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Fabrication Technique and Characterization of Aluminum

Alloy-Based Porous Composite Infiltrated with Babbitt
Alloy
Lenko Stanev, Mihail Kolev, Ludmil Drenchev, and Boyko Krastev

(Submitted February 23, 2020; in revised form May 15, 2020)

Aluminum alloy-based porous composite skeleton infiltrated with babbitt alloy (infiltrated skeleton) is
investigated in this paper. The obtained material is characterized with respect to its microstructure,
compressive stress–strain curves and tribological parameters such as linear wear and volume loss. The
composite skeleton is produced by replication method with salt (NaCl) particles as space holder and Al2O3
particles as reinforcing phase. This salt preform is infiltrated with Al alloy and afterward the salt particles
are leached to obtain composite skeleton. Then, the skeleton is infiltrated with babbitt alloy by employing
squeeze casting technique. The structural, mechanical and tribological properties of the obtained composite
are compared with nominally nonporous babbitt. It is concluded that the infiltrated skeleton possesses
superior properties in comparison with the babbitt in terms of compressive behavior and tribological
properties.

dispersed crystals of chemical compound Cu3Sn (Ref 8, 9).

Keywords babbitt, composite skeleton, open-cell structure,
tribological properties
1. Introduction
The development of new lightweight materials is an integral
part of todayÕs ultra-demanding applications intended for the
automotive, defense, aerospace, construction and general
engineering applications. Because of their commercial avail-
ability, durability, high-strength-to-weight ratio and wear
resistivity, the aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs)
(Ref 1-4) have attracted the focus of intensive R&D activity.
The AMMCs are an important replacement for better perfor-
mance and longer endurance in comparison with other
conventional metals (Ref 5). Usually, AMMCs are reinforced
with fibers (including whiskers) and particles (having various
shapes and sizes) offering possibilities to tailor materials to
specific engineering design needs (Ref 6). AMMCs incorpo-
rated with different reinforcing phases such as alumina, silicon
carbide, zircon and graphite are important because of the
possibilities of enhancing the mechanical and tribological
properties of the composite (Ref 7). A different alloy with good
mechanical and tribological properties is the babbitt alloy. It is
widely utilized in engineering and especially as a bearing
material. There are two main babbitt alloys that are broadly
exploited, tin-based babbitt and lead-based babbitt alloys. Their
microstructure consists of a a solid solution of antimony and
copper in tin and/or large cubic hard inclusions of the b-phase
(solid solution based on SnSb intermetallics) and more
Lenko Stanev, Mihail Kolev, Ludmil Drenchev, and Boyko Krastev,
Institute of Metal Science, Equipment and Technologies with
Hydroaerodynamics Centre at Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Sofia, Bulgaria. Contact e-mail: mihail1kolev@gmail.com.
The tin-based alloys are more often used than the lead-based
alloys due to their easy bonding, very good corrosion resistance
and reduced tendency toward segregation (Ref 10, 11). The tin-
based alloy is plastic and soft carrying the particles of hard
phases that provide good abrasion resistance (Ref 12-15).
When tin is used as the softer metal, friction causes the tin to
melt and serves as a lubricant, protecting the bearing from wear
when other lubricants are absent. The babbitt alloys advantages
such as low coefficient of friction and wear resistance, and the
ability to adhere well to both bronze and steel make them
desired in the machinery field.
Wear behavior is important in all mechanical elements that
are subjected to friction, such as bearings, pistons, connecting
rods, cylinder bores and brake rotors (Ref 16). The friction–
wear behavior of AMMCs reinforced with hard ceramic
particles is being investigated by numerous authors (Ref 17-
22). Likewise, research in friction and wear characteristics of
babbitt alloys have been conducted intensively (Ref 23-28).
The aim of our research is fabrication and characterization
of new material composed of aluminum alloy-based porous
composite skeleton infiltrated with babbitt alloy. An open-
porosity structure infiltrated with tin-based alloy could be very
suitable for frictional elements because the babbitt will act as a
lubricant by reduction of coefficient of friction, will decrease
the temperature on the sliding surface and thus will enhance
wear resistivity of the material.
Replication method is used in order to obtain composite
skeleton. That method is one of the most effectively applied
techniques for production of high-porosity metal materials with
open-cell structure (Ref 29, 30). We have used NaCl salt
particles as space holder (Ref 30-36) and have prepared
preform which is infiltrated with Al alloy by employing
squeeze casting machine. Afterward, the salt preform is
removed by washing. The obtained skeleton is infiltrated with
babbitt alloy, and then, samples for structural and mechanical
tests are prepared. The structure of the so-obtained material is
observed, compressive behavior is studied, wear resistivity

