COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
MATINA, DAVAO CITY

CE ELECTIVE 3 WRITTEN REPORT

“CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE & PRELIMINARY SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS”
CODE: 01378 (12:30-1:30 PM)

Submitted by:
Alegre, Joren
Basilonia, Angelo
Daluyo, Patrick Jay
Intal, Noradel
Lava, John Rhoy
Navarro, Alnieko
Piza, Asteria
Sumonod, Christine

Submitted to:
Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Characteristics of Sewage

Physical Characteristics:

Color

The color of the sewage indicates the freshness of sewage. If its color is greyish brown
or yellowish, it indicates fresh sewage. With passage of time, as putrefaction starts it
begins to get black. The color of stale and septic sewage is black (When all the oxygen
has disappeared from sewage, it becomes septic). Other colors may also be formed due
to presence of some specific industrial waste. The color of the sewage can normally be
detected by the naked eye.

Odor

The odor of a fresh sewage is not offensive or practically it can be considered odorless,
but as it starts to get stale, it begins to give offensive odor. Within 3 to 4 hours, all
oxygen present in the sewage gets exhausted and it starts emitting offensive odor by
hydrogen sulphide gas which is formed due to anaerobic decomposition of sewage.

Temperature

Generally sewage has slightly higher temperature than the water which increases the
biological activities. 40 degree C. It is very turbid than water due to the presence of high
suspended and other. Where biological activity is the reason sewage decomposes and
function of temperature and time. Decomposition time increases when temperature
decreases (vice versa).

Turbidity

Sewage is normally turbid representing dirty dish water or wastewater from baths
having other floating matter like fecal matter, pieces of paper, cigarette ends, match
sticks, greases, vegetable debris, fruit skins, soaps, etc.. The turbidity depends on the
quantity of solid matter present in suspension state. The turbidity depends on the
quantity of solid matter present in suspension state. The turbidity can be determined by
the turbidity rod or by turbid meter e.g. Nephlometric

Solids
Solids normally contain 99.9 % water and only 0.1 % of total solids present in the
sewage may be in any of the four: suspended solids, dissolved solids, colloidal solids,
and settle able solids. Suspended solids are those solids which remain floating in
sewage, dissolved solids are those which remain dissolved in sewage just as a salt in
water. Colloidal solids are finely divided solids remaining either in solution or in
suspension .Settle able solids are that solids which settles out, if sewage is allowed to
remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hrs.

Biological Characteristics:

The sewage contains many microorganisms like bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, etc.
bacteria being the most predominant. Most of the bacteria found in the sewage are
harmless non-pathogenic bacteria. They are helpful in oxidation and decomposition of
sewage. A little no of bacteria, however, are disease producing pathogens, which are the
real danger to the health of the public. In case of sewage samples, the routine
bacteriological tests, as performed for water samples, are generally not performed,
because of the high concentration of bacteria present in it. But at the time of outbreak of
epidemics, certain tests may be done to find the type of pathogens. Domestic sewage
consists of various types of plant or animal microorganism and the biological
characteristic of sewage is related to the presence of these microorganisms. This
microorganism whose presence is 22 — 25 million numbers in a liter of sewage may be
pathogenic, indicator organisms etc. The main source of pathogenic microorganism is
excreta from sick people and these organisms require living tissues to grow and
reproduce and harmful to man.

The microorganism can be broadly classified into:

(a) Aquatic plants- Aquatic Plants consists of waterweeds algae etc.

(b) Aquatic animals- Aquatic animals consist of fish, snails, amphibians insects, earth
Worms, hydra etc.

(c) Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus- Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus are
also aquatic plant but categorized separately. These are responsible for disease.
The bacterium which needs free oxygen to survive is called aerobic bacteria and which
survives without free oxygen is called anaerobic bacteria and which survives in
presence or absence of free oxygen is called facultative bacteria.

Chemical Characteristics:

Organic Matter

Organic matter consists of carbohydrates like cellulose, cotton, starch, sugar. Fats and
oils received from kitchens garages, etc. Nitrogenous compounds like protein and their
decomposed product, including wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids etc. he suspended
and dissolved organic solids are responsible for creating nuisance if disposed of without
treatment.

