17uchs06 Industrial Chemistry

Industrial CHEMISTRY
AVS College of Arts & Science

(Recognized under Section 2(f) & 2 (B) of UGC Act 1956 and Accredited by NAAC)
(Affiliated to Periyar University, Salem)
Attur Main Road, Ramalingapuram, SALEM – 636106
DEPARTMENT OF UG CHEMISTRY
Students Study Material
2020-2021
Title of the Subject INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
Paper Code 17UCHS06
Year & Class III B.Sc CHEMISTRY
Batch 2018-2021
Semester EVEN
Subject In-charge HOD PRINCIPAL
1
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY (30 Hours)
SYLLABUS
UNIT I Chemical Explosives

Preparation and chemistry of lead azide, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, TNT,
RDX,Dynamite,
cordite, picric acid, gunpowder, introduction to rocket propellants.
UNIT II Leather Industry

Curing, preservation and tanning of hides and skins, process of dehairing and
dyeing.Treatment
of tannery effluents.
UNIT III Electrochemical Industries

Production of materials like chlorine, caustic soda ,sodium chlorate, Batteries – primary
and
secondary cells, solar cells, fuel cells.
UNIT IV Paints, Varnishes & Cleansing Agents

Paints & Varnishes : Primary constituents of paints, Dispersion medium (solvent), binder,
Pigments, formulation of paints and varnishes. Requirements of a good paint, manufacture.
Cleansing Agents: Preparation of toilet and washing soaps, synthetic detergents-alkyl aryl
sulphonate and cleansing action of soaps.
UNIT V Cement & Glass

Cement : Manufacture – Wet Process and Dry process, types, analysis of major
constituents,
setting of cement, reinforced concrete. Cement industries in India.
Glass: Composition and manufacture of glass .Types of glasses- optical glass, coloured
glasses
and lead glass.
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INDUSTRIAL
CHEMISTRY UNIT-I
Section-A (2-mark)
1. Define explosives. (A-18)
An explosive may be defined as a material which under the influence of
thermal or mechanical shock decomposes rapidly and spontaneously with the
evolution of great amount of heat and high volume of gases.
Example: RDX, TNT, Dynamite.
2. Write the composition of gunpowder. (A-18)
An intimate mixture of KNO3, sulphur and charcoal is known as gun
powder. It is also known as black powder. It is widely used as propellants in fire
arms and as a pyrotechnic composition in fireworks.
3. What are the use of nitrocellulose?(N-15)
• It is used as an explosive.
• It is the most commonly used explosive in military, industrial and
other applications.
4. Give the preparation of picric acid. (N-15)
• It is not directly prepared by the nitration of phenol and therefore prepared by
the nitration of phenol.
• It can also been prepared from chlorobenzene as follows.
3
5. What is RDX? . (N-16)

Research Department Explosive is simply called as RDX. It is used as an
explosive.
6. Write the preparation of TNT. (N-16)
It is prepared by the three stage nitrogen of phenol with mixture acids or other
powerful nitrating reagent.
SECTION-B (5 MARKS)
1. How is TNT prepared? (A-18)
• It is commonly known as TNT.
• It is prepared by the three stage nitration of toluene with mixture acids or other
powerful nitrating reagents.
• It is widely used in military as explosive because of its low sensitivity , economic cost
and high explosive power and relatively low toxic effects.
• The composition of TNT gives in the following manner.
• The TNT is superior to picric acid because of its low melting point and the fact that it
has no tendency to form salt with sensitive metals.
• Reactivity with alkali and toxicity toward the human are the most disadvantages.
• It is characterized by its yellow colour.
• It is extremely explosive but it has relatively stable.
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• It is poisonous and skin contact cause skin irritation during the First World War it is
used as an explosive.
2. Write the composition and uses of RDX and Dynamite. (A-18)
Dynamite:
• Original dynamite was a mixture of 75% nitoglycerine and 25% kieselguhr a porous
siliceous earth.
• Modern dynamite uses wood flour, ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate as the
absorbing medium for nitroglycerine an oxidizer is also added to sometimes.
• Dynamite is easy to handle.
• It is a high explosive for rock blasting and gold mining.
RDX
• It is a cyclonite or symmetrical tri nitramine and it is one of the most important
powerful explosive.
• It can be prepared by Ebbele Fisheler method as follows.
• It is used in a mixture with TNT and aluminium known as torpex for mines.
• It is stable on storage and it is considered as a powerful and brisant military
explosive.
• It is widely distributed in the First World War and it is used as an plastic explosive.
• It most frequently mixed with other ingredients to form high explosives.
•
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3. Give the preparation properties and uses of RDX. (N-15)

• It is a cyclonite or symmetrical tri nitramine and it is one of the most important
powerful explosive.
• The Ebbele Fisheler method of preparation involves the following steps.
• It can be prepared by wolfram method as follows.
• It is used in a mixture with TNT and aluminium known as torpex for mines.
• In its pure state it is a white crystalline solid.
• It is stable on storage and it is considered as a powerful and brisant military
explosive.
• It is widely distributed in the First World War and it is used as a plastic explosive.
• It most frequently mixed with other ingredients to form high explosives.
4. Write a short note on nitroglycerine. (N-15)
• It is an ester not a nitro compound and it is also called glycerol trinitrate.
• It was the first explosive to b employed on large scale.
• It was manufactured by slowly adding very pure glycerin to mixed acids like
sulphuric acid and nitric acid and water at 10-250 c.
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• It is a dense oily colorless liquid that detonates if heated or subjected to mechanical

shock.
• It is poisonous heavy oil and is highly sensitive to shock.
• It explodes violently detonation.
• It is quite sensitive to blow and freezes at 560 F.
• To make nitroglycerine easier and safe to handle it is usually manufactured into
dynamite.
• It is derived from a glycerol molecule which is a common biological molecule.
• It has some advantages over than other explosives.
• It contains N, O and C which explodes with lot of energy.
5. Write notes on rocket propellants.(N-15)
• Forward motion results from the backward ejection of matter usually hot gases at
high velocity,
• These hot gases are produced by burning larger quantities of fuels called propellants.
• The propellant generally consists of solid fuel and as a oxidizer required for
combustion.
• Rocket propellant either by oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant.
• When combustion takes place in a definite manner with evolution of high amount of
gases.
• Rocket propellant is a general term used to describe a variety of missiles, research
vehicles and space launch vehicles.
• There are two types such as solid propellant and a liquid propellant.
• Solid propellant is a solid fuel like poly butylenes and acrylics and Al, Mg alloys are
used to burn the solid propellants. These are also known as composite propellant.
• Liquid propellants are introduced into combustion chamber as liquids. The most
liquid propellant is a fuel, oxidizer and as a catalyst.
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6. Discuss the chemistry of lead azide.

