12.1 Waste Water Engg

Bio-Chemical Engineering: Waste-water Engineering
Waste Water Engineering

Every community produces both liquid and solid wastes and air emissions. The liquid waste—
wastewater—is essentially the water supply of the community after it has been used in a variety
of applications. From the standpoint of sources of generation, wastewater may be defined as a
combination of the liquid or water-carried wastes removed from residences, institutions, and
commercial and industrial establishments, together with such groundwater, surface water, and
storm water as may be present. When untreated wastewater accumulates and is allowed to go
septic, the decomposition of the organic matter it contains will lead to nuisance conditions
including the production of malodorous gases. In addition, untreated wastewater contains
numerous pathogenic microorganisms that dwell in the human intestinal tract. Wastewater also
contains nutrients, which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, and may contain toxic
compounds or compounds that potentially may be mutagenic or carcinogenic. For these reasons,
the immediate and nuisance-free removal of wastewater from its sources of generation, followed
by treatment, reuse, or dispersal into the environment is necessary to protect public health and
the environment.
Wastewater engineering is that branch of environmental engineering in which the basic
principles of science and engineering are applied to solving the issues associated with the
treatment and reuse of wastewater. The ultimate goal of wastewater engineering is the protection
of public health in a manner commensurate with environmental, economic, social, and political
concerns. To protect public health and the environment, it is necessary to have knowledge of:
 constituents of concern in wastewater,
 impacts of these constituents when wastewater is dispersed into the environment,
 the transformation and long-term fate of these constituents in treatment processes,
 treatment methods that can be used to remove or modify the constituents found in
wastewater, and
 Methods for beneficial use or disposal of solids generated by the treatment systems
Characteristics
The nature of sewage is dependent on the sources from where it is originated. Waste water can be
classified by their origin as:
 Municipal sewage: It is any combination of waste water that is collected in municipalities’
sewars
 Domestic waste water: It is waste-water which is discharged from residential and commercial
establishment
 Industrial waste water: It is formed at industrial plant where water is used for various purposes
and also for washing and rinsing of equipment and floor.
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Lecture notes: Niroula Anuj
These operations results in the pollution of nearly aquatic system because some of the product
and by-product are discharged either deliberately or unintentionally into them. The pollutants
may cause:
 disruption of aquatic plant and animals life
 decrease the aesthetic quality of nature
 Drinking water sources are often threatened by increasing concentration of pathogenic
organisms as well as by toxic chemical disposal by industry and agriculture.
Thus, treatment of waste water is important.
Physical characteristics
The physical characteristics are color, odour, turbidity and temperature. It becomes 'state' with all the
oxygen present being particularly exhausted. It then starts emitting offensive odour and color becomes
dark and sewages become septic. Sewage is normally turbid having floating matters. The turbidity
increases as it becomes stronger (containing more suspended solid) The normal temperature of sewage is
more than the water supply because heat is added during processing.
Chemical characteristics
These indicate the state of sewage decomposition, strength and type of treatment required. Fresh sewage
is alkaline and good for bacterial action. Septic sewage is acidic and difficult to be efficiently treated.the
chemical nature depends on the contaminants present.
Biological characteristics
A biological characteristic of sewage is related with the number and type of the microorganism present.
Microorganisms are responsible for converting complex organic compounds into simple organic or
inorganic compounds resulting in purification of sewage. But, some bacteria may be harmful particularly
disease producing or pathogenic type and may constituent a real danger to public health. The beneficial
bacteria are of two types
Phototrophic type
These types of bacteria act on inorganic substrate. These types of bacteria obtain food from minerals
(inorganic) in the sewage such as nitrates, carbonates etc and not important for treatment purpose.
Meta-trophic type
They are capable of producing food from organic as well as inorganic substrate.
-Aerobic type - Grows on the water surface

-Anaerobic type - Grows volumetric in solid wastes & underneath water surface with depleted DO
-Facultative type- Volumetrically in wastes
-Saprophytic type - act on dead organism
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The metatrophic type has immense importance in process of decomposition of sewage. The
bacteriological characteristics of sewage is the most important one being nucleus of many sewage
treatment methods.
Objectives of Effluent treatment

 To reduce the organic and inorganic level to the acceptable level.
 To decrease biological and chemical demand of oxygen.
 To degrade the waste, so that no bad smell and bad taste is present.
 To preserve the aquatic eco-system
 For reducing existing pollutants
 For water reuse by preventing injury to receiving waters
 For byproducts recovery
 To take care of society considering plant location
Explain why effluent treatment is necessary?

Waste water contains biodegradable organic matters (carbohydrate, protein, fat etc.). When they are
disposed to water, microorganisms attack on them. During this process m/o consume dissolved oxygen
[D.O.] of water (which contains max 8-10 ppm D.O.). This cause depletion of D.O. in water and
eventually D.O. level of water decreases. To run aquatic ecosystem minimum 3 ppm D.O. is necessary.
As a result, aquatic animal starts to die. They are digested by anaerobic micro-organisms. Then
putrefactive microorganisms attack on proteineous matter hence producing off flavor and color. Thus,
all environments become polluted.
So, to prevent this condition, all the suspended matters including biodegradable matters should be
separated before discharge into open body of water.
Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is the amount of O2 dissolved in given waste water. The saturation DO value for fresh
water depends upon the temperature and total dissolved salts present in it; and its value varies from
14.62 mg/L at 0°C to 7.63 mg/L at 30 °C, and lower DO at higher temperatures.
The DO deficit from its saturation level indicates the degree of pollution in sewage. If DO concentration
is high (7-10ppm) the sewage is less polluted and vice-versa. DO is essential for sustaining the life of
plant and animal in any aquatic system. For eg warm water fishes require minimum DO level at 5
mg/liter. If DO level drops below the level of necessary to sustain normal life then aquatic system said to
be polluted.
Factors affecting DO concentration

 Re-aeration
 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Presence of organic matter (oxidation of waste)
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Fig. Diurnal variation of DO in water system.
Re-aeration
Re-aeration is the natural process in which oxygen transfer take places from atmospheric air to water by
diffusion. When oxygen level of water decreases below saturation DO concentration (Cs); oxygen
transfer from atmospheric air to water takes place. The driving force for transfer of oxygen is the
difference between DO level of saturation and actual DO concentration (CL). The transfer rate can be
expressed as mass flux of oxygen per unit area of the surface in unit time.
i.e. 𝑁𝐴 = 𝐾𝐿 . (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿 ) …………………………
Where, 𝑁𝐴 = Mass flux per unit area per unit time

K = Oxygen mass transfer coefficient
(𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿 ) = Oxygen deficit
𝐶𝑠 = Saturated DO concentration at given conditions
𝐶𝐿 = Actual DO concentration at given condition
If oxygen transfer into water has an inter-facial area 'A', then, the rate of oxygen transfer per unit
volume of water i.e. re-aeration is given by
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑁𝐴 . 𝐴
Re-aeration = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
Where, V = Volume of water
Hence, from the previous equation of mass flux per unit area per unit time (𝑁𝐴 ),
𝑑𝐶𝑙 𝐾𝐿 . 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑉
. 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝑙
Or, = 𝐾𝐿 . 𝑎 . (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶𝑙
∴ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿
𝐾𝐿 . 𝐴
Where, r = 𝑉
= 𝐾𝐿 . 𝑎 = re-aeration constant or re-oxygenation constant
The rate of re-oxygenation / re-aeration depends on:
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i) Depth of water in the stream:

The rate of re-oxygenation is higher in streams of shallow depth.
ii) Velocity of flow in the stream
In stagnant water the rate of re-oxygenation is less than in water moving with a high velocity
iii) Oxygen deficit below saturation DO
The solubility rate of oxygen depends on the difference between saturation concentration
and existing concentration of DO. The higher the oxygen deficits below saturation DO the
higher the rate of re-oxygenation
iv) Temperature of water
The solubility of oxygen is lower at higher temperature. Moreover, the saturation
concentration is less at higher temperature
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis requires solar radiation. During the photosynthesis the green plant such as algae utilize
CO2 and inorganic nutrients present in water to synthesized organic compound and liberate oxygen.
Since, the process occur only in the day time, The DO level increase during the day but at night the algae
and microrganism both compete for both DO and organic compounds.
Respiration
The bacterial and algal respiration is responsible for production of carbon dioxide and subsequent
depletion of DO. The combination of three effect- respirations, photosynthesis and re-aeration result in
a diurnal variation of DO concentration from values that may exceeds the saturation during day time
and much lower values at night.
Oxidation of organic matter

The primary cause of de-oxygenation in acquatic system is the presence of organic matter. Collectively
called oxygen demanding waste. When these substances enter the water way, DO is consumed in their
breakdown by MOs. Hence, organic substances can be said to exert demand on availability DO. The
more the O2 is require for breakdown of the substances, the greater will be the de-oxygenation of
H2O.Pollution results when O2 demand exceed the available O2.
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Determination of DO
Surface water of good quality should be saturated with DO. A fall in DO level is one of the first indication
that water body is being polluted by organic matters. The Do level on water depends on physical,
chemical and biological activities prevailing in the water body. Thus it is one of the important parameter
for assessing the purity of water. It is usually determined by winklers method. This method is based on
reaction of O2 with manganese ions to form precipitate of MnO2
Mn++ + O2 MnO2 (ppt)
The MnO2 (manganese dioxide) then treated with iodide ions. when iodine is liberated is an amount
chemically equivalent to original O2 concentration
MnO2 + 2I- + 4H+ Mn++ + I2 +2H2O
The liberated iodine is determined by titration with Sodium Thio-sulphate.
2S2O32- + I2 S4O62- + 2I-
The presence of nitrite or ferrous ions in the solution can interfere with the original O2 determination.
To eliminate these interference several method or modification of the basic method are purposed. This
includes use of azide, permanganate and alum to remove the interference due to nitrite, ferrous ion and
suspended solid respectively.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

BOD is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized in the biochemical oxidation or decomposition of
organic matter in a specified time and temperature. The test is most important in sewage analysis as it
indicates the amount of decomposable organic matters. The larger the concentration greater the BOD
value, which shows the strong sewage the taste has special significance in stream pollution control as it
determines the degree of pollution in stream at any time.
The oxidation process proceeds in two stages.
Carbonaceous stage
The carbonaceous stage, or first stage, represents that portion of oxygen demand involved in the
conversion of organic carbon to carbon dioxide and lasts for 7-10 days. The quantity of oxygen taken is
rapid at first and decreases later on. The rate depends on temperature and characteristics of sewage.
rd
When the standard 5 day at 20 °C conditions are used, approximately 2/3 of the carbonaceous
material is broken down; an incubation of about 20 days is needed for nearly complete
breakdown.
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Nitrogenous stage
In second stage where oxidation of nitrogenous material takes place which proceeds for a much longer
period of time before the process gets stabilized. It represents a combined carbonaceous (residual) plus
nitrogeneous demand, when organic nitrogen, ammonia, and nitrite are converted to nitrate.
Nitrogenous oxygen demand generally begins after about 6 days. Because of the slowness of the
nitrification process, the oxygen demand of the nitrifying bacteria is assumed to be negligible in
the standard 5-day incubation period at 20°C.
For some sewage, especially discharge from waste water treatment plants utilizing biological treatment
processes, nitrification can occur in less than 5 days if ammonia, nitrite, and nitrifying bacteria are
present. In this case, a chemical compound that prevents nitrification should be added to the sample if
the intent is to measure only the carbonaceous demand. The results are reported as carbonaceous BOD
(CBOD), or as CBOD5 when a nitrification inhibitor is used
Fig: Biochemical oxygen demand curves: (A) typical carbonaceous-demand curve showing the oxidation
of organic matter, and (B) typical carbonaceous- plus nitrogeneous-demand curve showing the
oxidation of ammonia and nitrite. (Modified from Sawyer and McCarty, 1978)
Determination of BOD
The amount of nutrients, mixed micro-organism, absence of toxic factors, pH and temperature are to be
controlled during BOD determination. The taste of BOD are usually made at temperature 20℃ for 5 days
20℃ is more or less a medium value of temperature as far as natural bodies of water are concerned
while the 5 days period is sufficient to satisfy 70-80 % of total BOD in case of domestic and industrial
sewage.
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BOD = Initial dissolve oxygen - Final dissolve oxygen

Volume of sample / total volume (vol. of BOD battle)
= (Initial DO - Final DO) × dilution factor (* unit is mg/litre)
Measurement of BOD
The biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of oxygen utilized by micro-organism during the oxidation
of organic matters present in waste water. It is the most widely used process for assessing the water
pollution. An average oxygen demand is directly proportional to the amount of organic matters which
has to be broken down hence BOD is a direct measure of oxygen requirement and indirect measure of
biodegradable organic matters is induced to a water sample and its decomposition is monitored, we will
observe that the rate of oxidation can be approximated as first order chemical reaction, whose kinetics
may be expressed as:
𝜕𝐿
𝜕𝑡
= − 𝑘1 . 𝐿 ……………………………………………..
Where, L = BOD remaining after time

t = concentration of remaining oxidizable matters
𝑘1 = the reaction rate constant = deoxygenation constant
Assuming at t = 0, L=Lu (ultimate BOD)
Rearranging and integrating above equation.

𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝑡
= − 𝑘1 . 0
𝜕 𝑡 …………………………..
𝐿𝑢 𝐿
𝐿𝑢 t
ln 𝐿 𝐿 = − 𝑘1 . t 0 …………………………..
𝐿
ln = − 𝑘1 . 𝑡
𝐿𝑢
𝐿
= 𝑒 − 𝑘1 . 𝑡
𝐿𝑢
𝐿 k1
10− 𝑘′ 1 where k1 
. 𝑡
= …………………… '
𝐿𝑢 2.303
The BOD remaining at any time ‘t’ is

− 𝑘′ 1 . 𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑢 . 10
A standard way of measuring BOD is determining the amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms
during five days period for the oxidation of organic matters at 200C denoted as 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 .
′
𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = ( 𝐿𝑢 − 𝐿5 ) = 𝐿𝑢 (1 − 10− 𝑘 1 . 𝑡
)
'
The value of k varies significantly with type of waste and treatment temperature.
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Limitations of BOD
 Presence of toxic matter
 Can’t distinguish the oxygen demand carried out by carbonaceous matter and due to nitrification.
 It will not give calculation of inorganic matter oxidation.
When biodegradable organic matter is released into a body of water, microorganisms especially
bacteria, feed on the wastes, breaking them down into simpler organic and inorganic substances.
When this decomposition takes place in an aerobic environment that is, in the presence of oxygen,
the process produces non-objectionable, stable end products such as carbon dioxide, sulphate,
orthophosphate and nitrate (Masters and Ela, 2008). A simplified representation of aerobic
decomposition is given by the following:
Organic matter + oxygen → CO₂ + 𝐻₂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
When insufficient oxygen is available, the decomposition is performed by anaerobic microorganisms.

They produce end products that can be highly objectionable, including hydrogen sulphide, ammonia
and methane. Anaerobic decomposition can be represented by the following:
Organic matter → CO₂ + H₂O + New cells + Unstable products
The methane produced is physically stable, biologically degradable, and a potent greenhouse gas.
When emitted from bodies of water, it is often called swamp gas. It is also generated in the
anaerobic environment of landfills where it is sometimes collected and used as an energy source.
Biochemical oxygen demand may be defined as the oxygen required for the microorganisms to carry
out biological decomposition of dissolved solids or organic matter in the water under aerobic
conditions at standard temperature. BOD may have various units, but most often it is expressed as
milligrams of oxygen required per litre of wastewater (mg/L). The BOD in turn is made up of two
parts: the carbonaceous oxygen demand (CBOD) and nitrogenous oxygen demand (NBOD).
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Relation of BOD with temperature

As we know that rate of oxidation of biodegradable matter (K) depends on temperature,
Kt = K20 θ (t-20)
 θ varies with temperature
 θ = 1.135 for t = 4-20°C
 θ = 1.056 for t >20°C
Population Equivalent
Population equivalent or unit per capita loading, (PE), in waste-water treatment is the number
expressing the ratio of the sum of the pollution load produced during 24 hours by industrial facilities
and services to the individual pollution load in household sewage produced by one person in the same
time. For practical calculations, it is assumed that one unit equals to 54 grams of BOD per 24 hours.
𝑘𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑔
0.054 𝑖𝑛 𝑕𝑎𝑏 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦
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Oxygen Sag
The oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the stream at any point of time during self purification process is the
difference between the saturation DO and DO content at that time.
Oxygen Deficit (D) = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿
Where, 𝐶𝑠 = Saturated DO concentration at given conditions
𝐶𝐿 = Actual DO concentration at given condition
The saturation DO value for fresh water depends upon the temperature and total dissolved salts present
in it; and its value varies from 14.62 mg/L at 0°C to 7.63 mg/L at 30 °C, and lower DO at higher
temperatures.
Oxygen Sag Curve

Oxygen Sag Curve is the plot that shows the variation of oxygen deficit/sag (D) with the distance along
the stream, and the time of flow from the point of pollution.
The DO in a water stream may not be at saturation level and there may exist an initial oxygen deficit
‘𝐷0 ’. When the effluent with initial BOD load ‘𝐿0 ’ is discharged in to water stream, the DO content of the
stream starts depleting and the oxygen deficit (D) increases, consider ′𝐷𝑡 ′ at time ‘t’. The maximum or
critical deficit (𝐷𝑐 ) occurs at the inflexion points of the oxygen sag curve.
Oxygen sag
curve
DO content (%)
i.e. Re-aeration
De-oxygenation level
i.e. BOD level
Fig: Oxygen sag/deficit curve
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Mathematical analysis of Oxygen Sag Curve/ Streeter – Phelps equation

The analysis of oxygen sag curve can be easily done by superimposing the rates of deoxygenation and
reoxygenation as suggested by the Streeter – Phelps analysis. The rate of change in the DO deficit is the
sum of the two reactions as explained below:
𝜕 𝐷𝑡
= 𝑓 (𝑑𝑒 − 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒 − 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
Or, 𝑡
= 𝐾 ′ . 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑅 ′ . 𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝑡
Where, Dt = DO deficit at any time t,
𝐿𝑡 = amount of first stage BOD remaining at any time t
K’ = BOD reaction rate constant or deoxygenation constant (to the base e)
R’ = Reoxygenation constant (to the base e)
t = time in days
𝜕 𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝑡
= rate of change of DO deficit
We also Know,
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿0 . 𝑒 − 𝐾′ 𝑡
Where, 𝐿0 = BOD remaining at time t = 0
Hence,
𝜕 𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝑡
= 𝐾 ′ . 𝐿0 . 𝑒 − 𝐾′ 𝑡 − 𝑅 ′ . 𝐷𝑡
𝜕 𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝑡
+ 𝑅 ′ . 𝐷𝑡 = 𝐾 ′ . 𝐿0 . 𝑒 − 𝐾′ 𝑡
This is first order first degree differential equation and solution of this equation is
𝐾′ . 𝐿 ′ ′ ′𝑡
𝐷𝑡 = 𝑅 ′ − 𝐾0 ′ . 𝑒 − 𝐾 𝑡 − 𝑒 − 𝑅 𝑡 + 𝐷0 . 𝑒 − 𝑅
Changing base of natural log to 10 the equation can be expressed as:
𝐾′ . 𝐿 ′ ′ ′
𝐷𝑡 = 0
. 10− 𝐾 𝑡 − 10− 𝑅 𝑡 + 𝐷0 . 10− 𝑅 𝑡
𝑅′ − 𝐾′
Where, K = BOD reaction rate constant, to the base 10
R = Reoxygenation constant to the base 10
𝐷0 = Initial oxygen deficit at the point of waste discharge at time t = o
t = time of travel in the stream from the point of discharge = x/u
x = distance along the stream
u = stream velocity
The above equation is known as Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation
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Chemical oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is defined as amount of oxygen utilized chemically in the oxidation or decomposition of
biodegradable and non biodegradable organic matters as well as small as small amount of nitrogenous
and phosphorous rich inorganic substances.
COD value is always higher then BOD value although it is less directly related to pollution effect of
sewage then BOD. It is a chemical test which takes a few hours to complete. The test is based on
treating the sample with a known amount of boiling acidic potassium dichromate solution and finally
titrating ferrous ammonium sulphate. The oxidised organic matter is taken as proportional to the
amount of potassium dichromate utilized. The determination is titrimetric but BOD determination needs
at least 5 days. Therefore regarding the time COD determination is superior then BOD. Must compounds
are oxidised virtually to completion in this taste including those which are non biodegradable. The COD
and BOD can be correlated with each other for quicker BOD results.
BOD = (0.2 - 0.8)

COD
This relation holds when degree of pollution is less.
Fig:-Relation between BOD5,UBOD and COD

BOD5 < UBOD < COD
Determination of COD
In the COD taste the oxidizing bacteria of BOD taste is replaced by strong oxidizing agent in acidic
condition. A sample of waste water is mixed with strong oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate in
excess and for the acidification sulphuric acid is added then the mixture is heated under total reflux
conditions for a period about 2 hours. During digestion the organic material reduces chemically
equivalent amount of dichromate. The remaining dichromate is titrated with standard ferrous
ammonium sulphate. Dichromate has advantage over other oxident in oxidizing capacity and
applicability to wide range of waste.
 K2 SO4  Cr2  SO4 3  H 2O  O

K2Cr2O7  H 2 SO4 
[O] + Organic matters Oxidised products
COD = (a-b)×N×8000
Weight of sample taken
where, a = Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate consumed by blank
b = Volume of ferrous sulphate consumed by sample
N = strength of ferrous sulphate
The COD taste is multi more useful then the BOD taste for estimating oxygen requirement of certain
industrial waste, in which BOD taste is inapplicable due to presence of toxic substances, low rate of
oxidation and other similar factors. In these cases the ratio of BOD to COD can be employed to get an
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indication of degree of bio-treatability of the waste. The ratio of 0.8 or more indicates that the waste is
suitable for biological treatment. The cholorides and nitrides results in high COD value so, this problem
can be eliminated by the use of mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid to the dichromate solution prior to
the addition of other reagent.
Limitations of COD
 COD do not provide the information regarding the rate of bio-oxidation
 COD do not provide information of biodegradable matter contained
One problem with the BOD test is that it takes 5 days to run. If the organic compounds were oxidized
chemically instead of biologically, the test could be shortened considerably. Such oxidation can be
accomplished with the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test. Because nearly all organic compounds are
oxidized in the COD test, while only some are decomposed during the BOD test, COD results are always
higher than BOD results. One example of this is wood pulping waste, in which compounds such as
cellulose are easily oxidized chemically (high COD) but are very slow to decompose biologically (low
BOD).
The standard COD test uses a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid to oxidize the
organic matter (HCOH), with silver (Ag+) added as a catalyst. A simplified example of this reaction is
illustrated below, using dichromate (Cr₂0 ;-) and hydrogen ions (H+) :
CaHbOc + Cr₂O₇ − + H + → Cr₃ + + CO₂ + H₂O
The COD test is specifically more suitable to measure organic matter present in industrial wastes having
compounds that are toxic to biological life. However, COD values are generally higher than BOD values
since the test will oxidise materials such as fats and lignin which are slowly biodegradable.
A correlation between COD and BOD for a specific treatment plant can be established, in which case
the control of the process is possible with COD measurement alone. In typical untreated domestic
wastes, the ratio of COD/BOD5 is found to vary from 1.25 to 2.5 (Meenakshi, 2012). A higher value of
the ratio indicates that the waste water is to biodegrade. The BOD test takes a minimum of 5 days’
time and due to this, it is not useful in the control of the treatment process. An alternative test is the
COD test, which can be used to measure the content of organic matter.
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Self –Purification of Natural Streams