Inorganic Matter

Inorganic matter consists of minerals and salts like sand, gravel, dissolved salts,
chlorides, sulphates, etc. Generally presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not
harmful. They can be removed by mechanical units in treatment plants

The chemical characteristics of wastewater of special concern are pH, Biochemical

Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD

The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH scale, could be a valuable parameter

within the operation of biological units. The pH scale of the contemporary sewerage is
slightly quite the water provided to the community. However, decomposition of organic
matter might lower the pH scale, whereas the presence of business waste material
might manufacture extreme fluctuations typically the pH scale of raw sewerage is
within the vary 5 to 8.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is defined as the amount of oxygen required for the
bacteria to oxidize the organic matter present in the sewage

(Chemical Oxygen Demand (C0D) is defined as the amount of oxygen required for
chemical oxidation of organic matters readily oxidizable carbonaceous and other
matter.
WASTE WATER ANALYSIS

Planning new wastewater treatment plants or overhauling and optimizing

existing systems requires a comprehensive analysis of the current wastewater. Basic
data, such as wastewater volume per day, the temperature of the wastewater, and
available space, determines the general design of a facility.
Most industries are now required to treat their wastewater on site before it is
discharged to river or sewer (to meet a discharge consent limit), but this treatment will
vary depending on the contaminants present.
In addition, specific industrial effluents may require additional treatment for
specific determinands (a constituent or property of the water that can adversely affect
the water's taste, odour, colour, clarity or general appearance, including substances
such as manganese and iron compounds that can stain washing and utensils) that may
not be common in most wastewaters. The wastewater analysis is the foundation for
developing wastewater treatment concept.

Determination of Wastewater Quality

Today, population and production increase, have increased water use, creating a
corresponding rise in wastewater quantity. This increased water use and process
wastewater generation requires more efficient removal of by-products and pollutants
that allows for effluent discharge within established environmental regulatory limits.
The determination of wastewater quality set forth in environmental permits has been
established since the 1970s in a series of laboratory tests focused on four major
categories: organics, solids, nutrients, and physical properties and other impact
parameters.
1. Organics - A determination of the concentration of carbon-based compounds.
Analytical tests aimed at establishing the concentration (typically in mg/L or
ppm) of organic (i.e., carbon-containing) matter have traditionally been used to
determine the relative "strength" of a wastewater sample. Today there are four
common laboratory tests used to determine the gross amount of organic matter
(i.e., concentrations > 1.0 mg/L) in wastewater:
 i. BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) - is the Biochemical Oxygen
Demand for a period of five days. It is defined as the amount of oxygen required
by the microorganisms (mostly bacteria) to carry out decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic conditions. This is measured at 20°C
for a period of five days, and provides information on the degree of water
pollution with organic matter.
ii. COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) - is the mass concentration of oxygen
equivalent to the amount of a specified oxidant consumed by dissolved or
suspended matter when a water sample is treated with that oxidant under
defined conditions.
iii. TOC (Total Organic Carbon) - organic carbon is converted to carbon
dioxide (CO2) and typically measured with an infrared analyzer.
iv. O&G (Oil and Grease) - consists of a group of related constituents that
are of special concern in wastewater treatment due to their unique physical
properties and highly concentrated energy content.
 Wastewater generated by commercial, industrial and institutional facilities is
typically referred to as "high-strength" compared to typical household
wastewater.

2. Solids - A measurement of the concentration of particulate solids that can

dissolve or suspend in wastewater (e.g., Total Solids (TS), Total Suspended Solids
(TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Volatile Solids (TVS), and Total Fixed
Solids (TFS)).

3. Nutrients - A measurement of the concentration of targeted nutrients (e.g.,

nitrogen and phosphorus) that can contribute to the acceleration of
eutrophication (i.e., the natural aging of water bodies).

4. Physical Properties and Other Impact Parameters - Analytical tests designed

to measure a varied group of constituents directly impact wastewater
treatability (e.g., temperature, color, odor).
 i. Color – the color indicates the freshness of sewage. If it’s color is greyish
brown or yellowish, it indicates fresh sewage. With passage of time, as
putrefaction (the process of decay or rotting in a body or other organic matter)
starts it begins to get black. The color of stale(no longer fresh and pleasant; hard,
musty, or dry.) and septic sewage is black. When all the oxygen has disappeared
from sewage, it becomes septic. Other colors may also be formed due to presence
of some specific industrial waste. The color of the sewage can normally be
detected by the naked eye.
ii. Odor - the odor of a fresh sewage is not offensive or practically it can be
considered odorless, but as it starts to get stale, it begins to give offensive odor.
Within 3 to 4 hours, all oxygen present in the sewage gets exhausted and it starts
emitting offensive odor by hydrogen sulphide gas which is formed due to
anaerobic decomposition of sewage.
iii. Temperature - the temperature has an effect on the biological activity
of bacteria present in the sewage and it also affects the solubility of gases in
sewage. The average temperature of sewage in India is about 20 0 C which is
near about ideal temperature of sewage for biological activities. At higher
temperature coupled with the lower dissolved oxygen activities can cause
serious problems in disposal of waste water.

