connectivity infrastructure for the factory. With
TVWS, a wireless network in a factory could be set up within days. Its
coverage benefits overcome issues of blockages and range as seen in
traditional wireless. Besides, TVWS can also be used to link up a few
buildings so that information from one site could be shared with another
site seamlessly.
Many large organisations isolate IT network with OT (operation tech-
nology) network due to worry of cyber attack and network congestion.
Cabling of factories is costly, time-consuming and affects productions.
Other wireless solutions do not have coverage for large factories.
TVWS solutions were deployed to ‘wire’ up the whole factory and
across factories with a fraction of the cost and significant savings
in time.
(iii) Agri-Tech Deployment
Large plantations typically are located at remote areas where con-
nectivity is lacking. Without connectivity, a lot of smart agriculture
activities cannot be carried out. TVWS is chosen to provide the con-
nectivity infrastructure for the plantation. With TVWS, the plantation
owner could stream video from 10km away to their main monitoring
office. With this large pipe, many sensors can be connected to enable
smart plantation and increasing productivity. For areas where there is
no power supply, solar power and batteries will power the low-power
TVWS equipment to provide seamless connectivity day and night.
Besides, TVWS low-cost nodes send sensors data from plantations,
nurseries and greenhouses to the head office. This data is used for data
analysis on-premises or cloud for better productivity.
(iv) Solar panel monitoring
Smart grid requires massive communications to fulfil the needs of a
large number of sensors. Solar panel deployment is one of the most
popular smart grid applications. The solar panel needs to frequently
send the number of essential parameters to ensure the solar power
supply’s stability. TVWS was chosen for solar panel monitoring due to
its ease of deployment, a large amount of bandwidth available and the
ability to mix high-and low-rate traffics. This test-bed uses TVWS to
stream video to the command centre so that the staff and guests do not
need to climb to the roof.
(v) Smart grid communication
The smart meters are connected through RS485 to TVWS IoT nodes
and the data is sent on real time to a concentrator. Many such nodes
are connected to a single concentrator in the vicinity. Only one con-
centrator talks to the Network Operation Center. One concentrator can
cover all the blocks. There is a Capex saving of 80% and Opex saving
on backhaul by 90%.
98
(vi) Building Management System (BMS) connectivity

Cybersecurity is getting increasing attention. This resulted in facilities
or operational teams needing to set up their networks. TVWS network
is used to hook up sensors to Building Management System over rugged
terrains due to structures already built up.
(vii) Asset Monitoring
Many large organizations have assets to be monitored. The situations
become challenging, mostly when the assets are scattered in large areas.
Traditionally, 3G or 4G is being used. Besides recurring cost, 3G or
4G networks sometimes get congested, especially when there are large
events or crowds. TVWS is selected to monitor a cluster of assets before
the data is aggregated and sent to the cloud through a fibre point. Thus,
reducing reliance on the public network results in a lower cost in the
longer run.
3.8.1 Cost Comparison and Performance Comparison of TVWS

Compared to Alternate Solutions for Various Applications
Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23 illustrate the comparison of Capex and Opex (per month)
costs and performance of alternative technologies wrt TVWS technology for various
applications for broadband and narrowband verticals. The comparison is carried out
for broadband applications for cabling/trenching, microwave link, and satellite com-
munication wrt TVWS for the range of 5km in Malaysia’s rural area in Figure 3.22.
The cost of deployment is many times cheaper than alternate technologies with min-
imal Opex cost. Similarly, the comparison for cost, time of deployment and perform-
ance is carried out for narrowband applications for cabling and WiFi wrt TVWS for
deployment in a factory environment in Singapore for the size of 600m x 200m and
connecting two sites in Figure 3.23. The Capex cost of TVWS deployment is much
cheaper with a short deployment time.
FIGURE 3.22
Comparison of broadband applications for cost and performance of TVWS
solution with alternate technologies (Source: Whizpace).
99
FIGURE 3.23
Comparison of narrowband applications for cost and performance of TVWS
solution with alternate technologies (Source: Whizpace).
3.9
SWOT ANALYSIS
Below is the SWOT analysis of TVWS versus other alternatives for providing internet
to remote areas.
Strengths: Opportunities:
• Long-range up to 10km • Worldwide 3.9 billion people are not
• Penetrate through obstacles such as connected
foliage and some buildings • Migration to digital TV frees up much
• Proprietary design that makes the devices spectrum -license exempted
more secured • Many countries have Universal Service
• Lower cost compared to cabling/ Fund or special budget for bridging the
trenching and microwave links digital divide
• Faster deployment (up to 90% time • COVID makes people realise the
saving) importance of connectivity even in remote
areas
Weaknesses: Threats:
• Bandwidth is similar to 3.5G, not as high • Regulatory uncertainty in some countries
as 4G/5G or WiFi • Mature technologies such as long-range
• The ecosystem is not as mature yet, so WiFi is cheaper in device cost
close collaboration with a local partner is • Misunderstanding of 5G capabilities
required causing customers to wait for 5G although
• Public awareness is not as high 5G has other applications
• Tighter regulatory requirements (such as
spectrum mask) are making the devices
more difficult and costly to design
3.10
CONCLUSION
The above discussions conclude that TVWS is one of the most suitable technolo-
gies to mitigate the spectrum scarcity that exists in global wireless areas. TVWS
offers better spectrum utilization due to the superior propagation characteristics in
100
the sub-GHz band, which undoubtedly is an economically feasible solution. Not

only are developed countries encashing the benefits of TVWS, but the countries with
limited connectivity infrastructure are planning to use it because of the deployment
convenience, serving large coverage areas and its license-exempt regime. The TVWS
ecosystem and other standardization initiatives are evolving, and TVWS will be a
ubiquitous phenomenon in the worldwide wireless communication scenario.
The issue of incumbent co-existence in the TVWS network is mitigated system-
atically with database-driven techniques. Based on the SLEPT framework, study
observations include the following points. Socially, numerous successful pilot
projects and deployments are carried out globally, TVWS technology has been
well accepted. Legally, Japan’s more conservative approach is implemented by
other regulations, leading to a market-driven approach. Economically, designing a
strategy-proof, affordable, and with spectrum-sharing on a real-time basis for sec-
ondary users with affordable licence fees requires urgent attention. The cost of the
WSDs is much higher than the WiFi devices. The political will and consensus are
required for this technology to be adopted worldwide, as many regulatory author-
ities are still considering adopting the regulations for TVWS in some countries, e.g.,
India, Malaysia and Indonesia. Technologically, database-assisted TVWS technology
can be implemented only with due concerns for self-coexistence, heterogeneous co-
existence, adjacent channel interference, and very strict spectral masks leading to the
intricate design [14].
As elaborated, USA, UK, Canada, Singapore and recently, many other countries
have already laid down the necessary regulations and framework for the deploy-
ment of TVWS. The USA highest number of TVWS networks has several certified
database administrators. The UK and Singapore are also accelerating the commer-
cial deployments for various applications. The USA, UK and Singapore have many
pilots and commercial deployments for the applications such as Smart City, Rural
Broadband, WiFi Hotspots coverage, sensor networks, M2M communications, etc.
[73]. Singapore has been deploying many TVWS based smart grid solutions. It is in
many pilot deployments for several scenarios, such as connecting remote islands in
and around Singapore. It cannot be emphasized enough that all developing countries
can make fair use of TVWS to revitalize its wireless connectivity infrastructure. It can
act as one of the catalysts in bridging the digital gap and creating an infrastructure
for smart cities. There is a need for rigorous consultation procedures to assess the
adoption of this technology’s dawn in many countries.
Microsoft and other innovators of this technology are taking an interest in
numerous countries with a facilitating framework, by following critical view points:
• Considerations on the use of TVWS spectrum

• The ownership and maintenance considerations of the TVWS database pro-
viding security considerations to access the databases
• Ease of certification process of WSDs and databases
• Considerations on licensing
• Active participation of agencies in pilot projects and commercial deployments.
101
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105
4 Health Monitoring and

Pandemic Detection
Using IoT and Wireless
Communication
Technologies
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Coronaviruses are a major family of viruses. Many coronaviruses, ranging from the
common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
(MERS) and Serious Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), are known to cause
respiratory infections in humans. The newest coronavirus was found to cause cor-
onavirus disease COVID-19. Scientists carried out the first room-temperature X-ray
experiments on the primary protease SARS-CoV-2. The virus that causes the COVID-
19 disease reproduces by expressing long protein chains that the protease enzyme
needs to cut to smaller lengths. Protease is a type of enzyme that separates proteins
into lesser proteins or smaller protein units. The protein is shaped like a heart but it’s
the heart of the virus that makes it replicate and spread. Figure 4.1 shows a common
and well-known structure of a COVID-19 virus.
To avoid the spread of COVID-19, a few guidelines have been prepared by the
WHO to minimize the spreading of viruses.
i. Clean your hands regularly and thoroughly with alcohol-based rubbing, or

wash them with water and soap.
ii. Keep a space between yourself and others of at least 1 meter (3 feet).
iii. Avoid traveling in overcrowded areas.
iv. Avoid touching eyes, mouth, and nose.
The trend of new cases, newly recovered cases, and the outbreak of the total closed
cases in India as of 23 July 2020 is shown in Figures 4.2 and 4.3, respectively. The
testing rate has been increased in India in a few weeks. The government will test a 10
lakh sample test per day, which will help identify and isolate the infected people and
break the chain of COVID-19 infection.
The most important task at the pandemic outbreak is to track and isolate anyone
who may have made contact with the sick. The traditional methods of contact tracing
concentrate on interviewing and questioning the subjects. This method is both
costly and time-consuming, as well as prone to human mistake. For accurate position
monitoring, alternatives to conventional contract tracing depend on wireless
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-4 105

106
FIGURE 4.1
Structure of COVID-19.
FIGURE 4.2
New cases Vs. new recovered cases (Source: www.worldometers.info).
technologies to provide information on the length and proximity of contact with

