GROUP 2 REPORT OUTLINE ON HARDSCAPE MATERIALS

Wood, Stones, Clay, and Ceramic Tile

Ali, Anguren, Apis, Cabonce, Gervacio, Letada, Lorenzo, Questo, Sobrevega, Uy

WOOD

CHARACTERISTICS

● STRENGTH - Wood, as compared to steel, can be both light and flexible and
can be durable and stiff. Another characteristic of wood is its anisotropic
property, wherein it has different properties in different directions. Therefore,
they do not behave in same direction, due to its annual-ring-and-grain
structure.

● DURABILITY - Wood is prone to decay through rotting, where organisms,

specifically termites and beetles, gradually chew the cellulose and lignin which
destroys the wood and eventually making it into dust.

● MOISTURE - It is not surprising that fully saturated wood may contain a

weight of water significantly greater than the weight of dry wood substance
because of the highly cellular structure of wood and the fact that the weight of
the dry wood substance may be as little as 20 to 30 lb per cu ft (the lower
value being for some softwoods). Since green wood has dried down to this
stage, it will have had relatively minimal change in characteristics and little to
no shrinkage, having mostly lost weight. This moisture state is of key
significance. Shrinkage develops gradually after drying below this point,
typically proportional to a decrease in moisture content below the fiber
saturation point. This innate quality is crucial since it influences the wood's
further drying and the manufacturing process that follows. It also has an
impact on how wood is used since changes in moisture content while in use
will result in changes to the material's dimensions, including swelling after
rewetting.

● VARIETY - Its fundamental structure and features are seen to have a

directional and dynamic nature. In order to utilize wood to its greatest
capacity, a specific application must be made while taking into account the
wood's essential properties.

MAIN TYPES
 (1) Softwood - These are the wood and lumber which are milled form conifer
trees. Softwoods, particularly from cypress family has the characteristics of
resistance to rotting and insects. Softwoods also has poorer resistance to fire
than hardwoods. Examples are:
● Redwood
● Douglas Fir
● Cedar wood
● Larch/ Tamarack

(2) Hardwood - These are from broad-leaved (deciduous) trees. Dark

colored-woods, and are highly ruable and lasts for several decades.
Hardwoods also has higher resistance to fire, thus burn in a slow rate.
● Alder
● Ash wood
● Aspen
● Balsa Wood
● Basswood
● Beechwood
● Birch wood
● Cherry wood
● Ebony
● Maple
● Luan
● Mahogany

(3) Engineered wood - These are woods that does not occur naturally in the
environment, but are instead manufactured. They are treated through
chemical or heat process to produce a wood product.
● Hardboard
● Veneered bamboo

APPLICATION OF WOOD ON SITE DEVELOPMENT

TREATMENT, JOINERIES, AND MAINTENANCE

Wood Treatment
Wood treatment is an essential aspect in applying wood on site development, thus explained below
are considerations, methods, and techniques summarized by Devaraj and A meda.

If moisture, oxygen, and temperature are not kept under control, wood will
deteriorate. Keeping wood dry is the easiest approach to stop biological decay.
However, for outside constructions, this is not feasible. The only way to stop wood
from deteriorating is to choose wood species that are resistant to decay or wood that
has been treated with preservatives. Wood can deteriorate in several ways, including
by losing strength as a result of flaws, absorbing water and warping, and raised grain
shelling.

How is wood treated?

Inside high-pressure cylinders, copper and arsenic are driven into the grain of the
wood to cure it. Pressure-treated wood is acceptable to use in vegetable gardens
since the chemicals are fixed in the wood and don't drain out.

Chemicals in wood preservatives fight the fungi and insects that damage or discolor
wood. A penetrating wood finish coated in oils or waxes called a "water repellent" is
made to stop water from permeating wood. Wood is re-dried following the use of any
waterborne-preservative-treatment method (kiln dried or air dried).

Alternative Treatment Methods

The following treatments can also be applied to wood, however they are more for
aesthetics than for preservation.

● Painting: To completely hide the wood grain, two coats of paint are put over one
coat of priming.

● Bleaching: A consistent weathered appearance can be obtained.

● Staining: a finishing technique that keeps the wood's "natural" appearance.

