Addis Ababa Science & Technology

Department of Architecture

TITLE

BSc. Program in: Architecture

Building Materials and Construction - II

Lecture – 7

Timber Construction

By: Temesgen B.

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 1

 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

OUTLINE Lecture Outline

➢ General
➢ Wood Structure
➢ Moisture content of wood
➢ Lumber production
➢ Testing of timber
➢ Factors affecting timber strength
➢ Production Defects
➢ Characteristics of a good timber
➢ Uses of timber and Timber frame construction
➢ Advantages and disadvantages of timber structures

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 2

 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

Lecture Wood and timber

General
❖ Timber is an extremely complex material, available in
great varieties and forms, with greatly differing
properties between regions.
❖ Used extensively for construction purpose, railways,
furniture, formwork, miscellaneous articles,
transportation.
❖ Wood that is suitable for structural work is called
timber.
8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 3
 Wood Structure
• Wood consists of long,
narrow, hollow cells called
fibers.
• Fibers are made of cellulose
and bound together by
substance called lignin. Grain

• Grain refers to the direction,

size, arrangement, appearance Longitudinal Tangential
or quality of the fiber. direction direction
➢ Grain direction is important to
Radial
the strength of wood. direction
 Moisture content of wood
• Wood is hygroscopic material
➢ it will absorb water vapor from the atmosphere or
shrink when it is dry.
➢ Moisture content will change varying on moisture
content of the surrounding area

• Water content in growing wood > ~ 30% to 300% of its oven

dry weight of wood.

• Moisture content = weight of water x 100

oven dry weight

• Moisture content affects properties such as weight,

shrinkage and strength.
 Moisture content of wood
• Water stored in wood in two main forms: vessels
- As free water in the vessels or cell cavities.
- As cell water (or bound water) in cell wall.

Free water starts to leave

Cell wall
as soon as the tree is cut.

If the bound water is lost, wood

starts to shrink; strength &
stiffness increase.
 Shrinkage and Swelling

• Timber loses or gains moisture to be in equilibrium with the

atmospheric moisture in its immediate environment.

• Swelling (gain of moisture in the cell

wall) and shrinking (loss of moisture
from cell wall) are dependent on
moisture in the air and temperature.
• Shrinkage is the highest in the tangential
direction and least in longitudinal axes.
➢ dimensional changes causes warping, splitting and
structural performance problem.
 Shrinkage and Swelling
15
Changes in % of shrinkage vs changes
% shrinkage 10 in moisture content

5
0 Constant volume

10 20 30 40 50 Moisture content (%)

FSP

Fibre saturation point (FSP) – The moisture content of wood at

which the cell walls are saturated with bound water and no free
water is present.
➢ Usually around 25-30 %.
➢ The addition or removal of water below FSP has a large effect on
the properties of wood.
 Shrinkage and Swelling

Strength Changes in % of shrinkage vs changes

in moisture content

Moisture content (%)

FSP
 Lumber production
• Lumber - timber that has been cut into boards, planks or
other structural members of standard length for use as a
building material.
Lumber production
A. Logging & Transporting to sawmill
B. Sawing / milling
C. Seasoning / Drying
D. Surfacing
E. Grading
F. Preservation (Optional)
 Lumber production

A. Logging: the felling and preparation of timber

for shipment to sawmills.

B. Sawing / Milling process: Convert logs into

boards in a manner that secure maximum
product with minimum waste & labour.
▪ Log breakdown: Cutting log to
provide flat surface.
 Lumber production
Methods of sawing / cutting techniques

• Used for framing

• Very economical,
less wastage, high
shrinkage

Plain sawn (slab-cut)

• Used for flooring,

interior trim and
furniture Radial sawn
Quarter sawn • Less shrinkage - Not common
 Lumber production
C. Seasoning / Drying
• The process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture
contained in wall cells in order to produce seasoned
timber.
• Lumber is considered seasoned when moisture content is
less then 15 - 19%.
Purpose of seasoning

➢ Improved strength, reduce shrinkage

➢ Greater resistance to decay

➢ Reduced weight; easily handled & transported

➢ Paints applied will last longer

 Lumber production
Methods of seasoning
1. Air dry (traditional method)
➢ Lumber is stacked.
➢ Air circulate through & around the
stacks.
➢ Takes months to reach moisture
content 20 %.
2. Dried in kiln

➢ is stacked as in air dry & placed in a

special chamber.

➢ Takes days to one week.

➢ Most commonly used.