Self-purification means the partial or complete restoration, by natural processes, of a streams pristine
condition following the introduction of foreign matter sufficient in quality and quantity to cause a
measurable change in physical, chemical and/or biological characteristics of the stream. The
introduction of foreign matter is usually through the agency of man.
When the waste water or the effluent is discharged into a natural stream, the organic matter is broken
down by bacteria to products such as ammonia, nitrates, sulphates and carbon dioxide. In this process
of oxidation, the dissolved oxygen content of natural water is utilized. Due to this, deficiency of
dissolved oxygen is created. As the excess organic matter is stabilized, the normal cycle will be re-
established in a process known as self-purification, wherein oxygen is replenished by its reaeration by
wind. Also, the stable by-products of oxidation mentioned above are utilized by plants and algae to
produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Water quality standards are often based upon maintenance of
some minimum dissolved oxygen concentration, which will protect the natural cycle in the stream while
taking advantage of its natural assimilative capacity. Actions involved in self-purification are physical,
chemical and biological in nature.
Self-purification of a stream is usually dependent upon the presence of a sufficient quantity of dissolved
oxygen. So long as oxygen is not used up too rapidly during oxidation of organic matter by the activities
of bacteria, some improvement in the condition of the stream may be expected. But if the rate of
uptake of oxygen is greater than the rate at which oxygen is replenished for example by re-aeration
from the atmosphere and by photosynthesis, the stream condition will tend to worsen. In extreme cases
when all the dissolved oxygen has become exhausted, self-purification will cease and septic conditions
will prevail with all their attendant evils including offensive odours, floating masses of black sludge and
death of fish and other aquatic life (Klein, 1962).
The self-purification process of stream polluted by waste water or effluent discharged into it can be
divided into the following zones (Meenakshi, 2012):
 Zone of degradation
 Zone of active decomposition
 Zone of recovery
 Clear water zone
a) Zone of degradation
The zone of degradation is situated just below the outfall sewer when discharging its contents into the
stream. In this zone, water is dark and turbid, having the formation of sludge deposits at the bottom.
The DO is reduced to 40% of the saturation values. There is an increase in CO; the reoxygenation is much
slower than deoxygenation. Though conditions are unfavourable for aquatic life, fungi at higher points
and bacteria at lower points breed small worms, which work over and stabilize the sewage sludge. The
decomposition of solid matter takes place in this zone and anaerobic decomposition prevails.
15
b) Zone of active decomposition

The zone of decomposition is just after the degradation zone and is marked by heavy pollution. Water in
this zone becomes greyish and darker than the previous zone. The DO concentration in this zone falls
down to zero. Active anaerobic decomposition takes place, with the evolution of methane, hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen bubbling to the surface with masses of sludge forming black
scum. Fish life is absent in this zone but bacteria flora flourishes in the presence of anaerobic bacteria at
upper end and aerobic bacteria at the lower end. Protozoa and fungi first disappear and then reappear,
while algae are mostly absent. However, near the end of this zone, as the decomposition slackens,
reaeration sets in and DO again rises to its original level of 40%.
c) Zone of recovery
In the recovery zone, the process of recovery starts, from its degraded condition to its former condition.
The stabilization of organic matter takes place in this zone. Due to this, most of the stabilized organic
matter settles as sludge, BOD falls and DO content rises above the 40% value. Mineralization is active,
with the resulting formation of products formation of products like nitrates, sulphates and carbonates.
Near the end of the zone, microscopic aquatic life reappears.
16
d) Clear water zone

In the clear water zone, the natural condition of streams is restored with the result that:
 Water becomes clearer and attractive in appearance

 DO rises to the saturation and is much higher than BOD and
 Oxygen balance is attained.
Thus recovery is said to be complete in the clear water zone, though some pathogenic organisms may be
present in this zone.
Factors affecting Self-purification

The factors affecting self-purification include:
Dilution
When sufficient dilution water is available in the receiving water body, where the wastewater is
discharged, the DO level in the receiving stream may not reach to zero or critical DO due to availability
of sufficient DO initially in the river water before receiving discharge of wastewater.
Current
When strong water current is available, the discharged wastewater will be thoroughly mixed with
stream water preventing deposition of solids. In small current, the solid matter from the wastewater will
get deposited at the bed following decomposition and reduction in DO.
Temperature
The quantity of DO available in stream water is more in cold temperature than in hot temperature. Also,
as the activity of microorganisms is more at the higher temperature, hence, the selfpurification will take
less time at hot temperature than in winter.
Sunlight
Algae produces oxygen in presence of sunlight due to photosynthesis. Therefore, sunlight helps in
purification of stream by adding oxygen through photosynthesis.
Rate of Oxidation
Due to oxidation of organic matter discharged in the river DO depletion occurs. This rate is faster at
higher temperature and low at lower temperature. The rate of oxidation of organic matter depends on
the chemical composition of organic matter.
17
Basic processes of waste water treatment

Wastewater collected from municipalities and communities must ultimately be returned to
receiving waters or to the land or reused. The complex question facing the design engineer and
public health officials is: What levels of treatment must be achieved in a given application
beyond those prescribed by discharge permits—to ensure protection of public health and the
environment? The answer to this question requires detailed analyses of local conditions and
needs, application of scientific knowledge and engineering judgment based on past experience,
and consideration of federal, state, and local regulations. In some cases, a detailed risk
assessment may be required.
The purpose of waste water treatment is to remove the contaminants from water, so that the treated water
can meet the acceptable quality standard. The quality standard depends upon where there the water will
be used or discharged into the reserve stream. Available waste water treatment process can be classified
as physical, chemical and biological processes. These processes consists series of unit operation in
different combination of sequence depending upon situation of effluent concentration, composition and
specification and disposal used in each factory will depend on local circumstance.
The treatment process may be described as following ways
Treatment level Description

Preliminary
Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatables, grit, and grease that may
cause maintenance or operational problems with the treatment operations, processes, and
ancillary systems
Primary
Removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater
Advanced primary
Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter from the waste water.Typically
accomplished by chemical addition or filtration. (remove ~ 60% of solids and ~ 35% of BOD
Secondary
Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and suspended solids.
Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of conventional secondary treatment.
(remove ~85% of BOD and solids)
Secondary with nutrient removal
Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids, and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, or
both nitrogen and phosphorus).
Tertiary
Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment), usually by granular medium
filtration or micro-screens. Disinfection is also typically a part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient
removal is often included in this definition
Advanced
18
Removal of dissolved and suspended materials remaining after normal biological treatment when
required for various water reuse applications (varies: 95+ % of BOD and solids, N, P).
19
Fig. Basic process involves in waste water treatment.
20
Physical Treatments of waste-water

This is primary method of waste treatment and is carried out to removecourse solid material by a
variety of mechanical technique and the purpose is to reduce the BOD of the waste water before
other treatment. As much as 40-60% solid or about 25-35% of the BOD load can be removed during
this process. In general the preliminary and primary treatments of waste-waters are physical
treatments.
Fig: Schematic representation of physical treatment of waste-water
Preliminary treatment of industrial wastewaters

Industrial wastewaters must be pretreated prior to being discharged to municipal sewer system
according to requirements set by regulatory agencies. This removes materials that will not be treated by
municipal system. The removed materials usually retard or inhibit the biological processes in secondary
treatment. For example: silver ions are toxic to bacteria which might affect biological process. Thus
silver ions are removed at pre-treatment before biological process so that bacterial performance do not
get affected.
Some commonly used preliminary treatments are discussed hereby:
Screening
It is the common method which involves the separation of coarse material by using screen. Screen of
various size and shape are used depending on nature of solid to the removed. Stationary bar screen,
vibratory screen and rotating drum screen are usually used. Fixed bar screen are the most common type
of screen used in domestic waste water treatment facilities.
21
Fig: Bar screen

Upon arrival via the sewer system, the wastewater is sent through a bar screen, which removes large
solid objects such as sticks and rags. Leaving the bar screen, the wastewater flow is slowed down
entering the grit tank, to allow sand, gravel and other heavy material that was small enough not to be
caught by the bar screen to settle to the bottom. All the collected debris from the grit tank and bar
screen is disposed of at a sanitary landfill.
Comminution
A comminutor acts as both a cutter and a screen. Its purpose is not to remove but to shred (comminute)
the solids. Solids must be accounted for in subsequent sludge handling facilities. Comminutors, like most
screens, are mounted in a channel and the wastewater flows through them. The rags and other debris
are shredded by cutting teeth until they can pass through the openings. Some units require specially
shaped channels for proper hydraulic conditions, resulting in more expensive construction. Treatment.
plant design manuals, textbooks, and manufacturer’s bulletins provide detailed information on these
units. A bypass channel is required for all comminutors to permit maintenance of equipment.
22
Fig: Communinutor
Girt Removal
Grit represents the heavier inert matter in wastewater which will not decompose in treatment
processes. It is identified with matter having a specific gravity of about 2.65, and design of grit chambers
is based on the removal of all particles of about 0.011 inch or larger (65 mesh). For some sludge
handling processes, it may be necessary to remove, as a minimum, grit of 0.007 inch or larger (100
mesh). Grit removal, compared to other unit treatment processes, is quite economical and employed to
achieve the following results:
–Prevent excessive abrasive wear of equipment such as pumps and sludge scrapers.
–Prevent deposition and subsequent operating problems in channels, pipes, and basins.
–Prevent reduction of capacity in sludge handling facilities.
Grit removal facilities shall be used for combined sewer systems or separate sanitary systems which may
have excessive inert material. Grit removal equipment should be located after bar screens and
comminutors and ahead of raw sewage pumps. Sometimes it is not practical to locate the grit removal
system ahead of the raw sewage pumps because of the depth of the influent line. Therefore, it may be
required to pump the wastewater containing grit. If this mode is selected, pumps capable of handling
grit should be employed.
23
Fig: Aerated girt chamber
Preaeration
Methods of introducing supplemental oxygen to the raw wastewater are sometimes used in preliminary
treatment. This process is known as preaeration and the objectives are to:
 Improve wastewater treatability.