Concentration Versus Loading

Concentration (most often reported in wastewater samples as mg/L or ppm)
tells how much of a substance (e.g., mg of BOD) is present in a known volume of
wastewater (e.g., 1 Liter). However, concentration isn?t the whole story since it does not
tell how much (i.e., mass or weight) of a substance is going down the drain - commonly
referred to as loading.
While wastewater pollutant concentrations are typically reported as mg/L or
ppm, wastewater pollutant loadings are typically calculated and reported as pounds
per day (lbs/d) and are calculated using the following formula:

Flow X Concentratio X 8.34 =Lbs/day

Million gallons per day n Weight (Lbs) of 1 gallon of
(MGD) mg/L or ppm water (MGD)
Example:
Plant A discharges effluent with a BOD level of 250 mg/L, while Plant B’s
discharge is 1000 mg/L to a city’s sewer system. Simply looking at the difference in
concentration between the two plants would lead us to believe that Plant B contributes
a much higher amount of organics (four times as much) into the sewer. However, we
need to take into account that Plant A is a large industrial manufacturer that discharges
1,000,000 gallons of wastewater per day (1.0 MGD), while Plants B is a much smaller
facility only discharging 50,000 gallons each day (0.05 MGD). Plugging these values into
the loadings formula gives the following results:

(Flow) (Concentration) (8.34) = Lbs/day

Plant A: (1.0 MGD) (250 mg/L) (8.34) = 2085 Lbs/day
Plant B: (0.05 MGD) (1000 mg/L) (8.34) = 417 Lbs/day

As this example shows, Plant B’s BOD concentration is four times higher than
Plant A. But, the loadings formula shows that Plant A produces five times more BOD by
weight than Plant B.
In all cases, the treated wastewater will require testing to ensure it is suitable for
discharge and meets the requirements of the regulators. Wastewater effluents, if
inadequately treated, can result in increased nutrient levels, often leading to algal
blooms; depleted dissolved oxygen, resulting in fish kills and loss of other fauna;
destruction of aquatic habitats with sedimentation, debris, and increased water flow;
and acute or chronic toxicity to aquatic life from chemical contaminants, as well as
bioaccumulation of chemicals in the food chain. These effects are economically, socially,
and environmentally unsustainable, and therefore all wastewater should be treated
prior to discharge.

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand also called Biological Oxygen Demand is the amount
of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic
material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed
per litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C and is often used as a surrogate of
the degree of organic pollution of water .

Most natural waters contain small quantities of organic compounds.

Aquatic microorganisms have evolved to use some of these compounds as food.
Microorganisms living in oxygenated waters use dissolved oxygen to oxidatively degrade
the organic compounds, releasing energy which is used for growth and reproduction.
Populations of these microorganisms tend to increase in proportion to the amount of food
available.

There are two commonly recognized methods for the measurement of BOD.

 Dilution method
This standard method is recognized by U.S. EPA, which is labeled Method 5210B
in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The
dilution water blank is used to confirm the quality of the dilution water that is
used to dilute the other samples. This is necessary because impurities in the
dilution water may cause significant alterations in the results.
 Manometric method

This method is limited to the measurement of the oxygen consumption due only
to carbonaceous oxidation. Ammonia oxidation is inhibited. Oxygen is consumed
and, as ammonia oxidation is inhibited, carbon dioxide is released. The total
amount of gas, and thus the pressure, decreases because carbon dioxide is
absorbed. From the drop of pressure, the sensor electronics computes and
displays the consumed quantity of oxygen.

The main advantages of this method compared to the dilution method are:

 simplicity: no dilution of sample required, no seeding, no blank sample.

 direct reading of BOD value.
 continuous display of BOD value at the current incubation time.

Alternative methods

 Biosensor
 Devices for the detection of an analyte that combines a biological component
with a physicochemical detector component. Enzymes are the most widely
used biological sensing elements in the fabrication of biosensors. Their
application in biosensor construction is limited by the tedious, time consuming
and costly enzyme purification methods. Microorganisms provide an ideal
alternative to these bottlenecks.
 Fluorescent RedOx Indicator
A surrogate to BOD5 has been developed using a resazurin derivative which
reveals the extent of oxygen uptake by micro-organisms for organic matter
mineralization.
 Software sensor
To develop intelligent models for making rapid inferences about BOD using
other easy to measure water quality parameters, which, unlike BOD, can be
obtained directly and reliably using on-line hardware sensors.

