ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

AND MACHINE LEARNING

IN GAS HYDRATE EXPLORATION
AND PRODUCTION
SUBMITTED TO: PROF. A.K VERMA

SUBMITTED BY: SWAPNA SAHU

ADMISSION NUMBER: 22MC0102

COAL BED METHANE AND GAS HYDRATE

ASSIGNMENT
INTRODUCTION

What is gas hydrate?

A crystalline solid made of water and gas is called a gas hydrate. On every continent, it is known
to exist and has a similar appearance and behavior to ice. It also exists in large quantities in
marine sediments in an area several hundred meters below the sea's surface and in conjunction
with permafrost in the Arctic. It is difficult to research since it is not stable under typical
sea-level pressures and temperatures.

Methane, the primary component of natural gas, is contained within a solid lattice of water
molecules to form gas hydrates. One cubic meter of gas hydrate releases 164 cubic meters of
natural gas when transported to the earth's surface. Wherever methane is present in the presence
of water at high pressures and at relatively low temperatures, such as beneath permafrost or in
shallow sediments along deepwater continental margins, gas hydrate deposits are present. Both
biogenic (produced by biological activity in sediments) and thermogenic (produced by
geological processes occurring deeper below the earth) methane can generate hydrate. Previously
believed to be uncommon, gas hydrates are now believed to occur in enormous quantities and
contain between 250,000 and 700,000 trillion cubic feet of methane and the thickness of the
structure might reach several hundred meters.

How it form?

Natural gas hydrates are solids that resemble ice and are made of gas, most frequently methane,
and water. They only develop in environments with high water and gas abundance, low
temperatures, and high pressure. Gas hydrates are extremely challenging to analyze because they
can quickly separate into water and gas at very low temperatures and pressures.Such
circumstances can be seen in nature, for instance, in sedimentary layers along the borders of
continents and in and below Arctic permafrost.

The deposits of gas hydrates that are squeezed into rock cracks or into the pores of
coarse-grained, sandy sediments are the most intriguing. These deposits are particularly
interesting due to their potential for energy production and feature the highest quantities of gas
hydrates.They only develop in environments with high water and gas abundance, low
temperatures, and high pressure. Gas hydrates are extremely challenging to analyze because they
can quickly separate into water and gas at very low temperatures and pressures. Surprisingly
often, such circumstances can be seen in nature, in sedimentary layers along the borders of
continents and in and below Arctic permafrost.The deposits of gas hydrates that are squeezed
into rock cracks or into the pores of coarse-grained, sandy sediments are the most intriguing.
These deposits are particularly interesting due to their potential for energy production and feature
the highest quantities of gas hydrates. In sedimentary layers along the borders of continents and
in and below Arctic permafrost.

The deposits of gas hydrates that are squeezed into rock cracks or into the pores of
coarse-grained, sandy sediments are the most intriguing. These deposits are particularly
interesting due to their potential for energy production and feature the highest quantities of gas
hydrates.

Behaviour of gas hydrate in the environment

An essential component of the carbon cycle are natural gas hydrates, which are produced from
naturally existing gas hydrocarbons. Thought to contain anywhere from 5 to 22 percent (or
roughly 500 to 2,500 Gigatons) of all the organic carbon on Earth, estimates vary.

With a warming effect almost forty times greater than that of carbon dioxide, methane is a potent
greenhouse gas in and of itself. Large-scale natural gas hydrate deposits have been related to
historical periods of climate change through methane escape.

The energy density of methane hydrate is high: 164 units of natural gas can be produced from
one unit of frozen methane hydrate at atmospheric pressure. Because of their natural abundance,
methane hydrates are a far cleaner alternative to coal or crude oil and one of the most significant
known unconventional energy sources.

e.g. The Gulf of Mexico alone contains enough methane hydrate reserves to supply natural gas to
the US for hundreds of years.

Categorisation of different type of gas hydrate deposits

Deposits of natural gas hydrate can be divided into many categories based on their physical
characteristics, formation process, and location.
Around continental edges, low quantities are usually always present in the first several hundred
meters below the bottom. Digging into these muddy sediments might reveal minute
concentrations of methane hydrates within thin, vein-like rock fractures or in the minuscule holes
between sediment grains. Gas hydrates can also be abundant in large fissures that link the
seafloor to the deep subsurface. Methane gas escapes these fissures at seafloor vent sites and
seeps into the water, usually as a discernible stream of bubbles.Sands with coarse grains contain
extraordinary concentrations (more than 90% of the pore space).