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

(linear wear and volume loss) is determined, and the results are
subsequently compared with the test results of pure babbitt
alloy. If we are well informed, there are not published results
related to that subject.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
The materials used for the fabrication of aluminum alloy-
based porous composite skeleton infiltrated with babbitt alloy
are:
• aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg, given in Table 1, that combi-
nes good strength and thermal properties with low weight
and flexible post-processing possibilities;
• babbitt B83 (Fe/Al/Cu/As/Pb/Zn/Sb/Bi/Sn), given in Ta-
ble 2, that combines high flexibility and the ability to re-
tain lubricant because of its heterogeneous structure;
• reinforcing phase of Al2O3 particles, shown in Fig. 1(a),
with average size of 10-30 lm;
• salt particles, shown in Fig. 1(b), with size of 430-850 lm
as leachable space holder.
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Fabrication of Infiltrated Skeleton. Scheme of the
infiltrated skeleton production process is presented in Fig. 2.
Fabrication of infiltrated composite skeleton is executed in
three steps. During the first step, we prepare the salt preform
containing the reinforcing phase following the procedures:
• preparation of leachable space holder by mixing 44 g
NaCl particles with 7 wt.% Al2O3 particles and 3 g water;
• compacting the obtained mixture into cylindrical steel cup
of diameter 40 mm and height 40 mm under pressure of
1.5 MPa;
• moisture removal of NaCl particles by preliminary drying
them at 25 ± 3 C for 2 h;
• sintering the green compacts in tubular furnace at
785 ± 1 C for 2 h;
• cooling the salt preforms at room temperature.
In the second step, the salt preform is infiltrated with Al alloy
and afterward the preform is removed following the sequences:
• preheating salt preforms before fixing into die at
680 ± 2 C;
• infiltration of salt preform with Al alloy by squeeze cast-
ing method applying pressure 80 MPa for 60 s;
• cooling the composite at room temperature;
• NaCl particles removal by dissolution in 70 C hot dis-
tilled water with ultrasonic machine.
Table 1 AlSi10Mg alloy composition, wt.%
Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn
Composition, % 9.0-11.0 0.55 0.05 0.45
The last step is the babbitt alloy infiltration into the composite
skeleton:
• preheating composite skeleton before fixing it into die at
680 ± 2 C;
• infiltration of babbitt alloy applying squeeze pressure
80 MPa for 60 s;
• cooling at room temperature and removing infiltrated
skeleton.
For the infiltration processes, we use squeeze casting technique
(Ref 37).
2.2.2 Mechanical Tests. Compression tests on MTS
Material Testing System are carried out for the determination
of stress–strain curves. Comparative study is conducted
between infiltrated skeleton and nominally nonporous B83
babbitt alloy. The cylindrical samples are of diameter 10 mm
and height 15 mm. The contacting surfaces are preliminarily
coated with petrolatum in order to reduce as much as possible
friction between the sample and the compressive plates. A
constant compressive rate is applied in all tests. This compres-
sive rate provides a nominal strain rate of 3.4 9 103 s1.
2.2.3 Tribological Tests. All tribological tests are con-
ducted on Ducom installation under dry friction. The counter
disk is from E-52100 steel hardened to 62HRc. The tested
specimens are preliminary treated by alcohol to prevent static
electricity. The specimens are placed vertically with its porous
radiused tip perpendicular to a flat counterpart disk for ‘‘pin-on-
disk’’ tests. The tested specimen is pressed on the counterpart
disk by load of 50 N. During experiments, the test results are
reported by real-time data as plots. The parameters of
tribological tests are as follows:
• Time: 16 min.
• RPM: 137 min1.
• Load: 50 N.
• Disk radius: 70 mm.
• Friction condition: dry.
The collected data for the linear wear are used for calculation of
the volume loss applying ASTM Standards assuming that there
is no significant disk wear:


Pinðsherical endÞ volume loss ¼ ðph=6Þ 3d 2 =4 þ h2 ðEq 1Þ
where h = r  (r2  d2/4)1/2; d = wear scar diameter; and
r = pin end radius.
3. Results
3.1 Structural Characterization
SEM images of the contacting surfaces for both types of
specimens after tribological tests are shown in Fig. 3. EDX
Mg Ni Zn Pb Sn Ti Al
0.2-0.45 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.15 Rest
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Table 2 Babbitt B83 alloy composition, wt. %
Alloy Fe Al Cu As Pb Zn Sb Bi Sn

Composition, % 0.1 0.005 5.5-6.5 0.05 0.35 0.004 10-12 0.05 80.94-84.50

Fig. 1 SEM images of: (a) reinforcing phase Al2O3 particles with average size of 10-30 lm; (b) NaCl particles in the range of 430-850 lm

aluminum and oxygen, which proves the presence of the

reinforcing phase (Al2O3) incorporated into the aluminum alloy
skeleton.
The data obtained from EDX analysis from zone 2 of
Fig. 3(a) presented in Table 4 indicate peaks of tin, iron and
antimony. Tin and antimony are main elements of the babbitt
alloy infiltrated into the skeleton. The peak of the iron is due to
very small pieces from the counterpart disk incorporated into
the contact surface of the tested sample.
The structure of the worn surface of the pure babbitt after
the tribological test is typical for plastic and soft metallic
materials, as shown in Fig. 3(b).

3.2 Compressive Behavior of Infiltrated Skeleton

The compressive stress–strain curves are compared for
infiltrated skeleton and nominally nonporous babbitt, as shown
in Fig. 4. The effect of the skeleton is strongly expressed in the
plastic region of the stress–strain curves. A stress of
r = 150 MPa causes strain in the infiltrated skeleton
e = 20%, while the same stress produces in the pure babbitt
almost twice strain e = 38%. This result demonstrates the
‘‘reinforcing’’ effect of the skeleton.

3.3 Tribological Characterization of Infiltrated Skeleton

Fig. 2 Scheme of aluminum alloy-based porous composite skeleton
infiltrated with babbitt alloy production process
analysis in the highlighted zones of the infiltrated skeleton is
conducted, and the results are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
In zone 1 of Fig. 3(a) is shown a particle of specific shape.
The EDX analysis shown in Table 3 indicates peaks of
The linear wear data are visualized in Fig. 5 for the
infiltrated skeleton and the pure babbitt under load of 50 M,
time 16 min with disk speed 137 min1 at dry conditions. The
linear wear of the infiltrated skeleton is substantially lower than
that of the babbitt. For example, at 400 s the infiltrated skeleton
has a linear wear of 45 lm, while for the babbitt this value is
325 lm, i.e., nearly eight times higher. Similarly, at 900 s the
linear wear of the infiltrated skeleton and of the babbitt is 110
and 540 lm, respectively, i.e., five times higher.
In Fig. 6, SEM images of wear scar minimum, maximum
and average diameter for tested specimen are presented. These
values of that parameters are used in formula (1) for the
determination of volume loss. Wear test data for infiltrated
skeleton and babbitt such as linear wear, maximum, minimum

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 3 SEM images of treated sample surface after tribological tests for: (a) infiltrated skeleton; (b) babbitt alloy