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an indicative measure of the amount

of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is commonly
expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is
milligrams per litre (mg/L). A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount
of organics in water. The most common application of COD is in quantifying the amount
of oxidizable pollutants found in surface water (lakes and rivers) or wastewater. COD is
useful in terms of water quality by providing a metric to determine the effect
an effluent will have on the receiving body, much like biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

The basis for the COD test is that nearly all organic compounds can be fully
oxidized to carbon dioxide with a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. The
amount of oxygen required to oxidize an organic compound to carbon dioxide, ammonia,
and water is given by this expression does not include the oxygen demand caused
by nitrification, the oxidation of ammonia into nitrate.

Standard Method for Measuring Chemical Oxygen Demand in ISO 6060:

 Using potassium dichromate
 Potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions.
Acidity is usually achieved by the addition of sulfuric acid. The reaction of
potassium dichromate with organic compounds is given by 0.25 N solution of
potassium dichromate is used for COD determination, although for samples
with COD below 50 mg/L, a lower concentration of potassium dichromate is
preferred.

 Inorganic interference

Some samples of water contain high levels of oxidizable inorganic materials

which may interfere with the determination of COD. Because of its high
concentration in most wastewater, chloride is often the most serious source of
interference.

TSS (Total Suspended Solids)

Total suspended solids (TSS) is the dry-weight of suspended particles, that are not
dissolved, in a sample of water that can be trapped by a filter that is analyzed using a
filtration apparatus. It is a water quality parameter used to assess the quality of a
specimen of any type of water or water body, ocean water for example,
or wastewater after treatment in a wastewater treatment plant.

Total dissolved solids is another parameter acquired through a separate analysis which
is also used to determine water quality based on the total substances that are fully
dissolved within the water, rather than undissolved suspended particles. TSS was
previously called non-filterable residue (NFR) but was changed to TSS because of
ambiguity in other scientific disciplines.

Measurement:

TSS of a water or wastewater sample is determined by pouring a carefully measured

volume of water (typically one litre; but less if the particulate density is high, or as much
as two or three litres for very clean water) through a pre-weighed filter of a specified pore
size, then weighing the filter again after the drying process that removes all water on the
filter. Filters for TSS measurements are typically composed of glass fibres.[2] The gain in
weight is a dry weight measure of the particulates present in the water sample expressed
in units derived or calculated from the volume of water filtered (typically milligrams per
litre or mg/L).

SEWAGE SAMPLING

Samples of sewage are taken to find out how well a treatment plant is working and what
operating changes may need to be made, Some samples show how much the plant is
reducing pollutants like BOD, solids, and so forth. Raw sewage entering the plant must
be tested as well as the effluent from the plant and the receiving stream above and
below the discharge point to determine how well the plant is removing pollutants. Since
wastewater flows often change a great deal, daily sampling is suggested.

Two Basic Sampling Methods;

1.GRAB SAMPLING

A grab sample is a single sample of wastewater taken over a short span of time, usually
less than 15 minutes. This type of sample yields data about the wastewater at one time
and place. The grab sample should be used where the wastewater does not change
suddenly or change a great deal. For example, grab samples may be used to determine
pH and temperature. Grab samples are also used when a batch dump or sludge
discharge is seen.

2. COMPOSITE SAMPLING

A composite sample yields data about the wastewater over a longer span of time. A
series of grab samples may be taken over a certain amount of time and combined to
form a composite sample. These samples should show the time and frequency of the
sample; for example, an 8-hour composite of 30-minute grab samples. The composite
sample is used to find BOD, COD, suspended solids, and nutrients.
Other Sampling Methods;

1.REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING

A sample should be taken in a way that will represent the wastewater being treated. No
matter how good the lab analysis is, if the sample was not correctly collected, the lab
data will not be correct. With the large changes in composition and flow rate, getting a
representative sample can be very hard. Careful thought, planning, and training must be
used to develop and carry out a good sampling program.

Samples may be taken by hand or automatically. Taking samples by hand may be as

simple as tying an open bottle to a pole that can be lowered into the wastewater.

2.FLOW-PROPORTIONAL SAMPLING

The composite may be flow proportional. For this type of sample, the volume of the
sample changes in proportion to the flow. The flow- proportional composite sample is
most often run for 24 hours with a 2-hour interval between each collection. To collect
this kind of sample, the volume needed for the tests and the average daily flow for the
plant must be known. The following formula may be used to find the volume of sample
to be taken at each interval.