infected people. When compared to Wi-Fi and cellular location, Bluetooth can pro-
vide an order of magnitude with more precision than proximity detection. Point-of-
care monitoring plays a vital part in a pandemic response. The absence of easily
available COVID-19 test kits has given us the sense that we are only seeing the tip of
the iceberg. Diagnostic technologies that are both cost-effective and quickly deploy-
able are also crucial in distant and growing areas of the globe, where a lack of com-
petent staff and well-equipped medical facilities could lead to uncontrollable spread.
Better automation and technology implementation in hospitals like IoMT means
less interactions with infectious patients and more protection for personnel. Patient
data that is easily accessible can reduce the number of demands and frequency of
hospital visits. It goes hand in hand with emerging virtual doctor meeting systems,
107
Health Monitoring and Pandemic Detection 107
FIGURE 4.3
Outcomes of the total closed cases (Source: www.worldometers.info).
remote diagnosis, and tracking. IoMT also increases remote treatment for the elderly
or people with chronic illnesses, which may mean a drastic decrease in access
to the most vulnerable groups in a situation like the latest COVID-19 pandemic. IoT
technologies will lead the way in stopping and handling existing pandemics and
future ones. In the face of pandemics, the IoT, implemented on a large scale, provides
humanity an unparalleled collection of data and analytics. Monitoring the spread of
a disease is more effective, and IoT technologies can help us monitor, test, and treat
entire populations.
4.2
PREVIOUS WORKS
Many researchers have proposed and developed an architecture for the monitoring
of COVID-19 patients, some of them are reviewed here to understand the present
scenario. Kummitha et al. [1] compared two contrasting approaches. To control
COVID-19 transmission, Chinese cities and the government took a techno-driven
approach, while Western countries took a human- driven approach. The results
demonstrated that while the techno-driven approach might be more effective in rec-
ognizing, isolating, and quarantining individuals, it also contributes to the repression
and censorship of citizens’ views.
Mani et al. [2] developed an IoT-driven fog computing for the healthcare industry,
which can speed up facilities and services in the mass population and help to save
billions of lives. Tian et al. [3] reviewed research in smart healthcare in conven-
tional medicine. They came to the conclusion that smart healthcare is a healthcare
system that uses wearable devices, the internet of things, and mobile internet to
dynamically access information, connect health-related individuals, resources, and
organizations, and then actively manage and respond intelligently to medical eco-
system needs.
108
FIGURE 4.4
5G epidemic monitoring platform [6].
Kadhim et al. [4] reviewed the existing e-health management program using
integrated systems. Omputing et al. [5] applied an improved mathematical model
for analysing and forecasting epidemic growth. A better model based on machine
learning was used to predict the potential threat of COVID-19 in countries around
the world, and it showed that using iterative weighting to match the Generalized
Inverse Weibull distribution, a better match for developing a prediction system can be
obtained, and suggested that parameters such as population density, age distribution,
person and community trends, level of availability, and level of availability can all
be used to develop a prediction system. Chamola et al. [6] provided the architecture
for epidemic monitoring using 5G mobile communication technology, as shown in
Figure 4.4.
Minh et al. [7] analysed the state- of-
the-
art IoT products, technologies, and
industry dynamics in healthcare, as well as emerging developments in IoT and cloud
computing healthcare applications. As illustrated in Figure 4.5, three crucial IoT in
the healthcare framework (IoTHeF) components are topology, structure, and frame-
work. Within the context of IoT healthcare, each part serves a specific role. Using sev-
eral sensors, the gadgets can collect data on the patient’s health status. The collected
data was then sent to a distant server for analysis, and the results were displayed in
real time.
Dimitrov et al. [8] reviewed the Medical Internet of Things (mIoT) as a new
business model and changes in work processes, increases efficiency, cost savings, and
improved patient experience. Today wearables and mobile devices promote exercise,
health education, symptom monitoring, and integrated disease control and coordin-
ation of treatment. Such application insights can improve data analysis usefulness,
minimizing the amount of time that end users spend processing data outputs. Insights
gained from the study of big data can guide the digital revolution of the healthcare
environment, business processes, and decision taking in real-time.
109
FIGURE 4.5
An overview of a typical IoT and cloud computing-based healthcare system [7].
Greco et al. [9] evaluated the widespread usages of IoT technologies in healthcare.
Smart healthcare systems have been rendered capable of running real-time applications
while storing and executing Artificial Intelligence over the massive quantity of data
created by wearable sensor networks using a combination of cloud and IoT architectures.
Cloud-based applications’ response time and availability and security and privacy
remain critical issues that prevent devices and architectures on the Internet of Medical
Things (IoMT) from being a safe and efficient solution for the target.
Pratap et al. [10] explored the possibilities of tackling the emerging COVID-19
pandemic through the application of the IoMT method. For data sharing, report
reporting, patient tracking, information collecting and analysis, medical hygiene,
and other purposes, IoMT employs a variety of cloud and connected network-based
solutions. It has the potential to fundamentally transform the working arrangement of
healthcare institutions while treating orthopaedic patients with a higher degree of care
and greater satisfaction, especially during the COVID-19 lockdown epidemic. Lehne
et al. [11] concluded that interoperability is a requirement for future medicine digital
developments, concentrating on four areas where interoperable data and IT systems
are of particular importance: (a) artificial intelligence and big data; (b) medical com-
munication; (c) research; and (d) international cooperation.
Alsharif et al. [12] highlighted the most promising research from recent literature
in rising orientations for the 6G project. The main focus involves addressing the cru-
cial issues and key features of 6G communications, including (i) vision and critical
features; (ii) problems and possible solutions; and (iii) testing activities. Kumar et al.
[13] proposed an IoT-based system for avoiding the spread of COVID-19.
110
4.3
PROPOSED MODEL
A system that works either in static or dynamic mode in any environment is
known as mobility. Mobile networking is wireless technology. Through wireless
communication, information is transmitted over a distance without the use of
wires. Mobile wireless systems have undergone many waves of technological
transformation and development over the past few decades, ranging from 1G to
6G. Every generation has certain expectations, capacities, techniques, and new
features that differentiate it from past generations. Despite these new technolo-
gies, the number of subscribers to cell phones is growing day by day. The devel-
opment of the journey of mobile technology is shown in Figure 4.6, 5G, and 6G
mobile technologies are more powerful, and it can be used in a wide range of
applications and are able to communicate at high speed with minimum error. Due
to the development of the latest communication technologies, it is utilizing in
industrial applications, telemedicine, and real-time controlling and monitoring
of the system. It also helps to connect millions of smart devices to the internet to
share their data and responses.
An IoT-based architecture is proposed (as shown in Figure 4.7) to monitor individ-
uals and COVID-19 infected peoples remotely. For individuals, IoT-based thermom-
eter and heart rate monitoring devices are used to monitor the condition of individuals
and send their live data to the cloud through gateways. If the patient is at home or
admitted to hospital, their effective monitoring of health can be performed with min-
imum chances of spreading. An IoT-based circuit configuration is shown in Figure 4.8,
digital thermometer and heart rate monitoring devices are connected through Node
MCU, which is connected to the cloud through gateways to send live data for remote
monitoring.
FIGURE 4.6
Development of wireless mobile communication technologies.
111
FIGURE 4.7
Proposed architecture for the monitoring of COVID-19 infected patients.
FIGURE 4.8
Circuit configuration of IoT based individuals monitoring system.
ThingSpeak has been utilized. ThingSpeak is a cloud based IoT analytics program
that allows you aggregate, visualize, and analyse live data streams. You can submit
data from your devices to ThingSpeak, generate real-time visualization of live data,
and issue alarms. The ThingSpeak data are shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10.
112
FIGURE 4.9
Heart rate.
FIGURE 4.10
Temperature.
113
4.4
CONCLUSIONS
The development of 5G wireless communication technology is going to change the
era of wireless communication. It will provide the flexibility to connect millions of
smart devices to the internet. The use of smart devices and IoT-based sensors can help
monitor individuals’ health through telemedicine. The doctor’s real-time data on 5G
network can be analysed by the doctor available at remote locations, and prescriptions
can be directly communicated to medical stores. During pandemic periods like
COVID-19, IoT can be used to monitor individual patient health remotely. It also helps
to identify and isolate the infected people to break the coronavirus infection chain.
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115
5 V2V
The Future of VANET’s
Communications
5.1
VEHICULAR AD-HOC NETWORK (VANET)
VANET is a kind of mobile wireless ad-hoc network formed using mobile vehicles
and Roadside Units (RSUs) installed alongside the road. It is an emerging field of
wireless network that uses a cluster of vehicles on the road to establish and main-
tain wireless communication among them without using any fixed infrastructure.
VANET can be used to make the Intelligence Transportation System (ITS) that
improves safe driving and provides a better travelling experience to the drivers as
well as passengers. It provides communications between moving vehicles wirelessly
by using Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) based on IEEE 802.11p.
Standard IEEE 802.11p is specially meant for VANET. DSRC technology works on
the 5.9 GHz frequency band and has 75 MHz bandwidth for the communications.
This technology provides high reliability because of very low noise or interference
and this makes it the best technology for VANET. RSUs are the fixed infrastructures
used by cellular technologies like 4G and VoLTE to access internet services. RSUs
are equipped with an antenna to transmit and receive signals through wireless com-
munication, and they act as a gateway and provide coverage to vehicles in their
communication range. They access any relevant traffic-related information [1] [2].
RSU has multiple network connections to communicate with vehicles, other RSUs,
and internet gateways. RSU provides internet facilities inside the vehicles through
internet gateways.
Therefore, the primary goal of VANET is to increase the safety on the road,
improve the overall transportation system, and provide infotainments service by
connecting to the internet while traveling. VANETs can also help the driver to find
out about local restaurants or gas stations along the way [3]. It can be used as a tool
to develop smart cities all over the world. Hence, using VANET technology, efficient
and low-cost communication technology among vehicles or between vehicles and
infrastructure units is required.
In VANETs, the vehicles are equipped with dedicated short-range computing
devices, sensing devices, digital roadmap, RADAR, GPS and other information and
location pointing devices with advanced processing tools [4]. VANET systems have
three types of communications i.e. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), Vehicle-to-Road Side
Unit (V2R) and Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) communication respectively [5]. V2V
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-5 115

116
FIGURE 5.1
VANET Architecture and Communication Systems.
communication is a pure wireless infrastructure-less ad-hoc communication between

vehicles. V2V communication uses DSRC device to transmit messages [6]. V2V
communication does not have a problem with vehicle shadowing in which smaller
vehicles are shadowed by a larger vehicle. V2V communication increases driving
comforts and safety measures of drivers and passengers during the driving time [7]
[8]. Figure 5.1, presents the VANET architecture, its communication systems and
different domains discussed as follows.
5.2
COMMUNICATION DOMAINS OF VANET
VANET uses moving vehicles as a router to create ad-hoc networks. VANET uses the
IEEE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment (WAVE) standard to supports ITS.
VANET does not depend on fixed network infrastructure. It may use three kinds of
communication domain as described below and shown in Figure 5.2.
a) In-Vehicle Domain
The in-vehicle domain is a sub-network of VANETs consists of On-Board
Units (OBUs) and Application Units (AUs) connected through wired or
wireless technology [9]. OBUs are equipped with the DSRC device to connect
with other communication devices. AUs utilize the communication capability
of OBUs to execute applications for users [10].
b) Ad-Hoc Domain
The ad-hoc domain is also a sub-network of VANETs consists of OBUs
equipped vehicles and RSUs where OBUs work as a mobile node and
RSUs as a static node [11]. RSUs work as access points store traffic-related
117
V2V: The Future of VANET’s Communications 117
FIGURE 5.2
VANET Communication Domains.
information; the information stored in RSUs can be retrieved whenever they

are needed [12].
c) Infrastructure Domain
The infrastructure domain contains RSUs and other transceivers to support
vehicular communication using V2R communication. RSUs allow OBUs to
access infrastructures and consequently to be connected with the internet [13].
5.3
VANET’S CHARACTERISTICS
Basically, VANETs are different from other mobile wireless ad-hoc networks; the
several characteristics differentiate VANETs from other wireless ad-hoc networks as
described below.
• Self-Organizing: Frequently network change nature causes the vehicles in

VANET to have the capability of self-organizing and be adaptive to form or
deform the network automatically anywhere anytime [14].
• Cooperative Nature: The vehicles participate in the network formation
cooperate together to manage the network configuration without any central
agency [15].
• Mobility Prediction: The vehicles have to follow some restrictions as on pre-
defined road layout and road signs, traffic signals, as well as responding to other
moving vehicles [16]. The vehicles know their current location information
along with the neighbour vehicles. Therefore, the vehicles have the capability
of predicting future locations of the vehicles with the help of a given street map
and speed [17].
• Frequently Disconnected Network: The nodes in VANETs are highly mobile
with limited communication range so that they frequently change their network
topology. The limited communication range and mobility result in frequent dis-
connection in the network [18]. Suppose two vehicles are moving away from
each other at the same speed 30 m/s and their transmission range is 300 meters.
The link between them will be established for a short 5 seconds. It shows that
the network established among the vehicles frequently disconnects.
118
• Unbounded Network Size: Node’s mobility causes VANETs size cannot be

fixed and it can be implemented for one or several cities. Therefore, the network
sizes of VANETs are geographically unbounded [19].
• High Computation Ability: In VANET, the vehicles are equipped with the
sufficient number of sensors, Short Range Communication Devices (SRCD),
high-speed processor, large size memory, latest antenna technology and
modern Global Positioning System (GPS) [20]. All of these resources increase
the computational capability of the vehicles that help to create reliable wireless
communication and to collect accurate current location information, speed and
direction of vehicles in the network [21].
• Uninterrupted Battery Power: Modern vehicles are equipped with high
power battery and large storage capacity and they operate on low power with
limited bandwidth thus they have no issue with battery power. The vehicles in
VANETs continuously provide power backup to computing and communica-
tion devices installed in the vehicles [22].
5.4
VANET’S CHALLENGES
In VANET, the nodes are free to move and organize themselves randomly. This char-
acteristic leads to regular route change and packet loss [23]. The nodes are equipped
with different radio devices that operate on different frequency bands. However, the
VANET challenges are summarized as follows:
• Network Volatility: The nodes in VANETs are transient and travel throughout
the network they can make connections with other nodes in the network. The
connections among the nodes may be lost due to transition or opposite direction
nodes movement [24].
• Security: VANETs are designed for open environment wireless ad- hoc
networks; therefore, malicious nodes can attack or broadcasting fake messages
in the network [23]. The fake messages may lead to unavoidable traffic situ-
ations. The attackers can get knowledge of confidential messages or modify the
original messages.
• Network Management: Dynamic nature causes of the nodes it is difficult
to manage networks because continuous maintaining node information in a
dynamic network is a big challenging issue [25].
• Congestion and Collision Control: In VANET, all nodes broadcast con-
trol overhead in the network area and during rush hour nodes in the network
increases that causes message broadcast increases [26]. The higher message
broadcast increases congestion in the network that causes collisions to occur.
Therefore, to control message collision in the network intelligent and compe-
tent broadcasting algorithms require [26].
• Social and Economic Challenges: Apart from the technical challenges to
deploy the VANETs the social and economic challenges should be considered
[27] [28]. It is difficult to convince the manufacturing company to build an eco-
nomic VANETs based system for society.
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5.5
VANET APPLICATIONS
VANET cover plenty of applications ranging from people safety to suitability that can
be categorized into the following:
5.5.1 Safety Applications
The safety of passengers and drivers is an important issue; the various safety
applications can be designed using VANET [29].
• Real-Time Traffic Monitoring: Real- time traffic monitoring application

makes easier transportation that stores traffic-related messages into RSUs [29].
Stored traffic-related messages can be retrieved whenever they are needed to
solve problems such as traffic jams; avoid congestions and emergency alerts
such as accidents, etc. [30].
• Message Transfer: To avoid fatal road traffic-related messages can be trans-
mitted within time at the destination. Transferring of messages within time may
automate things like emergency braking to avoid potential accidents. Similarly,
emergency electronic brake lights may be another application [31].
• Intelligent Transport Application: An intelligent transport system embodies
a wide range of applications like global positioning system, traffic observation,
analysis of traffic jam, management of traffic system and diversion of routes
which support the traffic scenario [32].
• Traffic Vigilance: The cameras can be installed alongside roads that can work
as input and act as the latest tool in the low or zero-tolerance campaign against
driving offenses [33]. Traffic can be optimized by the use of sending signals
like jams, accidents, etc. to the vehicles so that they can choose their alternate
path and can save time [34].
5.5.2 Commercial and Comfort Applications

VANET’s commercial and comfort applications provide the internet to drivers and
passengers so they can download music, songs and video for their entertainment.
Using VANET a toll system application can be developed to collect tolls from the
vehicles at the toll booths without stopping them [35]. These applications are used to
provide comfort and pleasure during the journey. These applications required com-
munication between vehicles and roadside units. Examples of such applications are
the information about free parking space, weather information, nearby petrol pump
or gas station information, restaurant location, tourist point information, toll tax
collection services [36].
5.5.3 Entertainment Related Applications

These applications provide entertainment-related services to drivers and also to
passengers during the journey. Here communication occurs among vehicles or
120
between vehicles and RSUs. Internet access, web browsing, online video games,
social networking, chats, music downloads, and file sharing are some examples of
applications in this category [37].
5.5.4 Urban Sensing and Health Monitoring Applications