Fig: A methane hydrate vein in a rapidly depressurised coarse grained sediment pressure core

Models indicate the presence and formation of natural gas hydrate

Whichever model we use, we know that microorganisms feeding on organic materials produce
the majority of the natural gas present in methane hydrates. Long recognized by scientists,
methane is produced by microorganisms that reside in the muddy, shallow subsurface;
nevertheless, this explanation is limited to extremely low concentrations of hydrates.
The various hydrate deposits seen in the field can be explained by six quantitative models:
methane recycling (Model-4), long-range free gas flow (Model-5), upward water flow and/or
diffusion (Model-3), local biogenesis (Model-1), local diffusion (Model-2), long-range free gas
flow (Model-3), and solidification of a gas reservoir (Model-6). Credit: Figure 26 from You et al.
[2019].

Thin layers of coarse-grained sand are the exception, when hydrates gradually accumulate
through simple diffusion.According to lab research, hydrates migrate into layers of sand that are
a few centimeters thick, leaving little or no hydrates in the surrounding muds. This agrees well
with deposits of this type that have been observed. Deeper down in the Earth, we anticipate
finding somewhat high quantities as well. The ice hydrates that sediments carry melt and release
gas as the sediments sink. Just above the border, this gas bubbles back up to form new gas
hydrates, which melt.

New models that show how methane moves through the deep earth as a free gas, rather than
dissolved in water, are the most interesting new findings. Microbes make methane, which can be
found in low concentrations but can be concentrated into high concentration deposits by free gas
flow. We no longer think the same way about how highly concentrated deposits form because of
these models. So far, evidence from the field backs them up. However, no single model fits the
data exactly. Usually, one type of hydrate deposit can fit more than one formation model.

PRODUCTION OF GAS HYDRATE

Methane, which makes up most of natural gas, turns into hydrate when water, low temperatures,
and high pressures come together. On the other hand, hydrates break apart into methane and
water when the temperature or pressure rises or falls enough to put them outside their stability
field. Using depressurization to make methane has been shown to be technically possible through
lab tests, computer simulations, and short-term field projects. There has not been a long-term
test, though, of methane release from hydrate.

The red lines show the temperature patterns at different water depths, and the blue line shows
how stable methane hydrates are in relation to temperature and pressure. The area bounded by
the two circles is where methane hydrates are most stable.
Early problems with studying the production of methane from hydrates included proving the
existence and location of good reservoirs, showing that it was possible to regularly find these
areas, and creating the techniques and technologies needed to start production. These problems
are being solved by study efforts backed by the DOE and other countries. There are still
problems that need to be fixed before we can fully understand the possibilities and effects of
getting gas from ice.

We don't know if gas hydrate supplies can be used for business yet. It will depend on how the
business does after that. New technologies and methods that make producing natural gas
hydrates cheaper as a whole are being pushed forward. So far, only a few small tests in the real
world have been done. Some controlled scientific field studies must be done first to see how fast
and how much methane can be taken out, as well as any possible effects on the environment.
This must be followed by long-term production tests.

Methods using in gashydrate production

• Using hot water input and depressurization to make natural gas hydrates

The low efficiency and unstable gas production of hydrate exploitation are problems that
are stopping the industrial development of ice that can be burned. a low-permeability
hydrate heterogeneous reservoir model to look at how injecting hot water into the well
and reservoir changes things. As the hot water injection rate goes up, more heat is lost
from the created water and some of the injected water moves to the gaseous hydrocarbon
layer and the layer below it in the middle and late stages of hydrate production. Also, the
production of gas and water will quickly go up during the production of hydrates because
the water lock effect is no longer present. This is because of thermal-hydraulic-chemical
multi-field coupling, which depends on the properties of the hot fluid. So, the new
method of slowly injecting hot water after the well is depressurized or using different
injection rates at different stages is what we need. Also, the injection well needs to be
placed vertically or a thin layer with low permeability needs to be added to the bottom of
the gaseous petroleum layer. Last but not least, the temperature of the hot water input
should be kept above 50 °C.
• A spiral multilateral well network is used to get gas from muddy hydrate sources.
This study looks at the effects of well placement and production methods.

It is believed that spiral multilateral well networks will make muddy hydrate reservoirs
much more productive. finding out how gas production from ultralow-permeability (<1
mD) and low-permeability (1–100 mD) muddy hydrate sources changes depending on the
number of wells, how they are deployed, and how they are produced.

