Bioluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction within a

living organism. Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence,

which is simply the term for a chemical reaction where light is
produced. (Bioluminescence is chemiluminescence that takes place
inside a living organism.)

Bioluminescence is a "cold light." Cold light means less than 20% of

the light generates thermal radiation, or heat.

Most bioluminescent organisms are found in the ocean. These

bioluminescent marine species include fish, bacteria, and jellies.
Some bioluminescent organisms, including fireflies and fungi, are
found on land. There are almost no bioluminescent organisms
native to freshwater habitats.

Chemistry

The chemical reaction that results in bioluminescence requires two

unique chemicals: luciferin and either luciferase or photoprotein.
Luciferin is the compound that actually produces light. In a chemical
reaction, luciferin is called the substrate. The bioluminescent color
(yellow in fireflies, greenish in lanternfish) is a result of the
arrangement of luciferin molecules.

Some bioluminescent organisms produce (synthesize) luciferin on

their own. Dinoflagellates, for instance, bioluminesce in a bluish-
green color. Bioluminescent dinoflagellates are a type of plankton—
tiny marine organisms that can sometimes cause the surface of the
ocean to sparkle at night.

Some bioluminescent organisms do not synthesize luciferin.

Instead, they absorb it through other organisms, either as food or in
a symbiotic relationship. Some species of midshipman fish, for
instance, obtain luciferin through the "seed shrimp" they consume.
Many marine animals, such as squid, house bioluminescent
bacteria in their light organs. The bacteria and squid have a
symbiotic relationship.

Luciferase is an enzyme. An enzyme is a chemical (called

a catalyst) that interacts with a substrate to affect the rate of a
chemical reaction. The interaction of the luciferase with oxidized
(oxygen-added) luciferin creates a byproduct, called oxyluciferin.
More importantly, the chemical reaction creates light.
Bioluminescent dinoflagellates produce light using a luciferin-
luciferase reaction. The luciferase found in dinoflagellates is related
to the green chemical chlorophyll found in plants.

Bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystems are rare, mostly forming

in warm-water lagoons with narrow openings to the open sea.
Bioluminescent dinoflagellates gather in these lagoons or bays, and
the narrow opening prevents them from escaping. The whole
lagoon can be illuminated at night. Biologists identified a new
bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystem in the Humacao Natural
Reserve, Puerto Rico, in 2010.

Most bioluminescent reactions involve luciferin and luciferase.

Some reactions, however, do not involve an enzyme (luciferase).
These reactions involve a chemical called a photoprotein.
Photoproteins combine with luciferins and oxygen, but need another
agent, often an ion of the element calcium, to produce light.

Photoproteins were only recently identified, and biologists and

chemists are still studying their unusual chemical properties.
Photoproteins were first studied in bioluminescent crystal jellies
found off the west coast of North America. The photoprotein in
crystal jellies is called "green fluorescent protein" or GFP.

Bioluminescence is not the same thing as fluorescence, however.

Florescence does not involve a chemical reaction. In fluorescence,
a stimulating light is absorbed and re-emitted. The fluorescing light
is only visible in the presence of the stimulating light. The ink used
in highlighter pens is fluorescent. Phosphorescence is similar to
florescence, except the phosphorescent light is able to re-emit light
for much longer periods of time. Glow-in-the-dark stickers are
phosphorescent.

Bioluminescent Light

The appearance of bioluminescent light varies greatly, depending

on the habitat and organism in which it is found.
Most marine bioluminescence, for instance, is expressed in the
blue-green part of the visible light spectrum. These colors are more
easily visible in the deep ocean. Also, most marine organisms are
sensitive only to blue-green colors. They are physically unable to
process yellow, red, or violet colors.

Most land organisms also exhibit blue-green bioluminescence.

However, many glow in the yellow spectrum, including fireflies and
the only known land snail to bioluminesce, Quantula striata, native
to the tropics of Southeast Asia.

Few organisms can glow in more than one color. The so-called
railroad worm (actually the larva of a beetle) may be the most
familiar. The head of the railroad worm glows red, while its body
glows green. Different luciferases cause the bioluminescence to be
expressed differently.

Some organisms emit light continuously. Some species of fungi

present in decaying wood, for instance, emit a fairly consistent
glow, called foxfire.

Most organisms, however, use their light organs to flash for periods
of less than a second to about 10 seconds. These flashes can
occur in specific spots, such as the dots on a squid. Other flashes
can illuminate the organism's entire body.

Adaptations

Bioluminescence is used by living things to hunt prey, defend

against predators, find mates, and execute other vital activities.