VANET with wireless sensor networks can be used for environmental monitoring,
surveillance, and mobile social networking in a geographical area [38]. VANET
with wireless body sensor networks can be used for health monitoring during travel-
ling. WBSN would sense the physiological and physical health data and transmit the
warning message to hospital or nearby ambulances in an emergency. An ambulance
could be dispatched to patient location in a timely fashion [39].
5.6
VEHICLE-TO-VEHICLE COMMUNICATION (V2V)
According to WHO millions of people die every year because of the traffic accidents
and as per the official report there were an estimated 6.8 million crashes in 2019.
Due to these crashes, there were 36,096 fatalities and 2.7 million injuries have been
reported [38] [39]. VANET and connected vehicle technologies will provide safer
roads in the future using real time information and tools. Therefore, there is a need
to anticipate potential crashes and significantly reduce economic loss and the large
number of lives lost every year. Nowadays, the automotive industries are undergoing
foremost transformation with the development of VANETs, smart aerial and road
transportation systems, electric and autonomous vehicles in the world. These tech-
nologies are emerging due to recent advancements in software, hardware, standards,
communication systems and various applications. There are four major components
being combined with vehicles: communication technologies, GPS, sensors, and infor-
mation systems to make connected vehicle networks for VANETs.
In VANET, three types of communications, V2V, V2R and V2P are used to transfer
information from source to the intended destinations. V2V communication is a pure
ad-hoc communication among the vehicles. This communication enables vehicles to
exchange information about their speed, direction, current location, and secret infor-
mation. V2V communication is based on Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment
(WAVE) that uses DSRC waves to transmit information [1] [2]. V2V communication
technology provides wireless data transmissions between vehicles. The aim of V2V
communication is to prevent a large number of accidents, make driving comforts,
improve passenger’s safety and provide these safety measures to the drivers and
passengers during the travelling time [6] [8]. This technology allowing vehicles in
transit to handover data packets on their location and their speed along with dir-
ection within the wireless network. V2V communication is mainly used in safety
applications such as lane changing warning, safety warning, current traffic informa-
tion, obstacle warning, collision warning etc. These warnings alert the drivers to take
action to avoid crashes and save the lives on the roads. In current highly mobile
VANET environments, the system uses advanced crash avoidance systems having
RADARs and digital intelligent cameras to detect collision and help drivers to avoid
the crash altogether.
121
Even though VANET is the integration of vehicles and RSUs and installing other
fixed infrastructure on the roads for VANET incurs great expenses, therefore, V2V
communication will be used to extend the coverage area for vehicles in the networks.
When required V2V communication uses the services of RSU for smooth transpor-
tation. In this communication system each vehicle will be equipped with computing
devices, GPS, sensor nodes, networking devices, RADAR, digital map for the road
segment information, and other advanced technologies-based tools. During the trans-
portation, vehicles sense its own traffic messages and communicate with its direct
neighbouring vehicles in its communication rage using Hello or beacon messages
periodically. This is known as unicasting mechanism between the source and the
destination. Beyond the coverage area, source vehicle uses multicasting mechanism
to forward the message to the destination using intermediate vehicles. Therefore,
in VANET, both types of casting are involved for various types of applications and
protocols.
5.7
WORKING OF V2V COMMUNICATION
V2V communication technology uses DSRC of WAVE based on IEEE 802.11p which
is specially meant for VANET. DSRC operate with 5.9GHz frequency band which is
used by Wi-Fi uses 300 to 1000 range for the communications (see Figure 5.3) [40]
[41]. V2V connection of VANET uses mesh topology in which each and every vehicle
can send, receive and retransmit DSRC radio signals [42].
Further, in VANET, V2V communication is composed of vehicles equipped with
an On-Board Unit (OBU). OBU equipped with GPS, centralized control system,
wireless connection module, sensor nodes and human interface module [42]. With
the help of these modules OBU broadcasts useful information such as current loca-
tion, speed, direction, acceleration and other important data in the network area.
FIGURE 5.3
Working of Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications [42].
122
OBU also receives similar information from other vehicles in the network. During
V2V communications, sensor nodes of smart vehicles sense internal and surrounding
data such as safety information, road’s information, traffic information, and entertain-
ment and infotainment information. This information can be used to make the
best decisions and reduce traffic related issues. Moreover, these data are directly
connected to the processing devices and these devices collect data and share these
data to the nearby vehicles in the network. V2V communications would make the
network smarter in which on the first vehicles, warning messages might come to
the driver’s dashboard [43]. Recently, some automobile companies have worked on
the latest vehicle’s technologies and launched autonomous or self-driving vehicles
on the roads. Perhaps these autonomous vehicles would detect and resolve the traffic
related problems in the future where vehicles and drivers don’t have to think and
react in a segment of time. In a self-driving vehicle’s system, we just have to keep our
hands lightly on the wheel, and on the sharp curves we have to be careful and handle
the vehicle physically.
5.7.1 Vehicle-to-X Communication (V2X)

For VANET based environments, some automobile companies define their own term
for V2V communication that is known as V2X communication, which is based on
WLAN and cellular technology [43]. In V2X communication, vehicles share data
with any entity such as other vehicles, infrastructures, gateways, external sensors,
and pedestrians that can affect the vehicle within the V2V environment. V2X commu-
nication enables a number of comforts, commercial and safety applications through
the internet and that is why it is also called Internet of Vehicles (IoV). Therefore,
the main objectives of the V2X are road safety, congestion control, traffic efficiency,
and energy savings. Thus, it ensures more safety and comfort for the drivers and
passengers. VANET becomes denser when other infrastructures also transmit informa-
tion. Figure 5.4 depicted the V2X communications through wireless network along
FIGURE 5.4
Vehicle-to-X (V2X) Communications.
123
with other communications like Vehicle-to-Network (V2N), Roadside-to-Network

(R2N) and Pedestrian-to-Network (P2N) communications. Here, the network may be
the cloud network and V2V, V2R, and V2P are the traditional VANET communication
systems [24].
In Germany, V2X communication technology has largely been installed as a tem-
porary network. It works with a ready-to-use warning system and protects the drivers,
passengers and pedestrians as well. It is useful in various real time applications, for
example, V2X protects the workers of the road maintenance department who may be
working behind a bend. In future, through V2X communication, vehicles will be able
to speak with traffic lights at the intersection and will get information about when
exactly the next green light signal will begin.
5.8
BENEFITS OF V2V COMMUNICATIONS
The benefits of VANET began with unique characteristics and its portability, but
it becomes popular and changed the traffic scenarios of the world when it became
universal. Since the V2V is the communication segment of VANET, therefore it
has emerged as an essential technology for researchers, academicians and automo-
bile industries. Autonomous or self-driving vehicles of V2V communication have
advanced technology with forward collision warning and adaptive cruise control [43]
[44]. In V2V communication, if each and every vehicle has security and control-
ling autonomous driving facilities then the vehicle will automatically pile its way via
intersections without knowing about the traffic lights. When needed vehicles slow as
required to slip into a gap between crossing vehicles. Therefore, at the very least, with
these advanced features the vehicular accident will be reduced. Some other benefits
are given as below:
• Multiple sensors on multiple vehicles give a clear and true mapping of

traffic ahead.
• Autonomous driving of V2V communication would be good for the environment.
• V2V autonomous driving reduces the need to construct more highways.
• Autonomous or self-driving vehicles don’t brake hard then speed up, change
lanes, speed up, then brake hard again.
• V2V is supposed to be secure and anonymous.
• Smart and intelligent driving.
• Automated car parking on the road and in garage.
• V2V is more secure, it cannot be hacked easily.
• Provide communication with traffic light at intersections.
• V2V initiative seeks to improve security and safety where large advances were
already made.
• V2V also provides communications with vehicles and pedestrians on the road.
• V2V will synchronize with pedestrians, motorcycles and cyclists. It will save
the lives of pedestrians.
• Average speed of vehicles could be verified.
• According to research report, V2V may reduce the 70-80% crashes that involve
unimpaired drivers on the road.
124
5.9
V2V TRACKING AND REPORTING
VANET provides vehicular surveillance using V2V communications. Since each
vehicle is equipped with digital video cameras and GPS or AGPS receivers, these
vehicles can easily scan or recognize the digital front or rear number plates of the
vehicles. With the help of digital license number plate suspicious vehicles can be
easily identified and tracked in a particular area. In V2V, each vehicle wishes to
know the location of neighbouring vehicles by exchanging Hello or beacon control
messages periodically and knowing its own location through a GPS receiver. V2V
could capture and transmit these inputs, among others. Therefore, vehicles in V2V
communications are able to collect the essential information about the traffic and
other vehicles and share this information among others. Some essential inputs or
information which can be tracked or collected and reported are given below:
• Vehicle direction
• Vehicle speed
• Vehicle position
• Vehicle acceleration
• Driving information
• Vehicle timing
• Brakes on, anti-lock braking
• Lane changes
• Weather status information
• Stability control, traction control engaged
• Windshield wipers on, defroster on
• Headlamps on in daytime for raining, snowing
• Road information
• Stop sign
• Gear positioning
• Reverse parking information
• Red-light status (green-yellow-red)
• Temperature and humidity
• Signals from vehicles ahead
• Emergency vehicle approaching information
5.10
V2V SECURITY IN COMMUNICATION
Security is an important issue in V2V communication and it should be discussed
properly to gain vehicle’s user trust [23]. V2V communication of the VANET uses
wireless links mounted on each vehicle and it is responsible for sharing information
with neighbouring vehicles using GPS and Hello control messages. As V2V com-
munication uses wireless network, which is broadcast in nature and suffered from a
hidden node problem. This hidden node problem is exposed to different vulnerabil-
ities which gives the platform to different attackers to exploit the networks. V2V com-
munication of vehicular networks establishes a strong infrastructure that secures the
important data, which are useful for users. In advanced V2V communication systems,
125
it uses cloud or fog computing concepts to save and secure all the necessary data on
the cloud related to the vehicular networks. The cloud computing system is connected
to all the vehicles and groups of vehicles in the network through Vehicular Cloud
Networks (VCNs) [44]. V2V network users feel comfortable and secure about their
personal data being placed on the cloud. Through VCN, each and every vehicle can
communicate with each other and share their useful information.
The main motivation of V2V communication when working with VCN is to pro-
vide safety to the drivers and passengers on the roads whereas VCN provides trusted
security for the users and other applications. Therefore, we can say that V2V commu-
nication ensures trust, security, and privacy for the network users and VCN contains
different resources such as vehicles, information, users, infrastructure, wireless com-
munication, and vehicular clouds which require security from an attacker. To secure
a V2V communication environment, it is necessary to detect vulnerability in the net-
work and identify the possible threats or attacks in all the resources.
5.11
FUTURE OF V2V COMMUNICATION
As mentioned in the early section about three types of communications: V2V, V2R and
V2P communications, when, they are grouped together, autonomous connected vehicles
are created and will change the way of transportation and enhance ITS in the future. For
example, the Department of Transportation in the USA, implementing the new rules
and regulations mandatory for V2V communication technology, which will contribute
positively to improving vehicular traffic management and reducing the large number of
traffic accidents. As V2V communication provides safety services in VANET, it can help
drivers by augmenting their cognizance of their surroundings. The V2V communication
technology can not only inform drivers about any approaching hazards, but can also help
to prevent accidents happening ahead in the first place. This technology will support
blind turn, blind spots, poor visibility, foggy weather and even fatigue. Government and
private organizations are planning to develop embedded applications for experimenting
and simulating in several road configurations with the connected vehicles in the world.
Today’s VANET technology industries are growing to make cooperation between
vehicles and all other devices of the transportation systems. The aim is to improve
safety, comfort and entertainment services for drivers and passengers. The technology
will analyse all the communication systems, that is V2V, V2R, V2P and V2X, as well
as playing an essential role. Also, the technology will analyse vehicular systems,
standards, applications, and protocols that use the necessary requirements for the
implementation of effective technological support to provide road safety. These com-
munication systems will be developed and implemented with IoT, cloud services and
Software Defined Networks (SDN) in the future to support ITS with sophisticated
services [43] [44].
Furthermore, automobile industries and other manufacturers are trying to invest
more in this field. General Motors and Delphi automotive are dealing with Siemens
and Cohda with RoadLINK, they will implement the V2V communication tech-
nology in many luxury cars to make future transportation much better and comfort.
As per the analysis carried out in this chapter, it is possible to say that vehicles will
be becoming a lot more communicative with road users, infrastructure, cloud and IoT
based services, and even with other service providers.
126
5.12
CONCLUSION
VANET based transportation system is dependent on data communication and data
collection from the network. Therefore, there is need for proper network design, man-
agement and implementation of the VANET communication system for significant
applications. This approach will be an important step to make the V2V communica-
tion system robust and reliable. This chapter described the basics of VANET and thor-
oughly analysed the V2V communication for the present and future transportation
system. In the chapter, we have assumed that every vehicle is willing to transmit data
packets and cooperate with other vehicles as they are connected to each other in the
network. Further, we have focused on the working of V2V communication, its benefits
and security challenges. Further, we have presented the tracking and reporting essen-
tial information during the transportation. As per analysis and research reports, all
parts of the existing infrastructure of V2V communication technology will have to be
transformed from time to time to achieve better performance on the roads. Therefore,
it is possible to say that V2V communications will be becoming a lot more commu-
nicative with road users, RSU, cloud and IoT based services, hot spots, gateway, and
even with other service providers.
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129
6 IoT Based Flood

Control and Disaster
Management System
for Dam and Barrage
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Floods in the year 2013 in the Kedarnath (Uttarakhand) region are a classic example
of the river flash floods that ravaged the country by killing thousands of people in
addition to livestock. Compared to other flood disasters in the nation, the length of
the event was short. Extreme erosion took place because of the flash floods. The
river banks were destroyed along the Kedarnath valley in the upstream portion
of Kedarnath, besides the breach of Chorabari Lake and the deposition of debris/
sediments in the valley. Quantitative disaster parameters due to the integrated impact
of high intensity of rainfall, sudden breach of Chorabari Lake, and very steep top-
ography. The dam breach parameters and peak flow prediction using the Froehlich
method can be utilized to design dams and barrages more effectively.
( ) ( ) (h )
0.32 0.19
Average breach width Bw = 0.1803 Vw b
(6.1)
( )
Failure time T f = 0.00254 Vw ( ) (h )
0.53
b
−0.9
(6.2)
( )
Peak flow Q p = 0.607 Vw ( ) (h )
0.295
w
1.24
(6.3)
Where Vw is the volume of water stored above the breach at the time of failure (m3),
hb is the height of the breach (m) and hw is the depth of water above the breach at the
time of failure (m). The 100 years (1901–2002) rainfall variation in Uttarakhand is
shown in Figure 6.1, and the major water resources available in Uttarakhand are listed
in Table 6.1.
a) Dam
A dam is a significant physical structure constructed across a river or water
source, whereas a barrage is a type of dam. Both dam and barrage cause a
lake that can be used for various applications to generate electricity, control
the flood, and provide irrigation. Different channels transport the water
from these reservoirs to be used for vast applications. The dam has a massive
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-6 129