The findings show that more spiral multilateral wells are better at getting gas from
different muddy hydrate sources. Changing the deployment direction of spiral
multilateral wells, on the other hand, has less of an effect on how well they produce. With
synergistic depressurization of multiple spiral multilateral wells, gas recovery is
improved, water production is decreased, and gas production in the "blind zone" is
stopped. This gets around the problems that come with using multiple vertical wells. In
muddy hydrate sources with very low permeability, synergistic effects (two spiral
 multilateral wells are more productive than twice as productive as one) still happen,
which makes gas production better. In spite of what most people think, the single
depressurization method works better than the depressurization and thermal
co-stimulation methods. This is especially true for producing ultralow-permeability
hydrate reservoirs over a long period of time and low-permeability hydrate reservoirs
over a short period of time.

• Unsaturated water flow changed the structure of the gas hydrate storage and had an
impact on the movement of fluids and the production of gas.

In the process of making natural gas hydrates (NGHs), there will be seepage of gas,
saturated water, and unsaturated water. The unsaturated water flow in soil with and
without hydrates is modeled by changing the speed of the water flow. A visualization
magnetic resonance imaging device was used to keep an eye on the hydrate phase
distribution. During the unsaturated water flow, changes in temperature, pressure, and the
rate of gas generation were studied. The findings show that the three stages for the
hydrate-free sand were shown by the changing trend of the pressure difference. The
pressure difference for the hydrate-bearing soil, on the other hand, changed five times in
the unsaturated water flow process because the hydrates broke down. The breakdown of
the hydrate led to a rise in permeability (the highest value of log10(Kr) was 0.5), which
made the clear path for unsaturated water flow. Also, the faster water flow increased the
chemical potential difference between the hydrate phase and the water phase. This sped
up the dissolution of the MH and led to a faster rate of gas production and greater
permeability. It was surprising that the rate of gas production went up by 35 times when
the flow rate of unsaturated water was raised from 0.5 mL/min to 15 mL/min. Also, the
average gas generation rate was mostly based on the speed of the unsaturated water flow;
it changed in a straight line as the speed of the water flow increased.

• Adding CO2 to multiple wells to boost gas hydrate production

Natural gas hydrates can be developed commercially in multilateral wells, which is a

good sign. As hydrates break down during the depressurization production process, the
strength and stiffness of the reservoir decrease. This could cause the formation to sink,
 the bottom to tilt, and other geomechanical risks. To develop hydrates in a safe and
effective way, it is important to understand the geomechanical problems surrounding the
wellbore. A three-dimensional numerical model is made to predict how much oil and gas
can be produced from hydrate reservoirs by injecting CO2 into multilateral wells. The
study looks at how the reservoir's pressure and temperature change, how much gas and
water it produces, how hydrate and methane levels change, how productive it is, and how
the ground moves during the mining process. The results show that hydrates made by
injecting CO2 stop methane hydrates from breaking down, and that delayed injections
lead to higher total yields. Adding CO2 can raise the pressure in a reservoir and stop the
rock from sinking. The combined depressurization method, which includes injecting CO2
into multilateral wells, can boost the production of hydrates while keeping the stability of
the formation. This could be a way to use hydrates for commercial purposes. The goal of
this method is to make gas hydrate extraction more industrialized and to open up a new
way to use CO2 to stop climate change.

• Planning where to put wells in unconfined, heterogeneous hydrate reservoirs to get

the most gas output

• The production features of a typical marine composite reservoir containing methane

hydrates that are saturated with water and higher-pressure gas that is released by
depressurization

• Using multi-branch wells and multi-stage fracturing to get more gas out of silty clay
hydrate reservoir

There are many more techniques for gas production.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE

LEARNING IN GAS HYDRATE PRODUCTION AND
EXPLORATION
Gas hydrates are crystalline ice-like materials that hold methane gas molecules. Artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) could make it much easier to work with and
find gas hydrates. Gas hydrates can be found in deep sea and frozen places, and they
could be used as an energy source in the future. AI and ML can be used in this area in the
following ways:

Analysis and Interpretation of Data: AI and ML can be used to look at huge amounts of
geological, geophysical, and geochemical data that was gathered during exploring.
Patterns, oddities, and possible gas hydrate reservoirs can be found by these algorithms
that might not be clear with traditional analysis.

Seismic Imaging: ML techniques can make seismic imaging data better. They can easily
get rid of noise and fix distortions, which makes it easier for geologists and geophysicists
to find gas hydrate deposits.

Characterizing the Reservoir: By looking at core samples, well logs, and other geological
data, AI can help characterize gas hydrate formations. It can help figure out how big,
where, and how good the gas hydrate formations are.

Predictive modeling: ML models can be taught to guess how likely it is that gas hydrates
will be found in certain rock types or areas. This can help with planning exploration
attempts and how to use resources.

Drilling Optimization: AI can improve drilling operations by looking at data from drilling
rigs in real time and making changes to increase the chances of finding gas hydrates
while lowering the risks of digging.