• It can be prepared by treating sodium azide with lead nitrate.
Na(N3)2 + PbNO3 → Pb(N3)2 + NaNO3
• Lead azide is partially replaced by mercury fulminate as an initiator or primary
explosive for blasting caps.
• Mercury fulminate is somewhat lets stable than the desired rocks and needs costly raw
material Hg.
• Lead azide and mercury fulminate decomposes exothermally in the following manner.
Pb(N3)2 → Pb + 3N2 + 0.6 K.Cal
Hg(ONC)2 → Hg + N2 + 2CO + 117 K. Cal
• It reacts with copper or other metals to form corresponding azides.
• It is an explosive and toxic crystalline compound used in primer and blasting caps.
• Lead azide is very sensitive to shock and friction.
• It colour varies from white to buff colored and it is not very hygroscopic.
• Water does not reduce its impact sensitivity.
SECTION-C (10 MARKS)

1. Write the preparation and chemistry of nitrocellulose and picric acid. (A-18)
Nitrocellulose:
• Nitrocellulose or cellulose nitrate is prepared from cotton linters or short fibers
which are left after the cotton used textile purpose had been removed from cotton
seed.
• Cotton linters after being freed from dust are purified by boiling in vats with dilute
solution of caustic soda.
• To remove natural oil and non-cellulosic matter it is bleached with calcium oxy
chloride. And the bleached linters are fried and weighed.
• After bleaching the cotton is treated with 21% HNO 3, 63% H2SO4, 0.5 % N2O4 and
5.5% of water under controlled conditions .
• The cotton is drawed with water, washed by boiling and again washed in beater.
• The process of making nitrated cotton free from sulphates is called poaching.
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• The nitrocellulose formed in this manner contains about 12.6% nitrogen and is
called pyro cotton.
• The nitrocellulose formed in this manner contains about 13.2% nitrogen and is
called gun cotton.
Picric acid:
• It is not directly prepared by the nitration of phenol.
• It can also been prepared from chlorobenzene as follows.
• It is a high explosive, exploding violently on detonation.

• It is replaced the picric acid as an explosive.
• It was the first high explosive nitrated organic compound widely distributed in nature.
• Its primary use now outdated as an explosive. It has been used in medicine and, as a
dye and as a chemical agent.
• It is also called 2,4,6- trinitro phenol.
• This is a yellow crystalline solid and it has bitter taste.
2. Discuss the preparation and properties of cordite and gun powder. (N-15)
Cordite:
• It is prepared by mixing a paste of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine with acetone
adding a quantity of varelina.
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• The mixture oil then forced by hydraulic pressure though a die in the form of a thread
and cord.
• The latter forms a horn like material after the removal of acetone.
• Then material is very sensitive to shock and easy to handle.
• Cordite is a family of smokeless powder propellants.
• Cordite is classified as a low explosive because of its low burning rates and low
brisance.
• This material is produced in the form of cylindrical rods of strings of various thickness
by pressing the material in a soft and pasty state.
• The thickness of the rods varies from 1mm to 5 or more mm diameter.
• The smallest diameter is used as for a revolver cartridge and the largest is used for
heavy guns.
Gun powder:
• An intimate mixture of KNO3, sulphur and charcoal is known as gun powder. It is also
known as black powder.
• The raw materials are finely ground mixed together under a wheel mill and then passed
through fine mesh seines of copper or brass wire.
• As a result hard mass is obtained which is granulated by passing between rollers. The
resulting grain is polished or glazed in a rotating wooden drums into which a small
amount of graphite some time also added.
• The gun powder or black powder thus finally dried at about 400 c.
• Black powder has low energy density compared to modern smokeless powder and thus
to achieve high energy loadings, large amount of black powders are needed with heavy
projectiles.
• It also produces thick smock as a byproduct which in military application may give a
soldier location away to enemy observer and may also impair aiming for a additional
shots.
3. Write the preparation and property of nitroglycerine and dynamite. (N-16)
Nitroglycerine;
• It is an ester not a nitro compound and it is also called glycerol trinitrate.
• It was the first explosive to be employed on large scale.
10
• It was manufactured by slowly adding very pure glycerin to mixed acids like
sulphuric acid and nitric acid and water at 10-250 c.
• It is a dense oily colorless liquid that detonates if heated or subjected to mechanical

shock.
• It is poisonous heavy oil and is highly sensitive to shock.
• It explodes violently detonation.
• It is quite sensitive to blow and freezes at 560 F.
• To make nitroglycerine easier and safe to handle it is usually manufactured into
dynamite.
• It is derived from a glycerol molecule which is a common biological molecule.
• It has some advantages over than other explosives.
• It contains N, O and C which explodes with lot of energy.
Dynamite:
• Original dynamite was a mixture of 75% nitoglycerine and 25% kieselguhr a porous
siliceous earth.
• Modern dynamite uses wood flour, ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate as the
absorbing medium for nitroglycerine an oxidizer is also added to sometimes.
• Dynamite is easy to handle.
• It is a high explosive for rock blasting and gold mining.
• Diethyl nitrate is nitrated to dinitrate in practically the same manner as glycerine is
nitration and such non-freezing dynamite is have potential as great as straight
dynamites.
• Dynamite for work in cold weather several dynamites have other materials have
also been designed lower the freezing point of nitroglycerine.
• Dynamite is first safely used explosive and it is stronger than black powder.
• It can be applied to carbon produce for industrial diamond cutting, grinding and
polishing tools.
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UNIT-II
SECTION-A (2-MARK)
1. What is dyeing? (A-18)
• Dyeing can be done in conventional drum fitted with pgs and a feed pipe in a hollow
are from which hot water. Dye, acid can be added.
• This method provides vigorous mechanical condition for favorite penetration off
dye.
2. What are the chemicals used in the preservation of leather? (A-18)
• Common salt.
• Acids
• alkalies
3. Give any two preservation method for tanning of hides. (N-15)
• Salt curing.
• Brine curing.
• Drying.
4. What is mean by tannery effluents? (N-15)
The waste water obtained from leather industry is called tannery effluent. The
proper maintenance of tannery can significantly the efflued load.
5. What is mean by tanning? (N-16)
The tanning process converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into the stable
material which will not purify and it’s suitable for wide variety of purpose.
6. What are the toxic metals present in tannery effluent? (N-16)
• Common salt.
• Acids
• alkalies
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SECTION-B (5- MARK)
1. Explain the curing process of tanning. (A-18) (N-15)