130
FIGURE 6.1
An analysis of 100 years (1901–2002) rainfall data (Source: IMD rainfall data).
TABLE 6.1
Major Water Resources of Uttarakhand
S.No. District Drainage Major Rivers/Tributaries

1 Almora River Kosi, Ramganga, Suyal, Gagas
2 Bageshwar River Saryu, Gomti and Pindar
3 Chamoli River Alaknanda, Ramganga, Dhauliganga, Nandakini,
Pindar
4 Champawat River Sarju, Kali/Sarda
5 Dehradun River Asan, Song, Tons, Rispina
6 Haridwar River Ganga, Solani
7 Nainital River Kosi, Gola, Nandhaur, Dabka, Baur and Bhakra
8 Pauri Garhwal River Ganga, Alakhnanda, Nayar
9 Pithoragarh River Goriganga, Kali river, Saryu, Ramganga, Yangti,
Dhauli and Kuti
10 Rudraprayag River Mandakini, Alaknanda
11 Tehri Garhwal River Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, Alaknandaa, Ganga
12 Udham Singh Nagar River Sarada, Gola, Phikka
13 Uttarkashi River Bhagirathi, Yamuna, Tons
structure that captures or stores the water during the monsoon period and
releases it during the lean discharge period. However, the habitat may be
affected by the construction of these structures. The barrages are the small
structures that divert the water flow for applications like canal inlet and the
131
IoT Based Flood Control and Disaster Management System 131
FIGURE 6.2
Bhimgoda barrage across the river Ganga.
TABLE 6.2
Top Five Countries with Number of Dams
S. No. Country Dams
1. China 23842
2. USA 9261
3. India 5102
4. Japan 3112
5. Brazil 1411
running of river hydroelectric power plants. The water behind the barrage
creates enough storage to make the continuous water supply and control the
water flow entering into the water channel. The Bhimgoda barrage built across
the River Ganges is shown in Figure 6.2, and the list of the top five countries
having the maximum number of dams in the world is shown in Table 6.2.
Dam and barrage are usually constructed to control the water flow downstream
or in the power channel. Various measures are required to maintain the water flow,
depending on different parameters: water depth, discharge, silt concentration, climate
conditions, structural behaviour, and equipment conditions. To safeguard the nearby
community in other areas, it is necessary to control these parameters and develop
a system to understand the behaviour under different conditions. The advancement
in technology makes the monitoring of dam and Bbarrage relatively easy, which
can effectively deal with the complex situation that may arise during the operation
and control of water flow. Various intelligent technologies viz. IoT and Artificial
Intelligence can be used to monitor the parameters to control the water flow, espe-
cially during the monsoon period. Figure 6.3 shows the percentage of dam failure
cases reported in India.
132
FIGURE 6.3
Dam failure.
FIGURE 6.4
Year-wise dam failure in India.
Figures 6.4 and 6.5 show the year-wise dam failure and state-wise dam failure
scenario, respectively. In the year 1951–1960 maximum of 10 dam failures were
reported. Maximum time’s dam failures occurred in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Due to the development of advanced monitoring technologies, the failure of dams has
been substantially reduced.
b) Dam Break Analysis

Construction of dams over rivers can provide significant benefits such as
drinking and agricultural water supply as well as electric power generation
133
FIGURE 6.5
State-wise large dam failure in India
or flood control. The consequences, however, of their failure could be cata-

strophic. They vary significantly depending on the severity of the flood area,
the size of the at-risk population, and the amount of alert time available. A dam
break can result in a flood wave traveling at high speeds up to tens of meters
deep through a valley. The impact of such a wave can be very devastating for
developed areas. Modeling of dam breaks can generally be done using either
scaled hydraulic physical models or mathematical simulation. Mathematical
modeling of flood dam breaches may be done either by one-dimensional or
two-dimensional analysis. In one-dimensional analysis, information can be
obtained in the direction of flow about the extent of the flood, i.e., discharge
and water rates, variance of these with time, and flow rate via the breach. In
the case of a two-dimensional model, additional details about the inundated
field, surface elevation variance, and two-dimensional velocities can also be
expected. Dam risk management is a product of two basic factors, i.e., a dam
is always a potential danger, and should an incident occur, those involved
need to be guaranteed fair and equal protection. The risk evaluation phase,
which is the method of reviewing decisions about whether or not the current
danger is tolerable, and the risk reduction phase involves alternative risk con-
trol strategies such as the avoidance of dam maintenance, land management,
and civil safety steps taken along the valley preparedness. The primary aim of
dam-break risk reduction and hazard mitigation is to mitigate by both struc-
tural and non-structural interventions.
6.2
INVESTIGATIONS ON DAM AND BARRAGE MONITORING
To understand the application of intelligent technologies, various investigations
have been performed. Bindal et al. [1] surveyed innovative responses to fiasco
134
monitoring remote sensor systems (RSS) using debacle discovery and precau-
tionary frameworks & investigation and rescue operations. WSNs are particularly
useful in monitoring or detecting and reporting on possible natural disasters in real-
time. It also needs the networks to be as energy-efficient as possible, be reliable
in disclosing its position, withstand the climate where it was deployed, and have a
long life.
Pallavi et al. [2] introduced an IoT-based system that enables smart and remote
access for people. This technology demonstrates remote sensing and monitoring of
greenhouse parameters such as CO2, temperature, and light for the complete crop
quarter throughout the year. Eguchi et al. [3] provided an overview of how remote
sensing technologies are used in the management of natural disasters. Van et al. [4]
discussed the natural disasters in human death or injury and damage or loss of valu-
able goods. Kamilaris et al. [5] analysed the geospatial analysis potential for a better
understanding, modeling, and visualization of our natural and artificial ecosystems,
using the Internet of Things (IoT) as an all-encompassing sensing infrastructure. Ray
et al. [6] studied the disastrous events that cordially involve the momentum of nature.
Recently, due to its attractive features such as heterogeneity, interoperability, light-
weight, and flexibility, the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm has opened a promising
door to cater to a multitude of issues related to agriculture, industry, security, and
medicine. A comparison between different IoT protocols is presented in Table 6.3 to
understand the advantage and limitations of protocols.
Various researchers have also worked on the area of flood control. A comparison
between IoT-based disaster management systems proposed by different researchers
is shown in Table 6.4.
Shah et al. [13] studied the recent development of Big Data Analytics (BDA) and
IoT technologies for both disaster management systems and disaster-related author-
ities to acquire state-of-the-art assistance and improve insights for accurate and timely
decision-making. The role of disaster management system (DMS) applications and
requirements is shown in Table 6.5.
TABLE 6.3
Comparison between IoT Protocols
Parameters Bluetooth ZigBee LoRa-WANs WiMAX NB-IoT

Standard IEEE IEEE IEEE IEEE 802.16 3GPP
802.15.1 802.1.5.4 802.15.4
Frequency 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 868/915 2-66 GHz 180 kHz
Range MHz,
2.4 GHz
Transmission 8-10 m 10-100 m 10-20 km 50 km 10-15 km
Range
Cost Low High Low High Medium
135
TABLE 6.4
Comparison between IoT-Based Disaster Management Systems
IoT Cloud- Application

Article Architecture Enabled? Features Area
Ancona et al. [7] Yes No Integrate intelligent WSN Flood
with IoT
Kumar et al. [8] No No Machine to machine Flood
and ultra-low power
processing
Hernández-Nolasco No No Integrate WiFi with the Flood
et al. [9] developed system
Shalani et al. [10] Yes Yes Messaging system Flood
Lo et al. [11] Yes Yes Image processing based Flood
Real-time flood
monitoring
Inoue et al. [12] Yes Yes Topology independent Landslide
data transfer facility
TABLE 6.5
DMS Applications and Requirements
Disaster Status DMS Application DMS Requirements

Pre-disaster Disaster prediction, Early warning Reliability, Availability,
systems, and Simulation Exercises Maintainability, Accuracy,
Post-disaster Evacuation, Rescue Assistance, and Usability
Monitoring/Surveillance, Logistics
Management
A comparison between business development and analysis (BDA) tools is shown

in Table 6.6.
Sinha et al. [18] studied disaster management intending to mitigate potential dis-
aster damage, ensure immediate and appropriate assistance to victims, and achieve
effective and rapid recovery.
The literature review analyses the various techniques and devices that are
available for the monitoring and control of dams and barrages, but due to the high
cost of automation tools, monitoring of small dams and barrages is neglected. To
know the real-time situation and silt content, all the dams and barrages should
be monitored. Therefore, our aim is to propose a low-cost, effective monitoring
and control system using IoT sensors to sense the dam and barrage parameters
and feed to the cloud using a gateway device for better monitoring and control
remotely.
136
TABLE 6.6
BDA-Based Studies for Disaster Management
Text Spatial
Reference BDA Tools Data Source Analysis Analysis Focus
De et al. [14] Spark Crowdsourced Yes Yes Real-time flood
sensor data monitoring
Lin et al. [15] Spark Historical data from Yes Yes Simulation for
the metrological Typhoon risk
center assessment
Asencio- Spark Historical database Yes Yes Earthquake
Cortés et al. of earthquake magnitude
[16] catalogs prediction
Wang et al. Hadoop Social media, Yes Yes Coordination during
[17] Remote sensing disaster
6.3
CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION FOR MONITORING AND
CONTROL OF DAM/BARRAGE
NodeMCU is an open-source firmware and development kit; it includes firmware that
runs on the ESP8266 WiFi. A microcontroller unit (MCU) is a computer on a single
chip. A piezo sensor is used for the measurement of dam and barrage vibration and
shock. Barometric pressure sensors measure the absolute pressure of the air around.
The water flow (discharge) sensor consists of a pinwheel sensor that measures the
quantity of water that has passed through it. A float switch is used to sense the dam
water level. A relay module is connected to operate the gates of the dam and Barrage
remotely. Figure 6.6 shows the circuit configuration of the IoT-based dam and barrage
monitoring system.
Sensors are connected to Node MCU, and the Node MCU module is connected
to the cloud gateway. Various types of open-source web services are available.
ThingSpeak is used in our case. ThingSpeak is an IoT framework and an open-source
API to store and retrieve data from hardware devices and sensors. It uses HTTP
protocol for its communication over the Internet or LAN. It also has the facility to
analyse and visualize Hardware or Sensor Devices data. The creation of channels for
each sensor data is simple. These channels can be set as private channels or Public
Channels that can share the data publicly. Figure 6.7 shows the architecture of our
proposed model.
6.4
CONCLUSIONS
The dam and barrage are the structures mainly used to control water flow. Based on
the availability and requirement of water, it can be released with the provision of con-
trol. To tackle water control and reduce the risk of hazard, a control system is essen-
tial. In this chapter, the application of the Internet of Things (IoT) based system has
been presented to control and monitor the water flow through dams and barrages. The
137
FIGURE 6.6
Circuit configuration for dam/barrage monitoring.
FIGURE 6.7
IoT architecture for dam/barrage monitoring and controlling system.
proposed architecture will be helpful to operate a dam and barrage efficiently. It also
helps to control floods and disasters.
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139
7 An Overview of Smart
Antenna Technology
for Wireless
Communication
7.1
INTRODUCTION
There is a fundamental limit on the bandwidth of spectrum. In view of rapid growth
in the digit of subscribers for cellular mobile communication service providers
are becoming more worried about the limited channel capacities of their existing
networks. Significant work has been done to minimize these limits, e.g. the use of
coding techniques, frequency, and time to improve the channel capacity and these
efforts gives some standards on multiple-access, such as code-division multiple
access (CDMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), and frequency-division
multiple access (FDMA). Recently, there has been terrific growth in cellular mobile
users, increase in data services and personal communication systems pushing these
systems out of control of their capacities. Wireless operators need solutions for prac-
tical infrastructure and cost-effective methods that improve network coverage and
capacity to mitigate the demand for subscriber growth. This problem has been over-
come by using smart antenna technology all over major metropolitan cellular markets.
Many researchers used UWB and filtering antenna to improve the bandwidth and
gain of the antenna [1–4]. But smart antenna [5] use a set of radiating elements in an
array, the electromagnetic waves radiated from which are combined to form a mov-
able radiation beam pattern that can be directed towards the user. This specific feature
makes the antenna “smart” and minimizes the influence of noise, interference and
other issues that degrade the signal quality.
Smart antenna techniques are used for digital cellular capacity improvement, brain
tumor detection, improvement in quality of service and extent of radio coverage.
Suitability of demand-based frequency sharing in a classified system method is one of
the best applications of smart antennas. In the case of demand based frequency allo-
cation, simple receiving antennas require physically movable antennas, but for smart
antennas there is no need for physically movable receiving antennas. Smart antenna
achieved flexible antenna pattern electronically [6].
7.2
SMART ANTENNA
Smart antennas consist of a number of individual antenna elements called arrays and
associated digital signal processors which provide the “smart” portion. When antenna
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-7 139

