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Chapter 8
Chapter Overview
Extraneous variables threaten an experiment’s internal validity when they are
allowed to confound the experiment. In well-designed experiments, only the
independent variable changes systematically across treatment conditions. This chapter
examines four kinds of extraneous variables (physical, social, personality, and context)
and the procedures used to control them.
Physical variables are aspects of the testing conditions that need to be controlled.
Elimination, constancy of conditions, and balancing are three techniques that
researchers use to control physical variables. While elimination is the most effective
strategy since it removes the extraneous variable from the experiment, it is not always
feasible. In these cases, a researcher can either use constancy of conditions or
balancing to ensure that the extraneous variable does not affect the treatment
conditions differently.
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Chapter Outline
Physical Variables
Elimination and Constancy
Balancing
Social Variables
Demand Characteristics
Experimenter Bias
Personality Variables
Experimenters
Volunteer Subjects
Context Variables
When the Subjects Select the Experiment
When the Experimenter Selects the Subjects
Some Folklore about Subjects
Summary
Key Terms
Review and Study Questions
Critical Thinking Exercise
Online Resources
Key Terms
DSBalancing Experimenter bias
Constancy of conditions Personality variables
Context variable Physical variables
Cover story Placebo effect
Demand characteristics Rosenthal effect
Double-blind experiment Single-blind experiment
Elimination Social variables
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Teaching Suggestions
http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/res_
methd/controls/controls_01.html
Many of the workshops referred to in the last chapter are relevant to the topics of this
chapter as well. For example, this is a workshop on various issues of “Control” in
experiments. Students should learn to answer:
Why is control an important part of experimentation?
What are inclusion and exclusion criteria?
Define the term “double-blind” and explain its usefulness
How can we control a between-subjects design? A within-subjects design?
What are order effects? How can we control for them?
http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/res_
methd/confounds/confounds_01.html
The workshop on “Confounds” should be covered again here as well, as it overlaps with
content of the current chapter. Have students work through it and then ask them the
following:
What good is internal validity in an experiment?
How can you tell if you have construct validity?
What are confounds and why are they bad?
What is differential mortality?
What problems are reduced when you make your study double-blind?
http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch08_animals/clever_hans.html
http://www.comnet.ca/~pballan/C2P1.htm
Above are just two of many sites that describe Clever Hans, the mathematical horse. No
discussion of demand characteristics or experimenter bias is complete without mention
of Hans.
http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~steve/hawth.html
This page presents a nice description of many of the topics discussed in Chapter 8:
Rosenthal effect, Hawthorne effect, Placebo effects, etc.
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Classroom/Homework Exercises
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Physical variables are aspects of the testing conditions that need to be controlled.
These include the day of the week, time of day, the testing room, and potential
distractions like noise.
5. You are doing a study at a local school. Because of the way things are scheduled,
you can have one small testing room in the morning and another much larger
testing room in the afternoon. If you have two treatment conditions (A and B), how
can you assign subjects to the testing rooms so that the type of room will not lead
to confounding in your experiment?
Room size is a potentially confounding physical variable. Since you are required to
use two rooms, the best control procedure is balancing. After you randomly assign
subjects to condition A or B, you could randomly assign half of each treatment
group to the small room and half to the large room.
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b. What is a double-blind experiment? Would you recommend that she use it?
Why or why not?
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8. Dr. L. is planning a large-scale learning experiment. He would like to have 100 rats
in one treatment group and another 100 in the other group. Because he needs so
many rats, he says, “Well, I can’t test all these animals by myself. I’ll ask Dr. P. to
help me. He can run the animals in the one group while I test the animals in the
other group.”
a. Knowing what you know about confounding, is Dr. L.’s solution a good
one? What can happen if one experimenter tests all the subjects in one group
while another tests all the subjects in another group?
Dr. L.’s solution could confound the experiment with experimenter bias since
the two researchers may have different expectations about the treatment
groups’ performance and may not handle the animals in the same manner.
b. Given what you know about balancing procedures, work out a better plan for
Dr. L.
The two researchers should be randomly assigned to run 50 rats from each
treatment group to balance the effects of experimenter bias across both
conditions.
A cover story should be used when there is a risk that subjects will guess the
experimental hypothesis and jeopardize an experiment’s internal validity.
Cover stories should not be used when they are unnecessary or when they
preclude informed consent by misrepresenting an experiment’s potential risks and
benefits.
Since cover stories are a form of deception, they should only be used when
needed to protect internal validity. Experimenters should fully debrief subjects after
their participation in the study.
10. Why is it important that an experimenter behave in the same way toward all
subjects in the experiment?
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A double-blind experiment controls for experimenter bias since neither the subjects
nor the experimenter know the treatment the subjects are receiving.
Volunteer subjects are more sociable and score higher in social desirability than
nonvolunteers. They hold more liberal social and political attitudes, tend to be less
authoritarian, and score higher on intelligence tests than nonvolunteers.
These differences could limit the external validity of social psychological and
cognitive studies that may be affected by these subject variables.
12. Find out the names of several experiments that are being conducted in your
department this term. Evaluate each name in terms of its potential to bias the
sample.
13. Think of two things an experimenter could do to safeguard against fatigue effects
during the course of the experiment.
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Test Questions
Multiple Choice
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Short Answer/Essay
1. Suppose you are trying to conduct your experiment, but the room has an
annoying noise. Describe the three strategies for controlling physical variables
that you should use to fix the problem.
2. Which of the three strategies for controlling physical variables is the best?
Second best? Why isn’t the best of the three strategies used all the time?
3. What are physical variables? How can they be controlled? Give an example.
5. What are social variables? Describe the two principal types of social variables.
9. Give an example of the placebo effect. What can be done about this problem?
10. What is meant by a cover story in research? What is its purpose? Why not
always use one?
11. What is experimenter bias? Give an example. What can be done about
experimenter bias?
12. What is the Rosenthal effect? How might this threaten an experiment? Explain.
13. What are people blind to in a “blind” experiment? Who is blind in a double-blind
experiment?
14. Give an example in which a personality variable endangers a study. What can be
done to reduce the effects of personality variables?
15. Which is more likely to affect the results of an experiment: the personality of the
researcher or the personalities of the participants? Justify your answer.
16. What are context variables? How are they different from other types of
extraneous variables?
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17. Why is it a problem when subjects select the experiments in which they
participate?
18. Give an example of a problem created by a researcher selecting his or her own
participants.
20. Give an example of an experiment in which there is a social variable that is not
confounding and another example in which there is a physical variable that is
confounding. You may combine the two problems into one experiment if you
wish.
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