 Provide grease separation, odor control, and flocculation.
 Promote uniform distribution of suspended and floating solids to treatment units.
 Increase BOD removals in primary sedimentation.
This is generally provided by either separate aeration or increased detention time in an aerated grit
chamber. Provisions for grit removal are provided in only the first portion of the tank
Equalization
Equalization has limited application for domestic wastes, but should be employed for many industrial
discharges including manufacturing processes. Equalization reduces fluctuations of the influent to levels
compatible with subsequent biological or physical-chemical processes. A properly designed facility
dampens the wide swings of flow, pH, BOD, and other parameters to levels such that downstream
systems operate more efficiently and economically, and can be constructed at a reduced capital
investment. Proper equalization will also minimize system upsets and more consistently provide a better
quality effluent. A graphical example of how an equalization facility can stabilize a wastewater having
significant cyclic pH variations. While there are definite primary benefits for
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equalization, a facility can also be designed to yield secondary benefits by taking advantage of physical,
chemical, and biological reactions which might occur during retention in the equalization basin. For
example, supplemental means of aeration are often employed with an equalization basin to provide:
 Better mixing.
 Chemical oxidation of reduced compounds.
 Some degree of biological oxidation.
 Agitation to prevent suspended solids from settling.
If aeration is not provided, baffles or mechanical mixers must be provided to avoid stratification and
short circuiting in equalization basins. The size and shape of an equalization facility will vary with the
quantity of waste and the patterns of waste discharge. Basins should be designed to provide adequate
capacity to accommodate the total volume of periodic variation from the wastewater source.
Primary treatments
Primary treatment is the second step in wastewater treatment. It allows for the physical separation of
solids and greases from the wastewater. The screened wastewater flows into a primary settling tank
where it is held for several hours allowing solid particles to settle to the bottom of the tank and oils and
greases to float to the top. Primary treatment can reduce the BOD of the incoming wastewater by 20-
30% and the total suspended solids by some 50-60%.
Sedimentation and floatation are the commonly used primary treatments of waste water.
Sedimentation
In this process, the high density solids are removed by gravitational settling under normal conditions.
The sludge formed at the bottom of the tank is removed as underflow, either by vacuum suction or by
racking it to a discharge point, at the bottom of the tank. The clear liquid produce is known as overflow.
If the sedimentation tank is poorly designed, the overflow may contain solids particles or the underflow
may be more dilute then desired. Thus operation may be carried out in rectangular horizontal flow,
circular radial flux or vertical slow basis.
Sedimentation (or settling) refers to the separation of solid particles from suspensions due to gravity. In
preliminary treatment, sedimentation aims to remove grid, sand, and other inorganic materials with
diameter greater than about 0.15–0.20 mm.
Depending on the concentration of solids and the possible interactions between the particles, four types
of settling can occur:
 Discrete particles settling (type I). It occurs in highly dilute suspensions where the particles settle
without interacting with each other. Grit removal belongs to type I sedimentation.
 Flocculent settling (type II). It occurs in relatively dilute suspensions where the particles tend to
agglomerate resulting in the formation of larger particles, which settle faster. Type II
sedimentation is a typical primary treatment process.
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 Hindered or zone settling (type III). It occurs in suspensions with moderate to high
concentrations of solids. Particles interact in such a way that hinders settling of neighboring
solids.
 Compression (type IV). It occurs in highly concentrated suspensions, where the solids are
brought into physical contact with each other. Both type III and type IV settling occurs in
secondary sedimentation tanks.
In rectangular tank, feed is introduced at one end along the width of the tank, and the overflow is
collected at the surface, either across the other end or at different point along the length of the tank
and endless conveyer, scraped the floating material into a screen through and also pussed the settel
solids into the sludge hopper
Floatation
Flotation may be used in place of sedimentation for treating industrial waste, containing finely divided
suspended solids and oily matters. floatation technique is used in paper industry to recover fine fibers
and in oil industry for clarification of oil containing waste. An important application is the thickening of
sludge obtained from activated sludge process.
Particles of density very near to water are difficult to settle in normal sedimentation tank and take long
time for separation. In such cases, the separation can be speeded up by aerating the effluent whereby
air bubbles are attached to the suspended matters. This has the effect of increasing the buoyancy of
particle, as a result. the particles float at surface where ,they can readily removed. To aids the floatation
process, chemical coagulants like Aluminum and ferric salt are often used
26
Chemical treatments of Waste-water

Fine suspended and colloidal particles in an effluent may be aggregated together to form larger particles
which are easier to separate from the liquid phase by coagulation and/or flocculation. Coagulation is
essentially instantaneous whereas flocculation requires some more time and gentle agitation to achieve
“aggregation” of the particles. Ferrous or ferric sulfate, ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate (alum),
aluminum chloride, calcium hydroxide (lime), and polyelectrolytes are often used as chemical
coagulants.
Coagulation and precipitaion

A solution of coagulant of the appropriate strength for effective treatment is added to the effluent in a
vigorously mixed tank, a precipitate or floc forms almost immediately and carries down the suspended
solids to form a sludge. This sludge may be drawn off, mechanically dewatered, and subjected to further
treatment.
Phosphate in the effluent stream may be removed chemically by reaction with calcium hydroxide (at pH
> 10) to precipitate hydroxyapatite. Phosphate may also be removed in a similar manner using ferric and
aluminum salts. Heavy metals can also be removed from effluents by precipitation usually as their
hydroxide or sulfide.
Flocculation
Flocs may also be separated from the liquid by filtration. Polyelectrolytes, both natural and synthetic,
are commonly used as flocculants. Flocculants act in one of three ways; charge neutralization, polymer
bridge formations, or a combination of the two. Following addition, the effluent is gently mixed
(turbulent mixing would break up the flocs) by passage through sinuous flocculation channels,
hydrodynamic flocculators, or mechanically mixed flocculators
Fenton oxidation
Xu et al. (2014) reported the use of Fenton’s reagent in treating highly toxic avermectin fermentation
wastewaters using a complex treatment system. After treatment in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
(UASB) reactor the effluent undergoes Fenton oxidation followed by a membrane bioreactor (MBR).
COD reductions of 84.3% were obtained. Xing and Sun (2009) describe the use of Fenton’s reagent
coupled with coagulation and sedimentation in the treatment of antibiotic fermentation wastewater
obtaining 66.6% color removal and 72.4% COD removal.
Chemical Disinfection
Chemical disinfection normally takes place (if at all) following biological treatment. There are numerous
chemicals, which have been used historically as disinfectants but the most common in current use are:
 Chlorine and related compounds such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and
chlorine dioxide. Reaction products of chlorine in water (hypochlorous acid and
27
monochloroamine) also act as disinfectants. Many potable water treatment plants have moved
away from using chlorine gas in recent years to using sodium hypochlorite because of safety
concerns over the use of chlorine gas. Disinfection by-products, for example, trihalomethanes
(THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) when using oxidants such as chlorine (and ozone) are also a
cause for concern. Low concentration chlorine residues have the potential to be toxic if released
into the aquatic environment. If necessary the final effluent may be dechlorinated using sulfur
dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium thiosulfate, or activated carbon (Metcalf and Eddy Inc., 2003).
 Ozone, a strong oxidant, also acts as a disinfectant. It is highly unstable and must be generated
onsite by corona discharge. Like chlorine, ozone is highly toxic and consequently stringent safety
features need to be in place if it is used. By-product formation is also an issue in ozone
disinfection.
 Although it is not a chemical treatment, it is appropriate to briefly discuss UV disinfection at this
point, as it is considered a more environmentally friendly option. The portion of the UV range,
which is effective for disinfection is at wavelengths between 220 and 320 nm. Low-pressure
mercury vapor lamps in a quartz sleeve produce UV irradiation at 254 nm. UV radiation is
effective as a disinfectant as it causes damage to the organisms DNA and hence inhibits
replication. For UV disinfection to be effective, the liquid being treated must have very low
suspended solids concentrations as particulate matter will effectively “shield” microorganisms
from the UV light and hence reduce its effectiveness (Parker & Darby, 1995).
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Biological treatment process / Secondary treatment

Biological treatment removes the soluble biodegradable organic compound as well as sufficient in
organic nutrients and traces of contaminants present since much of the organic material in waste water
may be colloidal or dissolved. The physical (primary) treatment process is ineffective to remove these
impurities and hence is secondary treatments.
Biological treatment processes has been further divided into the following two categories:
 Suspended growth processes.

 Fixed growth processes.
(1) Suspended growth processes refer to treatment systems where microorganisms and wastewaters
are contained in a reactor. Oxygen is introduced to the reactor allowing the biological activity to take
place. Examples of suspended growth processes include ponds, lagoons and activated sludge systems.
(2) Fixed growth processes refer to systems where a biological mass is allowed to grow on a medium.
Wastewater is sprayed on the medium or put into contact in other manners. The biological mass
stabilizes the wastewater as it passes over it. Examples of fixed growth processes include trickling filters
and rotating biological contractors.
Biological processes are classified by the oxygen dependence of the primary microorganism responsible
for waste treatment. In aerobic processes, waste is stabilized by aerobic and facultative microorganisms;
in anaerobic processes, anaerobic and facultative microorganisms are present.
Biological treatment is classified into two types
 aerobic process
 anaerobic process
Aerobic Process
In aerobic process waste water is made to come in contact with various group of microorganism which
degrades the organic matter into simple stabilized and low energy compounds, which lower the BOD.
The major aerobic processes are
 Activated sludge process

 Trickling filters
 Lagooning (oxidation pound)
Activated sludge process

In the activated sludge process, the waste water is brought in contact with various group of
microorganism in the form of flocculants suspension in an aerated tank. The main component of this
process is continuous flow of aerated biological reaction. The aerobic reaction is closely associated
with the sedimentation tank, in which liquid is clarified. A portion of the sludge collected in the
29
sedimentation tank is recycled to biological reaction, providing a continuous sludge inoculation. This
recycling extends mean sludge resistance time giving the microorganism on opportunity to adopt the
available nutrients.
Waste water after primary treatment enters into aeration tank, where organic matters are brought into
intimate contact with microorganisms in the form of sludge from sedimentation tank. The sludge heavily
loaded with microorganisms which are in active state of growth, air is introduced into the aeration tank
either in the form of bubbles or by surface aerator .The microorganism utilizes the organic matter and
synthesizes new bacterial cells. The effluents from aeration tank containing the flocculants microbial
mass known as the sludge is separated in sedimentation tank, sometimes called secondary clarifier.
Fig: Schematic Activated Sludge Process
In the sedimentation tank the separated sludge is without organic matter and microorganisms become
activated. A portion of the activated sludge is recycled to aeration tank as a seed and the rest is wasted.
If all the activated sludge is recycled then the bacterial mass would keep necessary to a stage where
system gets clogged with solids. The common bacterium in the activated sludge process is Zoogloea
ramigera, the most important characteristics of this group of bacteria is capacity of synthesizing and
secreting a polysaccharide gel because of this gel the microorganism tends to be agglomerated into the
floc.
In a well-maintained aeration tank, the bacteria are concentrated in the flocculent material of the
activated sludge, although some always occur free in the wastewater. The flocs are formed from
aggregates of non-living organic polymers that are probably secreted by bacteria. They have an open
porous structure, and are sufficiently robust to withstand the shear forces created by water movement,
during aeration of the tanks. They vary in size from less than 10 μm up to 1mm (1000 μm).
30
Important steps taking place in activated sludge process

 Active growth of micro flora throughout the sludge so termed as active sludge.
 Microbial aeration and agitation for the active growth of microbes, the organic matter are
absorbed in the gelled structure by collision, electrical reaction and chemical reaction. Agitation
is performed to insure full contact of effluent with the activated sludge after a residual time of 5-7
days.
 The sludge undergoes degradation into complex organic compound by the oxidative enzyme
produced by microbes.
 The sludge is transferred to sedimentation tank to remove the flocculated solids.
 The clarifying water is drained to the natural water way whereas some part of the sludge is
recycled to maintain the biological activity of microorganism in aeration tank and the remaining
sludge is tamped or used as fertilizer.
Factors affecting activated sludge process

 BOD removal characteristics of specific operating condition.
 Oxygen requirement for various loading value
 Sludge production rate
 Nutrition requirement for microorganism (C:N:P = 150:5:1)
 Oxygen transfer rate
 Solid-liquid separation capacity
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Advantages of Activated sludge process

 High degree of treatment, the effluent produced is clear and non putrisible,
BOD removal is 80-90%
Coliform removal is 90-95%
 Greater flexibility of treatment permitting a control over quality of effluent desired.
 No pumping is required since operating head is very low
 Operation possibility is (0.16-0.4)kg BOD/m3 per day
 Freedom from odor because the process run under water
 Freedom from fly nuisance.
 Less land requirement
 The initial cost is lower than trickling filter.
Disadvantage of activated sludge process

 Skilled manpower is required because of large number of mechanical equipment
 Relatively high cost of operation compared to trickling filters
 Large amount of sludge is produced
 More sensitive to change in quantity and quality of effluent, any sudden increase in strength of
effluent may adversely affect the operation of the plant. The presence of sensitive detergent may
cause foaming difficultly.
 Disposal of large quantity of sludge with high moisture content becomes a
problem.
 It is unsuitable for small scale operation.
Sludge volume index (SVI)