Tracking the Environment: Changes in the environment around gas hydrate deposits can
be found using sensors and tracking systems that are powered by AI. This is necessary to
make sure that gas hydrate production is safe and will last.

Production Optimization: Machine learning algorithms can be used to improve methods

for making gas hydrates, like depressurization, heat stimulation, or chemical methods.
Controlling the parameters of output with these algorithms can help get the best results.

Risk Assessment: AI can look at the geological and technical risks that come with
exploring and producing gas hydrates. This helps businesses make smart choices and
lower their exposure to possible dangers.
Energy Resource Management: ML can help successfully manage gas hydrate resources
by predicting production rates, keeping an eye on the condition of reservoirs, and finding
the best ways to increase production to meet energy needs.

Plan for Exploration: AI can help choose exploration sites by taking many geological and
geophysical factors into account. It can also help plan exploration missions and decide
which drilling sites are most important.

To use AI and ML effectively in gas hydrate exploration and production, you need to
have access to high-quality data, subject knowledge, and be able to work together with
geoscientists, engineers, and data scientists. Also, as technology and our knowledge of
gas hydrates continue to grow, AI and ML will become more and more important in
maximizing the benefits of this unconventional energy source while reducing the harm to
the environment.

This is very clear evidence that digital technology has a huge effect on both business and
society. Over time, the digital change has become known as the "fourth industrial
revolution." This is because technologies like AI, robotics, and self-driving cars are
blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. People are paying
more attention to artificial intelligence (AI) technologies because they can respond
quickly and generalize well (Evans, 2019). Machine learning has a lot of promise to help
and improve traditional reservoir engineering methods in a lot of different reservoir
engineering problems (Anifowose et al., 2017).

The Response Surface Model (RSM) to help with tasks like classification and regression.
It is this type of learning that some machine-learning methods used in the field of
reservoir engineering belong to. A lot of the time, evolutionary optimization methods like
Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are used in reservoir
planning.

To get a good idea of the correct answer to an inverse problem, we should combine
forward- and reverse-looking AI models to make analytical processes. AI-assisted
common platform processes that use forward-looking Gaussian proxy designs, Bayesian
optimization, and numerical models of high-fidelity procedures are some examples. The
new technology is being used to solve a problem with a coal seam degasification program
that works with the past.

Use of Bayesian optimization. It can find many ways to distribute the features of a
reservoir so that they match the information from the field. The writers also created a
specialized method using ANN and field data from a part of the Marcellus shale gas field.
This method can help the history-matching method. It looked at a number of different
hydraulic fracturing designs and used ANN models and optimization programming to
find a good solution to an energy problem.

During this process, ANN expertise systems that look to the future are set up to mimic
the high-fidelity quantitative models in order to predict the output data during the
historical field era.

In fact, the petroleum business uses machine learning to look into problems with data.
Using methods for machine learning and artificial intelligence tools, the educational
program is made to teach petroleum engineers. This gives you advice on how to increase
production and cut costs.

The opportunities, problems, threats, and changes that are looked at in the oil and gas
field can be solved by people who know about blockchain technology. The oil and gas
industry as a whole will gain from blockchain technology in many ways, such as lower
costs and better accountability and performance. As blockchain technology improves in
the oil and gas industry, it will move to a modified block chain network, cross-chain,
modified smart contracts, and more experts from different fields. As a result of using the
blockchain method, there have been changes in the following areas: casing drilling
technology; new ideas; improved oil recovery; and synthetic, thermal, physical, and
chemical methods. MOER and WAG stand for "water alternating gas" and "microbial
enhanced oil recovery," respectively.

Algorithms:

A part of artificial intelligence is machine learning. Different kinds of data are gathered
from the ground and the surface in the oil and gas businesses to figure out the
hydrocarbon potential. It has been found that sensors are the best way to gather a lot of
these kinds of data. It is necessary to use technical analysis and help to plot and look at
these facts. The machine learning methods show how the input variables are related and
guess what the output will be. In machine learning, nothing is done to change the way the
system works physically. The oil and gas businesses have a lot of data, and it's not easy to
find connections between that data.

In ANN, different input and output data are linked to synaptic weights. The output of the
layer is found by adding up the products of the inputs and the weights that go with them.
This is done by passing the inputs through a transfer function. There is more convolution
and non-linearity in the model when there are more buried layers.

It takes two calculations to figure out what the secret and output nodes are: adding them
up and changing them through active functions that can be linear or non-linear .