○ Transparent stains don't include pigments, but they do have
water-repellent properties that shield the wood from damage without
obscuring its original coloring and slow the process of natural color
fading.
○ Because of the additional pigment, semi-transparent stains are less
"natural" but still lovely. They alter the original wood color and, to a
lesser extent, the wood's features, such as its grain and knots, but
not enough to lessen the influence of the wood's inherent properties.
○ High pigment content opaque stains completely cover the wood's
grain and color.

Treatment on Old Wood

Significant blistering and peeling are symptoms of serious moisture issues. Before
repainting, it could be essential to install exhaust fans, attic louvers or fans, vented
holes or wedge vents, and caulking. It might be required to power sand the wood
down to its bare surface before priming and painting. Chalking can be cleaned off
with water. Mildew can be removed by giving the affected area a thorough cleaning
with dish detergent, followed by using a solution of water and bleach that you should
allow to sit on the area for a few minutes before rinsing off.

Natural decay resistance

Use of lumber with natural decay resistance such as cedars, redwood, and bald
cypress can be used

Wood Joineries

Image source: http://rojgaraurnirman.in/notes.asp?iid=146020491-woodworking+joints&cid=6

Wood joinery concepts should be mastered in order to apply it in woodwork. The

following are the most commonly used joineries listed and explained by Chris Baylor.

In order to use wood joinery in woodwork, it is necessary to grasp certain

ideas. Chris Baylor has identified and explained the most popular joineries
below.

● A basic butt joint is created when two pieces of wood butt into one another
and are secured with screws. On building sites and in wall framing, this is
frequently employed.
● A mitered butt joint is when the two boards are attached at an angle (instead
of square to one another). Although less sturdy, the mitered butt joint is more
aesthetically beautiful.
● In a half-lap joint, half of each of the two boards being joined is taken out so
that the two boards join flush with one another. This type of wood joinery is a
stronger joint than butt joints.
● Tongue and groove refers to the joining of two boards with long edges that
are square to one another and kept together by fasteners. When bonding the
connection, this joinery offers more contiguous surface areas, which is
especially helpful.
● To hold the boards in place, a biscuit joint is used, which involves cutting
gaps and using biscuit-shaped beechwood wafers. This cutting-edge
 woodworking joint, which depends on glue and the swelling of the beechwood
biscuit, is very beneficial for making table tops.
● Cutting a slot between two boards and drilling an angled pilot hole before
screwing the two together is known as a pocket joint.
● A dado joint is nothing more than an area on one board with a square groove
where another board can fit. This is a typical wood joinery technique, like
tongue and groove joinery, for joining plywood, such as when making
cabinets. Find out when to use a dado and how to cut one effectively.
● The Rabbet Joint, which is essentially a cut along a board's edge, is used in
cabinetry. These are frequently utilized at the back of cabinets to fasten the
back to the box's sides.
● The Dovetail Joint is stunning and robust. Either manual cutting or machining
using a jig can be used to make dovetails.
● When a dovetail joint is the best connection but neither of the dovetail edges
should be visible, the half-blind dovetail is employed.
● The sliding dovetail joint has a wide range of applications. It's best to picture
it as a locking dado. Discover how to construct a precise sliding dovetail joint
and when to utilize one. to continue
● Dovetail joints can be replaced by box joints, which are more useful.

Fastening Methods for Wood

Image Source: https://www.novausawood.com/best-fastening-methods-for-hardwood-decking

Maintenance

The discussion on maintenance is based on the summary of the Royal City Nursery.

● Annual Cleaning. Wooden hardscapes should have thorough annual cleaning.

Dirt, dust, and grit must be removed through stiff bristles, especially those
 between joineries. A biodegradable outdoor cleaner can also be used.
Pressure-washing can also be done if the area is severely grimy, but is not
recommended for composite wood decking.
● Re-Staining. Re-sealing and re-staining are key to proper deck care and should
be done every few years. Before re-staining, the wood should be dried and
crack should be filled and smoothed. Sanding should also be done before
resealing.

Common application in site development

(1) Deck/Patio

Image source: https://www.seekpng.com/ipng/u2w7u2q8i1o0u2t4_timber-decking-woodcampus-build-outdoor-furniture-with-timber/

https://www.archdaily.com/950144/wooden-decks-in-public-spaces-welcoming-floors-for-collective-meeting

A wood patio uses wood furniture and potentially wood fencing in place of
concrete pavement. Typically, the patio is attached to or near to a private
residence or another structure. The patio can be constructed using a variety
of wood kinds and sealed with weather-resistant sealer (Kate, 2022).

