Literature Review 1

Digital Instrumentation and Control Systems in Nuclear Power Plants

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 Literature Review 2

Literature Review
World is continuously progressing towards advancement in technology and in the
field of science, thus inventing digital methods and instruments with an aim to control
systems in various domains of life. Hence, in a similar vein, numerous of the world's nuclear
power plants have shifted their focus to the digital control system from the analogue system
in recent times (Singh & Rajput, 2018). Modern technologies are equipped by nuclear power
plants and have incorporated the available digital instrumentation and control systems along
with modern hardware equipment and software codes. The management and licensing of
digital Instrumentation along with control systems is a challenge in the modern world but
still, countries with nuclear power plants are willing to take the complex risk and challenges
(Ruiz et al., 2017). The world is required to ensure critical safety systems in various
disciplines across nuclear-powered plants, thus digital instrumentation and control system are
effectively incorporated in modern times in such facilities to ensure greater security and
safety (Singh & Singh, 2021).
Additionally, it is provided that upgradation in digital methods and modernization of
plants, offers a leading way to better performance management and financial improvement of
the NPPs (Hashemian, 2011),. It is evident from research and reports that knowing from
decades, analogue methods and system have managed to uphold the task of operating nuclear
power plant (Chu et al., 2010); and is being used continuously to ensure high maintenance
and performance over the years, but in the modern era all these analogue systems are required
to be modified to digital I&C system.
Further, Singh and Rajput (2018), argued that heterogeneous equipment software,
hardware and various firmware are employed for safety and security cause. According to
Singh and others (2014), in the domain of power plant stations of nuclear reactivity and to
ensure their critical system operates safely, the instrumentation and control system acts as a
central functioning unit similar to the working CPU in a computer and the central nervous
system in the human brain.
The phenomenon of digital I&C system in nuclear power plants has immense
advantages over the older analogue system which appears to be quite complex and difficult to
manage if gets faulty (Bao et al., 2023). Additionally, it is argued that the Digital I&C system
works on numbers and codes which seems to be more accurate and reliable, further, modern
inventions, apparatus and digital control are easier to operate thus analogue operating systems
for nuclear power plants appear to be useless in modern times. Meanwhile, Arndt and
Kuritzky (2011), state that the digital I&C system in nuclear power plants along with the ease
it provides poses few threats and challenges to the engineering department and technical staff.
According to reports and research carried out on identifying and evaluating the role of
DI&C systems in fissionable power stations, evaluates that the instrumentation along with
modern control systems in power plants helps to perform three important functions (Carvalho
et al., 2008). Firstly, Digital instrumentation and control system in nuclear power plants helps
the power station in monitoring the resources, status and effectiveness of the power plant.
Additionally, Di Maio and others (2011), argue that monitoring and surveillance are carried
out in nuclear power plants employing sensors and detectors which operate on digital
programs and software keeping records of slight fluctuations in addition to aiding in alerting
the staff of the power plant. Meanwhile, argues that with the digital instrumentation and
introduction of the modern control system along with the human system interface
programme, the sensors and detectors aid in automated control management. Secondly, the
digital I&C system aids in marinating automatic control over various primary areas of the
 Literature Review 3

