(a) Sacrifices:

In the context of the Bible, sacrifices refer to the act of offering something valuable or significant
to God as an act of worship or atonement for sin. Sacrifices were an integral part of religious
rituals and practices in the Old Testament, particularly in the Jewish tradition. Various types of
sacrifices were prescribed in the Mosaic Law, including burnt offerings, grain offerings, peace
offerings, sin offerings, and guilt offerings.

Sacrifices in the Bible involved the offering of animals, such as sheep, goats, bulls, or birds. The
animal would be brought to the designated place of worship, and after certain rituals were
performed, it would be offered on an altar as a symbol of surrender, dedication, or seeking
forgiveness. The offering was often accompanied by prayers, rituals, and the involvement of
priests.

Sacrifices held significant symbolic meaning. They represented the acknowledgment of human
sinfulness and the need for forgiveness and reconciliation with God. The shedding of blood in
animal sacrifices was seen as a means of atonement, symbolizing the transfer of guilt and the
restoration of a right relationship between God and humans.

However, with the coming of Jesus Christ in the New Testament, the sacrificial system of the
Old Testament was fulfilled and replaced by His ultimate sacrifice on the cross. Christians
believe that Jesus, as the perfect Lamb of God, offered Himself as the final and complete
sacrifice for the forgiveness of sins. His sacrifice is seen as the ultimate expression of God's love
and grace, providing redemption and salvation to all who believe in Him.

(b) Offerings:

In the Bible, offerings refer to the act of presenting gifts, goods, or possessions to God as an
expression of worship, gratitude, or dedication. Offerings were a voluntary act of giving and
were distinct from mandatory sacrifices. They could take various forms, including food
offerings, drink offerings, money, or material possessions.

Offerings were seen as acts of devotion and obedience to God. They were an opportunity for
individuals to express their faith, trust, and dependence on God. Offerings were often made in
conjunction with sacrifices or as separate acts of worship.
Different types of offerings were prescribed in the Old Testament, such as the grain offering,
which consisted of unleavened bread, oil, and frankincense, and the drink offering, which
involved pouring out wine or other liquid as an offering. These offerings were typically
presented at the altar during specific religious ceremonies or feasts.

In the New Testament, the concept of offerings is also present, but it takes on a different form.
Rather than focusing on physical items, the emphasis is on offering one's whole self, service, and
worship to God. In the book of Romans, the apostle Paul encourages believers to offer their
bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God, as an act of spiritual worship (Romans
12:1).

Overall, sacrifices and offerings in the Bible were acts of devotion, surrender, and seeking
reconciliation with God. While the sacrificial system of the Old Testament was fulfilled in Jesus
Christ's sacrifice, the principle of offering oneself and one's resources to God as an act of
worship and dedication remains relevant in Christian faith.

The table below shows the differences between sacrifices and offerings

Term Definition Reference

Sacrifices The act of offering something Leviticus 1:2-3 (New International
valuable to God Version)
as an act of worship or atonement
for sin.
It involves the offering of animals
or other
items and represents surrender,
dedication,
and seeking forgiveness.
Offerings The act of presenting gifts or Leviticus 2:1 (New International Version)
possessions to God
as an expression of worship,
gratitude, or
Dedication. It can include food,
 drink, money,
or other material possessions.
Offerings are voluntary acts of
devotion
and can be separate from
sacrifices.

Leviticus 1:2-3 (New International Version):

"Speak to the Israelites and say to them: 'When anyone among you brings an offering to the
Lord, bring as your offering an animal from either the herd or the flock. If the offering is a burnt
offering from the herd, you are to offer a male without defect.'"

Leviticus 2:1 (New International Version):

"When anyone brings a grain offering to the Lord, their offering is to be of the finest flour. They
are to pour olive oil on it, put incense on it."

African traditional sacrifices are conceptualized as cultural offerings based on blood, animal
lives, food to the deceased, money, and grain crops. Offering sacrifices is an indigenous
(African) oriented practice that was done even before the coming of Christianity. Most African
societies offered sacrifices at the period of experiencing difficulties such as diseases, drought,
consecutive deaths, lack of children in the family, poor economy in the clan, and the existence of
unnecessary conflicts in societies. In the event of a family, clan, or community going through
hardships beyond their human capacity, most people turned to the spirit realm, including
ancestors, whereby sacrificial rites took place under big trees, rocks, tombs, forests, and many
other terrifying places

Some of the types of sacrifices include:

The Thanks-Offering
This type of sacrifice is given to God or the divinity in appreciation of the blessings received or
to solicit the favour of the receiver. It is usually accompanied by feasting where the worshippers
and the divinity share a common meal. Through thanksgiving sacrifices Africans believe that
beneficial relation is established between them and the divinity. The following are examples of
occasions that warrant thanksgiving offering: abundant harvest, escape from death or an
accident, successful hunting or fishing expedition and victory over enemies.