Public Seating

Street furniture made of wood combines aesthetics and

toughness. The sitting location and its proximity to
pedestrians should be taken into account when
determining the design and construction (MReuter,
2020).
Image source: https://www.planmarketplace.com/downloads/bench-detail/
https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/earthkind/planning-the-home-landscape/landscape-construction/

(2) Gazebo and Pergola

Wood is utilized to build public shade structures. It serves both functional and
aesthetically.

Image source: https://www.evflowcytometry.org/pergola-schema-k.html

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/488007309623194154/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/donghu-park--261842165823223678/

(3) Railings

For many years, wood railings have been a common choice. It does result in
sleek, earthy railings that often have a polished appearance (Mountain View
Sun Decks, 2020).
 Image source:
https://buildingadvisor.com/materials/decks-porches/building-deck-railings/

(4) Fence

Fences made of wood are economical and sustainable. Wood is simple to

install and, with careful upkeep, can last for many years.

Image source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/40391727888304651/

http://woodtools.nov.ru/projects2/WoodPlan/index.htm
https://cameronheightshoa.com/fencing-requirements/
https://www.familyhandyman.com/project/construct-a-custom-fence-and-gate/

(5) Pathway
 Wood is an excellent material to cover outdoor paths since it gives any
outdoor space a natural appearance. Although these walkways won't endure
for very long, they are warm and natural and blend in with the surroundings
(Shelterness, 2019).

Image source: https://www.pinterest.com/kdkoriginals/wooden-walkways/

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/487022147214362593/
https://letstalk.forterie.ca/bernard-beach-boardwalk-design/widgets/68385/photos/17771
https://www.familyhandyman.com/project/how-to-build-a-wooden-boardwalk/

(6) Planters

Image source:https://www.pinterest.com/pin/171910910761714008/
https://www.rona.ca/fr/projets/Build-a-flower-box
 INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION

Wood in Construction Problems

Wood has been used in construction since prehistory. However, it has several disadvantages
such as fire, decay, water damage and termites. During the 20th century the construction
industry shifted to concrete and steel (Jesus, 2021). Despite that, wood is a natural,
renewable, and sustainable material for building, it’s a raw material that stands on its own, it
can grow and harvested repeatedly (Martinez, 2015). This in turn made builders find ways to
use wood in construction while countering those problems and issues.

Wood in Construction Solution

Introducing a new way of using wood known as “mass timber” short for massive timber.
Mass timber involves sticking pieces of soft wood such as pine, spruce, or fir, sometimes
deciduous species such as birch, ash, and beech to form larger pieces like structural panels,
posts, and beams. Mass timber is a generic term that encompasses products of various
sizes and functions, like glue-laminated (glulam) beams, laminated veneer lumber (LVL),
nail-laminated timber (NLT), and dowel-laminated timber (DLT). But the most common and
most familiar form of mass timber is cross laminated timber (CLT) (Roberts, 2020).

How is Glue-Laminated Timber (GLT or Glulam) made?

Glulam is made with wood composed of kiln-dried and glued dimension lumber with the
strongest laminations centered within the beam. The resulting product is strong, stable and
corrosion proof with significant advantages over structural steel and concrete. Glulam is
often used for trusses, beams, and columns (Cesnik, 2022).
How is Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) made?

LVL is made of dried and graded wood veneers, strands or flakes that are layered upon one
another and bonded together with a moisture resistant adhesive into large blocks known as
billets. A diverse range of species can be used to produce LVL—such as Douglas-fir, larch,
pine, and spruce—to produce members that are beyond conventional lumber lengths.
Typically, LVL veneers are oriented in the same direction. LVL is suitable for use as beams,
trusses, planks, and rafters (naturallywood.com, n.d.).

How is Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT) made?

NLT is made of dimension lumber stacked together on its edge and fastened together with
nails or sometimes screws to form a solid structural element. NLT is popular for the
construction of floor and ceilings, often left exposed to feature a natural wood finish. While
most popular for floor and ceilings, NLT can be used as wood walls, stairs, and elevator
shafts. It can even be bent and assembled to create curvaceous roof structures
(naturallywood.com, n.d.).
How is Dowel-Laminated Timber (DLT)?