In an ANN model, the general link between input and output can be written as

Ii
n this case, x is the input vector Wji, which is the link layer between the ith neuron and
the jth neuron in the hidden layer bj. wkj is the link weight from the jth neuron in the
hidden layer to the kth neuron in the output layer. It shows the threshold value or bias of
the jth hidden neuron. bk is the bias of the kth output neuron, and fh and fo are the
functions that turn on the hidden and output neurons, respectively.

Because the input and exit data are both big and small, the data needs to be scaled.

The info that comes out is normalized by

In what place.

Yk ¼ The original output value of the Yk parameter, scaled down ¼ Value of output that
is normalized

The minimum and maximum numbers of the original output value are given by Minimum
Yk and Maximum Yk.

The transfer function changes the signals that come in to signals that go out.

There are four different kinds of transfer functions, which are Sigmoid, Linear and
Gaussian, Piecewise linear, and unit step (Threshold).

As an example, look at the sigmoid transfer function in equation 3

The main problem in machine learning is figuring out what the mark is on new data that
hasn't been labeled while using a training set of known marks to classify the data. The
question about grouping will be about supervised learning in this case, where it is
possible to have a group of properly labeled and identified training information.

As an alternative to traditional upstream systems in the oil and gas industries, a

framework and road map can be made to encourage the use of data mining, analytics, AI,
supervised and unsupervised learning, and other project management techniques.
Machine Learning is broken down into steps in Fig. 2. Here is a list of some of the
methods that are used:

Artificial neural network (ANN)

Machine learning has a part called "deep learning." In deep learning, a structure known as
an Artificial Neural Network learns what data means. One group of algorithms used in
machine learning to understand data is called neural networks. Inside the oil and gas
business, a deep learning system helps handle a lot of data and get the best results with a
lot of data. Features are picked out without any help from a person. For example, deep
learning algorithms can do complicated tasks that machine learning algorithms can't.
Neural networks take in information and process it. A good way to use machine learning
to solve hard problems is to use ANN. When there is a complex problem that can't be
solved by a linear relationship, ANN is most often used in the oil and gas businesses. In
Feed Forward-ANN (FF-ANN), information is sent forward, and hidden neurons are
included.Places where the oil business works on Neural networks can be used to
recognize seismic patterns, figure out what's wrong with drill bits, boost gas well output,
find sandstone lithofacies, make predictions, and improve performance.of good work
(Ali, 1994). The ANN model helps to guess how the pipeline will be in the future; it lets
workers check and guess the state of the pipes. Predicted risk of pipe failure and
mechanical .Tabesh talks about how to improve reliability using ANN and other ways.
To find out what amount of sand is in a reservoir, a machine learning model can be used.
Impedance for seismic waves, instantaneous What was put in was Amplitude and
Frequency. The girl said that sand fraction in less time to finish the task and with better
talk about representation. ANN stands for "Generalized Auto Regressive An
ANN-GARCH machine learning method for conditional heteroscedasticity method is
used to guess how oil prices will change . This is an example of a simple neural network
flowchart:Figure 3 shows it.
 Fuzzy logic:

Neuro Fuzzy is usually used to look into how to best place wells. The Neuro-Fuzzy
method made a fuzzy logic model of the reservoir for three offshore gas wells in Iran,
which cut down on the time it took to place the wells. They guessed how permeable the
rock would be in a gas reserve. This method can help you find patterns in big amounts of
data. It shows how the reserve will behave, which will be the most cost-effective and
effective way to get the hydrocarbons out of the ground.

Genetic algorithm

The Genetic Algorithm (GA) is an algorithm that was based on Charles Darwin's idea of
natural development. The process of spontaneous selection is used by the algorithm. The
best offspring are chosen to be in the next generation's group. In 2011, Al-Mudhafer and
Shaheed used two genetic algorithm methods to find the best way for a filling drill to
work with a reservoir. Both of the genetic algorithm methods gave them the same results.

To find the best multilateral wells in a 3D pool, the genetic algorithm method is used.
They used a system for placing wells with a genetic algorithm that can handle different
numbers of producers and injectors. The genetic algorithm (GA) is used to find new oil
fields, plan output, reverse seismic images, and learn about the properties of different
reservoirs.

Linear regression

The linear regression is a way to do statistics. In linear regression, there is a link between
the process factors. To guess how much oil will be made around the world, models based
on linear and nonlinear regression are used. When compared to other methods, the
inverted regression model worked better. Linear regression shows that the world's oil
production will reach 4593 Mt in 2020 (Aydin, 2014). The real well logging data is
interpreted with the help of multiple linear regression models. Pattern recognition of the
oil and gas layers was good with the model . Wang and Liu (2017) used regression
analysis to look at the factors that will affect the future economy of crude oil. Software
for statistics was used to make the regression model.

