Chapter 2

2.
Fluid statics
© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Euler equations for fluid statics
• Liquids at rest in the gravitational field
• Hydrostatic forces

2. Fluid statics
• Fluid statics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies
fluids at rest. It encompasses the study of the conditions
under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium as
opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion
• Problems in fluid statics are easier than those dealing with
fluids in motion and it is possible to derive analytical
solutions
• Since there is no relative movement between fluid layers,
no shear forces are involved and therefore, all forces due
pressure are normal to the surfaces on which they act
• With no relative movement between fluid elements, the
viscosity of the fluid does not intervene

2.1 Euler equations for fluid statics
• Consider a fluid domain at rest with respect to an
inertial frame of reference (Fig. 1). From this fluid
domain, one chooses an arbitrary material volume
V , limited by the closed surface S
• On the fluid within surface S act mass and surface
forces
• A fluid at rest is subjected only to surface
compressive forces. So the stress or the unit force
is 𝑇𝑛 = −𝑝𝑛, where 𝑝 ≥ 0 is the static pressure
and the surface forces acting on S are only
pressure forces (compression forces)
Fig.1

• The fluid being at rest, the inertial forces are
zero, and therefore the condition that the
system of forces acting on the volumeV is
equivalent to zero gives the equation
Ԧ V − ර 𝑝 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 0
න 𝜌𝑓𝑑 (1)
V 𝑆
where ρ is the density, 𝑓Ԧ the unit mass force, 𝑛

the unit vector of the outward normal to surface
𝑆, 𝑑𝐴 the area of the surface element

• For the surface integral we apply the Gauss –
Ostrogradski formula
ර 𝑝 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝 𝑑V (2)
𝑆 V
and relation (1) becomes:
න(𝜌𝑓Ԧ − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝) 𝑑V = 0 (3)
V
• The volume V is arbitrarely chosen, and therefore we
1
obtain 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝 = 𝑓Ԧ or, using the differential operator
𝜌
nabla 1
∇𝑝 = 𝑓Ԧ (4)
𝜌

• Equation (4) is the vector form of Euler's equation

for fluid statics. With respect to an orthonormal
Cartesian coordinate system, Euler's equations are
written
1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
= 𝑓𝑥 , = 𝑓𝑦 , = 𝑓𝑧 (5)
𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑧
where 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 et 𝑓𝑧 are the projections of the unit
mass force on the axes of the Cartesian coordinate
system

• The unknown functions are 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

and to solve the system (5) we must specify the
relation between 𝜌 et 𝑝
• If the fluid is incompressible (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.), by
applying the curl operator to equation (4) we obtain
∇ × ∇𝑝 = 𝜌 ∇ × 𝑓Ԧ and thus ∇ × 𝑓Ԧ = 0, so the curl
of the unit mass force is zero
• The body force field is irrotational (potential,
conservative)

• If the body force field is conservative (irrotational),

there exists a scalar function П(x, y, z) such that
𝑓Ԧ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 Π = −∇Π (6)
or, in Cartesian coordinates
𝜕Π 𝜕Π 𝜕Π
𝑓𝑥 = − 𝑓𝑦 = − 𝑓𝑧 = − 7
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• In this situation we say that the body forces are

conservative, or that they derive from a potential. The
function Π is the potential of the body forces

• The minus sign in relation (6) is chosen by convention. If
we know 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 and 𝑓𝑧 we can determine the potential Π
• We take the dot product of equation (6) with the
displacement vector 𝑑𝑟, Ԧ 𝑑Π = −𝑓Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = −൫𝑓𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +
+𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑑𝑧൯ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ and calculate the integral
Π 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = − න 𝑓Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = − න 𝑓𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ (8)
• Next, we take the dot product of equation (4) with the

displacement vector 𝑑𝑟,
Ԧ and considering relation (8), we
obtain 𝑑𝑝
+ 𝑑Π = 0 (9)
𝜌