• The simple method of preserving the raw skin during transport or storage is known
as curing.
• They are three types,
1. salt curing.
2.brine curing.
3.brine curing.
• Salt curing is one of the common methods of preserving hides. Salt curing is done by
two methods.
a) Wet salting.
b) Dry salting.
• Brine curing is one of the most efficient methods of curing. The advantage of the
method in that can be done in less time.
• In this method a fresh hide is sent through a chill machine to clean off some of the
manure or surface dirt.
• The drying process is the simplest form of hide and skin preservation.
• It is used in the preservation of reptiles, goat.
2. Discuss the preparation of hides for tanning. (A-18)
• The tanning is the process which converts the protein of the raw hide into a stable
material which will not purify and it suitable for wide variety of purposes.
• There are many tanning methods as follows,
1. Vegetable tanning.
2. Synthetic tanning.
3. Mineral tanning.
4. Aldehyde tanning.
• Vegetable tanning is one of the oldest methods. In this the vegetable tanners are
extracted from plants, leaves… etc. it consist of large poly phenol molecule with
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some acid groups. The acid group may combine with the basic group remove
hydrated water.
• Synthetic tans with high secondary valance forces will have more pronounced
leathering effect and give a fuller leather , has greater proportion of sulphonic groups
give a less flexible leather.
• Mineral tanning are the basic salts of chromium, zirconium, aluminium. There initial
fixation is the acid groups of the protein is displaces some of the bouned water but
they may form cross links between adjacent acid groups which stabilizes the hydrated
skin.
• Aldehyde tanning is generally a formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde or aldehydes produces
in chamois tannage combine with the basic groups on adjacent molecules in the wet
protein. Small amount of aldehyde is sufficient to produce a significant effect.
3. Discuss the treatment of tannery effluent. (N-15)
The proper maintenance of tannery effluent can significantly the effluent load.
Tannery wastes pollute the water in many ways. These can be treated in three way.
1. Primary efficient.
2. Secondary treatment.
3. Tertiary treatment.
• The removal of hair and small suspended particle can be accomplished by mechanical
screening system. The efficient at this stage contain 45-50% BOD and the COD of the
efficient is reduced. This is called primary efficient.
• In secondary treatment the efficient from sedimentation tank after primary treatment
is issued into large lagoons for giving secondary treatment. This can be done by
chemical treatment of coagulation.
• In tertiary treatment the discharge is fed into an area of land with a gentile down and
scope. The clear filtrate can be disposed off and the material remains on the land. This
efficient treatment is very expensive and suitable.
4. Explain dehairing and dying process. (N-16)
Dehairing:
• The aim of dehairing is to remove the hair, epidermis, and to prepare the hide and
skin for removal of loose flesh.
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• The earlier method of dehairing is sweating. Goat and sheep got greater value of
skin.
• The skin is usually skinned in cold water and thrown into lime liquid to stop further
bacterial infection.
• Enzyme dehairing is used commercially for many years.
Dyeing:
• Dyeing can be done in conventional drum, fitted with pegs and a feed pipe in a
hollow are from which hot water, dye , acid can be added.
• This method provides most vigorous mechanical for vigorous mechanical action for
favorite penetration of dye.
• Drum and paddle dyeing method are traditional method for dyeing has more
disadvantages.
• In new technique stainless steel or resin lined drum can be used with speed control.
5. Write the preservation method used in the tanning of hides. (N-16)
• Drying process is one of the most obvious methods of preservation.
• The dry skin does not putrefy and can soaked is water to return in it to raw condition.
• It can be sprinkled well by common salt is washed out.
• The choice of preserving methods depends on how much time may elapse before
tanning which methods are simplest and cheapest.
• Very large quantities of cured skins are shipped all over the world from countries
with high animal population according to the demands of tanning.

1. Explain the treatment process of tannery effluents. (A-18) (N-16)
The proper maintenance of tannery effluent can significantly the effluent load.
Tannery wastes pollute the water in many ways. These can be treated in three ways.
1. Primary efficient.
2.Secondary treatment.
3.Tertiary treatment.
15
Primary treatment process:

• The removal of hair and small suspended particle can be accomplished by mechanical
screening system.
• The efficient at this stage contain 45-50% BOD and the COD of the efficient is
reduced.
• This is called primary efficient.
Secondary treatment process:
• In secondary treatment the efficient from sedimentation tank after primary treatment
is issued into large lagoons for giving secondary treatment.
• This can be done by chemical treatment of coagulation.
• It can also done by biological treatment to reduce BOD and COD.
Tertiary treatment process:
• In tertiary treatment the discharge is fed into an area of land with a gentile down and
scope.
• The clear filtrate can be disposed off and the materials remain on the land.
• This efficient treatment is very expensive and suitable.
2. Explain curing preservation and tanning of hides. (N-15)
Curing:
• The simple method of preserving the raw skin during transport or storage is known
as curing.
• They are three types,
1. salt curing.
2.brine curing.
3.brine curing.
• Salt curing is one of the common methods of preserving hides. Salt curing is done by
two methods.
c) Wet salting.
d) Dry salting.
• Brine curing is one of the most efficient methods of curing. The advantage of the
method in that can be done in less time.
16
• In this method a fresh hide is sent through a chill machine to clean off some of the
manure or surface dirt.
• The drying process is the simplest form of hide and skin preservation.
• It is used in the preservation of reptiles, goat.
Preservation:
• Drying process is one of the most obvious methods of preservation.
• The dry skin does not putrefy and can soaked is water to return in it to raw condition.
• It can be sprinkled well by common salt is washed out.
• The choice of preserving methods depends on how much time may elapse before
tanning which methods are simplest and cheapest.
• Very large quantities of cured skins are shipped all over the world from countries
with high animal population according o the demands of tanning.
Tanning:
• The tanning is the process which converts the protein of the raw hide into a stable
material which will not purify and it suitable for wide variety of purposes.
• There are many tanning methods as follows,
1.Vegetable tanning.
2. Synthetic tanning.
3.Mineral tanning.
4.Aldehyde tanning.
• Vegetable tanning is one of the oldest methods. In this the vegetable tanners are
extracted from plants, leaves… etc.
• Synthetic tans with high secondary valance forces will have more pronounced
leathering effect and give a fuller leather , has greater proportion of sulphonic groups
give a less flexible leather.
• Aldehyde tanning is generally a formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde or aldehydes produces
in chamois tannage combine with the basic groups on adjacent molecules in the wet
protein.
17
UNIT-III
SECTION-A (2-MARK)
1. What are secondary cells? (A-18)
Secondary cells are rechargeable and can be used like a primary battery and then
recharged it is used again the cycle is repeated until the capacity fades or is lost
suddenly due to internal short circuit.
Ex: lead storage battery.
2. Give the uses of chlorine. (A-18)
It is obtained as a bye product in the manufacture of caustic soda finds application
in paper and pulp solvents, explosives, pesticides and various chemical structure.
3. Define cells. (N-15)
This term is generally used to denote one or more electrically connected galvanic
cells.
They are two types.
i. Primary batteries: galvanic cells.
ii. Secondary batteries: lead storage batteries.
4. What are the advantages of fuel cell? (N-15)
•They are effective and take less time for operation.
•It is pollution free technique.
•It produces drinking water.
5. How will you prepare sodium chlorate? (N-16)
• The manufacture of sodium chlorate is carried out by the electrolysis of saturated
acidulated brine containing some sodium dichromate.
•Then the sodium chloride reacts with water to give sodium chlorate.
6. What are fuel cells? (N-16)
Fuel cell is a voltaic cell which converts the chemical energy directly into
electricity without combustion. It converts the chemical energy of the fuel directly
into its electricity.
Ex: hydrogen oxygen fuel cell.
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SECTION-B (5 MARKS)
1. How is caustic soda manufacture? (A-18) (N-15)
Diagram- nelson method:
• It consists of a perferatted steel tube having a thin lining of asbestoes on the inside.
The steel tube act as a cathode. It is suspended in an outer tank.
• Brine is placed inside the cathode tube and graphite soda is immersed in it.
• The graphite rod act as a anode. When an electric current is passed, the salt solution
it undergoes electrolysis and its ions pass through the diphragam as a result of
electric migration.
• Hydrogen gas and caustic soda are formed at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
• Cl liberated at the anode is led away through a pipe it compressed into a cylinder.
• It heats the elctrolytes and reduce reduce its resistence.
• Keep the pores of asbestoes diphragam clear and makes migration of ion is easy.
• Sodium ions are passed throgh asbestoes it reach cathode where H+ and OH- ions are
formed a result of reduction of water.
• Hydrogen escapes through a opening combining with sodium ions to form caustic
soda.
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2. What are fuel cells? Give its application. (A-18) (N-15)