For example, to collect an 8-hour composite sample with a 2-hour interval, five samples
would be needed. If a total sample of 2 liters was needed, the average daily flow was
60,000 gallons (227 cubic meters), and the flow at the first sample time was 45,000
gallons per day (170 cubic meters), then the milliliters required for the first sample
could be figured like this:
IDENTIFYING SAMPLES

After the sample is collected, it should be identified with a label. The label should
include the following information:

1. Where the sample was taken

2. The date and time of collection use
3. The type of sample (grab or composite with the appropriate time and volume
information)
4. Anything that might change before laboratory testing such as temperature, pH,
and appearance
5. The initials or name of the person who took the sample

SAMPLE STORAGE

To get the best results, samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after they are
collected. Some tests, such as DO, temperature, and pH must be performed at the time of
collection since the results can change while the sample is being carried to the lab. Some
other tests may be delayed if the sample is properly stored. The most common means of
preserving a sample is to cool it to 2°C to 10°C.

SEWAGE TESTING

Laboratory reports are useful in the operation of a wastewater treatment plant. The
operator can laboratory test results to keep the plant working at its best and to give
early warning of operating problems. Laboratory testing programs vary with the type of
treatment, size of the plant, local water quality requirements, and the NPDES permit
requirements. Test to be Sampling Point Recommended Means Recommended
Performed of Collection

PRELIMINARY SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM

Sewage Treatment

The main objective of sewage treatment is to produce an effluent (treated waste water)
and a solid waste/sludge suitable for discharge into the natural environment.Sewage
treatment refers to the process of removing contaminants, micro-organisms and other
types of pollutants from wastewater influent.

Sewage is water that is discharged after residences, institutions, hospitals, industrial and
commercial use.

Preliminary Treatment

The object of preliminary treatment is the removal of course, solids and other large
material often found in raw wastewater.

Operations to eliminate large objects and grit, often referred to as preliminary

treatment, are an integral part of the treatment process. Effective removal of these
solids may require a combination of unit operations such as screening, grinding, and
settling.

The unit shown is a bar screen, which is used to remove coarse solids from wastewater.
Coarse solids consist of sticks, rags, boards, and other large objects that often, and
inexplicably, find their way into wastewater systems. The purpose of screens is to
protect pumps and other mechanical equipment and prevent clogging of valves in the
wastewater treatment plant.

Sewage/wastewater undergoes several stages in its treatment process and is shown

below:
Sewage Treatment Process:

1. Preliminary Treatment: This is the first stage of sewage treatment plant process
and its main objective is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials
often found in raw wastewater. Preliminary treatment operations typically
include large filtering screens, grit removal and, in some cases, breaking of large
objects. Excess grit cause severe pump blockages thereby affecting a range of
subsequent treatment pumps. Flow measurement devices, often standing-wave
flumes, are always included at the preliminary treatment stage.
2. Primary Treatment: The main purpose of this treatment is to reduce any heavy
solids (organic & inorganic) that settle to the bottom by sedimentation while oil,
grease & lighter solids float to the surface by skimming. The settled and floating
materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or subjected
to the next stage i.e. secondary treatment. Primary treatment removes about 60%
of suspended solids from wastewater.
3. Secondary Treatment: The prime objective is the further treatment of the
effluent from primary treatment to remove dissolved and suspended biological
matter. The biological solids removed during secondary sedimentation, called
secondary or biological sludge, are normally combined with primary sludge for
sludge processing. Secondary treatment may require a separation process to
remove the micro-organisms from the treated water prior to discharge or tertiary
treatment. Secondary treatment removes more than 90% of suspended solids.
4. Tertiary/Advanced Treatment: Tertiary treatment generally follows secondary
treatment and aids the removal of those wastewater constituents which cannot be
removed in secondary treatment. Treated wastewater is sometimes disinfected
 chemically or physically (for example, by lagoons and microfiltration) prior its
discharge into the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, wet lands, ground, etc.)

Purpose

1. Treatment of sewage or wastewater protects public health and prevents pollution,

disease as well as hazards from sewage contaminants. Hence, sewage treatment is
required.
2. The purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect the operation of the
wastewater treatment plant.
3. The main purpose of a sewage treatment system or sewage treatment plant is to
remove wastewater from points of origin to a treatment facility or place of
disposal.

SCREENING

Screening is generally the primary operation used at waste product treatment

plants. The general purpose of screens is to remove large objects such as twigs, rags,
paper, plastic, metals, and shopping trolleys. These objects, if not removed, may damage
the pumping and sludge removal equipment, hang over weirs, and block valves, nozzles,
channels, and pipelines, thus creating serious plant operation and maintenance
problems.

Screens are classified as fine or coarse and then further classified as manually or
mechanically cleaned. Coarse screens are used in preliminary treatment, while fine
screens are used in lieu of sedimentation preceding secondary treatment or as a step in
advanced wastewater treatment.

Screens should be placed in the influent flow at the headworks of the sewage
treatment plant (STP) to remove debris that may harm other process units.