DLT is a mass timber panel product created by stacking dimension lumber together on its
edge (left) or cross laminating them (right), fit together with hardwood dowels. It can be used
as walls, floor and roof construction. Similar to nail-laminated timber, DLT panels can be
used as stairs and elevator shafts as well as bent and assembled to create curved
roof structures (naturallywood.com, n.d.).

How is Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) made?

According to Jesus (2021), CLT is made up of wooden planks that are sawn, glued and
layered, wherein each layer is oriented perpendicular to the previous plank. By joining layers
of wood at perpendicular angles, it gains structural strength for the panel. This results in an
extraordinarily strong and stable material. According to naturallywood.com (n.d.), CLT can
be used as an alternative to concrete to form the walls, roofs, floors, and ceilings of a
building, and is particularly well-suited to multistorey taller wood construction.
Advantage of Mass Timber According to (Cesnik, 2022)

1. PERFORMS WELL IN FIRE - CLT, like other mass timber products, naturally resists fire
because it chars. In the event of a fire, this char on the outside forms a protective layer while
retaining strength. This slows combustion significantly, allowing time for evacuation. For
added safety, typical CLT construction that uses panels for floors and load-bearing walls
helps compartmentalize a fire—stopping it from spreading to other parts of a building.

2. SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION – Timber is easily modified on site and

produces little waste. The quick assembly wood panels provide a platform during
construction and prefabricated sections can be manufactured off site, decreasing
overall construction time.

3. REDUCED STRUCTURAL WEIGHT - Since wood construction weighs

significantly less than concrete or steel construction, the foundation can be reduced
in size – saving on construction time and cost, with an added CO2 benefit from less
concrete.

4. Thermal Performance – Wood’s natural insulating properties means it offers

strong thermal performance. By adapting the wood’s thickness, thermal properties
can be adjusted according to local climates.

5. Biophilic Design Benefits – Exposure to natural elements, such as wood, is

known to have a positive impact on human well-being. The warmth and quality of
exposed timber lends itself to the overall design of the space and saves on additional
finishes, since the structure acts as the finish.

EXAMPLES OF BUILDINGS THAT USED MASS TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION

1. Mactan Cebu International Airport

 The second largest airport in the Philippines has the first roof structure in Asia to be
completely made from 4,500 m3 of glue-laminated timber. The large arches are joined by
thousands of smaller ribs to form a skeletal structure. The timber beams were prefabricated
in Austria and assembled in Cebu in only three months (Jesus, 2021).

2. Clark International Airport New Terminal

The new, modern passenger terminal, located in a special economic zone, is expected to be
the next premier gateway of Asia, connecting travelers throughout the region. The wood used in the
glulam timber roof arches is made from white spruce imported from Austria sourced from
sustainable commercial forests (Jesus, 2021).

3. Wood Innovation Design Center

The Wood Innovation Design Center (WIDC) serves as a gathering place for researchers, academics,
and design professionals generating ideas for innovative uses of wood. The eight-story building
stands 97 feet tall — the world’s tallest modern all-timber office building, a benchmark soon to be
surpassed by other mass timber buildings (Castro, 2014).
References
Castro, F. (2014). Wood Innovation Design Centre / Michael Green
Architecture. Retrieved from
https://www.archdaily.com/630264/wood-innovation-design-centre-michael-gr
een-architecture

Cesnik, R. (2022, May 01). Why Mass Timber? Retrieved from

https://www.hdrinc.com/insights/why-mass-timber#:~:text=When%20sustaina
bly%2Dsourced%2C%20mass%20timber,mid%20and%20high%2Drise%20co
nstruction.

Jesus, A. d. (2021, January 02). Are we ready for timber buildings? Retrieved
from https://business.inquirer.net/315043/are-we-ready-for-timber-buildings

Martinez, T. (2015, August 21). Sustainable building: Why wood is our most
valuable resource. Retrieved from
https://www.usgbc.org/articles/sustainable-building-why-wood-our-most-valua
ble-resource

naturallywood.com. (n.d.). Cross-laminated timber (CLT). Retrieved from

https://www.naturallywood.com/products/cross-laminated-timber/#:~:text=Wha
t%20is%20CLT%20used%20for,insulated%20wall%20and%20roof%20sectio
ns.