It is a type of cell in which current is generated by burning of fuel. The efficiency of
fuel is greater than normal carnot engine.
Ex: hydrogen oxygen fuel cell.
A typical example of pollution free cell is H -O fuel cell in which the fuel is
hydrogen and the oxidizer is oxygen. A full cell converts the chemical energy of the
fuels directly to electricity. The essential process in fuel cell is
Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electricity
Construction and working:
Hydrogen – oxygen fuel cell consists of two porous electrodes made up of compressed
carbon coated with small amount of catalysts (Pt, Pd, Ag) and KOH or NaOH solution
as the electrolyte. During working, Hydrogen (the fuel) is bubbled though the anode
compartment, where it is oxidized. The oxygen (oxidizer) is bubbled though the
cathode compartment, where it is reduced. The following cell reactions occur.
Anodic reaction:
2H2 + 4OH- 4H2 O + 4e-
Cathodic reaction:
O2 + 4H2O+4 e- 4OH-
Overall cell reaction:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 4H2O (l)
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From the above cell reactions, hydrogen molecules are oxidized to water. When a
large number of fuel cells are connected in series, it is called fuel battery.
3. Explain primary cell. (N-16)
Example: dry cell
The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte consisting of

NH Cl, ZnCl and MnO to which starch is added to make it thick paste-like so that is less
likely to leak. A graphite rod serves as the cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte
in the centre of the cell.
The electrode reactions are given below.
Anodic reaction
Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(Oxidation)
Cathodic reaction
2MnO2 (s) + H2 O + 2e- Mn2O2 (s) + 2OH- (aq)
(Reduction)
Overall reaction
Zn(s)+2NH 4(aq)+2Cl- (aq)+2MnO2 (s)
Mn2 O2 (s)+[Zn(NH3 )2 ]Cl2 (s) + 2H2O
The dry cell is a primary battery, since no reaction is reversible by supplying
electricity. Dry cell is very cheap to make. It gives voltage of about 1.5V.
4. Write the preparation of chlorine and caustic soda. (N-16)
Chlorine:
• In deacons method hydrochloric acidis partially o0xidised to chlorine by heating the
hydrochloric acid gas with oxygen at 400- 4500 c in presence of porous earthware
impregnated CuCl2 as a catalyst.
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4HCl + O2 → 2Cl2 + 2H2O

2CuCl2 → 2CuCl2 + Cl2
4Cucl + O2 → 2Cu2OCl2
Cu2OCl2 + 2HCl → 2Cucl2 + H2O
• In electrolytic process it is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of caustic
soda.
Caustic soda:
• It consist of a perforated steel tube having a thin lining of asbestoes on the inside.
The steel tube act as a cathode. It is suspended in an outer tank.
• Brine is placed inside the cathode tube and graphite soda is immersed in it.
• The graphite rod act as a anode. When an electric current is passed, the salt solution
it undergoes electrolysis and its ions pass through the diphragam as a result of
electric migration.
• Hydrogen gas and caustic soda are formed at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
• Cl liberated at the anode is led away through a pipe it compressed into a cylinder.
• It heats the elctrolytes and reduce reduce its resistance.
• Keep the pores of asbestoes diphragam clear and makes migration of ion is easy.
• Sodium ions are passed through asbestoes it reach cathode where H+ and OH- ions
are formed a result of reduction of water.
• Hydrogen escapes through a opening combining with sodium ions to form caustic
soda.
1. How is chlorine manufactured? Give its uses. (A-18)

• It is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of caustic soda, finds application in
paper and pulp solvents explosives, plastics, pesticides and various chemical
reagents.
• In deacons method hydrochloric acids partially o0xidised to chlorine by heating the
hydrochloric acid gas with oxygen at 400- 4500 c in presence of porous earth ware
impregnated CuCl2 as a catalyst.
4HCl + O2 → 2Cl2 + 2H2O
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2CuCl2 → 2CuCl2 + Cl2

4Cucl + O2 → 2Cu2OCl2
Cu2OCl2 + 2HCl → 2Cucl2 + H2O
• Cl2 mixed with unconverted HCl and steam is washed with cold water and dried
with con H2SO4 as described manner.
• It is the old method and it is not used now.
• Pure chlorine can also be prepared by heating auric chloride in a hard glass tube.
• These methods are however very costly and it is not used in the manufacture
of chlorine.
• Chlorine is largely manufacture by the electrolytic process.
• In electrolytic process it is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of caustic
soda.
2. Discuss primary and secondary batteries. (N-15)
Primary cell
Example: dry cell
The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte consisting of NH
Cl, ZnCl and MnO to which starch is added to make it thick paste-like so that is less
likely to leak. A graphite rod serves as the cathode, which is immersed in the
electrolyte in the centre of the cell.
The electrode reactions are given below.