140
arrays are used at the base station in an appropriate configuration, cellular mobile
communications offer substantial benefits in system performance by increasing spec-
trum efficiency and channel capacity [7]. Arrays can also help increase range coverage
and reduce multipath fading. Such an antenna array is known as a smart antenna. In
the literature various definitions of smart antennas are used. Smart antenna is also
known as adaptive antenna. The difference between a fixed antenna (conventional
antenna) and a smart (or adaptive) antenna is the feature of having fixed radiated
beam-patterns and adaptive radiated beam-patterns, respectively. Generally, the term
“antenna” contains only the hardware structure, which transforms radio frequency
signals traveling on a shielded wire into radiating electromagnetic waves in free space
and vice versa. This is called the radiating element. So a smart antenna can be defined
as an array of radiating elements connected to either a digital signal processor or an
analog receiver, whose radiation pattern adapts to the present signal environment.
Figure 7.1 shows the basic block diagram of a smart antenna system. A smart antenna
system consists of a control unit, a combining/dividing network and a number of
radiating elements.
The control unit can be called the brain of a smart antenna. It contains a digital
signal processor (DSP), an antenna controller and a smart scanning receiver. Output
of a smart scanning receiver is connected to the input of a digital signal processor
(DSP), and input of the antenna controller is connected through the output of a digital
signal processor (DSP). Based on several inputs, antenna feedings are controlled by
the processor using optimization of the communications channel. Depending on the
FIGURE 7.1
Block Diagram of Smart Antenna System.
141
Smart Antenna Technology for Wireless Communication 141
nature of a smart antenna system, different techniques of optimization can be used to

update receive/transmit radiation patterns, automatically. The smart scanning receiver
applies an adaptive algorithm to calculate complex weighting factors, which provide
the analytic signal at each radiating element of the array [8]. Smart antennas can be
used for signal reception as well as for the signal transmissions.
7.3
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SMART ANTENNAS
7.3.1 Advantages of Smart Antenna
Several advantages of smart antenna system
i) Increased system capacity

The nature of smart antennas are targeted or pointed, due to this the frequency
reuse concept can be applied, which allows a greater number of subscribers.
This uses the same operating frequency, which means the same operating
costs for getting frequency band, which in turn allows a greater number of
subscribers to the cellular network provider.
ii) Increased coverage area
Due to the directional nature of smart antenna on the communicating device,
the focusing gain is increased, which increases the coverage of operation. So
the coverage area by a smart antenna is increased. This can allow a smaller
number of base stations to receive coverage, which provides a cost saving to
network providers.
iii) Increased security
Conventional omni-directional antenna radiate in all directions, but smart
antennas signals don’t radiate in all directions. It ensures that if somebody
wants to track the transmissions they would need to be between two commu-
nicating devices or at the same location. Positively smart antenna provides
increased security.
iv) Decreased interference
Impact of interference between the signals is more when transmissions of the
signal radiate in all directions as compared to the signal radiated by the smart
antenna. This is due to achieving a larger range and the ability to reuse oper-
ating frequencies.
v) Reduction of signal loss in multipath fading
At the receiving end, smart antenna offers minimum signal loss in multipath
fading, so the receiver can get a stronger signal quality free of the variations
of transmitted signal due to other electromagnetic interferences and the phys-
ical environment.
vi) Overall system power is reduced by using a smart antenna system.
vii) For wireless mobile applications, there are fewer dropped calls, reduced areas
of dead zones or no-signal/low-signal, reduction of bit error rate, better recep-
tion, higher data rates, and reduction in handoff.
142
7.3.2 Disadvantages of Smart Antenna

It comes with disadvantages along with the advantages mentioned above. They are:
i) Complex in design
Smart antennas are more complex in design than a conventional antenna. This
means harder to diagnose problems or faults of the system and it may be more
likely to occur.
ii) Larger size
Smart antenna systems utilize a number of radiating elements called antenna
arrays. They are much larger in size than conventional systems.
iii) Very expensive
As smart antennas use digital signal processors, antenna controllers, and
smart scanning receivers, it makes the smart antenna system more expensive.
However, this cost must be balanced against the cost of frequency band.
iv) Inaccuracies in the digital signal processing (DSP) beam forming algorithms.
7.4
TYPES OF SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM
Smart antenna systems are categorized according to the various features of the smart
antenna, for example, digital beam forming, a phased array, spatial processing, and
intelligent antenna etc.
Generally, these systems are categorized into two main classes as shown in
Figure 7.2, based on their communicating devices. But in recent research work on
smart antenna one more technique, hybrid smart antenna, is mentioned [9].
A) Switched Beam System: In this kind of smart antenna system many fixed
antennas are connected to a controlled RF switch; i.e. RF power is measured
from a set of fixed beams and provides RF outputs from the assigned beam(s)
to an indicated base-station receiver.
B) Digitally Adaptive Beamforming (DAB) System: In this kind of smart
antenna system adaptive techniques are used to improve the radio channel
FIGURE 7.2
Types of Smart Antenna System.
143
link. This system uses separate antennas and each antenna is connected with a
digital down converter then the signal is digitized and processed.
C) Hybrid Smart Antenna System: In this system, a smart switch is used first
to select a set of radiating elements which has maximum receiving signal
strength, then in a second step a digital beam-forming is used to adjust the
weighting coefficients adaptively only for the selected subset of radiating
elements. Therefore, in the DSP adaptation process a minimum number of
signals are involved, which in turn leads to faster convergence rates [10].
Generally, the main beam of the smart antenna points in the direction of the user with
increased gain and it directs nulls or no signal in the path of the interfering signal.
This is common in both switched beam and a DAB system, but the optimum gain is
provided by the DAB system only. The null forming capability of the DAB system
offers major performance over the switched beam techniques. In order to enhance
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and/or received signal strength (RSS), most smart
antennas form narrow beams focused on specific subscribers. Recently, researchers
used a hybrid smart antenna system to overcome the disadvantages present in DAB
and switched beam system.
In this chapter, the three types of smart antenna systems are explained in detail
one by one.
7.4.1 Switched Beam System

In comparison to the digitally adaptive techniques the switched beam approach is
simple. It offers a significant increase in the capacity of cellular network as compared
to sector-based systems or traditional antenna systems. The basic idea of this system
is to provide the best aligned signal to the subscribers from the existing receiver base-
stations. It means that when an incoming signal is identified, the base station defines
the best aligned signal strength radiated beam in the desired direction and then shifts
to that beam to connect with the subscribers.
In this simplest technique, basic switching function connected between prede-
fined radiated beams of an array or separate directive antennas play an important
role. How accurately and quickly the subscriber’s radio link is connected to the best
radiated beam (the subscriber resides best signal) without any degradation to voice
quality, depends only on the performance of switching matrix. The receivers take the
radio frequency signals from the multibeam antennas or array antennas and select
the radiated beam to provide the best signal to noise ratio (SNR) or received signal
strength. Normally, each beam of multibeam antennas has roughly 2-7dB more dir-
ective gain compared to the traditional antennas. Due to the high directivity of the
antenna, achieved interference suppression and increased antenna gain. Switched
beam antenna is implemented easily in existing cell structures but it contributes a
limited improvement.
The basic architecture of the switched beam system is shown in Figure 7.3.
A Switching Matrix is combined with an array of N antennas, which adds the signals
at the RF stage and generates N different radiating beams as an output. A Butler
matrix is used as a Switching Matrix. A Butler matrix is a beamforming network used
144
FIGURE 7.3
Switched beam system.
to feed antenna elements. Butler matrix controls the direction of radiated beams, of
radio transmission. It consists of a n × n matrix of hybrid couplers and fixed-value
phase shifters where n is the power of 2. Matrix has N input ports from which power
is applied, and N output ports connected with N antenna elements. The direction of
the beam is controlled by power switching to the desired input port. This type of smart
antenna system uses a separate smart receiver to observe the signal strength at every
port of the antenna for all subscribers, and selects the antenna port for a specified user
with the highest received signal strength. Then another switch generates a line from
the output port of the antenna to the desired radio frequency channel.
The base station creates different cells or sectors and each cell has a different
operating frequency. As shown in Figure 7.3, a smart receiver is connected to the
switch matrix, which scans all radiated beams and operating frequencies in the cell
and selects the best beam which has better received signal strength. After selection
of beam smart receiver a command is sent to the switch matrix. Then the switching
matrix generates a path to the receiver from the selected beams.
Each cell receives N antenna beams from the N radiating elements, so the resultant
antenna gain is increased.
Increased Antenna Gain = 10 log ( N ) dBi, where‘N ’ is number of radiating elements

(7.1)
For example, if five radiating elements (N =5) are used then the increased gain is
approximately 7dBi.
Figure 7.4 shows the pattern of beamforming smart antenna system. From
Figure 7.4 it is clear that a beamforming system has a fixed beam pattern but it
depends on the direction of user whether that particular beam will be active.
Figure 7.5 shows the switched strategy of beamforming smart antenna. The
main beam is the direction of the desired user and side lobes are the direction of an
undesired user. Such a type of system significantly improves the range, interference
145
FIGURE 7.4
Coverage of switched beam smart antenna.
FIGURE 7.5
Switching scheme.
and capacity. But switched beam systems have some limitations. When the user
moves in a cell, the signal strength varies because this system has predetermined
beams. So, at the edge of the cell the signal strength decreases. Another limitation in
this system is for interference avoidance because this system does not differentiate
between the desired signal and interfering one.
7.4.2 Digitally Adaptive Beamforming (DAB) System

Digitally adaptive beamforming technology is the advanced approach for designing
the smart antenna system. Adaptive beamforming systems use a new signal-processing
algorithm, which is different from the switched beam system. The main advantages of
146
adaptive beamforming system are its ability to efficiently track and detect the various
RF signals to minimize the interference and maximize the signal reception, dynam-
ically. This technology is very beneficial for military services because this approach
has the ability to monitor and detect signals even in very crucial interference envir-
onments. However, this technology is very costly and more complex to connect with
existing base stations. This system also integrates with arrays of radiating elements,
like switched beam systems.
Figure 7.6 shows the architecture of a digitally adaptive beamforming system.
The received RF signal from every spatially distributed antenna element is first down
converted to an intermediate frequency (IF), then converted to digital signal by using
analog to digital converter and then multiplied by a weight. The nature of weights is
complex and it adjusts the phase and amplitude of the signal. Weights are calculated
by a complicated processing algorithm into the digital signal-processing unit that
controls the radiated signal by the base station. After being multiplied by a weight,
the weighted digitized signal is added in a pre-programmed complicated processing
algorithm to produce the array output.
Digitally adaptive beamforming systems continuously detect the mobile user by
focusing the main beam towards the user and at the same time creating nulls in the
direction of the interfering signal as shown in Figure 7.7. DAB systems can also be
categorized as dynamically phased arrays and Adaptive Antenna Array. In dynamic-
ally phased arrays an algorithm for received signal is applied, called direction of
arrival, which allows the system to continuously monitor and detect the subscriber.
In Adaptive Antenna Array an algorithm is applied to determine the position of inter-
fering users and produce a null pattern towards the interfering users.
FIGURE 7.6
Digitally adaptive beamforming system.
147
FIGURE 7.7
Adaptive switching strategy.
A simple way to understand the digitally adaptive beamforming system is to

follow these steps:
• The channel to interference (C/I) or signal-to interference noise ratio (SINR) is

minimized on the first step of work. Therefore, the possibility to pass the dis-
tortion using less signal by cancelling the interfering users. This step is called
null steering.
• After the null steering process on the first step, it works on maximizing the
signal to background noise ratio on the second step, by focusing the preferred
beam in the direction of the source. This step is called beam steering.
The ability to reject the high interference is the best advantage of a digitally adaptive
beamforming system. It provides s greater degree of freedom.
7.5
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEM AND
DIGITALLY ADAPTIVE BEAMFORMING SYSTEM
The following differences are found in both the systems:
Digitally adaptive
Characteristics Switched beam beamforming
Area where low level of Provide increased gain over Also provide increased gain over
interference occurs conventional sectorized conventional sectorized system
system
Area where high level of Less effective More effective
interference occurs
Interference rejection Less More
capacity
Covering area Less More
Penetration levels Low High
(continued)
148
Digitally adaptive
Characteristics Switched beam beamforming
Radiation pattern It forms multiple fixed beam It can customize an appropriate
in particular directions. radiation pattern for each
individual user.
Channel Capacity Detects signal strength and Directs the main beam
chooses from one of several towards the pilot signal while
predefined fixed beams and suppressing the antenna pattern
switches from one beam to in the direction of interferers. So
another beam as the cellular it has ability to share spectrum
phone moves throughout the and support simultaneously two
sector. users in a same cell.
7.6
APPLICATIONS OF SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM
The applications for smart antennas are given below:
• Smart antennas are used in cellular and wireless networks.