The Votive Offering

In this type of sacrifice, the worshippers go before the divinity as supplicants to ask for favours.
This may include blessings, money and material things as well as gifts of children. In the process
the supplicant makes a vow of something to be given to the divinity for the favour received. The
vow will dictate the items of the offering. Like the thanks-offering, the sacrifice is made in the
midst of dancing and singing and merrymaking, eating and drinking.

The Propitiation or Expiation Sacrifice

This is a kind of sacrifice that looks more of an atonement sacrifice. It is aimed at lessening the
wrath of the divinity through the process of self-humiliation. It is usually offered when there is
crisis signified by low or no harvest, protracted illness, famine, sudden death, outbreak of
plagues or epidemics and diseases. During the process of the sacrifice efforts are made to locate
the cause of the trouble and the best means of removing the trouble. It will also include how to
calm the wrath of the divinities or the spirits responsible for the calamity and win back their
favour. Through this sacrifice the worshipper can also express regret for past wrongs and
mistakes and ask for forgiveness. It is usually held that after the sacrifice have been performed
the worshippers or the one that has made the sacrifice have been transformed from the state of
defilement to that of purity.

The Foundation Sacrifice

This sacrifice is based on the African belief that any new venture that one lays his hands upon
should be committed into the hands of God, the divinities, the ancestors and the spirits. Thus the
following activities among others call for foundation sacrifice: laying the foundation of a new
house building, cultivating a new land, setting out on a journey, taking a new wife and the
commencement of a new career.

The Preventive Sacrifice

As the name implies, this sacrifice is expected to prevent impending disaster or calamity. It is a
means through which the one who offers it expect protection against enemies or the protection of
the whole community from disaster. It is believed that as a sacrifice can remove evil and
calamity so also it can prevent evil or misfortune from occurring. It has to be noted that most of
the time this sacrifice is done through the instruction of the divinity from the oracle.

The Substitution Sacrifice

This is a sacrifice that is expected to take the place of another person whose life is being
threatened or is about to be terminated. The sacrifice is done on behalf of the person even if the
person may not be able to perform the sacrifice himself. The sacrificial victim involved and other
items of the sacrifice are usually rubbed on the body of the person and they are treated like a
corpse and buried as if the person has actually being buried. The animals commonly used for this
sacrifice are sheep, cows and oxen.

The Meal and Drink Offerings

This is the most common type of sacrifice and it takes place almost every day at the household
shrines, sacred days and communal shrines. In this sacrifice, any type of food item can be offered
and in most cases, the kind of food offered is what the people eat at home. To offer this sacrifice,
the leader first pours libation after which the meal is offered to the divinities or the ancestors.
The rest of the food is then shared among the worshippers as a sacramental feast through which
they enter into communion with the divinity.

The following are detailed reasons explaining why sacrifices are important in African
traditional society:

Establishing and Maintaining Spiritual Connections: Sacrifices are viewed as a means to

establish and maintain a connection between the physical and spiritual realms. Through
offerings, African traditional societies believe they can communicate with ancestors, deities, and
spirits, seeking their guidance, blessings, and protection.

Expressing Gratitude: Sacrifices are a way of expressing gratitude to the spiritual entities for
their assistance and blessings. African societies believe that by making offerings, they
acknowledge and honor the benevolent forces that have supported them.

Seeking Favor and Protection: Sacrifices are performed to seek favor, protection, and
intervention from spiritual entities. It is believed that by making offerings, individuals and
communities can gain the goodwill of the deities and ancestors, ensuring their support and
safeguarding against misfortune.

Cleansing and Purification: Sacrifices are conducted as a means of purifying oneself, the
community, or specific spaces from negative energy or spiritual impurities. It is believed that by
offering sacrifices, negative forces or influences can be appeased or removed, allowing for
spiritual and physical renewal.

Healing and Restoration: Sacrifices are often performed as part of healing rituals. It is believed
that through offerings, individuals can seek spiritual intervention to restore physical, emotional,
or spiritual well-being. Sacrifices may also be made to appease or communicate with spirits that
are causing illness or affliction.