 COARSE SCREENS
Coarse screens have a clear openings ranging from 6 to 150 mm (0.25 t0 6
in). Coarse screen consist of parallel bars, rods or wires, wire mesh or a
perforated plates with openings generally of circular or rectangular
shapes. So it is also call as “bar rack” and used to remove coarse solids such
 as rags and large objects that may clog or cause damage to other
appurtenances.
 FINE SCREENS

Fine screen openings typically range from 0.06 to 0.25 inches. They
consisted of perforated plates, wire cloth, wedge wire elements that have
smaller openings. They are also used to remove the fine solids present in
the primary effluent. The smaller size openings allow the fine screens to
remove 20 to 35 percent of suspended solid and BOD.

 MICROSCREENS
Microscreens are classified as having less than 1 mm (1/25 in) screen
openings. Similar to fine screens, microscreening may be accomplished
directly or indirectly. The effectiveness of the direct method of capturing
solids is largely dependent on the size of the screen openings. Indirect
capture of solids will occur when a mat or film develops on the screen from
previous solids retention. This will reduce the effective size of the screen
opening and hence, increase the overall efficiency of the screening process.
Caution should be used when indirect filtration occurs with microscreens
since there is a high potential for fouling and excess headloss.
 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
For Coarse Screens:
In general, manually cleaned screens should be placed on a slope of 30 to
45º from the horizontal. Approach velocities should be between
0.4 m/s (1.25 ft/s) to prevent settling and 0.9 m/s (3.0 ft/s) at design
average daily flow, to prevent forcing material through the openings.

Provisions should be made to facilitate dewatering each unit or channel for

maintenance or repair. The channel preceding and following the screen
should be shaped to eliminate stranding and settling of solids. The screens
serving combined sewer system should be provided with a bypass or
equipment to remove the screen to prevent flooding in the event of screen
blinding due to excess material like leaves.
 Manually cleaned screening facilities should include an accessible platform
from which the operator may rake screenings easily and safely. Suitable
drainage facilities are recommended to be provided for both the platform
and the storage area.

For Fine Screens:

It is recommended that a minimum of two fine screens be provided, each

unit being capable of independent operation. Capacity is recommended to
be provided to treat design peak instantaneous flow with one unit out of
service.

Fine screens should be preceded by a coarse bar screening device. Fine

screens should be protected from freezing and located to facilitate
maintenance.

It is recommended that hosing equipment be provided to facilitate

cleaning. Provisions should be made for isolating and removing units from
their location for servicing.

The smaller size openings allow the fine screens to remove 20 to 35 percent
of suspended solid and BOD.

 ACCESS AND VENTILATION

Screens located in pits more than 1.2 m (4 ft) deep need to be provided
with stairway access. Access ladders are acceptable for pits less than
1.2 m (4 ft) deep, in lieu of stairways.

Screening devices, installed in a building where other equipment or offices

are located, need to be isolated from the rest of the building. These devices
should be

provided with separate outside entrances and be provided with separate

and independent fresh air supply.
 Fresh air needs to be forced into enclosed screening device areas or into
open pits more than 1.2 m (4 ft) deep.

Switches for operation of ventilation equipment should be marked and

located conveniently. All intermittently operated ventilation equipment is
recommended to be interconnected with the respective pit lighting system.
It is recommended that the fan wheel be fabricated from non-sparking
material. Explosion proof gas detectors need to be provided.

 SAFETY AND SHIELDS

Manually cleaned screen channels need to be protected by guard railings

and deck gratings, with adequate provisions for removal or openings to
facilitate raking.

Mechanically cleaned screen channels need to be protected by guard

railings and deck gratings. Mechanical screening equipment is
recommended to have adequate removable enclosures to protect
personnel against accidental contact with moving parts and to prevent
dripping in multi-level installations.

A positive means of locking out each mechanical device and temporary

access for use during maintenance is recommended. Floor design and
drainage should be provided to prevent slippery areas. Suitable lighting
should also be provided in all work and access areas.

 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

It is recommended that all mechanical units which are operated by timing

devices be provided with auxiliary controls which will set the cleaning
mechanism in operation at a preset high water elevation. If the cleaning
mechanism fails to lower the high water, an alarm should be signaled.

It is recommended that automatic controls be supplemented by a manual

override at the location of the equipment.
Comminutors

It can be used in wastewater treatment to cut up and grind the coarse solids into
smaller sizes so that this will eliminate the problems caused towards downstream
operations especially clogging happening in pumps.

The term “comminutor” originated with a device for chopping meat. It was later
applied to equipment used for reducing pharmaceuticals and wastewater.

Where Comminutors are Used?