Table 3 EDX analysis of infiltrated skeleton sample of

zone 1 and average scar diameter and volume loss for both samples are
presented in Table 5.
Element At. no. Mass, % Mass norm., % The infiltrated skeleton sample at load of 50 N for 16 min at
dry conditions is with 77% lower linear wear and 71% lower
Al 13 16.93 32.26 volume loss than the babbitt. This indicates significant
O 8 12.73 24.26 improvement of tribological parameters for the Al alloy
Si 14 9.61 18.32 skeleton infiltrated with babbitt.
Sn 50 9.43 17.98
Fe 26 3.04 5.79
Sb 51 0.57 1.09
Cu 29 0.17 0.32 4. Discussion
Sum 52.48 100
The presence of alumina particles as reinforcing phase in the
infiltrated skeleton is substantial for maintaining the strength
and stiffness of the AMMC. The effect of alumina particles
Table 4 EDX analysis of infiltrated skeleton sample of incorporated in the AMMC indicates improved wear behavior
zone 2 by using 30 vol.% Al2O3 (Ref 20) and 25 wt.% Al2O3 (Ref
21).
Element At. no. Mass, % Mass norm., %
The wear resistivity of the composite is increased and
prolonged by the babbitt infiltration into the skeleton. At sliding
Sn 50 58.65 63.90
Fe 26 12.08 13.17 test initiation, tightly interlocked asperities of the harder steel
Sb 51 8.58 9.35 counterbody tend to tear the babbitt alloy. Afterward, plowing
Al 13 7.10 7.73 off of the softer babbitt initially surrounding the asperities of
O 8 3.69 4.02 the counterbody is shown in Fig. 3(b). Such plowing action
Cu 29 0.90 0.98 subsequently creates a relatively smoother and larger wear
Si 14 0.78 0.85 track. It is well known that in B83 alloys the sharp-edged
Sum 91.79 100 geometry of large SnSb intermetallics is stress concentrators
and also the heterogeneity of the structure is related to the
liquation processes during crystallization and cooling of the
alloy, which reduces fatigue strength and wear resistance (Ref
38, 39). Right after the formation of the wear track, the skeleton
walls emerge at sliding surface, as shown in Fig. 3(a). Then, the
ceramic particles perform as a load-carrying element and as an
inhibitor against plastic deformation and adhesion of compos-
ite. In the next phase of the wear test, the worn particles are
displaced from their locations in the matrix and mixed with the
wear debris, which consists of worn particles from infiltrated
skeleton and steel from the counterbody.

5. Conclusion

Fabrication technique of aluminum alloy-based porous

Fig. 4 Compressive stress–strain curves of infiltrated skeleton and composite skeleton infiltrated with babbitt alloy is developed.
babbitt The microstructure, compressive behavior, linear wear and

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 5 Linear wear at 50 N load of infiltrated skeleton and pure babbitt

Fig. 6 SEM images of wear scar diameter measurement for: (a) infiltrated skeleton; (b) pure babbitt

Table 5 Wear test data for infiltrated skeleton and pure babbitt
Sample linear wear, lm dmax, mm dmin, mm daverage, mm Vloss, mm3

Pure babbitt 570 4.37 4.32 4.34 3.726

Infiltrated skeleton 128 3.24 3.16 3.20 1.066

volume loss under dry conditions for the infiltrated skeleton and
the pure babbitt alloy are studied and compared. On the basis of
the obtained compressive stress–strain curves, it is concluded
that the infiltrated skeleton possesses superior properties in
comparison with the babbitt in the strain range of e = 2% to
e = 50%.
The infiltrated skeleton has up to two times lower strain
compared to the babbitt alloy at the same testing conditions.
The tribological tests reveal that the infiltrated skeleton
possesses significant lower linear wear (up to eight times) in
comparison with the babbitt alloy.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the European Regional Development
Fund within the OP ‘‘Science and Education for Smart Growth
2014–2020,’’ Project CoE ‘‘National Center of Mechatronics and
Clean Technologies,’’ No. BG05M2OP001-1.001-0008-C01.

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Funding
This research received no external funding.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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