• Relation (9) is the differential form of the fundamental
equation of fluid statics. In this relation, there are two
unknown functions: the pressure 𝑝 𝑟Ԧ or 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
and the density 𝜌 𝑟Ԧ or 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
• For an incompressible fluid (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡), integrating
between a reference point Mo and an arbitrary point
M we obtain
𝑝 𝑝0
+ Π = 𝐶0 with 𝐶0 = + Π0 (10)
𝜌 𝜌
• Relation (10) is the integral form of the fundamental
equation of fluid statics, being valid for incompressible
fluids

2.2 Liquids at rest in the gravitational field
• If the only field acting on a fluid at rest is the
gravitational field, the mass force is the fluid
weigth
• With reference to a Cartesian coordinate
system, the unit mass force is 𝑓Ԧ = 𝑔Ԧ = −𝑔𝑘
(where 𝑔Ԧ - is gravitational acceleration and 𝑘
the unit vector of Oz axis), so dП = gdz and
integrating we obtain the expression of
potential П of the body forces
Π = 𝑔𝑧 + 𝐶1 with 𝐶1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (11)

• Introducing the potential given by (11) in the
fundamental relation of fluid statics (10) we
obtain
𝑝
+ 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶 with 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (12)
𝜌
known as the fundamental relationship of
hydrostatics
• The constant 𝐶 takes the same value for all
points within a given liquid

• Relation (12) can also be written as
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶 ′ with 𝐶 ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (12𝑎)
where 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 is the specific weight of the liquid
• An isobaric surface is a surface where the
pressure is equal at all points
• The equation for isobaric surfaces can be written
as 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., where each value of the
constant denotes a corresponding isobaric surface
• An equipotential surface is a surface where the
potential is constant, such as Π 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

2.2.1 Consequences of the fundamental
relationship of hydrostatics (FRH)
1. In a liquid at rest, the isobaric surfaces and

the equipotential surfaces are horizontal
planes and vice versa
– Analysing relation (12 a), one can see that if
p = const. ↔ z = const
– As well, from relation (11) it’s obvious that if
Π = const. ↔ z = const.

2.2.1 Consequences of the FRH
2. Pascal's principle. A change in pressure
applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the
walls of its container
– We suppose the contrary, namely a different
variation of the pressure and apply relation 12a
considering two points 𝑀𝑜 and 𝑀
p0 +  g z 0 = C = p +  g z
(13) p − p 0 +  g ( z − z 0 ) = 0
p0 +  p0 +  g z 0 = C * = p +  p +  g z  p =  p0
(14) ( p +  p ) − ( p 0 +  p 0 ) +  g ( z − z 0 ) = 0

3.The surface of separation between a liquid

and a gas is a horizontal plane
• The surface of separation between a liquid

and a gas is called the free surface of the
liquid
• The gas pressure is the same in all points of

the free surface, so it is isobaric and, taking
into account consequence 1, it is also
horizontal

4. In a liquid at rest placed in the gravitational field, the
pressure increases linearly with depth (Fig. 2)
p0 +  g z 0 = p +  g z
ℎ
p = p0 +  g ( z 0 − z ) =
(15)
= p0 +  gh = p0 +  h
p1 = p0 +  g ( z0 − z1 )
Fig.2
p 2 = p0 +  g ( z 0 − z 2 )
p2 = p1 +  g ( z1 − z 2 ) (16)

• Relation (15) makes it possible to state the principle of
communicating vessels. Given equal pressures 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 , the
liquid rises to the same height ℎ1 = ℎ2 in two vessels of any
shape communicating with each other (Fig.3b)
• Considering the horizontal plane

OO’ and points M1 and M2, from
relation (15) we obtain
Fig.3 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
• If
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 → ℎ1 = ℎ2

5. The surface of separation between two immiscible
liquids of different densities is a horizontal plane
• We assume the opposite: two different points, A
and B, which are on this surface have different
heights, 𝑧𝐴 ≠ 𝑧𝐵 (Fig.4)
• We apply the relation (15) first by considering the
two points in the liquid of density 𝜌1 and next in the
Fig.4
liquid of density 𝜌2
p A = p B + 1 g ( z B − z A ) 1 g ( z B − z A ) −  2 g ( z B − z A ) =
→
p A = pB +  2 g ( z B − z A ) = ( 1 −  2 )( z B − z A ) = 0
• Given 𝜌1 ≠ 𝜌2 → 𝑧𝐴 = 𝑧𝐵 , which contradicts the initial
assumption