An important use for comminutors (grinders) is in the primary treatment of raw

sewage solids in plant headworks and pump stations.

The devices are usually installed in wastewater pumping stations whereby its role
is to protect the pumps from damage. Once the solids are reduced to smaller and more
uniformed sizes, it can be returned and move towards subsequent processes without
requiring the needs for manual jobs and manpower intervention to clear up the trapped
waste materials.

Types of Comminutors

Drum Type Comminutors

This unit featured a rotating drum with attached cutter teeth. Solids would get
caught on and rotate with the drum and get reduced as the teeth passed through a fixed
comb. This design featured a large active screen area and heavy construction.

Straight-through Comminutors

Its oscillating cutters wipe a semi-circular screen surface clear and sweep and cut
the solids against vertically mounted stationary cutters. This design featured easier
maintenance and a straight through configuration.

In-line Comminutors/Grinders

The first machine to address the problems of reducing solids directly inline was
the Pipeline Delumper.
 It could reduce heavy solids directly inline and improve flow properties of the
system thus reducing maintenance problems for operators.

Dual Shaft Comminutors (Grinders)

Twin shaft grinders use two slowly counter-rotating shafts with intermeshing
cutter disks. As one cutter passes the opposing cutter at close clearance it shears solids
trapped between the two and passes them downstream. This design provided good dry
solids reduction and feeding capability.

Cutter Cartridge Enhanced Twin Shaft Comminutors

An improvement to the original twin shaft design was the introduction of cutter
cartridge elements. These cartridges replace the multiple individual cutters and spacer
disks with one piece solid cartridge elements. This increases cutter strength and
eliminates multitudes of small gaps and associated stack re-tightening requirements.

In-line “Shaft-less” Design

This unit features a bi-directional cutting operation, heavy solids handling,

abrasion resistant hardfaced cutters and stainless steel cutter construction. The Super
Shredder excels at handling high flow rates with a minimum of headloss. As it only has
two cutting elements, it is simple to maintain. The design uses the flow to help in feeding
the unit, so it is best applied to applications where the flow velocity is greater than 2
ft/sec.

Hi-Flow Twin Shaft Grinders with Diverters

To improve the flow capability of twin shaft units, various flow “diverters” have
been employed to move solids to the grinder while allowing flow to bypass the grinder.

This unit employed a grinder unit in combination with a vertical rotating drum
screen to handle high flows.

Reducing Institutional Waste and Screenings

The units discussed above fall into the category of “grinders” which typically have
between a 1 and 5 hp motor. While they can do an excellent job on typical wastewater
solids, there are some applications that are better left to a larger industrial strength
“shredder”. These are units that typically have a minimum of 10 or 15 hp motors and are
built with a heavier drive and shafting to accommodate the added power.

Twin Shaft Grinders Using Two Cutter Diameters

Another recent improvement in high flow grinding is the Taskmaster Titan. This
unit employs twin shafts with intermeshing cutters but each stack has a different sized
cutter disks. The benefit of this design is that the smaller disks efficiently perform the
cutting against an apposing cutter disks while the larger disk allows much more fluid to
pass through.

Things to look for when selecting a grinder:

 Is the manufacturer well established and have broad experience in the field?
 Is the unit ruggedly constructed
 Will the design handle the present and future flow capacity without excessive
upstream head?
 Is the design easy to maintain in the given installation?
 Is the unit built for long term reliability and ease of maintenance?
 Is the unit built with materials that are resistant to the corrosive or abrasive
conditions of our flow?
 Is the unit capable of handling the specific solids encountered in your system
such as industrial waste or institutional solids such as particularly heavy solids
encountered downstream from correctional facilities.

An important criteria in choosing a grinder is hydraulic performance. Can the unit be

placed in the flow without raising the head excessively to the point of backing up the
system or cavitating the pump? For this, it is important to work closely with the
manufacturer in sizing of the unit to the application. In general, a more open design will
pass more flow and cause less backup than a unit with a higher percentage of closed
area.
GREASE/GRIT TRAPS

What is Grease?

Oily or fatty matter, in particular.

Grease, the industry term for animal fats and vegetable oils, is 10 to 15 percent less
dense than water. Grease also will not mix with water.

What is Grit?

Is a food made from corn (maize) that is ground into a coarse meal and then boiled.

What is Grease/Grit Traps?

A grease trap is something kitchen wastewater flows through before entering the sewer
waste system. This receptacle — technically defined as a grease interceptor —
intercepts, captures, or "traps" grease.