Principal component analysis (PCA)

The principal component analysis finds patterns and trends in large amounts of data and
uses them to predict output. The principal components method is often used to guess how
much oil or gas will be produced from shale sources that are high in liquid. For the main
component, Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) was used.

Makinde and Lee (2019) used these estimated principal components to guess how much
oil would be produced. The model helped make output predictions that were pretty
accurate. We used CDF-PCA (Cumulative Distribution Function based PCA) to make a
map of the channelized reservoir.

To their surprise, the geological features, reservoir properties, and output forecast model
that used CDF-PCA were all better and more reliable . Principal component analysis was
used to figure out if China's natural gas business could last. PCA was used to find and
analyze the natural gas sustainability index. The data showed that sustainability kept
going up from 2008 to 2013 because both supply and demand were going
up.
3. Machine learning in upstream

As data processing power grows, electronic gadgets work better. It would be good for the
oil and gas businesses to use computers for both exploration and production. In Table 1,
you can see the upstream tasks, tools, and AI method that can be used for each task.

Exploration

Exploring for hydrocarbons is very dangerous. In order to drill and get hydrocarbons,
explorationists need to correctly find subsurface prospects. At the start of the 21st
century, only a small amount of 2D seismic data was used to figure out where to drill
based on subsurface maps. The odds of success were 1 in 7. This is because it is full of
risks. Over time, more information was gathered in each of the leases that were curved
out for research. This huge amount of data was called "big data," and it was saved in
Terabytes of memory. This was possible because seismic and well data collection,
processing, and interpretation got better over time. The idea of machine learning was
used to look at these big data sets. The goal of using big data and machine learning is to
reduce the amount of noise that gets in the way of the information being processed.
Several strong methods were used to figure out what the clean data meant for 2D, 3D,
and 4D seismic. It was easier for an interpreter to make subsurface volume maps and turn
them into amplitude, porosity, and saturation maps by correctly mapping different
subsurface horizons and combining them with well logging. inversion methods to figure
out the data parameters from the subsurface models the models. Time went on, and
machine learning algorithms helped figure out the best times to use horizon and
window-based qualities. New features like coherency, edge map, spectrum
decomposition, and relief map have been made possible by machine learning.
Understanding the fault polygons, mapping complex fault structures, and mapping facies
using striatal slice helped us learn more about subsurface possibilities. Prospects were
turned into drillable prospects with the help of machine learning algorithms, which
increased the chance of success to 1 in 3. The use of 4D seismic or repeat seismic helped
the translator figure out how the hydrocarbons moved after the drilling .

Heuristic and artificial neural network methods are now often used to improve the target
possibilities, their size, and the amount of hydrocarbon they contain (Fig. 4). Monte Carlo
modeling and evolutionary programming are two methods used to find the random range
of hydrocarbons below the surface and figure out how much can be used and brought to
the surface. In short, machine learning has changed the way exploration and output are
done in India and around the world.

The oil and gas industry is quickly moving toward using AI. The idea of AI is spreading
to more and more parts of the industry, such as intelligent drilling, intelligent
development, intelligent pipeline, intelligent processing, and so on. This could lead to
new research directions. Using artificial intelligence algorithms, developers have made a
wide range of technologies that can be used in study and production. Using artificial
intelligence algorithms, developers have made a wide range of technologies that can be
used in study and production. Already, using the ANN method in exploration has led to
better results, such as lower risks and higher success rates for exploration wells . New
drilling tools, like an automatic drilling rig and an intelligent drill pipe, have made
drilling much better and cheaper . The main way AI is used in oilfield development is to
improve the development plan by looking at past data on oilfield output.

Reservoir engineering

Fluid flow through porous media, output forecasting, and field optimization are all part of
reservoir engineering. For making subsurface property maps and PVT analyses, you need
to do numerical simulations, modeling, and experiments. A huge amount of data is used
for modeling to make both solid and dynamic models. Machine learning algorithms are
used to combine data from seismic, well logs, core analyses, and past performance of the
reservoir in order to make appraisal plans and random field growth plans. Artificial
Neural Network, Genetic Algorithm, Response Surface Model (RSM), and other methods
are used to do complex pressure transient analysis and deconvolution of pressure data. It
is very helpful to use these GA models to match up the history of a reservoir and make
P90, P50, and P10 output profiles.

following the rules set by Project Resource Management Systems (PRMS). A huge
amount of data is used to make reservoir models, which are then improved over and over
again as new data is added to the database.