6. Two equipotential surfaces (or isobars) do not
intersect
• We assume the opposite: Two equipotential (or isobars)
surfaces Π 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑎1 and Π 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑎2
( or 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑏1 and 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑏2 ) intersect in point
𝑀 𝑥𝑀 , 𝑦𝑀 , 𝑍𝑀 (Fig.5)
• The potential, or the pressure can have
only one value in point 𝑀
(x M , y M , z M ) = a a1 = a 2
→
Fig.5 p ( xM , y M , z M ) = b b1 = b2
so the two equipotential or isobar surfaces

are the same

7. The external mass forces are orthogonal on the
equipotential surfaces (isobars) and are directed
towards the decreasing direction of the potential, and
therefore towards the increasing direction of the
pressure (Fig.6)
• Taking the dot product of equation (6) with the
displacement vector 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ and taking into
account that on an equipotential surface
𝑑Π = 0 → 𝑓Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 0 → therefore the unit
mass forces are orthogonal to the
Fig.6
equipotential surfaces (isobars)
• From relation (4) we observe that the unit mass forces are
directed towards the increasing direction of the pressure

2.2.2 Interpretations of the FRH
• Energy perspective. All terms of the fundamental
relationship of hydrostatics (12) have the
dimension of energy per unit mass. We multiplie
relation (12) with the mass m = ρV of a fluid
volume V having the center of mass in a point
placed at elevation z . We obtain
𝑝V + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 = 𝐸, 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (17)
• The sum between the pressure energy and the
potential energy does not vary when considering
different particles placed at different points in the
same liquid

• Geometric interpretation. Dividing by 𝑔, the relation

(12) becomes
𝑝 𝑝
+ 𝑧 = + 𝑧 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝐻𝑏 = const. (18)
𝜌𝑔 𝛾
• All terms in relation (18) have the dimension of length;
this allows a geometric interpretation, that is verified
experimentally (Fig.7)
• Relation (18) shows that in a liquid at rest, the
absolute head is constant at all points in the liquid

absolute atmospheric
vacuum pressure
Fig.7
With reference to Fig.7 we define

𝑝
• - the absolute piezometric height
𝛾
corresponding to the absolute pressure 𝑝
• 𝑧 - the geometric height or elevation of the
point in question relative to a horizontal
reference plane
• 𝐻𝑎𝑏𝑠 – the absolute head corresponding to the
absolute pressure. It is also called barometric
head, Hb

• Piezometers are instruments for measuring
pressure. A piezometer is a glass tube. It can be
opened at both ends and it’s also called a pressure
gauge tube, or it can have a closed end and it’s
called a barometric tube
• The reservoir in Fig.7 contains a liquid at rest.
Pressure p acts on the free surface of the liquid
(𝑝 > 𝑝0 )
• A barometric tube is filled with the same liquid as
that contained in the reservoir
• Keeping the opened end covered, we introduce the
barometric tube in point 1 located at elevation 𝑧1

• We observe that the liquid in the tube descends to a
horizontal plane B - B and it remains at rest, while
above that plane there remains vacuum
• We introduce another barometric tube into point 2
located at elevation 𝑧2 and observe the liquid descends to
the same level 𝐵 – 𝐵. The level 𝐵 − 𝐵 is called the
barometric level (absolute pressure is zero). Thus, we
can write
𝑝1 𝑝2
+ 𝑧1 = + 𝑧2 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝐻𝑏 (19)
𝛾 𝛾
that represents the geometric interpretation and the
experimental verification of relation (18)

• The magnitude of the pressure that is
measured in relation to vacuum is called
absolute pressure or barometric pressure (see
Chapter 1)
• In practice, we consider the relative or effective
pressures, measured above the atmospheric
pressure (see Chapter 1)
• Positive relative pressure is called gauge
pressure, and negative relative pressure is
called vacuum pressure