 Lumber production

D. Surfacing
➢ is machined to give smooth surface and a more precise
dimension, easier to work with & less damaging to
hands.

E. Grading

➢ All sawn timber are graded based on quality e.g.

appearance and structural strength.
 Testing of Timber

• Tensile strength in (a) is 2 – 4 times

larger than compressive strength in (c)
 Factors affecting timber strength
➢ Type of tree
➢ Maturity of tree
➢ Time of felling
➢ Moisture content
➢ Density – depends on cell size, cell wall thickness, number &
types of cells. Strength and stiffness increases with density.
➢ Defects – e.g Knots (disturb continuity of grain), decay, splits
& checks
➢ Grain types - straight grain has higher strength.
➢ Seasoning / Drying
➢ Type and process of preservation/Treatment
 Production Defects
Cracks occur in various parts of trees

• Checks - radial cracks on surface of wood as

a result of rapid drying. Effect on appearance
and strength.

• Splits – deep crack that penetrate the entire

depth of wood due to drying stresses or
inappropriate handling. Effect on appearance
& reduce shear strength.

• Shake - Defects that are caused due to

stresses during growth (heavy wind), relief
of stresses when tree is felled or impact on
soil during felling.
Production Defects

Knots – growth defects

Checks - production defects

Shake – growth & production defects

Splits - production defects

 Production Defects
➢ Warping – distortion of wood from the desired plane. Results
from differential drying and relief of internal stresses.

➢ Cup – Deformation of the cross

section – edges move upward
➢ Bow – Deformation over the length
of a board in the minor axis
direction
➢ Spring – Deformation over the
length of a board in the major axis
direction
➢ Twist – lifting one corner of the
plane
 Characteristics of a good timber

• Strength: Tensile, compressive, shear, bending (depends

on species and grade)
• Hardness: wood should not be bruised by an ordinary impact
• Free from defects - e.g. knots
• Heavy weight
• Durable: able to resist atmospheric effects, attacks of worms
or fungi
• Workable – easily planed
 Uses of timber and Timber frame construction
❑ It can be used as:
◦ Beams, joists and rafters ◦ Studs and posts
◦ Girders ◦ Trusses
◦ Decking ◦ Piles
◦ Structural laminated members
Uses of timber

Cladding

Roof truss Stairs Flooring 22

Uses of timber and Timber frame construction
Uses of timber

Cabinet

Panel

Formwork

Pergola
Timber frame construction

24
Timber frame construction

Composite timber beams

25
Timber frame construction

Composite timber beams

26
Timber frame construction

Beam to beam connection

27
Timber frame construction

Column to base connection

28
Advantages and disadvantages of timber structures

Advantages Disadvantages

• Quick erection time • Additional design and

• Reduced site labour engineering time
• Reduced construction waste • Susceptible to decay
• Easily converted to any shape • Very likely to warp and crack
• Economical and cheap
• Not fire resistant
• High strength to weight ratio
• Requires regular
• Light weight structural members
maintenance
• Easy alteration and repairs
• Energy efficient in its production • Lack of experience of
• Non conductor of heat and sound
following trades
29
 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

TITLE

Steel Construction

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 30

 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

OUTLINE Lecture Outline

➢ Introduction
➢ Properties of steel
➢ Uses of steel
➢ Steel sections
➢ Structural steel connectors
➢ Method of construction
➢ Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 31

 Introduction to Steel Construction

➢ Steel has the maximum number of properties which

are not found in any other materials.

✓ High tensile and compressive strength

✓ Ability to deform plastically with out damage

✓ Can be easily welded, forged and riveted

✓ Large displacement before collapse

32
PROPERTIES OF STEEL

33
 USES OF STEEL

❑ Steel is suitable for all construction purposes in the present day

practice.

▪ Steel bars are used as reinforcement

▪ Construction of steel bridges

▪ Construction of buildings

✓ Skeleton construction and Long span construction

▪ Erection of towers, etc

34
 STEEL SECTIONS

➢ Cold rolled sections: Cold-formed shapes are

relatively thin sections made by bending sheet or strip
steel in roll-forming machines, press brakes, or
bending brakes.

➢ Door and window frames, partitions, wall studs, floor

joists, sheathing, and moldings are made by cold
forming.

35
STEEL SECTIONS

36
 STEEL SECTIONS
➢ Hot rolled sections: these are structural steel
available in wide range of size, shape and weight.

37
STEEL SECTIONS

38
 STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTORS
❑ There are four basic connectors used in making
structural steel connections. They are bolts, welds,
pins, and rivets.