Anodic reaction
Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(Oxidation)
Cathodic reaction
2MnO2 (s) + H2 O + 2e- → Mn2O2 (s) + 2OH- (aq)
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(Reduction)
Overall reaction
Zn(s)+2NH 4(aq)+2Cl- (aq)+2MnO2 (s) →Mn2 O2 (s)+[Zn(NH3 )2 ]Cl2 (s) + 2H2O
The dry cell is a primary battery, since no reaction is reversible by supplying electricity.
Dry cell is very cheap to make. It gives voltage of about 1.5V.
Secondary cells:
The typical example for storage cell is Lead-acid storage cell. It is a secondary
battery which can operate as a voltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a
voltaic cell, it supplies electrical energy and becomes run down. When it is recharged,
the cell operates as an electrochemical cell.
Construction and Working:
A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6) connected in

series to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, a number of Pb plates used as anodes are
connected in parallel and a number of PbO plates used as cathodes are connected in
parallel. The plates are separated by insulators like rubber or glass fibre. The entire
combinations are immersed in dil.H SO .
The cell is represented as
Pb | PbSO4 || H2 SO4 | PbO2 | Pb
When the lead-acid storage battery operates, the following cell reactions occur.
Anodic reaction:
Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forms insoluble
PbSO4 .
Pb (s) + SO42- → PbSO4 (s) + 2e-
22
Cathodic reaction:
PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forms insoluble PbSO4
.
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- → PbSO (s) + 2H O
Overall cell reaction during discharging:
Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s)+2H2O+Energy
3. Explain secondary cells and solar cells. (N-16)

Secondary cells:
The typical example for storage cell is Lead-acid storage cell. It is asecondary
battery which can operate as a voltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a
voltaic cell, it supplies electrical energy and becomes run down. When it is recharged,
the cell operates as an
electrochemical cell.
Construction and Working:
A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6) connected in
series to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, a number of Pb plates used as anodes are
connected in parallel and a number of PbO plates used as cathodes are connected in
parallel. The plates are separated by insulators like rubber or glass fibre. The entire
combinations are immersed in dil.H SO4 .
The cell is represented as

Pb | PbSO4 || H2 SO4 | PbO2 | Pb
When the lead-acid storage battery operates, the following cell reactions occur.
Anodic reaction:
23
Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forms insoluble
PbSO4 .
Pb (s) + SO42- → PbSO4 (s) + 2e-
Cathodic reaction:
PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forms insoluble
PbSO4 .
→
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- PbSO (s) + 2H O
Overall cell reaction during discharging:
Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s)+2H2O+Energy
solar cells.
A device which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun) directly into
electrical energy is called 'Solar cell'. This is also called as 'Photovoltaic cell'.
Principle:
The basic principle involved in the solar cells is based on the photovoltaic (PV) effect.
When sun rays fall on the two layers of semiconductor devices, potential difference
between the two layers is produced. This potential difference causes flow of electrons and
thus
produce electricity.
Example: Silicon solar cell
Construction:
Solar cell consists of a p-type (such as Si doped with boron) and a n-type (such as Si
doped with phosphorous). They are in close contact with each other.
24
When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the
electrons from the valence band get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n
junction into n-type semiconductor. Thereby potential difference between two layers is
created, which causes flow of electrons (i.e. electric current). The potential difference
and hence current increases as more solar rays falls on the surface of the top layer.
Thus, when this p- and n- layers are connected to an external circuit, electrons
flow from n-layer to p-layer and hence current is generated.
25
UNIT-IV
SECTION-A (2 MARKS)
1. What are pigments? (A-18)

A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the
result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from
fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material
emits light.
2. What are the material used in making toilet soaps? (A-18)
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most
commonly used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used.
Potassium-based soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap,
and so it is called "soft soap."
3. Give the primary constituents of paints. (N-15)
Paint contains three main ingredients: pigment, binder and solvent. The pigment
provides the texture, color and the hiding properties of the paint. Pigments actually
used to be pretty dangerous and included: lead, chromates and asbestos.
4. Define soaps. (N-15)
Soap is a substance used with water for washing and cleaning, made of a
compound of natural oils or fats with sodium hydroxide or another strong alkali, and
typically having perfume and colouring added.
5. Name the solvents used in making paints. (N-16)
• Mineral spirits (US) / White spirit (UK)
• Acetone.
• Turpentine.
• Naphtha.
• Toluene.
• Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
• Dimethylformamide (DMF)
• 2-Butoxyethanol
26
6. Give the preparation of washing soaps. (N-16)

Soap and detergent manufacturing consists of a broad range of processing
and packaging operations ......Traditional bar soaps are made from fats and oils or their
fatty acids which are reacted with inorganic water-soluble bases.
SECTION- B (5 MARKS)
1. Discuss the cleansing action of soaps. (A-18) (N-16)
Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water. The molecule of
soap constitutes sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. In the case of
soaps, the carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap
molecules form structures called micelles .In micelles, one end is towards the oil droplet
and the other end which is the ionic faces outside. Therefore, it forms an emulsion in
water and helps in dissolving the dirt when we wash our clothes.
Soap is a kind of molecule in which both the ends have different properties.
• Hydrophilic end
• Hydrophobic end
The first one is the hydrophilic end which dissolves water and is attracted towards it
whereas the second one is the hydrophobic end that is dissolved in hydrocarbons and is
water repulsive in nature. If on the surface of the water, soap is present then the
hydrophobic tail which is not soluble in water will align along the water surface.
Micelles
In water, the soap molecule is uniquely oriented which helps to keep the hydrocarbon
part outside the water. When the clusters of molecules are formed then hydrophobic tail
27
comes at the interior of the cluster and the ionic end comes at the surface of the cluster and
this formation is called micelle. When the soap is in the form of micelles then it has the
ability to clean the oily dirt which gets accumulated at the center. These micelles remain
as colloidal solutions. Therefore the dirt from the cloth is easily washed away. The soap
solution appears cloudy as it forms a colloidal solution which scatters light.
2. How is washing soap prepared? (A-18)

Soap is made two ways. The first, called "saponification," involves cooking fats and
adding alkali to the mix at the end to form soap and two byproducts, water and glycerin.
The second, called hydrolization, splits the fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerin
using steam under pressure. It distills the acids and neutralizes them with alkali.
Homemade soap hobbyists make five or six bars of soap using a pound of animal or
vegetable oils, two ounces of lye (or other alkali) and about a cup of water. The oils are
melted while the akali is added to the water and heated to approximately 110 degrees
Fahrenheit. The lye water is added gradually to the cooled oils. The mixture gradually is
simmered and re-simmered until a gelatinous substance called "trace" is formed. The
trace is poured into molds and must age for several weeks to cure completely.
3. Give an account on paints and varnish. (N-16)