power plant and additionally aids in controlling auxiliary processes. Moreover, it is argued by
Volodin and Tolokonskii (2019), that digital I&C systems help in reducing the workload on
staff through the process of automated control and HSI in decision making.
Additionally, the introduction and adoption of instrumentation and control systems
have assisted NPPs in performing the safety function effectively, Kumar and others (2017),
meanwhile argue that the presence of DI&C systems protects the power stations from
malfunctions and potential failures. Additionally, the safety attribute of the I&C system
assists in automatic detection and rebooting, thus ensuring the fortification of both plant and
environmental processes effectively going around the place. Meanwhile, Lee and others
(2020), assert that the I&C system establishes regulatory guidelines and assessment criteria
for ensuring the sanctuary of fissionable power stations. Further, states while concerning the
security and regulatory guidelines the efficiency and consistency of nuclear power plants are
not compromised.
According to Lee et al. (2020), in the nuclear power plant sector, the reliability and
security of the assets and resources in a power station are the key elements which are to be
evaluated on a higher level. Additionally, it is argued that the digital I&C system in nuclear
power plants along with its benefits has resulted in some potential threats to the NPP in recent
times (Chou, 2011). However, with technological advancement, modern inventions and the
introduction of revamped software the threat is imposed on the nuclear power plant, and the
risk of malfunction in nuclear threats is increased if the codes malfunction on their own, such
a situation can lead to autoimmune malfunction which can destroy system if remained
unchecked. Meanwhile, Lee et al. (2016), argue that the digital instrumentation and control
system requires cyber security configuration and multiple walls of protection layers which do
not allow the codes to malfunction easily or get hacked. Moreover, a probabilistic safety
assessment (PSA) model is being proposed in nuclear power plants, with an aim to evaluate
the effect of software malfunction and aims at analyzing the patterns of software resistance to
hacking and ensure proper cyber security. According to Li et al. (2018), techniques and
processes are to be applied in evaluating the software fault, one such technique includes the
evaluation of digital sensors by evaluating the values for the non-detection zone.
The most common problem associated with digital I&C systems is “common cause
failures (CCFs). The research studies and reports have been published with various attempts
to propose various methods for the assessment of risk in digital instrumentation and control
systems (Arndt & Kuritzky, 2011). The risk assessment design operates on analyzing threat
evaluation, dependency and consistent ability and finally analyzing the consequences of the
digital I&C system (Bao et al., 2023).
In analyzing the potential threat and possible policies for risk optimization research
was carried out which stated that the biggest qualitative hazard to digital I&C systems is the
failure of the component of the system (Arndt & Kuritzky, 2011). Moreover, the failure in
software and hardware of the nuclear power plant results in common cause failure (CCFs)
which eventually put a risk to the whole DI&C system. Secondly, analyzing the risk
assessment of the DI&C system includes the reliability assessment, Shorthill and others
(2021), argues that it involves the assessment of the probabilities of potential fault trees (FTs)
alongside it involves evaluating the probability of digital system failure in the I&C system.
Shorthill and other (2021), listed two methods for predicting the reliability assessment,
firstly, the Bayesian and Human-reliability-analysis-aided Method for the Reliability
Analysis of Software (BAHAMAS), which applies to the limited scenario and Orthogonal-
defect Classification for Assessing Software reliability (ORCAS) for large data evaluation.
Lastly, evaluate the consequences of the failure i.e. digital failure on the behaviour of plants
 Literature Review 4

and their response to the changes (Lin et al., 2021). Meanwhile, argue that sometimes new
consequences and changes are viewed which are not recorded earlier, and impose potential to
plant’s life and safety.
The digital instrumentation and control system employs components and obstacles,
which exceed from individual components and discrete functions to the whole system and
operation, making the things and process complicated and offering more difficulties to the
operating staff (Staff, 1997). Meanwhile, the issues and obstacles associated with digital
instrumentation and control system have been discussed like common cause failure, software
failure, hardware failure, and malfunction of codes and programs which risk NPPs. The
interaction within the digital instrumentation and control system can be analyzed and viewed
on two different levels or forms (Kirschenbaum et al., 2009). Firstly, the DI&C system
interacts with its system through the controlled process possessed by the nuclear power plant
and secondly, communication takes place between various digital instrumentation and control
systems and also within the one system. According to Kirschenbaum and others (2009), the
conjoint and laid-off elements are mostly employed in nuclear power plants as means of
stoppage to guarantee the reliability and operation of a system. However, the authors that if
the laid-off equipment and essentials are operated improperly, then such incidence can leave
the process vulnerable to common cause failures. According to Bao and others (2020), the
common cause of failures arises in the nuclear power plant when more than one component
of digital instrumentation and control system malfunctions due to a single cradle of failure.
Moreover, in order to create a better and more effective redundancy layout, the NPPs have to
employ diversity in their staff, technology and DI&C system (Zhang et al., 2022) and should
possess the substitute for technological advances, procedures, strategies and ways to achieve
the desired outcomes via the use of DI&C system.
According to the reports and stats evaluated by De Grosbois (2011 ), the very nuclear
power plant which is not able to keep pace with its potential and operating capacity is
expected to improve the performance of the plant by employing digital instrumentation and
capacity system and reducing the cost of labour and older analogue system. Additionally,
states that in power plants, the production cost which is represented by the staffing is
recorded between 5 to 15%, thus by limiting the staff the economic cost will trickle down and
increase the production capacity by a factor of ten, which can only be achieved by practising
the digital instrumentation and control system to effective ends (Devgun, 2013). The records
state that economic gains can better be achieved by employing DI&C systems and techniques
and reducing the cost of staffing and increasing self-monitoring, self-control and ability to
decide on nuclear power plants. Devgun (2013), proposed ways in which organization can
better their performance, firstly, the power plants have to monitor the period and periodic
frequency by better strategies and policies for evaluation and assessments, which can
guarantee the function of the DI&C system. Secondly, it is important for the plant operator to
inspect the condition of the material used in the plant so that the power station design can
better perform its functions and lessens the threats posed, lastly, the author argued that the
plant operator has kept a record of oscillations that are appearing due to fluctuation in
efficiency and power.
The x-factors and facilities that digital instrumentation and control systems provide
over the analogue system through its performance, functioning, monitoring, reliability, risk
assessment, quality control and organizational patterns make it a better choice, thus requiring
NPPs to infuse the DI&C system in modern times and work upon their upgradation and
improvement.
 Literature Review 5