A conventional measure of settling capacity of sludge is sludge volume index (SVI). It is defined as the
volume in millimeter occupied by one gram of sludge after settling in one liter cylinder for 30 minutes
Mathematically,
sludge volume after settling for 30 minutes  1000

SVI 
Mass concentration  mg / l 
It varies from 40-100 for good sludge but may exceed 200 for a poor sludge.
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS)

In a well-operated plant, most of the bacterial biomass is associated with the activated sludge floc. By
filtering and drying a sample of the suspended solids, and then weighing the dried residue, a measure of
the biomass may be obtained. It is referred to as the Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, or MLSS, and is
expressed in mg/l. However, under some circumstances a significant proportion of the MLSS may be
inorganic material. For this reason, some process engineers prefer to derive a weight for the organic
matter in the sludge. This is done by combusting the dried residue in a furnace at 500°C, reweighing, and
32
obtaining the volatilised organic matter, by subtraction. This is referred to as the Mixed Liquor Volatile
Suspended Solids or MLVSS.
However even this weight is an imprecise measure of the llllllla significant part of the floc comprises
inert organic matter. Active microbial biomass, since Despite its shortcomings, MLSS is universally used
in process control as a measure of biomass. MLSS values range from about 800 - 1,500 mg/l for
extended-aeration and other low-rate systems, to about 8,000 mg/l or more, for high-rate systems. It
may be intuitive to think that higher efficiency of treatment would be achieved by increasing the MLSS,
since the more organisms that are present in the mixed liquor; the faster the BOD should be ingested.
However, high MLSS concentrations create problems in aeration and also in settlement of sludge in the
clarifier.
33
Modifications of Activated Sludge process

In the conventional ASP, many modifications can be made with respect to basin configuration and
aeration techniques.
Conventional (Plug-flow) Activated Sludge process

The conventional activated sludge process consists of an aeration tank, a secondary clarifier and a
sludge recycle line. Both influent sewage and recycled sludge enter the tank at the head end, move
through the tank in plug flow and are aerated for a period of time.
The primary-treated wastewater and acclimated micro-organisms (activated sludge or biomass) are
aerated in a basin or tank. After a sufficient aeration period, the flocculent activated sludge solids
are separated from the wastewater in a secondary clarifier. The clarified wastewater flows forward
for further treatment or discharge. A portion of the clarifier underflow sludge is returned to the
aeration basin for mixing with the primary-treated influent to the basin and the remaining sludge is
wasted to the sludge handling portion of the treatment plant. The portion recirculated is
determined on the basis of the ratio of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) to influent
wastewater biochemical oxygen demand which will produce the maximum removal of organic
material from the wastewater. Recirculation varies from 25 – 50 % of the raw wastewater flow,
depending on treatment conditions and wastewater characteristics.
Fig: Schematic representation of conventional (plug flow) activated sludge process
In this process, the aeration is high at the outlet and low oxygen concentration occurs at the inlet of
the aeration tank. This promotes the growth of a well-flocculated good settling sludge. If the waste-
water contains toxic or inhibiting organics, they must be removed or equalized prior to entering the
aeration basin. The oxygen utilization rate is high at the beginning of aeration basin and decreases
with aeration time.
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Tapered Aeration: Aeration modification

The tapered aeration system is similar to the conventional ASP except the major difference in the
arrangement of the aeration devices in the aeration tank. In tapered aeration the diffusers or aeration
devices are spaced closer together at the head end of the tank where more oxygen is needed, while
the spacing of the aerators is increased along the length of the aeration tank.
Step Aeration: Influent modification

The tapered aeration system is similar to the conventional ASP except the major difference in the
arrangement of influent in which sewage is introduced at two or more points in the aeration tank while
return sludge is introduced only at the head end of the aeration tank. In this modification, the oxygen
demand is more uniformly spread over the length of the aeration tank. Therefore, aeration or the
oxygen requirement during step aeration (3 to 7 hours) is about half that required for the conventional
process. This is due to a more effective biomass utilization in the aeration basin, allowing organic
loadings of 30 - 50 pounds biochemical oxygen demand per 1,000 cubic feet per day as compared to
loadings of 30 - 40 pounds biochemical oxygen demand per 1,000 cubic feet per day permitted for
conventional systems.
35
Completely Mixed aeration process:

The complete mix activated sludge process is characterized by distributing the influent sewage, return
sludge and air equally throughout the aeration tank to form a nearly homogeneous mixture in the tank.
The organic load and thus oxygen demand is uniform throughout the aeration tank and adds operational
stability when treating shock loads. Aeration time ranges between 3 and 6 hours. Recirculation ratios in
a completely-mixed system will range from 50 - 150 %.
Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge

Pure oxygen activated sludge is characterized by the use of high purity oxygen instead of air for aeration.
36
Contact Stabilization: Two-step Aeration modification

The contact stabilization activated sludge process is characterized by a two-step aeration system.
Aeration of short duration (½ to 2 hours) is provided in the contact tank where raw or primary-settled
wastewater is mixed with the activated sludge in the contact tank. The effluent from the contact tank is
then settled in a final settling tank. The settled activated sludge to be recycled from the final clarifier is
drawn to a separate re-aeration in a stabilization basin for 3 to 6 hours of aeration time. It is then
returned to the contact aeration basin for mixing with the incoming raw wastewater or primary settled
effluent.
In addition to a shorter wastewater aeration time, the contact stabilization process has the advantage
of being able to handle greater shock and toxic loadings than conventional systems because of the
buffering capacity of the biomass in the stabilization tank. During these times of abnormal loadings,
most of the activated sludge is isolated from the main stream of the plant flow. Contact stabilization
plants should generally not be used where daily variations in hydraulic or organic loadings routinely
exceed a ratio of 3:1 on consecutive days or for plants with average flows less than 0.1 million gallons
per day.
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Kraus Process
Kraus Process is used to treat wastewater that is deficient in nitrogen. It is also used when activated
sludge has poor settling characteristics. This modification is most applicable for treatment facilities
receiving wastewater that is high in carbohydrates. The process uses a reaeration tank that is similar to
the contact stabilization process, with some important modifications:
 Not all of the return sludge is reaerated; some is returned without being retreated.
 Digester supernatant and digester sludge is also added to the re-aeration tank.
 Retention time in the re-aeration tank is approximately 24 hours.
Ammonia nitrogen in the digester sludge and supernatant is converted to nitrate nitrogen in the
reaeration tank. Effluent from the reaeration tank is mixed with the return sludge to correct the
nitrogen deficiency in the influent wastewater. Also, the concentration of inert solids from the digester,
when mixed with the mixed liquor, improves the settleability of the mixed liquor.
Fig: Kraus Process
38
Extended Aeration and Oxidation ditch

Extended aeration activated sludge plants are designed to provide a 24-hour aeration period for
low organic loadings of less than 20 pounds biochemical oxygen demand per 1,000 cubic feet of
aeration tank volume. This approach, which can be used for treatment plants of less than 0.1
million gallons per day capacity, reduces the amount of sludge being wasted for disposal.
The closed-loop reactor, also known as an oxidation ditch (Figure 7), is a form of the extended
aeration process. The wastewater is propelled around an oval racetrack-configured basin by
mechanical aerator/mixing devices located at one or more points along the basin. These devices can
be either brush aerators, surface aerators or jet aerators. The velocity in the basin is designed to be
between 0.8 and 1.2 feet per second.
Fig: Oxidation ditch process.
39
Intermittently Aerated and Decanted system: All-in-one Modification

In this process, a single vessel is used to accommodate all of the unit processes and operations, normally
associated with conventional activated sludge treatment i..e. primary settlement, biological oxidation,
secondary settlement, and sludge digestion, as well as nitrification and the ability for subsequent
denitrification.
In using a single vessel, the processes and operations are simply timed sequences. The sequencing batch
reactor (SBR) operats on timed syses- fill, react, settle and decant. The feed rate has to be adjusted to a
batch mode in the case of readily degradable waste-water to avoid filamentous bulking.Denitrification is
achieved through anoxic cycles.
Fig: SBR operating sequence
40
Modification of ASP: summary
41
Major problems in ASP

Foam formation and poor settling sludges are the most common problems of ASP.
Bulked Sludge
Sludge that exhibits poor settling characteristics is known as bulking of sludge. Filamentous micro-
organisms are responsible for a bulked sludge. Other factors responsible for bulked sludge are:
 Low pH
 Inadequate air supply
 Prolonged aeration
 Sludge accumulation at bottom of aeration tank
 Presence of industrial waste containing toxic contaminants
Control:
By limiting the sludge age to maximum of 6 days
Chlorination of return activated sludge
Reaeration of returned sludge
Addition of lime to raise pH to 8 or more
Application of Hydrogen-peroxide to control growth of filamentous MO
Write short note on:

Activated sludge process
In the activated sludge process, the dispersed-growth reactor is an aeration tank or basin containing a
suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms, the mixed liquor. The contents of the aeration tank
are mixed vigorously by aeration devices which also supply oxygen to the biological suspension. Aeration
devices commonly used include submerged diffusers that release compressed air and mechanical
surface aerators that introduce air by agitating the liquid surface. Hydraulic retention time in the
aeration tanks usually ranges from 3 to 8 hours but can be higher with high BOD5 wastewaters.
Following the aeration step, the microorganisms are separated from the liquid by sedimentation and the
clarified liquid is secondary effluent. A portion of the biological sludge is recycled to the aeration basin
to maintain a high mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) level. The remainder is removed from the
42
process and sent to sludge processing to maintain a relatively constant concentration of microorganisms
in the system. Several variations of the basic activated sludge process, such as extended aeration and
oxidation ditches, are in common use, but the principles are similar.
Trickling Filters
A trickling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or tower filled with support media such as stones, plastic
shapes, or wooden slats. Wastewater is applied intermittently, or sometimes continuously, over the
media. Microorganisms become attached to the media and form a biological layer or fixed film. Organic
matter in the wastewater diffuses into the film, where it is metabolized. Oxygen is normally supplied to
the film by the natural flow of air either up or down through the media, depending on the relative
temperatures of the wastewater and ambient air. Forced air can also be supplied by blowers but this is
rarely necessary. The thickness of the biofilm increases as new organisms grow. Periodically, portions of
the film 'slough off the media. The sloughed material is separated from the liquid in a secondary clarifier
and discharged to sludge processing. Clarified liquid from the secondary clarifier is the secondary
effluent and a portion is often recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic distribution of the
wastewater over the filter.
43
Trickling filters
Trickling filters are biological film system the waste water in which influent is brought into contact with
the mixed microbial population in the form of film or slime attached with the solid supporting surface. In
this process organic matter are oxidized to more stable inorganic form It is the most popular means of
treating waste water as domestic sewage because of its ease of operation, ability to function in short
period of time, however like other biological system trickling filter are affected by temperature, therefore
in cold weather biological activity of system slows down.
Fig:-conventional trickling filter

Conventional trickling filter normally consists of a rock bed of 1-3 meter depth with enough opening
between rocks to allow the air to pass easily. The effluent is sprinkled over the bed packing which is
coated with biological slime .The effluent trickles gradually through the bed and a slime layer of
biologically active material (Bacteria, fungi and algae) forms on the surface of rock, the bacteria in the
slime remove the majority of organic matters, The organic matters are broken down and nitrogenous
matter are utilized to produced nitrates, sulphides etc. The higher organism improves the settling
characteristics of solids discharge with the filter effluent. A trickling filter bed should remove 75-95%
BOD and 90_95% suspended solids.
As the microorganism utilize the organic matter the thickness of slime film increases to a point where it
can no longer be attached with supporting solid and get's detached of it, This process is known as
sloughing.
A settling tank followed the filter; remove the detached bacterial film and remaining suspended solids.
More recently plastic filters have been used as trickling filter. The plastic packaging is lite and can be
staked many times higher than the rock bed. It also has a much higher degree of treatment capacity
because of the increase in available surface area and is mostly used for high flow rate process.
Advantages of Trickling filtration plant