• By subtracting from the two members of relation (18)
the piezometric height corresponding to the
atmospheric pressure we obtain
𝑝 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡
− + 𝑧 = 𝐻𝑏 − = 𝐻𝑚 (20)
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
𝑝−𝑝𝑎𝑡
where is the piezometric height corresponding
𝛾
to the relative pressure 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 > 0 and 𝐻𝑚 is the
corresponding hydrostatic head, called gauge head
• If 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 < 0 the corresponding hydrostatic head is
called vacuum head, 𝐻𝑣

• We place two piezometric tubes in points 3 and 4
• The liquid rises in the tubes at the same level, up to the
horizontal plane 𝑀 − 𝑀 and remains at rest, and so
𝑝3 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝑝4 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡
+ 𝑧3 = + 𝑧4 = 𝐻𝑚 or
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝𝑚3 𝑝𝑚4
+ 𝑧3 = + 𝑧4 = 𝐻𝑚 (21)
𝛾 𝛾
that represents the geometric interpretation and the
experimental verification of relation (20)
• The 𝑀 − 𝑀 plane is called the manometric level (gauge
pressure is zero) and it’s located below the barometric level
• Pressure can be measured using barometers,
manometers and other types of devices

2.2.3 Manometers
• Manometers are devices that measure pressure in
fluids. There are several types of manometers: with
liquid, mechanical, electronic and combined
• Mechanical manometers are based on the elastic
deformation of a device under the action of
pressure forces
– The classic model is the Bourdon manometer
(Fig.8), named after the French engineer and
inventor Eugène Bourdon
– When pressurized internally, the bourdon tube
deflects outward. The deflection can be measured
by a linkage attached to a calibrated dial pointer

2.2.3 Manometers
• Mechanical manometers measure the pressure
difference between the internal absolute pressure (to
be measured) and that of the external environment
pm = pabs internal - pabs external , where 𝑝𝑚 is the gauge
pressure
Bourdon
Pointer for
dial gage
• When mechanical pressure
tube
gauges are installed in the open
air, they measure the relative
pressure (with reference to the
Linkage
atmospheric pressure)
Fig.8 pinternal

2.2.3 Manometers
• Liquid manometers rely on the consequence of the
hydrostatics law given by p = p0 + ρgh and on the principle
of communicating vessels. They are devices using columns
of liquids to measure the difference in pressure between a
certain point and the atmosphere, or between two points
neither of which is necessarily at atmospheric pressure
• Liquid manometers that measure absolute pressure are
called barometers, and those that measure relative
pressure are called:
– Pressure gauges - measure pressures greater than
atmospheric pressure
– Vacuum gauges - measure pressures smaller than
atmospheric pressure
– Differential pressure gauges - measure pressure differences

2.2.3 Manometers
Vacuum
The barometer (Fig. 9) 𝑝≅0
𝑝≅0
B
• We invert a mercury-filled tube into an d

opened recipient containing mercury.
Fig. 9
The pressure in point 𝐴 is equal to the h h
atmospheric pressure pat and the 𝐺Ԧ
pressure at point 𝐵 is practically zero
(the pressure of the mercury vapors 𝑝𝑎𝑡 A
𝑝𝑎𝑡
above point B relative to pat is Mercury
neglected)
• We write the balance of forces in the vertical direction between the
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑 2
weight of the mercury (𝜌𝑔 ℎ) and the pressure force 𝑝𝑎𝑡
4 4
and we obtain
𝑝𝑎𝑡 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ (22)

2.2.3 Manometers
Liquid manometers
• A manometer is a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as water,
alcohol, oil, mercury
• If large pressure differences are to be measured,
heavy fluids such as mercury are used, to keep
the size of the manometer to a manageable level
• In a U-shaped manometer, an immiscible liquid
with the liquid contained in a vessel, a tank or a
pipe where we want to measure the pressure is
used

2.2.3 Manometers
Liquid manometers- examples
• We want to measure the relative

pressure in point M of the liquid in a
container (Fig. 10)
• Taking into account the rule of the
horizontal plane 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 , we apply the
Fig.10 relation giving the variation of
pressure with depth
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑀 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ0 and 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ and obtain
𝑝𝑀 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ0 = 𝛾2 ℎ − 𝛾1 ℎ0 (23)