References

Arndt, S.A. and Kuritzky, A. (2011) “Lessons learned from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission’s Digital System Risk Research,” Nuclear Technology, 173(1), pp. 2–7.
Available at: https://doi.org/10.13182/nt11-a11478.

Bao, H. et al. (2023) “Quantitative evaluation of common cause failures in high safety-
significant safety-related digital instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power
plants,” Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 230, p. 108973. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2022.108973.

Bao, H., Shorthill, T. and Zhang, H. (2020) “Hazard analysis for identifying common cause
failures of digital safety systems using a redundancy-guided systems-theoretic
approach,” Annals of Nuclear Energy, 148, p. 107686. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2020.107686.

Carvalho, P.V.R. et al. (2008) “Human factors approach for evaluation and redesign of
human–system interfaces of a nuclear power plant simulator,” Displays, 29(3), pp. 273–
284. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.displa.2007.08.010.

Chou, I.-H. (2011) “Secure software configuration management processes for nuclear safety
software development environment,” Annals of Nuclear Energy, 38(10), pp. 2174–
2179. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2011.06.016.

Chu, T.L. et al. (2010) “Review of Quantitative Software Reliability Methods.” Available at:
https://doi.org/10.2172/1013511.

De Grosbois, J.F.P. (2011) The impact of knowledge management practices on Nuclear

Power Plant Organization Performance. thesis.

Devgun, J. (2013) “Managing modifications, power uprates and outages at Operating Nuclear
Power Plants,” Managing Nuclear Projects, pp. 115–135. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857097262.2.115.

Di Maio, F. et al. (2011) “Fuzzy C-means clustering of signal functional principal

components for post-processing dynamic scenarios of a nuclear power plant digital
instrumentation and control system,” IEEE Transactions on Reliability, 60(2), pp. 415–
425. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/tr.2011.2134230.

Hashemian, H.M. (2011) “Nuclear power plant instrumentation and control,” Nuclear Power
- Control, Reliability and Human Factors [Preprint]. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.5772/18768.

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Implementing Digital Instrumentation

and Control Systems in the Modernization of Nuclear Power Plants, IAEA Nuclear
Energy Series No. NP-T-1.4, IAEA, Vienna (2009)
 Literature Review 6

Kirschenbaum, J. et al. (2009) “A benchmark system for comparing reliability modeling

approaches for Digital Instrumentation and control systems,” Nuclear Technology,
165(1), pp. 53–95. Available at: https://doi.org/10.13182/nt09-a4062.

Kumar, V. et al. (2017) “Safety Analysis of safety-critical systems using state-space models,”
IEEE Software, 34(4), pp. 38–47. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/ms.2017.93.

Kumar, V. et al. (2018) “Parameter estimation for quantitative dependability analysis of

safety-critical and control systems of NPP,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science,
65(5), pp. 1080–1090. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/tns.2018.2827106.

Lee, C., Han, S.M. and Seong, P.H. (2020) “Development of a quantitative method for
identifying fault-prone cyber security controls in NPP Digital I&C Systems,” Annals of
Nuclear Energy, 142, p. 107398. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2020.107398.

Lee, S.J., Jung, W. and Yang, J.-E. (2016) “PSA model with consideration of the effect of
fault-tolerant techniques in digital I&C Systems,” Annals of Nuclear Energy, 87, pp.
375–384. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2015.07.039.

Li, W., Peng, M. and Wang, Q. (2018) “Fault detectability analysis in PCA method during
condition monitoring of sensors in a nuclear power plant,” Annals of Nuclear Energy,
119, pp. 342–351. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2018.05.024.