Defensive Adaptations

Some species luminesce to confuse attackers. Many species of

squid, for instance, flash to startle predators, such as fish. With the
startled fish caught off guard, the squid tries to quickly escape.

The vampire squid exhibits a variation of this defensive behavior.

Like many deep-sea squid, the vampire squid lacks ink sacs. (Squid
that live near the ocean surface eject dark ink to leave their
predators in the dark.) Instead, the vampire squid ejects sticky
bioluminescent mucus, which can startle, confuse,
and delay predators, allowing the squid to escape.

Many marine species use a technique called counterillumination to

protect themselves. Many predators, such as sharks, hunt from
below. They look above, where sunlight creates shadows beneath
prey. Counterillumination is a type of camouflage against this
predatory behavior.

Hatchetfish use counterillumination. Hatchetfish have light-

producing organs that point downward. They adjust the amount of
light coming from their undersides to match the light coming from
above. By adjusting their bioluminescence, they disguise their
shadows and become virtually invisible to predators looking up.

Some bioluminescent animals, such as brittle stars,

can detach body parts to distract predators. The predator follows
the glowing arm of the brittle star, while the rest of the animal crawls
away in the dark. (Brittle stars, like all sea stars, can re-grow their
arms.)

When some animals detach body parts, they detach them on other
animals. When threatened, some species of sea cucumber can
break off the luminescent parts of their bodies onto nearby fish. The
predator will follow the glow on the fish, while the sea cucumber
crawls away.

Biologists think that some species of sharks and whales may take
advantage of defensive bioluminescence, even though they are not
bioluminescent themselves. A sperm whale, for instance, may seek
out a habitat with large communities of bioluminescent plankton,
which are not part of the whale's diet. As the plankton's predators
(fish) approach the plankton, however, their glowing alerts the
whale. The whale eats the fish. The plankton then turn out their
lights.

Some insect larvae (nicknamed "glow worms") light up to warn

predators that they are toxic. Toads, birds, and other predators
know that consuming these larvae will result in illness and possible
death.
Offensive Adaptations

Bioluminescence may be used to lure prey or search for prey.

The most famous predator to use bioluminescence may be the

anglerfish, which uses bioluminescence to lure prey. The anglerfish
has a huge head, sharp teeth, and a long, thin, fleshy growth (called
a filament) on the top of its head. On the end of the filament is a ball
(called the esca) that the anglerfish can light up. Smaller fish,
curious about the spot of light, swim in for a closer look. By the time
the prey sees the enormous, dark jaws of the anglerfish behind the
bright esca, it may be too late.

Other fish, such as a type of dragonfish called loosejaws, use

bioluminescence to search for prey. Loosejaws have adapted to
emit red light; most fish can only see blue light, so loosejaws have
an enormous advantage when they light up a surrounding area.
They can see their prey, but their prey can't see them.

Attraction

Adult fireflies, also called lightning bugs, are bioluminescent. They

light up to attract mates. Although both male and female fireflies
can luminesce, in North America most flashing fireflies are male.
The pattern of their flashes tells nearby females what species of
firefly they are and that they're interested in mating.

Other Bioluminescence

Organisms can luminesce when they are disturbed. Changes in the

environment, such as a drop in salinity, can force
bioluminescent algae to glow, for instance. These living lanterns
can be seen as spots of pink or green in the dark ocean.

"Milky seas" are another example of bioluminescence. Unlike

bioluminescent algae, which flash when their environment is
disturbed, milky seas are continuous glows, sometimes bright and
large enough to be visible from satellites in orbit above the Earth.

Scientists think milky seas are produced by bioluminescent bacteria

on the surface of the ocean. Millions of bacteria must be present for
milky seas to form, and conditions must be right for the bacteria to
have enough chemicals to light up. Satellite imagery of milky seas
have been captured in tropical waters such as the Indian Ocean.

Bioluminescence and People

Biologists and engineers are studying the chemicals

and circumstances involved in bioluminescence to understand how
people can use the process to make life easier and safer.

Green fluorescent protein (GFP), for instance, is a valuable

"reporter gene." Reporter genes are chemicals (genes) that
biologists attach to other genes they are studying. GFP reporter
genes are easily identified and measured, usually by their
fluorescence. This allows scientists to trace and monitor the activity
of the studied gene—its expression in a cell, or its interaction with
other chemicals.

Other uses are more experimental. Bioluminescent trees, for

instance, could help light city streets and highways. This would
reduce the need for electricity. Bioluminescent crops and other
plants could luminesce when they needed water or other nutrients,
or when they were ready to be harvested. This would reduce costs
for farmers and agribusiness.