 Simple and reliable process that is suitable in areas where large tracts of land are not available
for a WSP treatment system
 Effective in treating high concentrations of organic material depending on the type of media
used;
 Effluent obtained, from the trickling filters is sufficiently nitrified and stabilized. They can
remove about 75% BOD and 80% of suspended solids. The effluent can therefore be easily
disposed off in smaller quantity of dilution water.
44
 Flexible in operation, therefore, can' withstand the application of variety of sewages having
different concentrations and compositions,
 Ability to handle and recover from shock loads
 Relatively low power requirements; they require power for pumping only and do not need
large power-hungry aeration blowers. From motor-driven rotary distributors are powered by
fractional horsepower electric motors.
 They are self-cleaning. They produce less sludge than suspended-growth systems. The sludge
tends to settle well because it is compact and heavy.
 Level of skill and technical expertise needed to manage and operate the system is moderate
 The cost to operate a trickling filter is very low.
Disadvantages of Trickling filtration plant

 Additional treatment may be needed for the effluent to meet strict discharge standards;
 generates sludge that must be treated and disposed of;
 Regular operators attention is needed;
 Relatively high incidence of clogging;
 Relatively low loadings required depending on the media;
 Limited flexibility and control in comparison with activated sludge processes. They require high
maintenance costs of rotary distributor center mechanisms. Any maintenance service for the
rotary distribution mechanism would require a crane and complete removal of the rotary
distributor mechanism, guy rods, and arms.
 Sometimes, the voids in the filter media get clogged due to heavy growth of fungi and algae
which may result in pounding of the sewage over the filter bed.
 Potential for vector and odor problems
45
Logooning (Waste-water stabilization tanks or ponds / Facultative ponds)

Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP) or facultative ponds or lagoons are used to treat municipal and
industrial wastewater all over the world. WSP are often thought of as being suitable only in the
developing countries because of its low cost and where conventional wastewater treatment is not
suitable due to the lack of resources. Further, the advantage of these systems, in terms of removal of
pathogens, is one of the most important reasons for its use.
It is also called oxidation pond. Near to the surface is the existence of aquatic plant such as algae. For
them, solar energy is the main source of energy. The oxygen produced by algae during photosynthesis is
utilized by the bacteria in the aerobic zone, sometimes sodium nitrite is also added to produce
additional oxygen which encourage the aerobic oxidation process. The organic matter present in the
waste water is converted to carbon dioxide in aerobic zone so firstly the waste water is utilized by
aerobic bacteria and then facultative bacteria.
Fig: Schematic representation of chemical reactions occurring in facultative Ponds
The stable matters go down to the bottom and constitute a portion of anaerobic zone where only
anaerobic bacteria can act. Carbon dioxide released by oxidation of organic matter is consumed by algae
present at aerobic zone. So, a cyclic odor continues in oxidation pound. In this system aerobic treatment
is more common in day time, then that of night, Aerobic environment is maintained generally by surface
aeration and photosynthesis and sometimes by mechanical aeration.
46
Relation of pond algae and bacteria
Fig: Mutual relationship between pond algae and bacteria
Design of WSP
WSP systems consist of single series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds, or several series in
parallel. The pond system can be used alone but usually they are used in combination with each other.
Anaerobic and facultative ponds:

They are mainly designed for BOD removal and are enough for wastewater treatment. In some cases
facultative ponds are provided without anaerobic ponds and hence a single pond may be used. Usually
there are odour problems associated with the anaerobic ponds but its inclusion substantially reduces
the land area required for facultative ponds. Odour problem can be reduced if properly taken into
account during the design stage.
Maturation ponds:
They are designed mainly for pathogen removal depending on the destination of effluent for further
polishing purposes. In general maturation ponds are required only when the treated wastewater is to be
used for unrestricted irrigation (for food cultivation) and has to comply therefore with the WHO
guideline of 150 mg/l) are to be treated prior to surface water discharge.
47
Factors affecting logooning process

 Solid level
 Oxygen requirement and role of aeration
 Heat lost (convection and radiation)
 Temperature
 MLVSS=Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended solids.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
 Simplicity in design and construction  Large land requirement for the ponds
 Low production of biological sludge  Sludge accumulation will be higher in cold
 Low capital, operation and maintenance climates due to reduced microbial activity
cost  Mosquitoes and other insects can breed if
 High treatment efficiency if properly vegetation is not controlled
designed  If not designed properly may cause odour
 Robust and relatively reliable problem
 Less sensitive to shock loading  Difficult to control or predict ammonia
levels in effluent
Phosphorous removal
The efficiency of phosphorus removal in ponds depends on the balance between phosphorus
sedimentation and precipitation (as microbial biomass and insoluble phosphates respectively) and its
return to the pond liquid via mineralization and resolubilization. Algae comprise the largest component
of organic phosphorus fraction in the pond liquid, as they incorporate large quantities of ortho-
phosphate. Houng & Gloyna (1984) developed a first-order model for phosphorus removal and cycling in
ponds, and they showed that total phosphorus removal would be around 45% in facultative ponds in
which the BOD removal was 90%. They suggested that increasing the number of maturation ponds
increases phosphorus removal, as progressively more phosphorus becomes immobilized in the oxidized
surface layers of the sediment in these ponds, thus preventing the release of phosphorus back into the
pond liquid. However, as with nitrogen, further work is needed to develop design equations for
phosphorus removal in ponds.
Nitrogen removal
Nitrogen removal in ponds may reach 80% or more and appears to be related to pH, temperature and
retention time. The principal mechanisms involved are volatilization of ammonia and sedimentation of
organic nitrogen as microbial biomass. Nitrification and denitrification do not appear to occur to any
significant extent. None of the current models for nitrogen removal can yet be confidently used for
design, and further studies are necessary if a fuller understanding of nitrogen cycling in ponds is to be
obtained and ponds designed specifically for nitrogen removal.
48
Nitrification
Nitrification Wastewater influents entering facultative ponds usually have a substantial concentration of
ammonia (Azov and Tregubova, 1995). Ammonia is oxidized to nitrate in the environment and in
biological wastewater treatment by two groups of chemoautotrophic bacteria, operating in sequence
(Azov and Tregubova, 1995; Barnes and Bliss, 1983). The first step is the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite
by members of the genus, Nitrosomonas. Nitrite is then further oxidized to nitrate by the second group
of bacteria, usually by members of the genus Nitrobacter (Azov and Tregubova, 1995; Barnes and Bliss,
1983; Holbrook, et. al., 2000).
These oxidations can be represented as (Holbrook, et. al., 2000):
Treatment by nitrification does not remove ammonia, but converts it to nitrate, thereby eliminating
problems of toxicity to fish and reducing the nitrogen oxygen demand of the effluent (Viessman and
Hammer, 1998). However, if the level of nitrates rises above 2 parts per million (p.p.m), there is the risk
of methaemoglobinaemia and eutrophication (Dart and Stretton, 1980). Therefore, to reduce or remove
these risk nitrates must undergo denitrification.
Denitrification
In the absence of a ready supply of molecular dissolved oxygen for use in respiration many
heterotrophic bacteria are able to use of nitrate as an alternative electron acceptor. This process, called
denitrification, results in the reduction of nitrate, first to nitrite and then to nitrogen gas (Barnes and
Bliss, 1983; Lai and Lam, 1997). Energy yield is lower than that acquired from oxygen respiration;
therefore, denitrification is only effective at low dissolved oxygen concentration. An external carbon
source is also required for the maximum reaction rate (Barnes and Bliss, 1983; Marsili-Libeili and Giunti,
2002). Carbon sources are readily available in facultative ponds in the form of biodegradable organics.
These reduction reactions can be represented as (Viessman and Hammer, 1998):
Therefore, effective treatment of ammonia via transformation route must incorporate both nitrification
and denitrification. Facultative ponds are particularly adept at this process, because they offer both the
49
oxygen rich surface layers, to facilitate nitrification and the anaerobic subsurface ideal for
denitrification. However, not all ammonia leaves the system via this route.
Ammonia Volatilization
Silva, et al. (1995) proposed that ammonia volatilization is the major route for nitrogen removal, since
the pH in ponds is usually above seven. Maynard, et. al. (1999) agreed that volatilization is possible, but
only occurred when pH values exceeded ten. Lai and Lam (1997) reported that the carbon dioxide
consumed by actively photosynthesizing algae exceed those supplied by organic degradation, resulting
in an increase in pH. Since, total ammonia nitrogen in water existed in an equilibrium with dissolved
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion (NH4+ ), and alkaline pH shifts the equilibrium towards gaseous
ammonia, then volatilization is predominant. Reed et. al. (1995) reported that up to 80% of the total
nitrogen loss is due to volatilization.
50
Types of Waste-water Stabilization Ponds (WSP)

The ponds are classified as:
 Anaerobic ponds
 Facultative ponds
 Maturation ponds
 Fully aerated ponds
 Partially aerated ponds
 Controlled discharge ponds
 Complete retention ponds
 Hydrograph controlled release
Anaerobic, facultative and maturation pond are more commonly adopted and are generally not aided by
any mechanical devices. These three are described in detail.
Anaerobic Ponds
In anaerobic ponds large concentration of organic and inorganic solids in wastewater is stabilized and
the biological activity occurs in the absence of oxygen and in this process produce methane gas and
sulphur containing mal-odrous gases. The anaerobic ponds are the smallest of the series and are used as
a primary treatment process and not necessarily to produce the high effluent quality. The BOD and
solids concentration in the raw wastewater are reduced by sedimentation and anaerobic digestion.
Since anaerobic pond is devoid of oxygen, it functions much like open septic tanks.
Anaerobic digestion occurs in the sludge at the bottom of the pond which results in converting organic
load to methane and carbon dioxide and releasing some soluble by-products into the water column (eg.
organic acids, ammonia). Anaerobic treatment is more suited to wastewater with high BOD and
therefore useful at reducing high concentrations of BOD and soluble solids from agricultural and food
processing wastewater. The chemical reactions occurring in the anaerobic ponds can be represented by
the following equations.
5 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂 𝑥 → 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂 𝑥 + 2 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

2 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 2 𝑁𝐻4 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 2 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻4 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝐶𝑂2
2 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻4 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2 𝐶𝐻2 + 2 𝑁𝐻4 . 𝐶𝑂3
A properly designed anaerobic pond can achieve around 60% BOD removal at 20° C and one-day
hydraulic retention time is sufficient for wastewater with a BOD of up to 300 mg/l and temperatures
higher than 20° C.
At temperatures below 15° C, the digestion processes slows down and the dominant process is thought
to be sedimentation. Anaerobic ponds are usually more than 2 m deep for sludge storage capacity. They
reduce the problems associated with sludge accumulation and solids feedback in a following facultative
pond. The high efficiency of BOD removal combined with the partial mineralisation of organics
experienced in an anaerobic pond allows for smaller subsequent ponds thereby reducing the overall
51
land requirements. Besides BOD, COD and soluble solids removal, anaerobic pond is efficient in the
removal of Vibrio cholerae due to their high sulphide concentrations. WSP system can be constructed
without anaerobic ponds but their provision not only stabilizes the organic concentrations of
wastewater but also reduces the land area required for the facultative ponds