Roberts, D. (2020, January 15). The hottest new thing in sustainable building
is, uh, wood. Retrieved from
https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2020/1/15/21058051/climate-ch
ange-building-materials-mass-timber-cross-laminated-clt

Baylor, C. (2009, February 15). 13 methods of wood joinery every woodworker

should know. The Spruce Crafts. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from
https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/wood-joinery-types-3536631
Devaraj, A., & A meda, P. (2010, April 13). Wood in landscaping. Scribd. Retrieved
August 16, 2022, from
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/29842989/Wood-in-Landscaping

Kate, P. (2022, July 20). What is a wood patio? (with pictures). Home Questions
Answered. Retrieved August 17, 2022, from
https://www.homequestionsanswered.com/what-is-a-wood-patio.htm
Mountain View Sun Decks. (2020, April 3). Aluminum vs wood railings. Retrieved
August 17, 2022, from
https://www.mountainviewsundecks.com/railings/aluminum-vs-wood-railings/
 MReuter. (2020, August 3). A closer look on … public benches! ABES - Public
Design. Retrieved August 17, 2022, from
https://abes-online.com/en/guides/a-closer-look-on-public-benches/

Royal City Nursery. (2022, January 20). How to care for wood decks and pergolas.
Retrieved August 17, 2022, from
https://royalcitynursery.com/how-to-care-for-wood-hardscapes/

Shelterness. (2019, March 30). 25 catchy and cozy wooden garden paths. Retrieved
August 17, 2022, from https://www.shelterness.com/wooden-garden-paths/

Builderology, Valerie, Mimi, Hallsten, D., Ajay, Alibrahim, A., Joy, K., Adler, R., Adel,
Tan, A. K., Singh, R., Emes, P. D., Standfast, Kerin, I., Abbott, J., Mw, Fewell, P.,
Ingrid, Mweetwa, E., … Chambers, F. L. (2021, March 21). Different types of wood &
their uses. Builderology. Retrieved August 14, 2022, from
https://builderology.com/types-of-wood/

Chris Woodford. Last updated: March 16. (2021, March 16). Wood - an introduction
to its structure, properties, and uses. Explain that Stuff. Retrieved August 14, 2022,
from https://www.explainthatstuff.com/wood.html

Government of Canada, N. R. C. C. (n.d.). CBD-85. some basic characteristics of

wood. NRC-IRC. Retrieved August 14, 2022, from
http://web.mit.edu/parmstr/Public/NRCan/CanBldgDigests/cbd085_e.html

Wood - landscape forms. (n.d.). Retrieved August 14, 2022, from

https://www.landscapeforms.com/en-US/LFI%20Material%20Tech%20Sheets/LF_Wo
od_Tech.pdf

Mou, S. U. (n.d.). Shanta Urmila Mou. Civil Engineering. Retrieved August 17, 2022,
from
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ood-and-hardwood

Scribd. (n.d.). Wood in landscaping. Scribd. Retrieved August 17, 2022, from
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/29842989/Wood-in-Landscaping

d. Detail dwgs

4. Stones

a. Characteristics

APPEARANCE - Building stones should have a fine, compact texture

since we will use them for the building's face work. Dark hues tend to
fade over time. Thus light colors are typically favored in stone. They
should be free of bands, colored markings, or clay holes.

STRUCTURE - When a stone is fractured, it shouldn't look dull, and the

texture should be consistent. Cavities, fractures, and soft or loose
material clumps should not exist. Typically found in sedimentary rocks,
stratifications shouldn't be visible to the unaided eye.

STRENGTH - It should be sturdy and long-lasting to withstand the

weather's eroding effects. In general, stones can survive the forces they come
into contact with in regular projects, but they should be examined for strength
in constructions where the pressures are unexpected. Stronger stones have
compact fine crystalline textures. Building stone compressive strengths
typically range from 60 to 200 N/mm2.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Building stone's specific gravity relates to both

its strength and weight directly. Therefore, stones with a higher specific
gravity shouldn't be used for harbors, docks, retaining walls, or dams. A
suitable building stone has a specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.8.

HARDNESS - Stones are subjected to abrasive pressures that are

brought on by wear and friction when they are used for flooring,
pavements, bridge aprons, and river weirs. Therefore, the stones that
will be utilized in these areas should have their hardness checked.

TOUGHNESS - It is a measurement of how much impact a stone can

take. Stones should be robust when subjected to vibrations from
moving weights and machines.