For many years, ANN has been used to guess reservoir qualities like porosity and
permeability. Several machine learning techniques, such as K Nearest Neighbours
(KNN), Support Vector Regression (SVR), Kernel Ridge Regression (KRR), Adaptive
Boosting, and Collaborative Filtering, can be used to identify the properties of reservoir
fluids for the study. A study by Onwuchekwa (2018) found that collaborative filtering,
which was created for a consumer product selection system, worked well for their
reservoir study. Number-based simulations of reservoir oil can be done with the
simulated reservoir model. To do the parametric study, you can compare different
machine learning methods for predicting permeability, seismic characteristics, and
wireline data. Other methods for predicting permeability did not work as well as Superior
Vector Mechanism a smart model using the Extreme Gradient Boosting method to guess
how the reservoir will react based on injector wells.

Engineering for drilling

When drilling, there are many issues that can happen, such as stick sleep vibrations, loss
of circulation, bit wear, too much power, unstable boreholes, and more. These issues
might be able to be fixed by machine learning. A machine learning method was
suggested by Aliouane and Ouadfeul (2014) to create a poisson's ratio map. This map can
help you figure out the direction of digging and give you information about the rocks. get
important information, and guess when you won't be able to work.This method helped cut
down on the cost of labor needed to check the quality of a lot of digging data. When
drilling in deep water for Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) or Under Balanced Drilling
(UBD), the Byesian network (BN) can be used. Bhandari et al. (2015) said that the BN
can be used to analyze risks and predict failures in the offshore business. Tools used for
drilling were automated to handle things like Weight of Bit (WOB), Rotary Speed
(RPM), and Rate of Penetration (ROP). A machine learning program can get information
like an alternative bit or rig equipment upgrade, an estimate of how much the bit will
wear, and the amount of abrasive that will be used.

Production engineering
The more advanced machine learning techniques build new ways of doing things, which
makes engineers' jobs easier. In the oil and gas businesses, machine learning can be used
in a number of ways in production engineering. One of the hardest things to do is to look
at a lot of data quickly so that you can make a choice. Methods for machine learning can
be used to find patterns in production data.

With semi-supervised learning, data from wells was put together from sources that were
labeled and those that weren't. Algorithms were used to check, confirm, and recover the
data. A researcher looked at how to fix well logging data, make sure that the physical and
chemical properties of fluids were controlled, and tell the difference between base
production and well changes . With learning from trends in data, the ANN model can
guess when the door will close. Usually, the output data are checked against the real
findings to reduce mistakes. Nande (2018) said that the ANN model can accurately
predict closing pressure. The Support Vector Regression Model was used by Shen et al.
(2019) to guess how mechanically lined pipes would get wrinkled. Saghir et al. (2018)
talked about why edge analytics are important for the oil and gas businesses. Edge
analytics were used to find anomalies in electric underwater pump-operated wells in real
time.

Recent advances in artificial intelligences in gas industry

As the gas industry gets more competitive and unpredictable, businesses are constantly
looking for new ways to be more efficient by, among other things, streamlining
production, cutting costs, and making workplaces safer. A lot of business leaders are
looking to digitization to protect themselves from market shocks, keep making money
when oil prices go down, and gain a competitive edge during the rebound. The way
forward is to use technologies based on artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning,
which are getting better quickly and are being used all along the value chain. An
increasing number of fields have realized the benefits of these new technologies, so more
AI uses will be made in the future.

Let's look at how AI is used in the gas business in the real world.

a) Making Subsurface Data Analysis Better with Total S.A. and Google Cloud
b) ExxonMobil and MIT make robots that are powered by AI to find gas leaks.

(c) Precision Drilling With Machine Learning Algorithms – Shell

(d) Predictive maintenance can help businesses be more productive (Aker BP and Spark
Cognition)

Enablers and challenges in upstream gas industry using artificial

intelligence and machine learning

To reduce uncertainty, the first step is to make a system that can handle multiple
hypotheses in order to find the best answer. The Hybrid Intelligent System (HIS) theory
was made to deal with this problem in machine learning. It had been shown that the HIS
such a huge ability to improve predictions of oil field stocks, which leads to better
discoveries and more efficient extraction. Based on how the oil market is right now,
machine learning seems to have become more popular over the last five years, especially
in oil drilling automation and technology as well as in fixing problems that come up
during digging. To get a higher rate of penetration (ROP) and lower CPF levels, as well
as to improve performance in other ways, like drilling 10,000 meters of wells every day,
machine learning has shown a lot of promise. more growth and very efficient use of
energy sources.

People

The success of artificial intelligence relies on how smart people are. AI solutions aren't
like other things you can buy. AI solutions have to be tailored to a company's business
and information, even if they were made by someone else.