Lin, L., Bao, H. and Dinh, N. (2021) “Uncertainty quantification and software risk analysis
for digital twins in the nearly autonomous management and control systems: A
Review,” Annals of Nuclear Energy, 160, p. 108362. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108362.

Ruiz, A. et al. (2017) “Reuse of safety certification artefacts across standards and domains: A
systematic approach,” Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 158, pp. 153–171.
Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2016.08.017.

Shorthill, T. et al. (2021) “A novel approach for software reliability analysis of Digital
Instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power plants,” Annals of Nuclear
Energy, 158, p. 108260. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108260.

Singh, L.K. and Rajput, H. (2018) “Dependability analysis of safety critical real-time systems
by using Petri Nets,” IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 26(2), pp.
415–426. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/tcst.2017.2669147.

Singh, L.K., Vinod, G. and Tripathi, A.K. (2014) “Design verification of instrumentation and
control systems of nuclear power plants,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science,
61(2), pp. 921–930. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/tns.2014.2305656.

Singh, P. and Singh, L.K. (2021) “Instrumentation and control systems design for Nuclear
Power Plant: An interview study with industry practitioners,” Nuclear Engineering and
Technology, 53(11), pp. 3694–3703. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.net.2021.05.025.
 Literature Review 7

Staff, N.R.C. (1997) Digital Instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power plants:
Safety and Reliability Issues. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press.

Volodin, V.S. and Tolokonskii, A.O. (2019) “Concept of instrumentation of digital twins of
nuclear power plants units as observers for digital NPP I&C System,” Journal of
Physics: Conference Series, 1391(1), p. 012083. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1391/1/012083.

Zhang, H. et al. (2022) “An integrated risk assessment process of safety-related digital I&C
systems in nuclear power plants,” Nuclear Technology, 209(3), pp. 377–389. Available
at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00295450.2022.2076486.
 Literature Review 8

Abstract: Paper -1 (Source: Bao et al., 2023)

Digital instrumentation and control system have slowly and gradually progressed into

the different scientific fields, including the nuclear-powered sectors and nuclear power plants

(NPP). The analogue system employed earlier have assisted nuclear power plants over the

ages, but with technological advances and modern invention, all the analogue systems are

intended to be replaced with digital instrumentation and control system. Digital operating

systems are more reliable, cost-ineffective and easy to control giving them an advantage over

the analogue system in nuclear power plant stations. DI&C systems work through the

combination of various hardware components and programmable codes and software, which

mutually work together to perform the basic function such as monitoring the plants and

surveillance, ensuring automatic control and system maintenance and lastly assisting the

power plant's ineffective assistance management of processes. Alongside, with benefits, it

provides over the analogue system poses few threats to the NPPs, which are evaluated

through the process of risk assessment. The process of risk assessment includes consequence

analyses, qualitative hazard analysis and quantitative reliability. The platform for risk

assessment of digital instrumentation and control systems provides tools for evaluating the

reason for common cause failures and aids in better functioning of nuclear power plants.

Reference:

Bao, H. et al. (2023) “Quantitative evaluation of common cause failures in high safety-
significant safety-related digital instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power
plants,” Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 230, p. 108973. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2022.108973.
 Literature Review 9

Abstract Paper – 2 (Source: Zhang et al., 2022)

The upgradation of the older analogue system to the modern digital instrumentation

and control system has greatly posited an improvement in the functioning and working of the

nuclear power plant and light power reactors in the nuclear sector. A lot of focus is made on

evaluating the most important obstacle and problem i.e. Common Cause Failures (CCFs).

The present study and previous reports have analysed the CCFs in nuclear power plants and

have proposed that hardware failure is the most obvious cause of the failures. Given that the

majority of redundancy designs use alike digital podiums or software for their operations in

operating and application systems, the layouts of operating hardware and software make the

software CCFs a potential threat to plant safety and reliability as new DI&C systems are

implemented and upgraded. These I&C safety systems are of particular concern in the

licensing procedure of the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission due to their

complicated multilayer redundancy designs to meet the single failure criterion. It is argued

that a multi-layer framework and redundancy design can prove better as they are difficult to

break in, thus ensuring the security and safety of the nuclear power plant which can aid in

better processing and management within NPPs.

Reference:

Zhang, H. et al. (2022) “An integrated risk assessment process of safety-related digital I&C
systems in nuclear power plants,” Nuclear Technology, 209(3), pp. 377–389. Available
at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00295450.2022.2076486.