Paints:
• Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application
to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film.
• It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects.
• Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as
watercolor, synthetic, etc.
• Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, but most types dry into a solid.
Varnish:
• Varnish is a clear transparent hard protective finish or film. Varnish has little or no
color and has no added pigment as opposed to paint or wood stain which contains
pigment.
28
• However, some varnish products are marketed as a combined stain and varnish.
Varnish is primarily used in wood finishing applications where the natural tones and
grains in the wood are intended to be visible.
• It is applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for gloss and protection.
Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss
sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents.
• The term "varnish" refers to the finished appearance of the product. It is not a term for
any single or specific chemical composition or formula. There are many different
compositions that achieve a varnish effect when applied.
4. Write notes on synthetic detergents. (N-15)
Synthetic detergents are synthetic surfactants, other than soap, which can be used
as an effective cleanser and functions equally well as a surface-active agent in hard or soft
water. It is a non-soap cleanser that exerts its effect by lowering the surface tension of an
aqueous cleansing mixture.
Examples: laundry detergent, dish detergent, etc.
Anionic detergents
Typical anionic detergents are alkylbenzenesulfonates. The alkylbenzene portion of
these anions is lipophilic and the sulfonate is hydrophilic. Two different varieties have
been popularized, those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear alkyl groups.
Cationic detergents
Cationic detergents that are similar to the anionic ones, with a hydrophilic
component, but, instead of the anionic sulfonate group, the cationic surfactants have
quaternary ammonium as the polar end. The ammonium sulfate center is positively
charged.
Non-ionic and zwitterionic detergents
Non-ionic detergents are characterized by their uncharged, hydrophilic
headgroups. Typical non-ionic detergents are based on polyoxyethylene or a glycoside.
Common examples of the former include Tween, Triton, and the Brij series. These
materials are also known as ethoxylates
29
5. Explain primary constituents of paints. (N-15)

They are as follows,
Vehicle:
The vehicle is composed of the binder; or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a
diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder and diluent.
Binder or film former:
The binder is the film-forming component of paint.It is the only component that is
always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders are too thick to
be applied and must be thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder.
Diluent or solvent or thinner
The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of
the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and
application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in
liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non volatile components.
Pigments:
Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute color. Fillers are
granular solids incorporate to impart toughness, texture, give the paint special
properties,[13] or to reduce the cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints contain dyes
instead of or in combination with pigments.
Fillers
Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the film, support its structure
and increase the volume of the paint. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as
diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion
may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Not all paints include fillers. On the other hand,
some paints contain large proportions of pigment/filler and binder.
Additives
Besides the three main categories of ingredients, paint can have a wide variety of
miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a
significant effect on the product.
30
SECTION-C (10MARKS)
1. Discuss constitution and formulation of paints and varnishes. (A-18)

They are as follows,
Vehicle:
The vehicle is composed of the binder; or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a
diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder and diluent.
Binder or film former:
The binder is the film-forming component of paint.It is the only component that is
always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders are too thick to
be applied and must be thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder.
Diluent or solvent or thinner
The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of
the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and
application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in
liquid state.
Pigments:
Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute color. Fillers are
granular solids incorporate to impart toughness, texture, give the paint special
properties,[13] or to reduce the cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints contain dyes
instead of or in combination with pigments.
Fillers
Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the film, support its structure
and increase the volume of the paint. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as
diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion
may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Not all paints include fillers. On the other hand,
some paints contain large proportions of pigment/filler and binder.
31
Additives
Besides the three main categories of ingredients, paint can have a wide variety of
miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a
significant effect on the product.
Formulation:
Any coating material to be developed has to meet specific requirements, i.e., it must
fulfil the demands of the customer (properties of the coating, substrate, application), the
environment and so on. The skilled paint chemist has to accommodate all these different
demands, choose the appropriate raw materials from the vast number available and,
finally, develop a paint formulation.
2. Explain the requirements of good paints and cleansing action of soaps. (N-15) (N-
16)
Requirements of good paints:
1. Wear ability:
Paint must be resistant to the wear and tear of the atmosphere and should maintain its
color, smoothness and finish for a long time. See also Weathering of Rocks
2. Covering ability:
Paints should cover the body uniformly and homogeneously on which it is applied
and the finish should be smooth and uniform.
3. Ease of cleaning:
When it is required to clean the paint, it should be easy to remove i.e A good paint
should not react chemically with the materials but should only cover its surface.
5. Environmentally Friendly:
Paint should be water based and must not have any plasticizers or biocides as
solvents.
6. Aesthetic:
It should provide a comfortable room climate and must not allow moulds and algae
to grow on it.
32
7. Practical and cost effective:

The other qualities of a good paint are that they must be cheap, ready to use, long
lasting and should color fast. In most cases Price is the decisive factor in selection of
paints
Cleansing action of soap:
Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water. The molecule of
soap constitutes sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. In the case of
soaps, the carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap
molecules form structures called micelles .In micelles, one end is towards the oil droplet
and the other end which is the ionic faces outside. Therefore, it forms an emulsion in
water and helps in dissolving the dirt when we wash our clothes.
Soap is a kind of molecule in which both the ends have different properties.
• Hydrophilic end
• Hydrophobic end
The first one is the hydrophilic end which dissolves water and is attracted towards it
whereas the second one is the hydrophobic end that is dissolved in hydrocarbons and is
water repulsive in nature. If on the surface of the water, soap is present then the
hydrophobic tail which is not soluble in water will align along the water surface.
In water, the soap molecule is uniquely oriented which helps to keep the hydrocarbon
part outside the water. When the clusters of molecules are formed then hydrophobic tail
comes at the interior of the cluster and the ionic end comes at the surface of the cluster and
33
this formation is called micelle. When the soap is in the form of micelles then it has the
ability to clean the oily dirt which gets accumulated at the center. These micelles remain
as a colloidal solutions. Therefore the dirt from the cloth is easily washed away. The soap
solution appears cloudy as it forms a colloidal solution which scatters light.
UNIT-V
SECTION A (2 MARKS)
1. Name any two cement industries in india. (A-18)
• Gagel cement works- maharastra.
• Damodhar cement works - west Bengal
2. What is coloured glass? (A-18)
• Coloured glass are a type of glasses used for decoration, technical, and scientific
purpose.
• It can be prepared in pot furnace from batch material containing inorganic coloring
agents.
3. Write about the setting of cement. (N-15)
The setting process of cement starts as it is mixed with water. The chemical
phenomenon that takes place are divided into 3 stages,
• Hydrolysis and Hydration Stage
• Collidisation stage.
• Crystallization stage.
4. What is lead glass? Give an example. (N-15)
Lead glass has high refractive index, and so has the maximum brilliance. It sparkles
and is used for high quality art objects and for expensive glassware. It is also called cut
glass because the surface of the glass objects is often cut into decorative patterns to
reflect light.
5. Name any two cement industries in Tamilnadu. (N-16)
• Madukkarai cement works.
• Kudithani cement works.
• Chettinadu cement works.
34
6. Write the composition of coloured glass. (N-16)