• They are used in satellite systems to provide better response.
• Very suitable to use for electronic warfare as a countermeasure to electronic
jamming.
• They can be used in RADAR for air traffic control.
• They can be used in SONAR for finding the source location.
• They can be used in imaging.
• They can be used for earth crust mapping and for oil exploration.
• They can also be used in biomedical for fetal heart monitoring, neuronal spike
discrimination, hearing aids etc.
7.7
CONCLUSIONS
Smart antennas systems provide several advantages over conventional antenna or
sector antennas. Smart antenna provides range extension, increased capacity, reduc-
tion of multipath fading and inter-symbol interference. In this chapter, fundamental
concepts of the smart antenna system have been reviewed. This chapter tries to give
a brief explanation of smart antenna, advantages and disadvantages of smart antenna,
types of smart antenna. The working of switched beam techniques and digitally
adaptive beamforming techniques are discussed in detail. It also discussed the latest
research on smart antenna like hybrid smart antenna. This chapter also presented
the differences between switched beam and digitally adaptive beamforming smart
antenna system. Finally, it presented the different applications of smart antenna
system.
149
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150
151
8 UAV
Communication and Object
Detection System
8.1
INTRODUCTION
In the last few years, with the rapid technological advancement in computation,
sensor devices and communication technologies and networking such as Mobile
Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) and its applications like Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks
(VANET) [1, 2, 3] and Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANET), it has become possible to
establish wireless communication between small, portable and flexible devices such
as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), which can fly autonomously or are operated
without the presence of a human being. The operation of UAVs is currently an
important and challenging topic of research. Nowadays, UAVs represent a reliable
and affordable tool suitable for a variety of applications, such as intelligence, surveil-
lance and reconnaissance [4], on-board health monitoring [5], location monitoring
[9], aerial videography & photography [10], search and rescue [11], relaying network
[9], air traffic monitoring [10], transportation industries and precision agriculture
[11]. UAVs can fly in the sky with full network connectivity capabilities and perform
all types of needful operations [12]. Many of these applications necessitate computer
vision algorithms, particularly object detection using onboard camera data. Besides,
several tiny or mini-UAVs can be used compared to a single UAV. Because the group
of small UAVs can effectively complete assigned tasks autonomously with minimum
time. In addition, all types of small UAVs are also called smart vehicles, which are
fitted with the appropriate hardware and configured with digital maps, high-resolution
cameras, micro-embedded computers, sensors, computing devices, GPS and other
advance processing tools. These smart vehicles improve the technical effectiveness of
assigned tasks in a highly complex environment with flexible manners.
Furthermore, UAVs have attracted so much attention from the government, defence,
academia, and industry as having a large number of advantages for reducing time,
minimize costs, and upgraded safety. Recently, the UAV market has grown steadily
in the military, consumer as well as commercial sectors. Markets and Markets’ latest
analysis of the global UAV market announced that the UAV market is estimated at
USD 27.4 billion in 2021 and is projected to reach USD 58.4 billion by 2026, at a
CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate) of 16.4% from 2021 to 2026 [13]. One of
the most important reasons expected to drive the growth of the UAV market is the use
of military UAVs by defence forces around the world. The growing usage of UAVs in
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-8 151

152
FIGURE 8.1
Growth of UAV market from 2021 according to markets and markets.
a variety of business applications is also helping to drive the UAV industry forward.
The UAV market has been split into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and the
Middle East, as shown in Figure 8.1. In 2021, North America is expected to be the
leading market for UAVs.
Although lots of research has been done on supporting UAVs environment, there
are some areas where researchers can more constrained over future direction in com-
munication, such as:
• Block chain-based application and security solution for UAVs.

• AI based routing techniques for communication between UAVs.
• Future Internet through UAVs.
• Emerging Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud applications with UAVs network.
• Energy Harvesting and Efficiency in UAVs.
• Machine Learning and Deep Learning with UAVs network.
8.2
APPLICATION SCENARIOS OF UAVS
The usage of UAVs is growing day by day. Over the past few years, it is used in many
civil and military applications. Several flying devices (UAVs) have been developed
in 3D space to communicate with each other to collaborate for specific applications.
Figure 8.2 describes some popular applications of UAVs. The history of UAV started
153
UAV: Communication and Object Detection System 153
FIGURE 8.2
UAVs application in different areas.
in the early 1960s when the Air Force used it as a weapon system. Later, the govern-
ment commercialized the technology, allowing both public and private groups to
use UAVs. UAVs were employed for search and rescue operations during Hurricane
Katrina, the deadliest hurricane in Louisiana history, in 2005. They were also used in
the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster on March 11, 2011, and the Nepal earthquake
on April 25, 2015 [14]. Many human lives have been saved as a result of this concept
and technology, demonstrating the utility of the UAV network. Now, in this section
authors describe some new growing application areas where UAVs can play a major
role [15].
8.2.1 Research Trends and Technologies

Academicians and researchers are increasingly interested in the use of UAVs. Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies have recently emerged
as crucial concepts for UAVs to operate autonomously without the assistance of a
human and analysed the massive amounts of data acquired by these UAVs. Applying
advanced feature extraction algorithms of ML can also help to obtain new findings
from real-time data through onboard UAVs. Furthermore, Big Data, IoT, Cloud
Computing, Image Processing, etc. also growing concepts in UAVs network for
storing, capturing, analysing as well as monitoring the data [16].
154
8.2.2 Construction and Infrastructure Investigation

The multi-UAV concept can be utilized for real-time monitoring in inaccessible
regions that are difficult to reach by humans, such as tank inspections, flue inspections,
rooftop inspections, power transmission lines inspections, and even building sites. As
a result, without the need for a physical presence, the investigator human can monitor
all places with the assistance of UAVs for greater visibility and work progress.
8.2.3 Media and Entertainments

News media firms increasingly rely on the UAV network to promptly deliver the most
up-to-date information to users while expanding their coverage area. Recently, UAVs
have become a famous filmmaker’s tool, with the entertainment industry using them
to create various feature films.
8.2.4 Product Delivery
Vaccines, meals, blood, and medical samples can be transported into and out of rural
or inaccessible areas using UAVs. Some well-known firms, such as Amazon, Walmart,
Google, and others, have been investing significant money in drone delivery schemes
in recent years. Currently, Amazon offers Prime Air, which ensures that items are
delivered safely from Amazon.com to customers. By 2021, Amazon and Uber plan to
launch their drone-based food delivery service.
8.2.5 Onboard Health Planning

The multiple onboard health monitoring plans have recently been the subject of
study on UAV applications. The Wireless Body Area Sensor Network (WBAN) and
UAV networks let medical professionals and patients communicate more effectively.
Health monitoring planning can improve this planning to monitor patients via WBAN
by transmitting Personal Health Information (PHI) to a neighbouring hospital over a
UAV network in distant regions where connectivity is complex. These ideas deliver
high-quality treatment at an early stage and respond quickly to patients in need.
8.2.6 Smart City Management

UAV frameworks can provide several opportunities and advanced services for the
development of any smart city. With the help of IoT (Internet of Things) services,
UAV networks can be used as various applications and functions in smart cities like
pollution monitoring, crowd management, intelligent transportation system, environ-
mental hazards monitoring and many more.
8.2.7 Reconnaissance and Patrolling

In this application, the UAV network keeps an eye on a precise, determined area that
is usually patrolled on a regular basis for inspection due to security reasons. A swarm
155
of UAVs in the border surveillance area may identify and capture photographs of
objects such as random human disturbances, drugs, and unlawful materials, including
weapons, as well as illegal border crossings.
8.3
MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF UAVS
Despite several technological advancements in UAVs, there are still so many
limitations, issues and in addition to other constraints which can affect the performance
of the UAV network. In this section authors showing some issues through Figure 8.3
and then major challenges related to UAVs are discussed. Although many analysts
and researchers have worked hard to improve the performance of UAV networks, due
to its unique characteristics, such as the high mobility of UAVs and the network’s
frequent topology changes, this network continues to face several problems, issues,
and challenges [17].
8.3.1 Mobility Models
Choosing correct mobility models in the UAV network is also a very challenging task.
As we know, in a traditional ad-hoc network such as MANET, node movements are
always in specific regions. In VANET nodes are moving on the road, but in FANET
or UAV network, nodes fly in the sky only, away from the ground. All the UAVs move
on a prearranged path; therefore, the mobility model will be regular [18]. But for any
specific task, the flight plan being not prearranged means it can be rescheduled and
directly affect the mobility model of UAV network.
FIGURE 8.3
UAVs issues.
156
8.3.2 High Reliability
FANETs environment can also be useful for transmitting sensitive military informa-
tion that requires secure and guaranteed data delivery in a time bound manner with
low latency and high reliability. FANETs reliability concept is achieved by forming
an ad-hoc network between UAVs, but due to high mobility, and dynamic network
topology, communication links down between UAVs. Therefore, high reliability is
also a challenging issue in FANETs.
8.3.3 Routing
Routing protocols are the most important part of a UAN network, which aims to
control all flow both between UAVs and other devices connected to them. Although
there are already several existing routing protocols available for traditional ad-hoc
networks, these protocols partially fail in a network created by UAVs environment
due to the high speed of the UAVs and highly dynamic nature of network topology
[19]. Therefore, there is a need to develop new efficient routing protocols, which is
improving the performance of the network.
8.3.4 Path Scheduling
Due to dynamic changes such as weather conditions, adding and deleting UAVs, fixed
impediments, active threats, and so on, any UAV may deviate from its previous path
during some vital missions. In such circumstances, the new path should be dynam-
ically determined. As a result, new algorithms and methods for dynamic approach
planning are required for UAV networks to communicate and coordinate.
8.3.5 Quality of Service (QoS)

UAVs are utilized for transmission of a variety of data such as GPS location, images,
streaming videos & audio, and many more. But due to UAV movement and link
outage the QoS metrics may be affected. Therefore, efficient data delivery techniques
and some new coding schemes are needed to improve real-time data quality ser-
vices in such networks to overcome issues such as delay, throughput, bandwidth, and
packet loss [20].
8.3.6 Security Issues
Ensuring confidentiality, availability and integrity of information during the commu-
nication between UAVs is one of the major issues faced by the UAV network [18].
Also, physically very small UAVs like mini-UAVs are always preferred in different
types of applications of UAV networks. Therefore, they can be very easily stolen.
Consequently, much research is required from a security point of view for UAVs.
157
8.3.7 Energy Constraint
Energy consumption by UAVs in FANETs is one of the most critical challenges for
time tacking missions. Usually, UAVs are battery fuelled, which is utilized for various
3D on-board information exchanging tasks. On the other hand, due to the limited
energy of UAVs, a decision must be made as to whether UAVs can perform on-board
data analysis or data should be stored for later analysis [21].
Even if these concerns are resolved and UAVs can be fully integrated into the
civil aviation system, less apparent issues could stymie UAV development and market
potential. The following are examples of hidden problems:
• Public concern of UAVs

• Inadequate data-exchange networks
• Poor privacy and security regulations on UAV operations
• Airspace capacity restrictions
8.4
UAV COMMUNICATIONS
In recent years, the UAV has been used in various traditional mobile network systems,
including flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs), which allow numerous UAVs to connect
to exchange critical information satellite communication systems, antenna design and
many more. Communication modules and protocols are crucial for establishing a
functioning UAV communication network. The research community has proposed
several methodologies that take into account a few essential elements such as antenna
design, network architecture, and resource management platforms [22]. According to
the community any important mission carried out by UAVs network, two networking
modes must be enabled: first, UAV-to-UAV (U2U) communication also known as
ad-hoc communication, in which all UAVs may be connected to each other or via
other UAVs and second, UAV-to-Infrastructure (U2I) communication also known as
cellular mode communication, either individually or more UAVs can connect to the
infrastructure such as ground station, UAV-control centre, satellite etc. [23]. However,
these communications have faced many challenges for transmitting or receiving
data about performing various operations due to the unique characteristics of UAVs
network such as the high mobility and the energy restrictions of UAVs etc. UAV
communications are also shown in Figure 8.4.
8.4.1 Object Detection System

Due to the ever-increasing volume of digital images in both public and private
collections, object detection systems demand. In recent years UAVs have grown in
popularity as a low-cost option for aerial photography. On the other hand, object
detection with UAVs is difficult and complex due to a range of imaging situations such
as image noise, low resolution, small target sizes, blur, and many more. Furthermore,
embedded hardware’s significant weight and size constraints limit UAVs’ ability to
conduct demanding calculation methods with limited hardware resources [24].
158
FIGURE 8.4
UAV communications.
Object detection, which aims to identify an object category, has always been a
hot topic in the computer vision area. Early methods use the extraction of specified
features and background information to detect objects in UAV photos. Researchers
in [25, 26, 27] used a saliency map generated from the image background to detect
objects in UAV images. To assist background extraction from objects, Kalantar et al.
[28] perform object detection based on region adjacency graphs of visual appearance
and geometric features. Using background reduction and HoG feature extraction
algorithms, Portmann et al. [29] locate pedestrians in UAV images. Although these
methods have been shown to be accurate in terms of detection, they rely heavily on the
descriptive way of visual attributes and viewpoints. Furthermore, these approaches
have a hard time extracting overlapping objects that are prevalent in congested areas,
which limits their ability to move between tasks.
A camera is also built into the UAV, distinguishing things, tracking their movements,
and providing visual data as a reference for instructing the UAV to follow the target.
The camera emits a signal in an image, which is then processed to get the desired
result. Many image processing techniques can be used to identify an item and track its
motions applied. The object tracking system uses different image processing methods
to retrieve image data to determine the tracked object. Deep learning approaches for
object detection have recently gained extraordinary success. Two types of techniques
can be distinguished: two-stage approaches and one-stage approaches. The two-stage
159
approaches detect objects based on both a region proposal network and object regres-
sion network (such as Faster R-CNN, Cascade R-CNN, Libra R-CNN, MS-CNN,
FPN, etc.), while one-stage approaches focus on regression or classification networks
without region proposals (such as YOLOv1-4, SSD, G-CNN, DSOD) [30]. One-
stage algorithms are often more computationally efficient than two-stage algorithms,
although they have lesser accuracy. Researchers in [31, 32], combine object detection
and depth prediction for images produced by micro-UAVs to improve detection, spe-
cifically in UAV images. However, because stereo images are typically difficult to get,
their potential applicability is severely limited.
8.4.2 Limitations of Automating the Utilization of Aerial Imagery

When it comes to automating the interpretation of drone imagery, there are various
obstacles to overcome. A couple of these are listed below:
• Flat and small view of objects: Human-centric images taken horizontally at a

close distance to the object are used to build and test current computer vision
algorithms and datasets in a lab setting. The objects of interest in UAV photog-
raphy captured vertically are small and have fewer features, typically appearing
flat and rectangular.
• Difficulty in labelling data: Following up on the previous issue, even if we
were able to obtain a large number of images, we would still need to classify
them. This is a manual process that requires precision and accuracy. There is no
miraculous way to label something other than by hand.
• Large image sizes: Drone images are typically large, with resolutions
exceeding 3000px X 3000px in most cases. This increases the computational
complexity of processing such images.
• Object overlap: One issue with breaking up photos is that the same object can
appear in two different images. This results in double detection and counting
problems. Furthermore, certain items that are very close to each other during
detection may have overlapping bounding boxes.
8.5
CONCLUSION
UAVs have become one of the fastest-growing fields, with several applications in
a variety of fields. UAVs have made numerous breakthroughs, paving the stage for
their complete integration as intelligent object detection systems. This chapter thor-
oughly investigated the basic architecture of UAV communication, key applications,
and challenges. After that, a basic introduction of the object detection system and
limitations is briefly discussed.
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9 Smart Pole System