POROSITY & ABSORPTION - Porous building stones are not

recommended for use in construction, especially for exposed building
surfaces. Rainwater that falls carries certain acidic gases that combine
to generate light acids that soak into the surface. Stones dissolve when
acids interact with their components, causing them to crumble. Water
freezes in the pores of rocks in cold climates. Due to the water's
volume expansion upon freezing, it causes stones to crumble, spalling,
etc.
 Stones should be examined for porosity, and porous stones
should only be utilized in locations free of frost, rain, or other types of
moisture. The porosity of the rock directly relates to its ability to absorb
water. More water will be absorbed by porous rocks, which causes
stone to deteriorate faster.

Following are some types of stones and their maximum

percentage limit for water absorption:

● Sandstone : 10 %

● Limestone : 10%

● Granite : 1%

● Trap : 6%

● Shale : 10%

● Gneiss : 1%

● Slate : 1%

● Quartzite : 3%

SEASONING - Good stones should be free of quarry sap. All recently

quarried stones retain a certain amount of moisture known as quarry sap,
which makes them malleable and easier to deal with. They are permitted to
eliminate quarry sap by nature. Seasoning is the term for this quarry sap
removal operation. For optimum seasoning, 6 to 12 months is usually
sufficient.

WEATHERING - It refers to how well a stone can withstand the effects of

weather. Only significant buildings should be built using stones with good
weathering characteristics.

WORKABILITY - Stones are deemed to be workable if cutting, dressing, and

shaping them is considered affordable and straightforward to carry out. Know
the Cost of Building a House Today
 FIRE RESISTANT - Calcium carbonate, iron oxides, and minerals with various
coefficients of thermal expansion should not be present in building stones.
The quartz in igneous rock causes significant disintegration because it breaks
down into tiny particles at a temperature of about 575 C. However, limestone
can only sustain temperatures of up to 800 C before they start to crumble.

C. Types of Stone For Building Construction and Application

I. Basalt - often used for road construction as aggregates for

pavements, river walls, and dams.

1. Basalts are fine to medium textured with colors ranging

from dark gray to black.

2. Known for its strength and compactness, highly

resistant to water, and wind.

3. The high compressive strength makes it difficult for

carving or shaping to tiny slabs.

II. Slate - commonly used for roofing purposes, slabs, and sills work due
to its moisture resistance.

1. Slates consist of quarts, mica, and clay minerals.

2. It can be easily split and shaped into slabs. Due to its

versatility, it can be used for roof, pavements, and slabs

3. The slates are usually dark gray, greenish gray, purple

gray and black.

III. Gneiss - used in ornamental stones, street paving, gravestones, and

other minor constructions.

1. Gneiss is undesirable for dimension stones as it has

deleterious substance.

2. It does not have a high compactness and strength,

however, it can be used in light construction.

3. Can be found in purple, pink, gray, dark gray, and

greenish gray.

IV. Marble - among the most commonly used stone for facing and
ornamental works, and flooring.

1. Composed of dolomite or calcite crystal and mostly

characterized by its crystal-like feature.
 2. High compactness and strength and ability to be
polished,, however, has weak water resistance and
can cause staining, wear and tear.

3. Marble can be found from dense black, pink, purple, to

pure white and other colors.

V. Limestone - these are used for pavements, flooring, and as base

material for cement.

1. Some types of limestones are not suitable for

construction as they are usually soft and rich in clay
content.

2. Usable limestones are compact and dense without

cracks and cavities.

3. Limestones should not be used in places with industrial

gases and along coastal regions.

VI. Sandstone - used in masonry works, bridge-piers, and river walls.

1. Sandstone consists of quartz particles and felspar.

2. When combin ed with high-quality silica cement- it can

be used in large structures.

3. They range in grey, yellow, brown, red, and white.

VII. Quartzite - commonly used as countertops, floor and wall tiles.

1. Quartzite has fine to coarse grain composed mainly of

feldspar and mica.

2. More resistant to staining and scratches compared to

granite.

3. Can be found in a wide array of yellow, gray, and white.

VIII. Laterite - suitable as a building block and can be used in pavement

construction.

1. Spongy and porous texture due to breaking of some

basic components.

2. Exterior must be plastered and coated for the stone to

hold its weight. The longer they are seasoned, the
stronger they
 3. Color is determined by its iron content, and can be
found having brown, to gray shades.