Coloured glasses are a type of glasses used for decoration, technical, and
scientific purpose. It can be prepared in pot furnace from batch material containing
inorganic coloring agents.
SECTION-B (5MARKS)
1. Discuss the setting of cement. (A-18)
Setting of Cement:
1. Hydrolysis and Hydration Stage:
The process of setting starts after the addition of water. In this process the four
compounds of cement (C3S, C2S, 3CA1, 4CAFe) get hydrated. C3S compound of cement
gets hydrated and form a complex hydro silicates.
2. Colloidisation Stage:
The products formed from the above stage seperates out in the form of a gel which gets
gradually thickened and acts as glue around aggregates. Thereby initiating the setting of
the cement.
3. Crystallisation Stage:
As the name of the stage indicates, most of the components of gel or colloidal state
forms into crystalline state. Compounds which are least stable such as tri-calcium hydro
aluminate and calcium hydroxide are the one to undergo onto stable crystalline phase.
Factors Affecting the Setting Time of Cement
Many factors affect the setting time of cement after mixed with water, they are
• Composition of cement.
• Amount of gypsum in cement
• Fineness of cement
• Curing
• Water cement ratio
• Type of admixture used
• Storage of cement
35
2. Mention the composition and uses of lead glass. (A-18) (N-16)

Lead crystal glass has high refractive index, and so has the maximum brilliance. It
sparkles and is used for high quality art objects and for expensive glassware.
It is also called cut glass because the surface of the glass objects is often cut into
decorative patterns to reflect light. In order to increase the refractive index, lead oxide is
used as flux in crystal glass, therefore it is also called lead crystal glass.
The major disadvantage of ordinary glass is that it is brittle. It cracks when subjected
to sudden changes of temperature. When the glass has been moulded into a finished
article, it is cooled very slowly to prevent brittleness.
3. Explain the manufacture of cement by wet process. (N-16)
During the wet process, the raw mix is fed into the kiln in the form of slurry
that may contain water up to 30 to 40%. In the wet process, the kiln is a very long tube
in comparison to dry process, and the slurry that is easy to blend and homogenize due to
the water, is directly being fed into the kiln. Wet process could be selected as
manufacturing technology is when raw materials have natural high moisture content.
The amount of moisture in mineral sometimes can be even more than 12%, as in case of
chalk and in marlstone. The use of wet process is also essential when relatively poor
grade limestone needs to be enriched through the beneficiation process. In this process,
water is required as a process media. Most of the cement processing kilns were wet kilns
due to the ease of blending and homogenizing the components of the raw mix. In the wet
process, the fuel consumption is in the range of 1300 to 1600 Kcal/Kg of clinker. Power
consumption in manufacture process is about 110-115 kWh/ton of cement
4. Give the type of glass. (N-15)
Types of glass
There are nine types of glass according to the minor additions and variations in the
ingredients used and according to the methods of manufacturing. The different types of
glasses are different in their properties and uses.
1. Soda glass or soda-lime glass:
It is the most common variety of glass. It is prepared by heating sodium carbonate
and silica. It is used for making windowpanes, tableware, bottles and bulbs.
36
2. Coloured glass:
Small amounts of metallic oxides are mixed with the hot molten mixture of sand,
sodium carbonate and limestone. The desired colour determines the choice of the metallic
oxide to be added, as different metallic oxides give different colours to the glass.
3. Plate glass:
Plate glass is thicker than ordinary glass. It has a very smooth surface. It is made by
floating a layer of molten glass over a layer of molten tin. It is used in shop windows and
doors.
4. Safety glass:
It can also be called shatterproof glass. It is made by placing a sheet of plastic such as
celluloid between sheets of glass.
5. Laminated glass:
It can also be called bulletproof glass. Several layers of safety glass are bound
together with a transparent adhesive. The larger the number of layers used the greater
is the strength of the glass.
6. Optical glass:
Optical glass is softer than any other glass. It is clear and transparent. Potassium
and lead silicates are used in making optical glass. It is also called flint glass.
7. Pyrex glass:
Pyrex glass is highly heat resistant. In ordinary glass, silica is the main constituent.
In pyrex glass some of the silica is replaced by boron oxide. Boron oxide expands very
little when heated, thus, pyrex glass does not crack on strong heating. Pyrex glass is
also called borosilicate glass. It has a high melting point and is resistant to many
chemicals. Laboratory equipment and ovenware are made of pyrex glass.
8. Photo-chromatic glass:
Photochromatic glass acquires a darker shade when exposed to bright light and
returns to its original lighter shade in dim light. This happens because silver iodinde is
added to this glass. (silver iodide gets coloured with the intensity of light.)
9. Lead crystal glass:
Lead crystal glass has high refractive index, and so has the maximum brilliance. It
sparkles and is used for high quality art objects and for expensive glassware. It is also
37
called cut glass because the surface of the glass objects is often cut into decorative
patterns to reflect light. In order to increase the refractive index, lead oxide is used as flux
in crystal glass, therefore it is also called lead crystal glass.
5. Write manufacture of cement by dry process. (N-15)
To reduce the moisture content of minerals below 1%, which is required for dry
process, the raw materials are dried in a combined drying and grinding plant. This drying
of materials is reached by using exhaust gases coming from the kiln. The raw ground mix
is homogenized in large silos. Development of appropriate blending and homogenizing
systems, in general, is crucial for making the dry process practicable. The blended and
homogenized raw mix is then fed into dry kiln with air suspension preheater where partial
calcination of the raw mix starts to take place. Dry process is mostly limited to the use of
air suspension preheater. This provides maximum benefits since the heat consumption is
an important issue. Development of the dry process, using air suspension preheaters, is
bein integrated with precalcinators. Pre-calcinators ensure complete calcination of the raw
mix before its entry to the kiln. The advantage of this process is that the fuel consumption
is lowest in the existing technologies. In the dry process, the fuel use in this process is in
the range of 750-950 Kcal/Kg of clinker and the power consumption is in the range of
120-125 kWh/ton of cement.
SECTION-B (10 MARKS)