Welding

39
 STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTORS
Rivets Bolts

Pins

40
 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

❑ The construction of a framework of structural

steel involves two principal operation: fabrication
and erection.

Cellular steel deck with concrete slab.

41
 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
❑ Metal frames

42
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Advantages
• High strength to weight ratio
• Non-combustible
• Recyclable
• Consistent material quality
• Safety: offers greater
protection
• Flexibility
• Inorganic: will not warp, split,
creep, crack
• Dimensional stability
• Straight walls, corners
• Speedy construction
Disadvantages
• Energy intensive material
• Susceptible to rust and
corrosion
• Requires fire proofing
• Highly conductive
• Emission of gases during
production
• Extra cost for protective
coating
43
 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

TITLE

BSc. Program in: Architecture

Building Materials and Construction - II

Lecture – 7

Glass Construction

By: Temesgen B.

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 44

 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

OUTLINE Lecture Outline

➢ From the origins to classical modernism - Concept
➢ Introduction
➢ History of glass in the building industry
➢ How glass is used in construction
➢ The manufacturing glass
➢ Properties of glass
➢ Types of glass
➢ Energy management
➢ Glass & architecture
8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 45
From the origins to classical modernism
➢The Gothic Cathedral – “God is Light”
➢Baroque – attempting to admit light
➢The town house – the external wall become permeable structure
➢Iron age – reaching for the light
➢From wall to skin – releasing external wall from its loadbearing
function
➢The destruction of box – the fluent transition between inside and
outside
➢Creating vision with glass – without a glass palace, life becomes
a burden
➢Light, air, sunshine – the house machine.

46
 Introduction
➢ The word glass is derived from “glaza”, the Germanic term meaning
amber, glare or shimmer.
➢ Glass is a magical material which has so many different properties and
uses, that it has presented Architects with many new possibilities and
designs.
➢ Architectural glass is glass that is used as a building material.
➢ It is most typically used as transparent glazing material in the building
envelope, including windows in the external walls.
 HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY

▪ In prehistoric times, Obsidian (Naturally occurring glass found near volcanic

regions) and fulgurite (glass formed naturally after lightning strikes sand)
were used to make weapons.
▪ Manmade glass was used as a luxury material was used in
decorations, jewellery, vessels and crockery.
▪ Glass blowing was discovered in the 1st century in Europe, this revolutionized
the glass making industry.
▪ The technique spread throughout the Roman Empire.
▪ Production of Clear glass, by introduction of manganese dioxide, saw glass
being used for architectural purposes.
▪ Cast glass windows began to appear in the most important buildings and
villas in Rome and Pompeii.
HOW GLASS IS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
 The manufacturing for glass
consists of the following stages

•Melting and refining of the raw materials

•Float bath
•Coating (for making reflective glass)
•Annealing
•Inspection
Batching of raw materials:

The main components, namely, soda lime glass, silica sand (73%), calcium oxide
(9%), soda (13%) and magnesium (4%),
are weighed and mixed into batches to which recycled glass (cullet) is added. The
use of ‘cullet’ reduces the consumption of natural gas. The materials are tested
and stored for later mixing under computerised control.
 Stage 1 : Melting and refining
Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are
mixed to make a batch, which flows into the furnace, which
is heated up to 1500 degree Celsius.
• The raw materials that go into the manufacturing of clear
float glass are:
• SiO2 – Silica Sand
• Na2O – Sodium Oxide
from Soda Ash
• CaO – Calcium oxide
from Limestone / Dolomite
• MgO – Dolomite
• Al2O3 – Feldspar
• Apart from the above basic raw material, broken glass aka
cullet, is added to the mixture to the tune of nearly 25% ~
30% which acts primarily as flux. The flux in a batch helps in
reducing the melting point of the batch thus reducing the
energy consumed to carry out the process.
 These raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make clear glass. If certain metal oxides
are mixed to this batch they impart colors to the glass giving it a body tint.
For e.g.
• NiO & CoO – to give grey tinted glasses (Oxides of Nickel & Cobalt)
• SeO – to give Bronze tinted glasses (oxide of Selenium)
• Fe2O3 – To give Green tinted glasses (oxides of iron which at times is also present as impurity
in Silica Sand)
• CoO – To give blue tinted glass (oxides of Cobalt)
 Stage 2 : Float bath
• Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of
molten tin, starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as solid ribbon at 600 deg
Celsius.
 Stage 3 - Coating (for making
reflective glasses):

• Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by

advanced high temperature technology to the cooling ribbon of glass. Online
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is the most significant advance in the float
process since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of
coatings, a few microns thick, for reflect visible and infra-red radiance for
instance. Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the
glass flows beneath the coater (e.g. Sunergy)
 Stage 4 - Annealing:
Despite the tranquillity with which the glass is formed, considerable stresses are
developed in the ribbon as the glass cools. The glass is made to move through the annealing lehr
where such internal stresses are removed, as the glass is cooled gradually, to make the glass
more prone to cutting.
 Stage 5 - Inspection:
• To ensure the highest quality inspection takes place at every stage.
• Automated online inspection does two things.
i)It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected.
ii) And it enables computers downstream to steer round the flaws.
• Inspection technology now allows 100 million inspections per second to be made
across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.
 Stage 6 - Cutting to Order:
Diamond steels trim off selvedge – stressed edges- and cut ribbon to size
dictated by the computer. Glass is finally sold only in square meters.
 Properties of Glass
❑ It is solid and hard material.
❑ It has disordered and amorphous structure.
❑ It is fragile and easily breakable into sharp pieces.
❑ It is transparent to visible light.
❑ When light falls on glass,
part of it is reflected at the
surface, part of it is
absorbed in the glass
and part of it is
transmitted.
❑ It is an biologically inactive material.

❑ It is recyclable.

❑ It has low thermal conductivity.

❑ It is fire resistant.
❑ It has dimensional stability.

❑ The thermal, optical, electrical and chemical properties

of glass vary with its composition.
❑ Glass is electrically insulating material; it does not
conduct electricity.
❑Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world. Its
transparency can be permanently altered by adding admixtures to the initial batch mix.
By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in buildings can be made opaque.
(Electro chromatic glazing)

❑U value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred through the
window. The lower the U-value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the
better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.
Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology,
certain laminates and admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture( ability to resist
deformation under load).

Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short
wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass through glass and are absorbed, but the
longer infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are unable to pass through the
glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a higher resultant temperature.
❑Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or
pressed. It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless,
diffused and stained. Glass can also bewelded by fusion.

Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered
for re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates in
concrete construction etc.
Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually
enters a building through the entire window assembly as heat gain.

Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes
through the glass.
TYPES OF GLASS
 FLOAT GLASS
• Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating
molten glass on a bed of molten metal,
typically tin, although lead and various
low melting point alloys were used.
• Modern windows are made from float glass.
• The float glass process is also known as
the Pilkington process, named after the British
glass manufacturer Pilkington
• Float glass is used in many architectural
buildings.
 CROWN GLASS
•Crown glass was an early type of
window glass which glass
was blown into a "crown" or
hollow globe.
•It was replaced in the 19th century
by the cylinder, sheet, and rolled
plate processes.
 ANNEALED GLASS
• Annealed glass is the most common glass used in windows and is also
known as a standard sheet of float glass.
• Annealed glass is slowly cooled to relieve internal stresses after it is
formed, thus making it strong.
 TEMPERED GLASS
• Tempered glass is typically four to
six times the strength of
annealed glass.
• It is used when strength, thermal
resistance and safety are important
considerations.
• In commercial structures it is used in
unframed assemblies such as:
✓ frameless doors,
✓ structurally loaded applications.
 SOLAR CONTROL GLASS
• Solar control glass units are typically double
glazed, which means they also insulate well.
• Solar control glass is a hi-tech product
developed by the glass industry to allow sunlight
to pass through a window or façade while
radiating and reflecting away a large degree of
the sun’s heat.
• The indoor space stays bright and much cooler
than would be the case if normal glass were
used.
• or buildings with high internal loads, it is used to
minimise solar heat gain by rejecting solar
radiation and help control glare
 Double Glazed Units

These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes in order to reduce
the heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount of heat gain and
upto 30%of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy efficient glass
can reduce this impact.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
• Key factors which play an important role in designing the building envelope
with glass are as follows.
✓ Solar Factor (SF) / Solar Heat Gain Co-efficient (SHGC)
✓ U-Value
✓ Relative Heat Gain (RHG)
✓ Visual Comfort Olympia tech park
 Laminated Glass

This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective layer. It
is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and
protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%. Used in glass facades,
aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
Glass & architecture