IX. Granite - widely used for bridge piers, retaining,external cladding, and
stone columns.

1. Has a fine coarse grain and is considered durable and

hard.

2. Has low absorption value with good resistance to frost,

however, granite has poor fire resistance.

3. Granite is ideally suited for interior decoration as it is

polished well and will last even in acidic environments.

Sources:

Characteristics:

Namita (2018), Characteristics of Good Building Stones / Construction

Aggregate Properties. Retrieved from
https://civildigital.com/characteristics-of-good-building-stone-construction-aggr
egate-properties/

Application:

-https://theconstructor.org/building/stones-building-constructions/36144/

-https://www.brainkart.com/article/Characteristics-Of-Good-Building-Stone_35
76/

- https://www.builderspace.com/types-of-stones-used-in-construction

-https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-stones

Construction:

-https://classroom.synonym.com/limestone-ancient-greek-architecture-7981.ht
ml

-https://sustainablebuild.co.uk/constructionstone/

-https://theconstructor.org/building/stone-masonry-construction-materials-and-
classification/36306/

Detail Drawing:
-https://thestonetrust.org/stone-wall-design-and-specifications/

-https://sjce.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Stone-Masonry.pdf

-https://www.fdlnaturalstone.com/architects-specifications/

b. Construction

This are the types of stone for building construction:

i. Building Stone or dimension stone - Building stone comes in

different types. There are huge variations within each of these
rock types, caused by specific mineralogy and geology
conditions, and while any stone can be used for building, they
each have constraints that make them more or less suitable for
different purposes. Granite, sandstone and limestone can all be
used for building walls, but slate is only suitable for roofs and
floors.

1. Igneous rock, such as granite, is very hard and

nonporous.

2. Sedimentary rock, such as limestone, is soft and porous.

3. Metamorphic rock, such as marble, is very hard and

nonporous.

ii. Dry Stone Stacking - Dry stone stacking is the earliest form of
stone construction. These are freestanding structures such as
field walls, bridges and buildings that use irregularly shaped
stones carefully selected and placed so that they fit closely
together without slipping.

iii. Stone Masonry - This technique places stones in even or

uneven layers surrounded by mortar, a type of thin cement. The
mortar fixes the stones in place and allows walls to be a more
even thickness throughout the wall and in a thinner overall
thickness, but traditional stone masonry walls are still thick
compared to modern standards.

1. Rubble Masonry - This is the stone masonry type where

stones employed are either undressed or roughly
dressed. These masonry constructions do not have a
uniform thickness. The strength of the rubble masonry is
dependent on the quality of mortar used, use of long
 thorough stones, proper filling of mortar between the
stone spaces and joints.

a. Coursed Rubble Masonry

b. Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

c. Dry Rubble Masonry

d. Polygonal Masonry

e. Flint Masonry

2. Ashlar Masonry - Ashlar masonry is constructed using

accurately dressed stones that possess uniform and fine
joints. The thickness of the joints ranges about 3mm
which is arranged in various patterns. The size of the
stone blocks must be in proportion with the thickness of
the walls. The various types of ashlar masonry are:

a. Ashlar Fine Masonry

b. Ashlar Block in Course

c. Ashlar Chamfered Masonry

d. Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry

e. Rock or Quarry Faced Masonry

iv. Stone Veneer - Veneer stone construction features a thin layer

of stone attached with mortar to a concrete block wall or other
backer.

c. Detail dwgs

i. Dry Stone Construction

ii. Stone Masonry Construction (Rubble Masonry)

1. Coursed Rubble Masonry

2. Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

3. Dry Rubble Masonry

 4. Polygonal Masonry

5. Flint Masonry

iii. Stone Masonry Construction (Ashlar Masonry)

1. Ashlar Rough/Fine Masonry

2. Ashlar Chamfered Masonry

 3. Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry

4. Rock or Quarry Faced Masonry

iv. Stone Veneer

 REFERENCES:

- Namita (2018), Characteristics of Good Building Stones / Construction

Aggregate Properties. Retrieved from
https://civildigital.com/characteristics-of-good-building-stone-constructio
n-aggregate-properties/

5. Clay

a. Characteristics
Plasticity - Clay has a unique crystal structure of molecules where it
has the ability to form and retain shape by an outside force. It can be
affected by water where it becomes sticky that can easily hold a shape
from an external force.
Particle Size - Starting from the smallest clay particle, it has a
diameter of less than 0.002mm. Some of its particles are so small that
it cannot be seen under a standard microscope. Silt Particles of clay
ranges from 0.002 to 0.05mm
Metamorphous - Clay becomes hard when it is subjected to heat.