2.2.3 Manometers
• When the tank contains a gas (Fig. 11)

at an absolute pressure smaller than
atmospheric pressure p0< pat, we can
write
𝑝𝐶 ′ = 𝑝𝐶
Fig.11
𝑝𝐶 ′ = 𝑝𝑁 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ and 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡 , and
C’ 𝑝𝑁 = 𝑝𝑀 so
the relative pressure in 𝑀 is
𝑝𝑀 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 = −𝜌𝑔ℎ (24)

2.2.3 Manometers
• For the configuration of figure 12,

Fig.12 we want to know the pressure
C difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵
• We observe the differential
pressure gauge and write
successively
𝑝𝑀 = 𝑝𝑁
𝑝𝑀 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 , 𝑝𝑁 = 𝑝𝑐 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2
and 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
so that we obtain
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 (25)

2.3.1 Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surfaces
Fig.13
• We choose a system of coordinates xOy, with

the Ox axis at the intersection of the inclined
wall with the free surface of the liquid (the
manometric level) and the Oy axis perpendicular
to this line, in the plane of the wall
• We rotate the xOy plane at a right angle about
the Oy axis, so that the planar surface
considered appears in the plane of the figure in
its true form and magnitude

• The fluid at rest acts on an elementary surface 𝑑𝑆, of
area 𝑑𝐴 and located at depth ℎ, with an elementary
pressure force, normal to the element 𝑑𝑆 and oriented
towards the wall
𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −𝑝𝑛𝑑𝐴 = −𝑛 𝑝∗ + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝∗ 𝑑𝐴 = −𝑛𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 (26)
• The absolute pressure above the liquid is 𝑝∗ , which is
the local atmospheric pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑡 if the liquid is open
to the atmosphere, but 𝑝∗ may be different from 𝑝𝑎𝑡 if
the space above the liquid is evacuated or pressurized
• For a plane surface, the direction of the normal is the
same at all points of 𝑑𝑆

• The resultant hydrostatic force of all parallel
elementary hydrostatic forces is given by
𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −𝑛 ‫𝑔𝜌 𝑆׬‬ℎ 𝑑 𝐴 = −𝑛𝜌𝑔 ‫ 𝑆׬‬ℎ 𝑑 𝐴 and thus,
the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic
force acting on the plane surface is:
𝐹𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 ‫ 𝑆׬‬ℎ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ‫= 𝐴 𝑑 𝑦 𝑆׬‬

(27)
= 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑦𝐺 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐺 𝐴
So, the hydrostatic force on a submerged
plane surface is given by 𝐹𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐺 𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ𝐺 𝐴

•In relation (27)

– 𝐺 is the centre of mass (gravity) or the
centroid of surface 𝑆
– ‫ 𝐴 𝑑 𝑦 𝑆׬‬- the first moment of area 𝐴 about

the 𝑂𝑥 axis
We also took into account relation ‫ 𝐴 𝐺𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑑 𝑦 𝑆׬‬,
defining the centroid

• The support of the 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 force passes through the

center of pressure, 𝐶, whose coordinates are
determined by applying Varignon's theorem
   
rC  F p =  r  d F p
• For this case S
   xC F p =  x d F p ,
rC = xC i + yC j 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −𝑛𝐹𝑝 = −𝐹𝑝 𝑘
    S
(28)
r = xi + yj d𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −d 𝐹𝑝 𝑘 yC F p =  y d F p .
S

• Integrating we obtain
 x d F p =  x g hd A =  g sin   xy d A =  g sin   I xy
S S S
2
 y d F p =  y g hd A =  g sin   y d A =  g sin   I x
S S S
where
− Ixy is the product moment of area 𝐴 about axes
𝑂𝑥 and 𝑂𝑦
− 𝐼𝑥 - the second moment of area 𝐴 about the
𝑂𝑥 axis