The advantages of anaerobic ponds are several: sludge removal is infrequently needed; 80-90 percent
BOD5 removal can be expected; the energy requirements to run the plant are low or none; and
operation and maintenance (O&M) is relatively uncomplicated.
On the other hand, they are not designed to produce effluent that can be discharged; the ponds can
emit unpleasant odors; and the rate of treatment is dependent on climate and season.
Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds are either primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater or secondary
facultative ponds that receive settled wastewater effluent from anaerobic ponds. They are designed for
BOD removal on the basis of a relatively low surface loading (100-400 kg BOD/ha d at temperature
between 20°C and 25°C) to permit the development of a healthy algal population as the oxygen for BOD
removal by the pond bacteria is mostly generated by algal photosynthesis. The appearance of dark
green colour in the ponds indicates the presence of algae (such as Chlamydomonas, Pyrobotrys and
Euglena) but sometimes they may appear red or pink due to the presence of anaerobic sulphide-
oxidizing photosynthetic bacteria.
Fig: Schematic representation of basic reactions occurring in Facultative ponds
Facultative pond is the most common type used and used in different terms such as oxidation pond,
sewage lagoon and photosynthetic pond.
 The water layer near the facultative pond surface contains dissolved oxygen due to atmospheric
reaeration and algal respiration, a condition suitable for aerobic and facultative organisms.
52
 The sludge deposits at the bottom of the pond support anaerobic organisms
 the intermediate anoxic layer, termed as facultative zone ranges from aerobic near the top to
anaerobic at the bottom.
As a result of the photosynthetic activities of the pond algae, there is a diurnal variation in the
concentration of dissolved oxygen. After sunrise, the dissolved oxygen level gradually rises, in response
to photosynthetic activity, to a maximum in the mid-afternoon, after which it falls to a minimum during
the night when photosynthesis ceases and respiratory activity consumes oxygen. The position of the
oxy-pause (the depth at which the dissolved oxygen concentration reaches zero) similarly changes, as
does the pH since at peak algal activity carbonate and bicarbonate ions react to provide more carbon
dioxide for the algae, so leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions with the result that the pH can rise to above 9
which kills faecal bacteria. This also creates conditions favourable for ammonia removal via
volatilisation.
Basic reactions in facultative depletion of BOD

Aerobic condition is created in top surface due to re-aeration or by algal photosynthesis
Oxidation or dissimilatory process
(COHNS) + O2 + aerobic bacteria → CO2 + NH3 + other end products + energy
Synthesis or assimilatory process
(COHNS) + O2 + aerobic bacteria + energy → C5 H7 O2 N
(new bacterial cells)
Anaerobic condition is present at the bottom of the pond. Sludge are digested anaerobically.
COHNS + O2 + anaerobic bacteria → CO2 + H2 S + NH3 + other end products + energy
COHNS + anaerobic bacteria + energy → C5 H7 O2 N
(new bacterial cells)
After the depletion of biodegradable organic matter, the bacteria will undergo endogenous respiration
or self-oxidation, using its own cell tissue as substrate.
C5 H7 O2 N + 5O2 → 5CO2 + NH3 + 2H2 O + energy
(bacterial cells)
With sufficient sunlight, algal photosynthesis occurs. CO2 and NH3 are consumed as nutrients for
algae to produce oxygen.
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
NH3 + 7.62 CO2 + 2.53 H2 O → C7.62 H8.06 O2.53 N + 7.62 O2
𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑎𝑒 (new algal cells)
Incorporation of Phosphate in the algal photosynthesis

𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
+ 2−
16 NH4 + 106 CO2 + 236 H2 O + HPO4 → C106 H181 O45 N16 P + 118 O2 + 171 H2 O + 14 H +
𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑎𝑒
53
Applicability
Conceptually, conventional facultative ponds are well suited for rural communities and industries where
land costs are not a limiting factor. Conventional facultative ponds have been used to treat raw,
screened, or primary settled municipal wastewater as well as higher strength biodegradable industrial
wastewater. They represent a reliable and easy-to-operate process that is cost effective.

The advantages of facultative ponds include infrequent need for sludge removal; effective removal of
settleable solids, BOD5, pathogens, fecal coliform, and, to a limited extent, NH3. They are easy to
operate and require little energy, particularly if designed to operate with gravity flow.
The disadvantages include higher sludge accumulation in shallow ponds or in cold climates and variable
seasonal NH3 levels in the effluent. Emergent vegetation must be controlled to avoid creating breeding
areas for mosquitoes and other vectors. Shallow ponds require relatively large areas. During spring and
fall dimictic turnover, odors can be an intermittent problem.
Maturation Ponds
A series of maturation ponds receives the effluent from a facultative pond, and the size and number of
maturation ponds is governed mainly by the required bacteriological quality of the final effluent.
Maturation ponds usually show less vertical biological and physicochemical stratification and are well
oxygenated throughout the day. Depths of up to 3 m have been used, but more commonly depths are
the same as in facultative ponds (1-2 m).
The principal parameters that affect the removal of faecal bacteria in ponds are temperature, retention
time and organic loading. Faecal bacterial removal increases with increasing temperature and retention
time, but decreases with increasing organic load. However, there are too few data to predict with
confidence the effect of organic loading, and as a result design procedures are currently based only on
temperature and retention time.
Little is known about the removal of excreted viruses in ponds. Adsorption on to settleable solids is
generally considered to be the principal removal mechanism, but this is an area that requires further
research. Excreted protozoan cysts and helminth eggs are removed by sedimentation, and a series of
ponds with an overall retention time of 11 days or more will produce an effluent free of cysts and eggs.
54
Anaerobic process
Methanation (Biogassification) : Anaerobic Sludge Processing
Bio-gassification is a series of organic material degrading microbial activities in absence of oxygen.
Biogas thus formed contains grossly about 40-70% CH4 and 30-60% CO2 and can be utilised directly as
fuel, in united heat and power gas engines, or upgraded to natural gas-quality methane. Also, the
produced nutrient-rich digestate (the post-processing slurry) is a proven bio-fertiliser, thereby providing
a ‘zero-waste’ waste management option. Biogas from organic waste also aids in tackling climate
change.
The solid which accumulate during sedimentation are pumped into a separate tank designed especially
for digestion of sludge under controlled anaerobic condition. The solids removed from different aerobic
process may also be treated. Waste containing substantial amount of fermentable organic compounds
can be treated biologically under anaerobic condition although it has broader application in treatment
of excess sludge produced in other treatment processes.
Stages of bio-gasification
Scavenging microbes break the complex carbon into smaller substances through a series of steps. Bio-
gasification involves four metabolic stages, viz., hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
methanogenesis. The degree of degradation as well as biogas quality can be affected in various ways by
technological and procedural measures.
Step 1: Hydrolysis
The microbial enzymes active in an anaerobic digestion system help hydrolyze to degrade insoluble
complex organic wastes into simple soluble compounds in the first phase. Thus, lipids degrade to fatty
acids by lipase enzymes, carbohydrates degrade to sugars by amylase and cellulase enzymes, and
proteins degrade to amino acids by proteases. Thus, a diverse microbial community remains active to
degrade various feed stocks in a bio-digestor. Following equations discuss the breakdown of
carbohydrate as a case example. Similar instances are also encountered in other polymeric organics
whose equations have been left out to make the discussion precise and more focussed.
Eq. 1: (C6H10O4)n + 2H2O → C6H12O6 + 2H2 (glucose formation)
Step 2: Acidification
At the second stage, the acidogenic bacteria transform the end-products of hydrolysis into short chained
volatile acids, ketones, alcohols, hydrogen and CO2. These conversions are undertaken by the same
fermentative bacterias that are responsible for the hydrolysis, displacing the process into the cell itself.
The educts are incorporated and digested by the fermentative bacterias that segregate the products.
The most critical end-products are butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH), propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH), acetic
acid (CH3COOH), lactic acid (C3H6O3), formic acid (HCOOH), and methanol (CH3OH). Eqs 2, 3 and 4
represent respectively the three typical acidogenesis reactions converting glucose to ethanol,
propionate and acetic acid respectively.
55
Eq.2: C6H12O6 ↔ 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 (conversion to ethanol; reversible reaction)

Eq.3: C6H12O6 + 2H2 ↔ 2CH3CH2COOH + 2H2O (conversion to propionate; reversible reaction)
Eq. 4: C6H12O6 → 3CH3COOH (conversion to acetic-acid; non-reversible reaction)
Step 3: Acetogenesis
Acetogenesis is a linkage between the degradation into water-soluble compounds and methane
formation. At this stage, short chain volatile compounds such as propionate, butyrate and alcohols
transform by acetogenic bacteria into acetate, CO2 and hydrogen. This conversion can only take place at
a low concentration of hydrogen (H2), which is produced during acetogenesis as a by-product. That is
why the acetogenic bacterias live in symbiosis with methanogenic bacterias, which are using H2 for the
formation of methane. Beside this, both acetate and CO2 are the main educts for the methane-forming
bacterias.
Bio-methanation takes place only if the hydrogen partial pressure is low enough to permit the
transformation of all the acids thermodynamically. For instance, the conversion of propionate to acetate
(Eq. 5) is possible only at low hydrogen pressure. Lowering of partial pressure is carried out by various
hydrogen scavenging bacteria. Glucose (Eq. 6) and ethanol (Eq. 7) and others also convert to acetate
during this stage.
Eq. 5: CH3CH2COO - + 3H2O ↔ CH3COO- + H+ + HCO3- + 3H2

Eq. 6: C6H12O6 + 2H2O ↔ 2CH3COOH + 2CO2 + 4H2
Eq. 7: CH3CH2OH + 2H2O ↔ CH3COO- + 2H2 + H+
56
Step 4: Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis or methane formation depicts the last step of the anaerobic digestion process.
Methanogenic bacteria (species: archea) belong to the oldest organisms of the world. Methane
production is a prerogative of the methanogenic bacteria. This process is considered as a rate-
limiting step in anaerobic digestion. Methanogenics are strictly anaerobic. Oxygen inhibits their
metabolism or mortifies the microorganisms.
Eq. 8: CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O

Eq. 9: 2C2H5OH + CO2 → CH4 + 2CH3COOH
Eq. 10: CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2
As a result of the anaerobic digestion process, biogas is produced. Biogas is a mixture of methane (CH4,
50–85% by volume), carbondioxide (CO2, 15–50% by volume), and trace gases, e.g., water (H2O),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), or hydrogen (H2). Although the small concentrations of these trace gases have
little effect on the physical properties of biogas, they influence the selection of technologies for cleaning
and utilizing biogas. At least dewatering and the removal of H2S are necessary before biogas is utilizable.
Effect of substrate (bio-degradable organic compounds) on bio-gassification /