A Connectivity to
City Services
9.1
INTRODUCTION
In smart cities, street light poles play a major role. The main source of light on a road
is fulfilled by street lighting and it is installed on the sides of the road. The conven-
tional streetlights use heavy materials, halogen bulbs and more power. In this era of
technological advancement and revolution, the conventional street lighting systems
are now out of date. Streetlights are among the most common infrastructure in cities.
Sensors in the street lights can be combined to make an interface of data collection.
Smart street lighting is one of the important applications in a smart city. The smart
poles combine the benefits of mobile connectivity and LED lighting in a “lighting-
and-service” model for cities. It allows city authorities to offer space inside their
associated lighting poles to network for mobile infrastructure dealers.
The arrangement of 4G/LTE wireless mobile infrastructure on smart poles provides
better coverage, reduced radiation, reduced signal dropouts, improved data speeds,
etc. The telecom infrastructure of the city is vastly improved by using the smart pole.
Generally, LED street lighting saves energy of 50 to 70 percent but it can improve
and give a 80 percent saving by attaching the smart controls on the street light pole.
The main function of the smart poles is to provide street lighting, Wi-Fi hotspot ser-
vices, surveillance camera and mobile broadband infrastructure. These facilities are
controlled by the central command where it can be managed and monitored regu-
larly. Smart pole can also be used for other commercial purposes, namely, environ-
mental sensor, electronic vehicle charging, smart billboard, etc. However, it should be
confirmed that the main functions are not disturbed in any way while using the same
smart pole for other commercial purposes.
Smart pole is the basic pillar of Smart city [1]. Around the world today, everything
and everyone is attached to the Internet in one way or another. Many investigators have
published their research work on smart pole system. Some researchers are working to
control the streetlight of smart pole. A few of them are presented here. A street light
management system based on cloud platform and sensors to function the lighting con-
trol is proposed by Y.S. Yang et al. [2]. This system is accomplished to provide real
time data from the street pole to the user. The virtualization technology is presented
to utilize the edge and cloud services. E-street system based on vehicle tracking is
DOI: 10.1201/9781003181699-9 163

164
presented in Jain et al. [3]. This system provides the on/off switches for streetlighting
by tracking the vehicle. Streetlighting turns on when the system detected in front of
the vehicle and streetlighting turns off when vehicle crawl in lights. An alarm is also
used when the vehicle is stopped for a longer time. But this system is not able to iden-
tify the condition of the vehicle.
Several methods have been developed and used to increase the effectiveness
of the system. ID3 algorithm is used to make the street light decision making
as presented in Y M Jagadeesh et al. [4]. In this mechanism, the first and last
streetlights must be switched on using the sensors connected with them to detect
the vehicle. Prediction algorithm based on previous data is used to optimise the
time space at which street lighting will stand ON during the times that traffic is
present [5].
Controlling and monitoring of smart streetlighting using IOT is presented in
Mathew et al. [6]. In this system a LoRa/LoRaWAN network is used to observe the
sensors and also to manage the switching functionality from a point of interest. This
system is excellently applicable for indoor and exterior lighting. It increases the
system efficiency by sending information about defected sensors. Presented system
provides the control over sensors to save the consumption of electricity.
In C. Kruger et al. [7] fault detection of smart streetlights over powerline using
frequency shifting key (FSK) modulation is presented. This system also used LDR-
based light sensors to control the LED light intelligently.
Brute-Force search algorithm is used to reduce the electricity consumption of
smart street light system as presented in [8]. This system consists of segment con-
troller, pole controllers, lux meter with powerline interface, power line communi-
cation transceivers, WiMAX modem, PIR sensor, and management software. The
dimming and switching instructions are sent to every lighting pole through power
lines. These instructions are controlled by pole controller and also shared with the
management system at the end.
Analysis of varying time-based traffic using an optimal statistical method for
energy optimization is presented in [9]. Zgbee mesh network along with LED tech-
nology is used to provide maximum energy efficiency. Real time data is implemented
to validate the performance of this system, which saves the energy from 68 to 82%.
Another Lighting Scheme Management based on Traffic-Aware network to min-
imize energy consumption and improved efficiency of the system is presented in [10].
Chetna et al. [11] presented a Smart Street Lighting System, which includes passive
infrared sensor (PIR sensor) and Zigbee devices on each pole to sense the information
of pedestrians and vehicles. This system also includes the array of sensors to provide
services like humidity, telemetry and temperature.
Smart pole should be designed in such a way that it can be used for telecom,
street light, surveillance camera, traffic post and much more. Figure 9.1 shows the
design structure of the smart pole system. Generally, if we use individual conven-
tional poles for the above mentionned work then we have to install a number of poles
to achieve our purpose, which will not only be cost ineffective but also energy ineffi-
cient. Nowadays there are huge numbers of companies working on it to optimize the
smart pole w.r.t. cost and efficiency.
165
Smart Pole System 165
9.2
LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL POLE SYSTEM
The limitations of the conventional pole system are given below:
• Manpower requirement is more to control and maintain the streetlights.

• It takes more time to process.
• There is no fault warning to check a complaint.
• Pole inclination detection feature is not available.
• Due to no intimation of fault, it is very difficult to initiate a repair.
To overcome the above limitations, the following are preferred in implementation and
designing of a smart pole system:
• Consumption of energy, maintenance and its cost should be minimized.

• Improve real-time collaboration, decision making and situational awareness
across city.
• Without adding more physical infrastructure, provide community safety and
public utilities by adding intelligent IT innovations.
• Real-time data communications with low latency (or minimal delay), to improve
operational efficiency.
• Make pole sensitive to various parameters of the pole to take necessary further
action.
• In the circuit microcontroller Raspberry Pi3 will be programmed by Python
programming language, which will assist in message passing and generation.
• Huge database will be stored on a cloud-based service according to particular
areas, and will be shared with the admin.
• At the admin end, a web portal will be used to receive information from the
cloud and will be available to the admin and staff.
9.3
BENEFITS OF SMART POLE SYSTEM
By introducing public Wi-Fi access points, smart lighting systems, mobile broadband
small cells, multipurpose sensors for traffic congestion, monitoring air quality, and
CCTV cameras, it becomes easier to build smarter cities.
9.3.1 Improving City Operations

The establishment of smart poles provides various advantages to governments and
city developers. They allow traffic monitoring, provide valuable data to municipal-
ities that can help in smooth traffic flows, help in maintenance and assist urgent team
setup. The implementation of smart poles for preventing accidents and decreasing
traffic jams are driving the marketplace. Cameras attached with smart poles can detect
the road conditions. Alternative key function is increasing energy regulation as these
poles have replaced traditional halogen lamps with energy efficient LED lamps and
also controlled it remotely.
166
9.3.2 Decreasing Emergency Response Time

Smart pole technology connected with the Internet of Things (IoT), first responders
and emergency service providers have an impressive smart identification tool that can
assist them to reduce the gap of emergency response.
9.3.3 Environmental Aspects
The long-term solution for the city air pollution is city-wide emission reduction.
Smart poles can assist in recognizing high contamination regions. Sensors of smart
poles regularly scan numerous ecological aspects and show the information to assist
citizens and limit their aspect to air pollution. This also allows city developers to
make effective conclusions by using the collected data.
9.3.4 Data Monetization Probabilities

Smart poles also present a potential revenue source for cities. Apart from providing
important emergency messages, the attached displays offered opportunities for
personalized marketing promotions. Further, stalking movement of pedestrian and
traffic in the street can be monetized for personal business growth and other city
development applications. Smart poles can contribute license telecom infrastructure
to many carriers observed to be utilizing fast connection speeds.
9.3.5 International Market
The international smart pole retail has gained amazing thrust in modern years. As stated
in a report by Genesis [12], the international smart pole retail is estimated to grow at a
17.34 percent of CAGR from $6.03 billion in 2017 to $15.74 billion by 2023. In future,
countries together with Japan, India, and China are expected to grow powerfully.
9.4
SMART POLE SYSTEM DESIGN
The following should be taken into consideration while designing the smart pole [13].
Figure 9.1 shows the functions of the smart pole system.
9.4.1 5G Enabled Smart Pole with LED Street Lighting

The application spectrum enabled by fast 5G growth is about to cover a range of
wireless technologies and services [14]. The frequency band for ‘5G’ communication
has been discussed worldwide and it has been suggested it focus on the two bands,
3.6 GHz and 26 GHz bands. A survey conducted by Electronic Communications
Committee ‘ECC’ in 2017 for 5G communication suggested the frequency band of
24.25–27.5 GHz as the prioritized bands. Smart pole system has a concept for 5G-
enabling poles (5GPs) with street light and different sensors.
The requirements of 5G base station sites become large, so the operation and
cost of positioning for mobile network operators (MNOs) are high. As the wireless
167
FIGURE 9.1
Design structure of smart pole system.
technology advances, the coverage area of the mobile tower decreases, which means
requirement of a mobile tower increases to cover the same area, which was covered
by previous wireless technology. Nowadays it is very difficult to provide continuous
telecom coverage to customers. To fulfil the above mentionned requirement all
telecom operators need to install huge numbers of mobile towers all over the city,
which is not only cost inefficient, but also crowded the whole city with huge numbers
of mobile towers. To overcome this issue, we can use smart poles as a telecom tower,
which will be very beneficial w.r.t. cost and congestion.
9.4.2 PIR Sensor
• A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor. It measures
infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view.
• When any objects pass through the PIR sensor’s field, it detects the motion of
objects.
• Different objects emit infrared rays of different wavelengths. These rays are
not visible to the human eye, but PIR sensors can detect easily. The PIR sensor
worked as an IR detector.
• Initially, the operating level of intensity is kept low at around 30 percent for the
smart pole system. The intensity of PIR sensors goes high up to 100 percent
when a trigger occurs either due to the weather conditions or due to movement
of objects. After the trigger is removed, the intensity of the PIR sensor goes
back to low at around 30 percent. This can either be due to a preset delay, or due
to no movement being detected.
9.4.3 Wi-Fi Hotspot Services

Easy and convenient way to connect a whole city to access the wireless internet ser-
vice is Wi-Fi Hotspot. As a part of Wi-Fi solution, the concessionaire wants to offer
168
DNS, Internet bandwidth from Internet Service Provider (ISP), Wi-Fi controller.
A hotspot is a physical place where the user can access the Internet, using Wi-Fi,
via a wireless local area network (WLAN). These places are referred to as “Wi-Fi
hotspots”.
9.4.4 CCTV Surveillance Camera

Security technology that records the activities of people such as detecting, inves-
tigating or preventing the threats of crime for the public can be defined as a sur-
veillance camera [15]. It prevents a community being vulnerable to extortion and is
beneficial in crime investigation.
Integration of the camera with IoT and the skilled neural network is applied to be
categorized regardless of the image recorded from the CCTV, which covers a gun
leading to a potentially unsafe task that could end up in brutality, so it creates a
warning, also assigns track to analyse the gun-related brutality rates in the town [16].
This system can be applied to detection of other cases too, such as, unaccounted
baggage, accidents, stray trash, missing kids etc. Identification of moving objects
(pedestrians and vehicles) is of principal significance in road traffic identification
and organization as well as applicable in smart street lighting command applications
when traffic data are examined.
9.4.5 Traffic Control Management

For an advanced city, the traffic system should be first class and secure. For this all
the poles should be equipped with sensors to collect real time information related to
traffic to manage the smooth movement of the vehicle. All the emergency vehicles
should be assigned a special bar code according to their emergency services. If the
sensors mounted on these poles sense the presence of an emergency vehicle, then
it transmits the information to the next traffic post with the help of a transmitter
mounted on the same pole. And the traffic post clears the route accordingly to give
smooth passage to these emergency vehicles.
An intelligent traffic monitoring system is needed to control heavy road traffic
intelligently, especially on certain routes due to an instant rise in population and
vehicle demand. Darbari et al. [17] presented an intelligent traffic monitoring system
using the Internet of Things (IoT). It recommends that assumption based Hierarchical
Cluster Analysis can be used to achieve this objective. The whole world is connected
with some information that can be used to assist in creating clusters. To intercon-
nect between heterogeneous environments, web services can be utilized as a medium.
Using Fuzzy logic, traffic monitoring system becomes decision-making.
9.4.6 Air Pollution Sensors

Air pollution in the environment is detected and monitored using air pollution
sensors. The several sensors used in this system are NO2, CO2, CO, Humidity
169
sensors, Temperature and Particulate Matter, which are accountable for reporting and
monitoring the real time data of these factors.
Air Quality Index of a city must be low for a healthy livelihood. An air quality index
(AQI) is used by various agencies to measure how polluted it is estimated to become or
how polluted the air currently is. Risks to public health increase as the AQI increases.
Measuring air pollution levels of an area with cost-effective and good accuracy has been
a challenge. This sensor should be installed in regular intervals at all crowded places.
9.4.7 Electronic Vehicle Charger