• The coordinates of the center of pressure 𝐶 are
I xy Ix
xC = et yC = (29)
yG A yG A
• If we take a second system of 𝑥 ′ 𝐺𝑦 ′ axes, parallel
to the 𝑥𝑂𝑦 system and we use Stainer's theorem
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ + 𝑥𝐺 𝑦𝐺 𝐴 and 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 ′ + 𝑦𝐺2 𝐴
we obtain the coordinates for the center of
pressure, which are more frequently used in
practice
I x' y' I x'
xC = xG + and y C = y G + (30)
yG A yG A

Remarks
• If on the free surface acts an absolute pressure different
from the atmospheric pressure, 𝑝∗ ≠ 𝑝𝑎𝑡 that acts on
the outer side of the plane surface, we have to establish
first the position of the manometric level
• From the second formula (30) we observe that, if the
wall is inclined or vertical, the center of pressure 𝐶 is
always below the center of gravity 𝐺
• If the surface 𝑆 is a horizontal plane located at depth ℎ,
the hydrostatic pressure is constant at all points and the
center of pressure coincides with the center of gravity
(𝐶  𝐺)

Remarks
𝑦′
• If the surface 𝑆 has an axis of
symmetry that it’s chosen as the 𝑂𝑦 𝑥′ 𝑏ℎ3
𝐺 𝐼𝑥 ′ =
12
axis and in this case 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0, and
therefore 𝑥𝐶 = 0 , i.e. the center of
pressure 𝐶 is on the axis of
𝑦′
symmetry
• If the tank contains a gas at the 𝑥′
𝐼𝑥 ′ =
𝑏ℎ3
𝐺
relative pressure 𝑝, the gas pressure 36
is the same at all points, so the
magnitude of the hydrostatic force
𝑦′
on the surface 𝑆 of area 𝐴 is 𝐹𝑝 = 𝑝𝐴
and its support passes through the 𝑥′ 𝜋𝑟 4
𝐺 𝐼𝑥 ′ =
center of gravity 𝐺 of the surface 𝑆 4
© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid echanics

• The absolute pressure 𝑝∗ on the liquid’s surface is the atmospheric pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑡
• The relative pressure 𝑝∗ − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 is zero
• The manometric level is placed on the liquid’s surface
𝑀 𝑝∗ = 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝑀
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
• The pressure distribution on ℎ1
the surface 𝑆 is plotted
ℎ𝐺
with reference to the ℎ2
atmospheric pressure 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝑝
• The magnitude of the
hydrostatic force can also be 𝐺
determined as the product 𝐶
between the differential pressure
𝑝𝑎𝑡
in the centroid of 𝑆 and its area
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑝𝐺 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ𝐺 ∙ 𝐴

Fig.14
𝑀 𝑀 𝑝∗ < 𝑝𝑎𝑡
∗
∆ℎ 𝑝 > 𝑝𝑎𝑡
∆ℎ 𝑀 𝑀
𝐹Ԧ𝑝
𝐻 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝐻
𝐹Ԧ𝑝 𝑝𝑎𝑡
𝑝∗ − 𝑝𝑎𝑡
∆ℎ =
𝛾
𝑎) 𝑏)
• If the absolute pressure 𝑝∗ is greater than the atmospheric

pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑡 (𝑝∗ > 𝑝𝑎𝑡 ) the manometric level is placed
above the surface of the liquid (Fig. 14a)
• If the absolute pressure 𝑝∗ is smaller than the atmospheric
pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑡 (𝑝∗ < 𝑝𝑎𝑡 ) the manometric level is placed
below the surface of the liquid (Fig. 14b)

2.3.2 Hydrostatic forces on fully submerged solid bodies
• Pressure in a liquid at rest linearly increases with
depth. Therefore, a body entirely or partially
immersed in it is subjected to an ascending vertical
resultant force, known as the buoyancy or
Archimedean force
• We seek to determine the action of a liquid at rest on
a solid body of arbitrary shape and volumeV fully
immersed in the liquid (Fig. 15)
• The forces acting on the body are its weight and the
hydrostatic forces
• We assume that on the free surface the pressure 𝑝∗
is constant
𝑂
𝑦 𝑗Ԧ 𝑖Ԧ
𝑘′
𝑥
𝐹Ԧ𝐵
𝐵
𝐺 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 V 𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑝
𝑛
𝐹Ԧ𝑔
ℎ Fig.15
• The elementary hydrostatic force acting on the
elementary surface 𝑑𝑆 of area 𝑑𝐴, located at depth ℎ is
given by 𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −𝑝𝑛𝑑𝐴 = − 𝑝∗ + 𝜌𝑙 𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝐴, where 𝜌𝑙 is
the liquid density
• For the entire surface, the hydrostatic resultant force is
 