methanation
Substrate composition is a major factor affecting the methane yield and methane production rates. Due
to the composition of the biodegradable organic compounds such as lipids and proteins, a higher
percentage of methane is produced, compared to oxidized compounds like sugars.
Ultimate methane yields, however, are influenced principally by the biodegradability of the organic
components. Certain natural organic compounds such as lignin are refractory to decomposition under
anaerobic conditions even at long residence time. This refractory property is related to the lack of
enzymes to carry out the initial hydrolytic reactions. It also has been established that certain compounds
can build a complex with others rendering them resistant to anaerobic decomposition. Nevertheless, the
digestion of co-substrates results in a better quality and higher quantity of biogas yield, compared to a
mono-digestion of manure or sewage sludge.
The complex organic substances like carbohydrate, fat, protein, lignin are acted upon by bacteria
producing saccharolytic, lipolytic, proteolitic and lignolytic enzymes respectively. There by producing
acids mainly acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and isovalanic acid, these acids undergo gasification,
with the action of specific bacteria and produce methene, carbon dioxide, water and new bacterial cells.
57
Bushwell developed a equation by which we can calculate the amount of CH4 directly
a b n a b n a b
Cn Ha Ob + n − − . H2 O → − + . CO2 + + − . CH4
4 2 2 8 4 2 8 4
Where, n = number of carbon atom
a = number of hydrogen atom
b= number of oxygen atom
e.g. glucose (C6H12O6)
C6H12O6 + [6-3-3] H2O →[3-1.5+1.5] CO2 + [3+1.5 - 1.5] CH4
C6H12O6 →3 CO2 + 3 CH4
Therefore, 3 mol of methane is produced for every mol of glucose.
Fig: Simplified diagram showing the major steps involved during anaerobic digestion of organic material
(carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) into biogas as a final product
58
Fig: Simplified diagram showing major steps involved during anaerobic digestion of polymeric lignin into
biogas.
59
Treatments of Sudge
Methanation/ Biogassification
………….
Landfilling
Landfilling is a disposal method for municipal solid waste (MSW) and industrial waste. It utilizes natural
or man-made voids (eg, disused clay pits; unused wells etc) into which the waste is deposited. Both solid
and liquid wastes can in theory be deposited depending on the restrictions imposed by the site license
(issued by the national environmental protection agency) and by current legislation.
Microbial action similar to that in anaerobic digesters leads to the production of landfill gas (LFG) (50–
60% methane), if collected efficiently, can provide a useful source of energy and used in the generation
of electricity for use onsite.
Strict control exists on the amount of leachate and toxic materials which can be accepted because of the
threat of groundwater pollution if leachate (a liquid having BOD levels up to 30,000 mg dm –3) escapes
from the site through the geotextile and/or clay lining of the landfill. Leachate is generated from liquid
deposited in the site, water entering the site naturally via precipitation or surface run-off and by
anaerobic microbial action as organic matter in the landfill is degraded.
Incineration
A number of designs exist for the incineration of sludge either onsite or at a commercial incinerator,
including rotary kilns, fluidized beds, and multiple hearth furnaces. Similar to landfills, useful energy can
be derived from the incineration of wastes in the form of electricity or both electricity and heat in
combined heat and power (CHP) plants.
Combustion temperatures need to be carefully controlled to destroy and prevent the formation of
dioxins and furans, formation of which occurs at between 300 and 800°C, and total destruction is
effected at temperatures above 1000°C with a retention time of 1 s. Flue gases from the incinerator
require cleaning to remove particulates, acid vapors, etc. using electrostatic precipitators, cyclones, and
wet scrubbers to comply with local environmental protection standards. Waste disposal by incineration
more expensive than landfilling.
60
Factor affecting waste water treatment

1. Daily flow rate
2. Turbidity
3. pH of waste
4. Residual chlorine
5. Harders(Temporary or permanent)
6. Solid portion
7. Presence of toxic factor
8. Dissolve oxygen content
9. BOD
10. COD
11. Radioactivity
12. Presence of detergent, oil, grease etc
13. Temperature
61
Treatment of waste water coming out from food industries

The method of treatment of effluent from different source mostly depends on nature of waste composition
of waste and level of BOD.
Treatment process for dairy industries

Wastewater is one of major environmental concerns of milk processing industry. In terms of volume,
dairy processing plants discharge mainly wastewater produced during washing and cleaning processes.
The wastewater contains 3-4% processed milk, on average. Milk losses take place when processing
begins, after periodic cleaning, when old products are replaced by new ones and when milk is spilled or
leaks [3]. Dairy wastewater contains easily biodegradable organic substances. Due to rapid
fermentation, resulting in a marked pH decrease (to pH=4.5) and promoting rapid oxygen consumption,
the wastewater has to be pre-treated before it is sent to drain [16, 18]. Due to the fact that dairy pro-
cessing wastewater has got much higher values of pollution indicators, compared with domestic or
municipal wastewater, it is necessary to pre-treat the wastewater before it is discharged to sewers and a
sewage processing plant [1, 12]. Wastewater produced by dairy industry is a mixture of organic and
inorganic sewage [8]. It also contains condensates and sewage remaining after milk cooling. The
wastewater is produced at various stages and during various processes of the milk processing cycle [14].
Problems associated with pre-treatment of dairy industry wastewater arise from its specificity (it
contains e.g. dissolved and crystallised fat, carbohydrates (lactose), both colloidal and clotted protein as
well as cleaning-related substances) [1, 13].
In addition to the aforementioned proteins, carbohydrates and fats, there is a high concentration of
organic nitrogen and the following ions: NH4+, NO2- and NO3-. Also, organic and inorganic phosphorus is
found and the following elements are detected: Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Co, Ni and Mn. High sodium content
indicates that large quantities of alkaline cleaning chemicals are used [10].
The problems with pre-treatment of dairy processing wastewater arise not only from high values of
pollution parameters but also from varying daily wastewater discharges, production profile, raw
materials, technological level, cleaning and disinfection processes, quantity of water used and high
exploitation costs [1, 13]. Discharges of dairy wastewater and its concentration of pollutants differ over
time [5]. They are affected by the production profile of the plant which is usually a sequence of periodic
processes. An example of this is production of processed milk for consumption, which is a sequence of
the following technological stages: milk collection, centrifugation, pasteurisation, normalisation of fat
content in milk, cleaning and filling of containers and cleaning of machines and rooms after the process
has been finished. Wastewater with varied pH levels and concentration of pollutants is produced at each
of these stages.
The effluent from dairy industry consists of unstable residues, washed materials from container,
equipment, floor of the plant and also contain material relating to the type of process carried out and
detergent and other chemicals used for cleaning purpose. The actual volume of ratio of waste water to
milk depends on efficiency and extent of reuse of water. The BOD of waste water from butter
62
manufacturing unit is about (300-500)mg/ltr. The BOD of water coming from cheese manufacturing unit
condense milk and powdered milk plant is about 1000-2000 mg/lit
Methods of treatment
(1) Screening
(2) Fat removal (5-10% BOD removal)
(3) Control of pH (7-8.5)
(4) Sedimentation (15-20% BOD removal)
(5) Biochemical oxidation process
Activated sludge process (500-1500)ppm BOD removal
Biological filtration (1300-1500)ppm BOD removal
Oxidation pound (1410-1500)ppm BOD removal
Effluent
Liquid solid
Vaccum evaporation Drying
Concentration cattel feed or biofertilizer
Heating
Drying
Dried product
63
Effluent from Brewery

The high volume of Brewery waste largely arise from the numerous washing operations, The organic
matters contained is high. The waste from a 2500 barrel per day brewery is equivalent to BOD loading to
a domestic population of 40000.The major waste coming out from BOD spent grain, spent hops and
yeast.
In the primary treatment of waste from Brewery is sedimentation which is most satisfactory primary
treatment because of high volume of suspended solids present in the waste. But, the sedimentation
time in sedimentation tank should not be too long, if so then putrefaction may occur due to the
presence of high protein containing materials\par
To promote the sedimentation process chemical flocculent may be used either lime or
polyelectrolytes are used with suitable coagulant acid for effective removal of BOD. successive
anaerobic and aerobic treatments are applied because the effluent consists of BOD about (35000-
40000)mg/ltr. Our objective is to decrease its value to 10-20 mg/ltr
Raw effluent(35000-40000)
Screening
Sedimentation
Anaerobic Treatment
Aerobic treatment
Addition of Nutrients(C:N:P = 150:5:1)
Treatment in biological sector (87-90)% BOD removal
Rapid sand filtration->BOD (5-8)mg/ltr
64
Effluent from Distilleries

In grain based industries it has been common practices to recover spent grain and stillage the liquid
remaining after the alcohol is distilled off.Stillage is first passed through the spent with 1 mm of
opening.The screening are then dewatered by using mechanical filter press and dried in rotatary drier,
This product is termed as distrileries dried grain,(light grain).
The screened stilage is concentrated in evaporator to the concentration about 25-35% solids. This
syrup can then mixed with the screening and dried to give distilleries dried grain with solubles(dark
grain)Alternatively the evaporated stilage may be dried completely to produce distillaries dried solubles,
Dried light grain and dark grain are used for feeding animals and dried solubles have been used as a
medium in prepration of antebodies eg.streptomysin
Raw effluent
Aerobic digestion
BOD 5000 mg/ltr
Anaerobic digestion (Activated sludge process)
BOD 1000 mg/ltr
Addition of Nutrients(C:N:P = 1000:5:1)
Recirculation of flocculation tower
65
Effulent from fruits and vegetable industries

Carbohydrates (starch, sugar and pectin) vitamins and high amount of inorganic salt due to the use of
alkali and brine solution results from fruits and vegetable processing unit. Due to the presence of those
substances the value of BOD is quite large. They also contain suspended solids in large amount.
Treatment Technique
(1)Screening:-Removal of 75% suspended solids (10-15%) BOD removal
(2)Sedimentation
(3)Flocculation -> through fecl3 solution with dose of 20 mg/ltr. It results in BOD removal of 75% after
the settlement of 45 minutes
(4) pH adjustment and Nutrients addition
(5)Biological oxidation (87.5-98.5)%BOD removal
66

12.1 Waste Water Engg

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12.1 Waste Water Engg

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Bio-Chemical Engineering: Waste-water Engineering

Waste Water Engineering

-Aerobic type - Grows on the water surface

Objectives of Effluent treatment

Explain why effluent treatment is necessary?

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Factors affecting DO concentration

Fig. Diurnal variation of DO in water system.

i.e. 𝑁𝐴 = 𝐾𝐿 . (𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿 ) …………………………

Where, 𝑁𝐴 = Mass flux per unit area per unit time

The rate of re-oxygenation / re-aeration depends on:

i) Depth of water in the stream:

Oxidation of organic matter

Mn++ + O2 MnO2 (ppt)

MnO2 + 2I- + 4H+ Mn++ + I2 +2H2O

The liberated iodine is determined by titration with Sodium Thio-sulphate.

2S2O32- + I2 S4O62- + 2I-

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

The oxidation process proceeds in two stages.

BOD = Initial dissolve oxygen - Final dissolve oxygen

= (Initial DO - Final DO) × dilution factor (* unit is mg/litre)

Where, L = BOD remaining after time

Rearranging and integrating above equation.

The BOD remaining at any time ‘t’ is

Organic matter + oxygen → CO₂ + 𝐻₂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

When insufficient oxygen is available, the decomposition is performed by anaerobic microorganisms.

Organic matter → CO₂ + H₂O + New cells + Unstable products

Relation of BOD with temperature

Oxygen Deficit (D) = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝐿

Where, 𝐶𝑠 = Saturated DO concentration at given conditions

𝐶𝐿 = Actual DO concentration at given condition

Oxygen Sag Curve

Fig: Oxygen sag/deficit curve

Mathematical analysis of Oxygen Sag Curve/ Streeter – Phelps equation

Chemical oxygen Demand (COD)

BOD = (0.2 - 0.8)

Fig:-Relation between BOD5,UBOD and COD

 K2 SO4  Cr2  SO4 3  H 2O  O

CaHbOc + Cr₂O₇ − + H + → Cr₃ + + CO₂ + H₂O

Self –Purification of Natural Streams

b) Zone of active decomposition

d) Clear water zone

 Water becomes clearer and attractive in appearance

Factors affecting Self-purification

Basic processes of waste water treatment

Treatment level Description

Fig. Basic process involves in waste water treatment.

Physical Treatments of waste-water

Fig: Schematic representation of physical treatment of waste-water

Preliminary treatment of industrial wastewaters

Some commonly used preliminary treatments are discussed hereby:

Fig: Bar screen

–Prevent reduction of capacity in sludge handling facilities.

Fig: Aerated girt chamber

 Improve wastewater treatability.

Chemical treatments of Waste-water

Coagulation and precipitaion

Biological treatment process / Secondary treatment

 Suspended growth processes.

Biological treatment is classified into two types

 Activated sludge process

Activated sludge process

Fig: Schematic Activated Sludge Process

Important steps taking place in activated sludge process