As a result, fats, oils, and grease float on top of water

Types of Grease Interceptors

There are four major types of grease interceptors found in most food service
establishments:

Small passive Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors (HGI)

Hydromechanical grease interceptors (most often referred to as grease traps) often sit
inside the kitchen underneath the sink or in the floor. They passively trap grease over
time and need to be pumped frequently, as often as every week for high producing
sites. While they can be less expensive up front, they do cost more to clean due to the
frequency.

Most HGI's must be certified to a standard such as the ASME A112.14.3 or PDI-G 101
which require interceptors to retain a certain percentage of the grease which passes
into the tank.
Gravity Grease Interceptors (GGI)

Gravity Grease Interceptors are often made out of concrete, but can be made out of steel,
fiberglass, and plastic. These interceptors are often greater than 500 gallons in liquid
capacity, but hold a small percentage of their liquid capacity in grease and are not
certified to meet any efficiency standards. This is why cities require they be pumped
out once the grease and solids amount to 25% of the contents. Gravity Grease
Interceptors are usually pumped every 90 days and can cost hundreds of dollars in
maintenance each year. GGI's made of concrete can fail as quickly as every 15 years
depending upon the quality of the materials.

Automatic grease/oil recovery systems such as Big Dipper

Automatic grease removal devices or recovery units offer an alternative to

Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors in kitchens. While their tanks passively intercept
grease, they have an automatic or active mechanism for removing the grease from the
tank and isolating it in a container. These interceptors must meet the same efficiency
standards as a passive HGI, but must also meet a standard such as the ASME A112.14.4
which proves they are capable of skimming the grease effectively.

The upfront cost of these units is higher, but maintenance can be handled by the kitchen
staff, eliminiating regular pumping charges and saving on operational costs.

Maximum Retention Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors such as Trapzilla

Max retention HGI's have become more popular in recent years as restaurants are
opened in non-traditional sites without the space for a Gravity Grease
Interceptor. These interceptors take up less space and hold significantly more grease
per their volume than other alternatives, often between 70-85% of their liquid
capacity. Most are made out of plastic while some are manufactured out of fiberglass.

Like other hydromechanicals, these interceptors must meet efficiency standards and
most manufacturers test beyond the minimum standard to the fail point to demonstrate
the full capacity of the unit.

Traditional passive grease trap designs date back to 1885 when the first U.S. patent was
issued. Today's large and small grease interceptors use the same basic operating design
as the 1885 model. While they do capture some grease, they are often inefficient at
retaining grease and removing the grease is a task left to the owner.

Small passive traps must be cleaned out by hand. Large pre-cast traps, on the other
hand, must be cleaned out by a professionally operated vacuum or pump truck.

Why do we need a Grease Trap?

While sewer collection systems exist to take waste water to a treatment plant, there are
some things is just was not designed to handle. One of those is grease.

Grease, especially grease with animal fats, cools and solidifies at normal temperatures
in pipes. When this happens, blockages can form in the sewer pipes, eventually causing
backups in the collection system called sanitary sewer overflows (SSO's). SSO's are a
significant health risk to the public, so it's in everyone's best interest to keep our pipes
clear of grease.

For this reason, many cities require the use of grease traps, more technically referred to
as grease interceptors at locations that prepare food items to ensure grease does not
ultimately cause sanitary sewer overflows.

In some instances, installing a grease interceptor can save the food service establish as
well. Any location with long plumbing runs to the sewer collections system, such as a
mall, hospital, or restaurant inside of a large building is in danger of creating blockages
in the internal pipes which could lead to backups, fines, and perhaps even downtime as
the internal plumbing is repaired.

Even If a restaurant has a traditionally designed passive trap which is not cleaned out
on a timely basis, it will begin to allow too much grease into the sewer system, where it
can cause blockages and sewage backups. This creates problems for wastewater system
operators as well as the food service establishment.
Improperly maintained grease traps (or the failure to install a grease trap when
required) often leads to fines, down-time, and can lead to bad publicity.

Grease Traps Efficiency

While traditional grease traps and gravity interceptors have been the standard for more
than 100 years, recent updates in this field are having a critical impact on the design
and implementation of separator technology. The size of concrete, steel, or fiberglass
gravity grease interceptors makes them difficult and costly to locate, especially in urban
environments. Additionally, their retention efficiencies make them less effective as
separators while newer technology allows for greater storage and less stagnant water
which can easily turn into hydrogen sulfide.

As grease traps of the traditional design fill with grease, their efficiency at separating
grease from wastewater decreases. When a trap is filled to capacity with fats and oil,
separation no longer occurs and the trap no longer functions properly.

Traditional concrete traps must be pumped out after just 25 percent of their volume is
filled, because after that they no longer work well enough to keep fats and oils out of the
sewage systems.

References:
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