Electric vehicles (EV) are the development of green car technology to encourage the
necessity for unpolluted environment [18]. Thus, the demand of the public vehicle
charging system is growing day by day. Recently, the use of distributed charging
points based on sustainable energy sources for electric vehicles is hugely demanding
of a green technology alternative. The electric vehicles are connected with energy
sources in two ways. In the first way, EV connected directly with the DC current
of the grid [19]. In the second way, EV connected with the AC current, providing
an inverter in the distributed grid [20]. Understanding the charging behaviours of
existing EV users to improve the operation and efficiency of EV charging system.
The location of charging, charge duration, the amount of energy they need, and their
selected mode of charging are included in the charging behaviours of users [21].
The input EV voltage of AC220V/40A, identification of users and visual informa-
tion on the state of charging are the desired features of the charging system. RFID
(radio frequency identification) technology is used to automatically identify the users.
Microstrip patch antenna is printed on the RFID to transmit and receive the infor-
mation of the user by electromagnetic waves. Availability of EV charging system on
smart pole, make the smart pole more advanced.
9.4.8 Fast EV Charging
A DC current is used to charge a battery. Battery stores the electrical charge provided
by the current through an electrochemical process. Movement of electric charge in a
unit time is defined as the current. As a result, the time elapsed and the amount of DC
current supplied both are responsible for determining the energy delivered during the
process of charging. Generator transferred electrical energy to the consumer in AC
quantities. Therefore, a major role for the battery charger is to convert AC current into
DC quantities. There is one fundamental difficulty about the Electric Vehicle (EV),
saying that is not so far from a very feasible option to cars because it takes longer time
to recharge an EV. Nowadays, advanced technologies are used to charge an EV within
half an hour approximately. This method of charging EV is called fast charging. Fast
charging process of charging an EV is the only practical alternative to the IC Engine.
However, it required a very large charger of 75 kW. This means that it is not possible
to enclose within the car and therefore it is fixed outside at the smart pole to use as an
EV charging station.
There are many possible keys to designing a battery charger for an EV. The charger
was designed to be operated using both the single-phase and the three-phase grid
170
supplies. Onboard chargers typically use the single-phase AC supply due to the advan-
tage of weight and size. However, three-phase supplies have three times the charging
power of an equivalent single-phase supply, and hence charging takes approximately
a third of the time. This is because all of the three phases can be charged to the same
level as the single-phase device charges just the one phase.
9.4.9 Smart Billboard
Installation of a smart billboard on the smart pole, makes it more attractive, useful
and visual. A sole objective of all advertisements is to take the attention of the viewer.
Over the last few years, a conventional promoting mode like the TV, newspaper,
radio, etc. have been experienced uncountable times. But the billboard is the best
mode of advertising. Images on a screen or canvas, wall, have changed to digital
instead of static images.
In this technological age and with the introduction of social media, the medium
of promotion has developed in numerous ways. But the development of a digital
billboard provides outside promotion to the next level. Merging a digital billboard
with “smart pole” results in a Smart Billboard. Just defined, Smart Billboard uses the
internet to receive, send, and collect data. Smart audiences use smart billboards. This
concept is also called smart advertisement.
Smart billboards can do the following:
• They vigorously respond to the surroundings.

• Display of the images and videos on the screen can be changed.
• Based on all viewers information can be collected.
The following are key features of smart billboards to attract audiences:
• Computer databases and small cameras are hidden.

• A systematic tool to change the images on the board from the information of
social media accordingly is developed.
• Social media like LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter are used to pro-
vide appropriate content to involve the end user.
• Broadcast warning messages on weather, traffic and environment updates and
important news.
• Sensors are used to initiate ads.
• Based on the viewers’ reaction and mood display contents are personalized.
• Hi-tech sound systems and LED lights are used.
Billboards are smart and dominant branding tools, which have drawn customers
towards advertising promotions that are trendy, to-the-point and visually appealing.
These three combinations of smart billboards work attractively for outdoor adver-
tising. The perfect canvas for advertisers is smart billboards to implement their tech-
nical skill and stretch the imagination. Creative notch can be advanced by making the
digital billboard more useful and interactive for the consumers, for example:
171
• Wi-fi connections are provided.

• Service maps and query are provided.
• Charging ports for mobile phone.
• Real-time display of traffic information.
9.4.10 Mobile Applications
A further important aspect in a smart pole system is the friendliness level of
communications between the infrastructure and the system managers [22]. In view
of this, the following services of mobile APP and web application allows control and
remote management:
• The manager is allowed to define the approvals and access levels to the mobile
APP and web application by account management (i.e., system manager, user,
super-administrator, system operator, etc.).
• Mode selection control.
• Lighting system control and monitoring.
• Unusual situations detection and start alarming.
• Traffic monitoring.
• Evaluation of energy consumption.
• Smart billboard display control.
The settings of the smart pole system are accessed by remote web applications.
Using mobile and web applications the lighting profile of a single smart pole or
group of smart poles can be controlled. It is also possible to set the brightness level
of LED light on a smart pole. Furthermore, the consumer can estimate information
associated with the traffic intensity, consumption of current, energy saving, wea-
ther conditions, classification, and other alarms. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure (HTTPS) is used to increase the privacy security and the reliability of the
data swapped while in transfer. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) adds
a security layer on the transit data through a transport layer security (TLS) or
secure socket layer (SSL) protocol. HTTPS is an advanced version of the HTTP.
The HTTPS enables the secure connection and encrypted communication between
the web server and remote users.
The mobile application contains all utilities delivered by the web application
and, at the same time, permits official users to manage the smart pole. At the inci-
dent of emergency in the street, any user with allowed control of mobile app (i.e., a
policeman) can cooperate with the system and grab the suitable steps to increase the
overall visibility.
9.4.11 Integration with Command and Control Centre

Integration of the applied solution with the Control Centre and Centralized Command
are also important requirements in the design of a smart pole system.
The important integration requirement is given below:
172
• All poles location on GIS map

• Intelligent Poles
• Smart LED Street Lights
• Integration of smart pole with the Centralized Control and Monitoring
System (CCMS)
• Wi-Fi hotspot which is also mapped on GIS
• Surveillance camera
• Traffic signal mapped on GIS and integrated with the Centralized Command
and Control Centre
• All the cameras locations on GIS map
• Digital Billboards
• VMS for Crowd Monitoring and Parking Violation
• Air pollution sensor, weather sensor and environmental sensors
• Display of advertisements on billboards are controlled through Control Centre
and Centralized Command
• All the sensors’ location to be mapped on GIS
Figure 9.2 shows the prototype image of a smart pole. It is clearly shown that all
the necessary and important equipment/applications are attached with a smart pole,
which makes the city smart.
9.4.12 Integrated Antenna on Smart Pole

Integration of Ultra-wideband (UWB) antenna on a smart pole plays a vital role in
a modern communication system. Two factors in future and modern wireless com-
munication systems make UWB antennas very attractive and gaining in prominence.
First, people demanding low power consumption, high data rate, and low cost, offer a
huge boost to the UWB antennas. Second, now the different wireless portable devices
require antenna with different operating frequencies for several wireless transmission
purposes, and functions and operating bands are increasing day by day, which may
result in ultimatum in design of antenna, such as multi antennas interference, limita-
tion in antenna space, etc. Narrow-band antennas can be replaced by using one UWB
antenna, which may efficiently decrease the antenna number. Different microstrip
filters are also used to minimize the effect of interference [23], [24]. But integrated
filtering UWB antenna is more suitable for UWB wireless communication system
[25], [26]. For 5G systems implementation, mm-wave transmission has become one
of the smartest techniques to achieve multi-Gbps throughputs [27]. Several antenna
array structures were explored for 5G applications such as UWB antennas, cylindrical
conformal patch antennas as well as printed microstrip antennas [28].
9.5
CONCLUSION
A smart pole system provides several advantages over a traditional pole. Smart pole
provides IoT based smart LED streetlight, digital billboard, public Wi-Fi hotspot, air
pollution sensor, weather sensor and environmental sensors to help reduce pollution
173
FIGURE 9.2
Prototype of smart pole.
in the city. A smart pole system has a concept for 5G-enabling poles (5GPs) with
street light and different sensors to provide better wireless connectivity in the city.
In this chapter, fundamental concepts of a smart pole system have been presented.
This chapter tried to give a brief explanation of the design of a smart pole system,
benefits, and limitations of a smart pole system. It also discussed the EV charging
port, and video-monitored traffic control make a smart pole more attractive and a
more demanding system. The final part of this chapter presented the different mobile
and web applications to control the functions of a smart pole from command-and-
control centre.
174
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176
177
Index
A Internet of smart environment (IoSE) 30
Internet of smart industry 31
ad-hoc domain 116
in-vehicle domain 116
architecture of IoT 18
IoT Security and Privacy Issues 33
IoT Standards and Frameworks 24
B
BDA-based studies for disaster management 136 L
limitations of TVWS regulation 89
C
code-division multiple access (CDMA) 139 M
common symptoms of COVID-19 44
M2M connectivity 2
comparison between IoT protocols 134
major water resources of Uttarakhand 130
congestion and collision control 118
mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) 151
COVID-19 43
N
D
network management 118
dam 129
network volatility 118
dam break analysis 132
data management 36
P
data monetization probabilities 166
digitally adaptive beamforming (DAB) 145 PIR sensor 167
DMS applications and requirements 134
drone technology 50 Q
quality of service (QoS) 156
E
electronic vehicle charger 169 R
energy constraint 157
radio frequency identification (RFID) 1, 2
evolution of IoT 3
real-time traffic monitoring 119
F
S
fast EV charging 169
security 118
5G enabled smart pole with LED street
the security requirement at different IoT layers 35
lighting 166
serious acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) 105
5G wireless communication 113
smart antenna 139
fixed white space devices 68, 69
smart billboard 170
floods 129
smart grid 11
flying ad-hoc network (FANET) 151
social and economic challenges 118
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) 139
standardisation of TVWS 62
4G/LTE Wireless Mobile Infrastructure 163
SWOT analysis 99
switched beam system 143
I
improving city operations 165 T
integrated antenna on smart pole 172
telemedicine 50
intelligent transport application 119
time-division multiple access (TDMA) 139
traffic control management 168
177
178
178 Index
TV band 53, 66 V
TV white space (TVWS) 58
types of smart antenna system 142 vehicular Ad-hoc network (VANET) 115, 151
vehicle-to-X communication (V2X) 122
vehicle-to-vehicle communication (V2V) 120
U V2V security in communication 124
UAV communications 157
W
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) 151
underutilised spectrum 54 Wi-Fi hotspot services 167

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• Discusses advanced techniques used in the field of wireless communication.

Wireless Communications and Networking

Cloud Computing Enabled Big-​Data Analytics in Wireless Ad-​hoc Networks

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routle​dge.com/​Wirel​ess%20

Prashant Ranjan, Ram Shringar Rao, Krishna Kumar

First edition published 2023

Chapter 1 Internet of Things (IoT)......................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Application of IoT for Pandemic Detection........................................ 43

Chapter 3 TV White Space (TVWS) Technology................................................ 53

3.5.6 Regulation in South Africa.......................................... 75

Chapter 4 Health Monitoring and Pandemic Detection Using IoT and

Chapter 5 V2V: The Future of VANET’s Communications............................... 115

5.4 VANET’s Challenges.............................................................. 118

Chapter 6 IoT Based Flood Control and Disaster Management System

Chapter 7 An Overview of Smart Antenna Technology for Wireless

Chapter 8 UAV: Communication and Object Detection System........................ 151

8.2.4 Product Delivery........................................................ 154

Chapter 9 Smart Pole System: A Connectivity to City Services........................ 163

About the Authors

Dr. Ram Shringar Rao received his Ph.D.

xviii About the Authors

Er. Krishna Kumar is presently working

Mr. Pankaj Sharma is M.Sc. (Physics),

1 Internet of Things (IoT)

1. Things/things to things/machine, interacting through the internet.

1.1.1 Internet of Things Vision

2 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

in which devices are recognised and receive information by making context-​based

1.1.2 Evolution and Rapid Adoption of IoT

1.1.3 The Need for M2M Connectivity

Internet of Things (IoT) 3

1.1.4 The Chicken and Egg Analogy

4 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

McCormick Place Conference Center established unique network to link

a) Networking capabilities evolution: Currently, various wireless technologies

Internet of Things (IoT) 5

6 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

IoT Network #1 Cloud

Internet of Things (IoT) 7

• save time and money,

1.6.1 Consumer and Enterprise IoT Applications

1.6.2 Engineering, Industry, and Infrastructure

8 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

4.0 guidelines, the IT (information technology) and OT (operational technology)

Internet of Things (IoT) 9

1.6.5 Healthcare and Medicine

10 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

1.6.7 Smart Grid and Smart Meters

Internet of Things (IoT) 11

Central Control Centre

12 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

on modified farming techniques according to prevailing conditions to make the best

Internet of Things (IoT) 13

1.6.9 Tyre Air Pressure Detection

1.6.10 Personal IoT Applications

1.6.10.1  Gesture Control Armband

1.6.10.2  Smart Glass

1.6.10.3  Smart Eye

1.6.10.4  Pulse Oximeter

14 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

Ten predictions for the future of IoT:

Internet of Things (IoT) 15

16 Wireless Communication: Advancements and Challenges

Cloud Computing Enabled Big-Data Analytics in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Wireless%20

1.1.1 Internet of Things Vision

in which devices are recognised and receive information by making context-based

1.1.2 Evolution and Rapid Adoption of IoT

1.1.3 The Need for M2M Connectivity

1.1.4 The Chicken and Egg Analogy

1.6.1 Consumer and Enterprise IoT Applications

1.6.2 Engineering, Industry, and Infrastructure

1.6.5 Healthcare and Medicine

1.6.7 Smart Grid and Smart Meters

1.6.9 Tyre Air Pressure Detection

1.6.10 Personal IoT Applications

1.6.10.1 Gesture Control Armband

1.6.10.2 Smart Glass

1.6.10.3 Smart Eye

1.6.10.4 Pulse Oximeter

Currently up to 5500 to 6000 NB-IoT devices can be accommodated by the 4G/LTE

Compromised IoT devices were used by Botnet-powered distributed denial of service

1.8.1 Smart Device/Sensor Layer

1.8.2 IoT –Technology and Protocols

1.8.3 RFID and NFC

1.8.4 Low-Energy Bluetooth (BLE)

1.8.11 TV White Space

Some sensors connect to backend servers/applications without a need for an aggre-

1.8.13 Gateways and Networks

1.8.14 Management Service Layer

1.8.20 Applications and Process Extension

1.16.1 Privacy and Security

1.16.2 Cost versus Usability

1.16.5 Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on IoT

• Industrial analytics platforms give enterprises real-time insights about the

Stage 4: sustained Many human-to-human Pandemic