Advantages and disadvantages

 advantages
• Use of glass adds beauty to the building.
• Installation of glass ensures ample supply of natural
daylight which makes the construction more
sustainable
• Glass tends to have great weather resistance.
• Unlike metals, which are also used in building
construction, glass does not rust by exposure to
humidity and air.
• Cleaning of glass is a rather easy when compared to
other building materials
• usage of glass ensures passage of natural light even
when the doors and windows are closed
• Glass is an excellent insulator against electricity
• etc
Disadvantages
• An expensive Material. So, increase the
cost of building
• Breaks Easily, Very Rigid and Brittle
• When broken, the pieces may be sharp,
injuries
• Less impact resistance
• It is affected by some alkalis
• It is affected by hydrofluoric acid.
 Use in facade
• Glass plays an essential role in the facade.
• A facade is a special type of wall.
• It separates inside from outside. By its property of transparency it opens up our
buildings to the outside world.
• prime concerns like safety, security, and environmental protection to convenient
functions like self cleaning or practical qualities like scratch resistance or design aspects,
the choices are many and varied.
Thermal insulation
• Thermally insulating glass can be one of several desirable properties such as
maintenance, solar control, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced
safety and security.
Solar control
➢ Solar control glass is glass designed to reduce or prevent solar heating of buildings.
➢ There are two approaches that can be used: the glass is either tinted (coloured)
throughout the material (called a "body tint"), or else it has a microscopically thin
and transparent coating on one side.
➢ It can be combined with many other features for multifunctional glazing, such as
thermal insulation, self cleaning, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced
safety and security.
Safety and security
➢ To improve its resistance to impact and breakage, glass can be either toughened or
laminated, depending on where and how it is being used
Fire resistance
➢ A range of fire-resistant glass types is available that offers increasing levels of
protection, which is measured in defined time periods (30, 60, 90, 120, 180
minutes). Fire-resistant glass must meet strict levels of integrity and insulation, or
integrity only which are set down by European CE standards.
Noise control
➢ Acoustically insulating glazing can be a major contributor to comfort levels in
buildings and houses. Its benefits are greatest for people living or working near
busy high streets, urban traffic, motorways, railway lines and airports, or on a
flight path
Decorative: interior design
➢ Glass can transform living spaces and work environments. A wide range of effects,
patterns and colours allows interior designers endless possibilities in look and
atmosphere. Glass can be combined with stone, wood or metal for a strong visual
and tactile effect.
➢ Structurally glazed systems create a greater transparency than traditional captured
systems. There are less visual interruptions due to the lack of metal on the exterior
(and potentially the interior), creating a seamless, continuous glass look. Traditional
captured curtain wall systems have pressure plates and caps that can conduct large
amounts of heat in or out of the façade depending on the season. Since there is little
to no exposed exterior metal, there is also less thermal bridging with structural glazing,
saving on energy consumption costs
 Glass is a material for aesthetics and not for structural theory: Glass load-bearing structures
contradict this assumption. They enhance the glass facade with glass structures and help to create
totally transparent rooms
Glass has taken on new life in recent building years. Long valued for its transparency and lightness,
glass is now also being considered for its structural and protective capabilities.
“When glass is load bearing it can serve three roles at
once: structure, envelope, and transparency,” says Mark
DuBois.

LOAD BEARING GLASS WALLS

The architectural space formed by the load bearing glass wall is visually remarkable and
psychologically very intriguing. The large area of roof which cantilevers out past the
glass wall is very dramatic in the way it both frames the landscape and pulls the viewer
out towards it. The hovering roof plane provides an unusual sense of shelter because
there is clearly no visible means of support. The use of glass bearing walls is an exciting
opportunity to blur the distinction between engineering and aesthetics and thereby
expand the vocabulary of architecture.

LOAD BEARING GLASS FLOORS

Structural glass floors are specialist products, designed to balance load
bearing capacity and translucency. They’re usually fabricated as frameless
or structural panels to offer the maximum clear area for light to filter
through.
 Glass in windows

• There are nine types of Glasses used in windows:

1. Obscure Glass
2. Tinted Glass
3. Tempered Glass
4. Laminated Glass
5. Stained Glass
6. Reflective Glass
7. Low E Glass Window
8. Insulating glass
9. Colored glass
Cybertecture egg , Mumbai Infosys multiplex, Mysore

Infinity towers , Kolkata

Software development block,infosys
Kohinoor Square,Mumbai

ONGC,mumbai
 Addis Ababa Science & Technology
Department of Architecture

End

Thank you

8/13/2023 Instructor: TBA 86