1. How is glass manufacture? Explain. (A-18)
The manufacturing process of glass consists of four major operations:
(1) Melting.
(2) Shaping.
(3) Annealing.
(4) Finishing.
Each operation is being discussed briefly as follows:
1. Melting. The ingredients called batch materials are mixed in the appropriate proportion
and heated to fusion in a furnace. Many designs of glass furnace are in use. The two most
commonly used furnaces are:
(i) Pot furnace and (ii) Tank furnace.
38
i. Pot Furnace. In this furnace, the charge is fused in fire clay pots. The pots may be
opened or closed. The closed pots are used when the-glass is to be protected from the
products of combustion.
The batch materials are put in the pots. They are placed in a circle inside a furnace
and heated by burning producer gas around them. When the fusion is complete the pots
are removed from the furnace and the fused plastic mass is taken out for shaping. .
.
(ii) Tank Furnace. It consists of a large rectangular tank built of fire clay blocks. The
batch materials are fed into the tank and producer gas is used as a fuel in the furnace.
The charge is heated at 1400°- 1500°C for 10-12 hours. The chemical reactions involved
in both the furnaces are:
Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2
2Na2SO4 + 2SiO2 → 2Na2SiO3 + O2 + 2SO2
CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CO2
At 1400°C silica also in silicates of calcium and sodium
Na2SiO3 + CaSiO3 + 4SiO2 → Na2SiO3.CaSiO3 .4SiO2
39
During the melting lot of frothing is caused owing to the evolution of the gases like
CO2, SO2, O2, etc. When the frothing subsides, the temperature is raised and the molten
glass is allowed to stand for some time. This is called refining, and its objective is to form
a homogeneous mass free from gas bubbles and bits of undissolved material or batch
stones.
2. Shaping. The plastic glass formed in the furnace is next shaped or formed
into the desired articles. It is accomplished by blowing from mouth or by means of a
machine. Glass blowing is a skillful art. The blowing of a glass into bottle is done as
illustrated in. A lump of the plastic glass is taken on a long iron pipe. It is elongated
under its weight when hung downwards. The elongated lump is introduced into a mould
and is inflated by blowing air into it from the mouth. On cooling, the bottle is taken out
by removing the two-halves of the mould.
Shaping of glass lump.

3. Annealing. It is a process of cooling slowly the newly shaped articles. If they are
cooled quickly they become brittle on account of the high internal strain. Annealing
allows the molecules to arrange themselves in such a way that there is no internal strain
when the mass is cooled. Annealing is done in a tunnel like oven called lehr which is 50 to
60 feet long. At one end the temperature is a little below the softening point of
glass, i.e., 500-600°C and it gradually falls along the length of the oven. At the other end
the temperature is almost the same as the room temperature
4. Finishing. The articles obtained from the lehr are subjected to a number of operations
such as cleaning, polishing, grinding, rounding edges, etc., for bringing them to a useable
form.
40
3. Explain analysis of major constituents and setting of cements. (N-15)

Major constituents of Cement:
There are eight major ingredients of cement. The general percentage of these ingredients
in cement is given below:
Ingredient Percentage in cement
Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1
Functions of Cement Ingredients
The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and
usefulness or harmfulness are given below:
1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and aluminates of
calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o Excessive presence of lime cause cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica:Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium
silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
41
o Silica usually present to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.
4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
o It acts as a flux.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
o Should not be present more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.
o Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.
Setting of Cement:
42
The products formed from the above stage seperates out in the form of a gel which
gets gradually thickened and acts as glue around aggregates. Thereby initiating the setting
of the cement. During this stage, the mortar (cement-water-sand paste) becomes fully
saturated and can take no more water.
Calcium hydro silicate gel also hardens almost simultaneously.
Factors Affecting the Setting Time Of Cement
• Curing
4. Write notes on setting of cement and optical glasses. (N-16)
Setting of Cement:
The products formed from the above stage seperates out in the form of a gel which
gets gradually thickened and acts as glue around aggregates.
43
Factors Affecting the Setting Time of Cement
• Curing
Optical glasses:
optical glass is a very pure kind of glass used for lenses. The fundamental properties
that characterize optical glass are refractive index, dispersion, and transmission.
1. Refractive Index
Refractive Index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
the specified material - a description of how light slows down as it passes through an
optical material. The refractive index for optical glasses, and, is specified at a wavelength
of 587.6nm (Helium d-line).
Dispersion is a description of the variation of the refractive index with wavelength.
Standard optical glasses offer high transmission throughout the entire visible
spectrum and beyond in the near ultraviolet and near infrared ranges.
**********R.RAMESH, M.Phil.*********
44

17uchs06 Industrial Chemistry

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17uchs06 Industrial Chemistry

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Industrial CHEMISTRY

AVS College of Arts & Science

Attur Main Road, Ramalingapuram, SALEM – 636106

Paper Code 17UCHS06

Year & Class III B.Sc CHEMISTRY

Subject In-charge HOD PRINCIPAL

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY (30 Hours)

UNIT I Chemical Explosives

UNIT II Leather Industry

UNIT III Electrochemical Industries

UNIT IV Paints, Varnishes & Cleansing Agents

UNIT V Cement & Glass

• It can also been prepared from chlorobenzene as follows.

5. What is RDX? . (N-16)

3. Give the preparation properties and uses of RDX. (N-15)

• It can be prepared by wolfram method as follows.

• It is a dense oily colorless liquid that detonates if heated or subjected to mechanical

6. Discuss the chemistry of lead azide.

SECTION-C (10 MARKS)

• It can also been prepared from chlorobenzene as follows.

• It is a high explosive, exploding violently on detonation.

• It is a dense oily colorless liquid that detonates if heated or subjected to mechanical

SECTION-B (5- MARK)

1. Explain the curing process of tanning. (A-18) (N-15)

SECTION-C (10 MARKS)

Primary treatment process:

Diagram- nelson method:

2. What are fuel cells? Give its application. (A-18) (N-15)

Construction and working:

The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte consisting of

4HCl + O2 → 2Cl2 + 2H2O

SECTION-C (10 MARKS)

1. How is chlorine manufactured? Give its uses. (A-18)

2CuCl2 → 2CuCl2 + Cl2

The electrode reactions are given below.

A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6) connected in

3. Explain secondary cells and solar cells. (N-16)

The cell is represented as

1. What are pigments? (A-18)

6. Give the preparation of washing soaps. (N-16)

2. How is washing soap prepared? (A-18)

3. Give an account on paints and varnish. (N-16)

5. Explain primary constituents of paints. (N-15)

1. Discuss constitution and formulation of paints and varnishes. (A-18)

7. Practical and cost effective:

6. Write the composition of coloured glass. (N-16)

2. Mention the composition and uses of lead glass. (A-18) (N-16)

SECTION-B (10 MARKS)

Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2

2Na2SO4 + 2SiO2 → 2Na2SiO3 + O2 + 2SO2

CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CO2

At 1400°C silica also in silicates of calcium and sodium

Na2SiO3 + CaSiO3 + 4SiO2 → Na2SiO3.CaSiO3 .4SiO2

Shaping of glass lump.

3. Explain analysis of major constituents and setting of cements. (N-15)

Ingredient Percentage in cement

Functions of Cement Ingredients

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o Silica usually present to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

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