So, for companies to actively use AI in their goods and processes, they need to build their
own teams of data and AI experts. These groups should be able to help build AI
infrastructure (like algorithms and datasets) and at the very least, make tools that
businesses will use in their daily work. In the next 10 years, AI experts will be needed for
almost all innovation attempts in oil and gas companies. This means that oil and gas
companies will become (partially) data-driven companies. Nevertheless, it is very hard to
find and keep AI experts. There aren't enough people with AI skills to go around, and as
more and more companies start their own AI teams, things won't get better for the next
ten years.

This is really important for oil and gas businesses. Next, to fight with tech giants like
Google, Yandex, IBM, and Amazon for the same talent, top universities and cool startups
around the world.

Data

For AI tools to be taught and then work properly in operational mode, they need a good
amount of high-quality data. Even though smarter algorithms might help get better results
from small datasets, changing bad data won't help at all.

Access to large amounts of high-quality data is therefore both a key enabler and a key
barrier for the successful development of AI apps. A lot of raw data is made in oil and
gas areas. Still, it's not a sure thing that it will work because the gas business generally
doesn't have a lot of labeled data and there are known problems with the quality and
accuracy of field data. Training datasets need to be carefully gathered through a
well-thought-out, multiyear process that is tailored to the case, gas businesses will have
to redesign and change their organizational structures and processes in order to get more
value out of the data they have or can access.

Open working together

Because academics have been at the forefront of AI study for decades, with almost no
outside influence from business, AI is born in an open and collaborative setting.
Companies in all fields (and around the world) had to adopt this attitude of open
publishing and free sharing as a standard in order to succeed in the age of AI once they
joined the race.

In tech, open innovation is becoming the norm. But oil and gas companies aren't known
for working together on projects, especially when they're rivals and the projects aren't
about AI or other important topics. Many businesses say they are releasing some of their
data to the public and stress the importance of sharing data between businesses and
countries, but the truth is that things don't look good right now. Oil and gas in the UK
One of the first big oil and gas open data sets to be made public was the National Data
Repository. It has more than 12,500 wellbores, 5,000 seismic surveys, and 3000 pipes in
its 130 terabytes of geophysical, infrastructure, field, and well data. Based on the data
that is available, the chances for machine learning and artificial intelligence uses are
emphasized (offshoretechnology.com, 2019).

Another important place to find new AI technology and AI skill is in university labs.
Because of this, oil and gas companies should rethink how they work with and talk to
colleges.

What COVID-19 means for the gas business and how AI can help

The gas industry is moving into a new normal of pandemics. This is because lower crude
prices and global problems are causing an oversupply and some major industry
innovations.

As the world returns from the pandemic and gets back to normal with its relationships
and output limits, consumption is likely to rise. However, business leaders must be able
to adapt to this new reality. They need to focus on making their supply chain and
operations better and lowering the costs of making, distributing, and transporting their
goods.

The value chain in the oil and gas business could be changed by artificial intelligence
(AI). AI models are often used as one-off answers that don't help the problem as a whole.
As benefits start to level off quickly, disappointment over performance affects plans for
the future.

Even though cross-domain data is being used, the sector is still focused on different areas
such as reservoirs, geology, geophysics, engineering, and digging. With one team taking
care of all geotechnical needs, these sections were made to make the whole company
more productive. The oil and gas business can't use AI for more general, cross-functional
tasks because of this operational division, which was made in the past to cut costs.

CONCLUSION

We talked about the latest progress in AI and machine learning, as well as how they can
be used in the gas businesses. It shows some examples of how machine learning is used
in discovery, reservoir, drilling, and production. According to the literature gas business
is ready to benefit from machine learning because it can handle large amounts of data and
run calculations quickly. It has outlined and talked about a lot of monitored learning
methods. Machine learning has the potential to completely change the many important
things that managers and engineers in the oil and gas industry do every day. The benefits
of knowledge for the future can be reached if it is used correctly.

Techniques are used to work with different kinds of data or data patterns and turn them
into useful data that helps people make smart decisions. Many of these kinds of solutions
using ANN, ALM, supervised learning, fuzzy logic, linear regression, and PCA could be
used to solve problems in the gas industries and help come up with profitable plans. The
use of machine learning is expected to grow quickly over the next few years, and its
worth will also be greatly appreciated in the and gas industries.
REFERENCE

❖ Application of machine learning and artificial intelligence in oil and gas industry

❖ Evaluation of phase equilibrium conditions of clathrate hydrates in natural gas binary mixtures:
Machine learning approach

❖ Google

❖ Science direct

❖ Google scholar

❖ Sci-hub