Communal Unity and Solidarity: Sacrifices serve as communal activities that bring people
together. They promote a sense of unity, shared purpose, and collective responsibility within the
community. Sacrifices often involve collective participation, reinforcing social bonds and
fostering a sense of belonging.

Ritual and Symbolic Significance: Sacrifices hold profound ritual and symbolic significance. The
act of offering represents a symbolic gesture of giving, surrender, and submission to higher
powers. It reinforces the spiritual and cultural values embedded within the community.

Sustenance for Spirits: Sacrifices are believed to provide sustenance for spirits and ancestors. It
is believed that the essence or spiritual energy of the offerings nourishes and revitalizes the
spiritual entities to maintain their strength and ability to assist the community.
Ancestral Reverence: Sacrifices are performed to honor and show respect to ancestors. African
traditional societies believe that ancestors play a vital role in guiding and protecting the living,
and by offering sacrifices, they acknowledge the continued presence and influence of their
ancestors in their lives.

Cultural Preservation: Sacrifices are an integral part of African cultural heritage and traditional
practices. By performing sacrifices, communities uphold and preserve their cultural identity,
passing down rituals, values, and beliefs from one generation to another. It reinforces a sense of
cultural continuity and pride.

According to Wiafe et al. (2016:2519), “sacrifice in general terms, is defined as the act of
offering something to a deity in propitiation or homage especially the ritual slaughter of an
animal or a person. Usually, the thing or person is a victim of the process of the sacrifice. It
could also be defined as the forfeiture of something considered to have yet a greater value or
claim” (cf. Evans-Pritchard, 1954).

There is human Divine encounter, indeed an ambivalence in which man acknowledges his
dependence on the supreme being and at the same time a tool for manipulating the supernatural
Being to change his mind in respect of man's wishes. Sacrifice, in the above understanding,
seems to be the basis on which E.B. Tylor anchored his gift theory of sacrifice in African
Traditional Religion.

In sacrifice in African Traditional Religion therefore, the web of relationship of forces in Africa's
ontological hierarchy makes the African universe a complete fluid in which reality is viewed as a
unity. Thus in African Traditional Religion, sacrifices of which of ever type are basically and
primarily made by man to create or restore harmonious relationships within the horizontal and
vertical dimensions of the cosmic order. This indeed tallies with the goal of interaction of beings
in African world-view Mutuls (1987) corroborates this as he remarks

The goal of interaction of beings in African World-view is the maintenance of the

integration and balance of the beings in it. Harmonious interaction of beings leads to the
mutual strengthening of the beings involved and enhances the growth of life. A pernicious
influence from one being weakens other beings and threatens the integration and
harmony of the whole …man strives to be in harmony with God, the deities and his fellow
 man… He must constantly consult oracles and divination to assure himself that he is in
the right relationship with all the forces in his world. He must frequently engage in
sacrificial rituals to reinforce his communion with the forces to repair any interruptions
that may have occurred. (PP.78-79).

Religion is man’s relation to that which he regards as sacred or holy. This relationship may be
conceived in a variety of forms. Although moral conduct, right belief, and participation in
religious institutions are commonly constituent elements of the religious life, cult or worship is
generally accepted as the most basic and universal element. Worship is man’s reaction to his
experience of the sacred power; it is a response in action, a giving of self, especially by devotion
and service, to the transcendent reality upon which man feels himself dependent. Sacrifice and
prayer man’s personal attempt to communicate with the transcendent reality in word or in
thought are the fundamental acts of worship.

Conclusion

Sacrifices play an essential role in African Traditional Religion as it is of every religion in the
world. It is inconceivable in the African mind to have a religion without a system of sacrifice.
Sacrifice is the act of offering the life of animal or a human being to the divine power or powers.
It is also seen as a means of communion between humanity and God. It is the highest means of
establishing and maintaining relationship between human beings and God on the one hand and
the divinity on the other hand. It can also be said to be the most effective means through which
humanity can influence the divinities or other supernatural powers that may be interested in the
affairs of this world. What is offered however and the manner of offering it depends on the
nature of the cult, the occasion of the sacrifice and the injunctions given by the receiver of the
sacrifice through the priest. Unlike some other religions where sacrifices can be total burnt
offering to God or the deity, in African religion sacrifices are usually shared by both the receiver
and the worshippers. This is done by placing part belonging to the receiver on the shrine and the
rest is eaten by the worshippers.
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