F p = −  p n d A = −  p dV (31)
S V
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• Knowing that ∇= 𝑖Ԧ and 𝑝∗ = 𝑐𝑡.
+ 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑘 ′
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕ℎ
h  ' '
p = ( p +  l gh) = p + ( l gh ) =  l g k =  l gk
* *
h
we obtain
𝐹Ԧ𝑝 = −𝜌𝑙 𝑔𝑘 ′ න d V = −𝜌𝑙 𝑔V 𝑘 ′ = 𝐹Ԧ𝐵 (32)
V
• The action of hydrostatic forces on a solid body is reduced
to a vertical force directed upwards
– The magnitude of this buoyant force is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, and its line of action passes
through the centroid of the displaced volumeV. This result is
known as Archimedes' principle
– The point through which 𝐹Ԧ𝐵 acts is called the center of
buoyancy, commonly labeled 𝐵 . The point 𝐵 may or may not
correspond to the actual centroid of the body’s own material,
which may have variable density
– If the density 𝜌𝑠 of the submerged body is constant, the location
of its center of gravity corresponds with its centroid. Generally,
if the density 𝜌𝑠 of the submerged body varies, the two points
will not correspond (𝐺 ≠ 𝐵), e.g., the case of a submarine

2.3.3 Floating bodies
• If just part of a solid body of density 𝜌𝑠 is
immersed in a liquid of density 𝜌𝑙 ,
Archimedes’ principle remains valid
– In this case, we replace the volume of the solid
body with the volume of its part, placed below the
free surface of the liquid (the volume of liquid
being displaced, given by the ratio between the
mass of the solid body and the density of the
𝑚𝑠
liquid in which it is immersed, )
𝜌𝑙
– The centroid of the submerged volume is termed
the center of buoyancy

• A body at rest immersed in a liquid is subjected
to the action of its weight, 𝐹Ԧ𝑔 applied in the
centroid G of the solid body and the buoyancy
or Archimedean force, 𝐹Ԧ𝐵 applied in the center
of buoyancy B
• The body remains in static equilibrium (at any
depth) if and only if the two forces have the
same line of action (are collinear) and the
following condition is fulfilled
𝐹Ԧ𝐵 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑔 = 0 → 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝑔 (33)

There are three cases
• Fg< FB = ρl gV - the solid body goes upwards
towards the free surface, becoming partially
submerged, until its submerged volume
reaches such a value, so that the magnitude of
the Archimedean force FB equals the body’s
weight Fg
• Fg= FB - the body remains at rest at any
location (neutrally buoyant)
• Fg > FB = ρl gV - the body sinks to the bottom

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2.

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

where ρ is the density, 𝑓Ԧ the unit mass force, 𝑛

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Equation (4) is the vector form of Euler's equation

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• The unknown functions are 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• If the body force field is conservative (irrotational),

• In this situation we say that the body forces are

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Next, we take the dot product of equation (4) with the

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

1. In a liquid at rest, the isobaric surfaces and

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

3.The surface of separation between a liquid

• The surface of separation between a liquid

• The gas pressure is the same in all points of

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Considering the horizontal plane

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

so the two equipotential or isobar surfaces

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Geometric interpretation. Dividing by 𝑔, the relation

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

With reference to Fig.7 we define

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• We invert a mercury-filled tube into an d

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• We want to measure the relative

𝑝𝑀 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ0 = 𝛾2 ℎ − 𝛾1 ℎ0 (23)

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• When the tank contains a gas (Fig. 11)

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• For the configuration of figure 12,

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• We choose a system of coordinates xOy, with

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

𝐹𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 ‫ 𝑆׬‬ℎ 𝑑 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ‫= 𝐴 𝑑 𝑦 𝑆׬‬

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

•In relation (27)