Two classes of clay:

Residual Clay - Found in the place of origin and formed by surface
 weathering which results in clay in one of three ways:
Chemical decomposition - granite containing silica and alumina
Solution of Rocks - limestone, contains clay-like impurities that
are insoluble and settle as clay

Disintegration and solution of shale

Transported Clay - sedimentary clay that has been deposited in a new
location that may be far from its original location due to erosion.

Example of Claybodies:
Porcelain - Compared to other clays, porcelain contains more clay
particles. It is used for making toilets, bathtubs, potter and tiles.
Stoneware - Compared to its earthenware and porcelain cousins,
stoneware is often a less porous and more durable substance.It is used
for cooking, baking or storing liquid
Earthenware - Compared to its porcelain and stoneware relatives,
earthenware often has a more porous and gritty feel. It is also used for
building, fire and pottery.

b. Application

i. Pavers- Clay bricks usually come in a rectangular shape and natural

colors. Clay bricks are versatile and have various installation options. It
is also durable and easy to maintain, making it ideal for exterior
applications.

Walkways - Clay bricks' durability and color retention make

them suitable for heavy foot traffic areas such as walkways.
Also, the clay bricks' surface ensures that it is not slippery when
it becomes wet.

Patios - The clay bricks have different installation patterns,

enabling many design options for the patios. The clay brick is a
timeless material that can add elegance to the patio's aesthetics.

Driveways - The property of clay brick to maintain its

skid-resistant even after constant and extensive use makes it
 applicable for driveways. The clay brick's durability and high
color retention prevent stains such as dirt, oil, and diesel from
being ingrained into the surface.

ii. Walls - The clay bricks have high insulating properties due to its
thermal mass that maintain pleasant indoor temperatures and reduce
energy consumption. The firing process the clay bricks undergo in
production makes them highly fire-resistant materials.

iii. Fences - Clay bricks can be used to create fencing. Since the
fences are prone to outdoor elements such as dirt, weather, and
insects the use of clay bricks is due to its durability and
low-maintenance.

iv. Steps - Together with poured concrete steps the clay bricks can be
used as brick veneer cladding to clad the steps.

v. Plants boxes/ Plant pots - Although prone to breakage, clay pots

can benefit plants. The porosity property of clay pots enables air
movement and moisture, creating a healthy environment for plants.
Also, it is resistant to rapid temperature change, which protects the
roots of the plants.

c. Construction

Clay - used as a building material all around the world, most frequently
baked into brick or roof tiles. The ease with which clay can be dug up
from the ground and used for processing.possesses good durability,
stability, and robustness. It has a potential lifespan of 100 years or
more because it can endure earthquakes and is fire resistant.
Clay Building Bricks - Clay bricks that are used in brick masonry
construction. Brick masonry is a construction wherein brick is laid out
systematically and uses mortar as the bonding agent.

Clay Facing Brick - These bricks are used in the facades of the
building. The bricks are manufactured where the surface texture, color,
and chipping are considered to achieve aesthetically pleasing features.

Clay Pavement Systems - The application of clay pavers depends on

the type of usage and site conditions; this may be used for pedestrian,
vehicular, residential, and nonresidential projects.
Installation Layout - There are a variety of layout patterns for
clay pavers. The type of setting bed and horizontal load should
be considered when choosing bond patterns. Out of the layout
patterns, the Herring Bone can handle more horizontal loads
because of its interlocking layout.

On Flexible Pavement - a pavement that does not rely on a

rigid surface to distribute loads on the subgrade. A flexible base
includes crushed stone, sand, or gravel. More economical
because it uses lesser materials. Flexible pavement consists of:

• subgrade

• base course

• bedding course

• surface course

• jointing sand

On Rigid Pavement - a pavement that relies on rigid to

distribute loads on the subgrade. The rigid base includes
concrete slabs. Rigid pavements components consist of:

• subgrade

• jointing sand
 • base course

• expansion joint

• joint filling

Drainage - The minimum recommended slope is 2 percent

grade. The three types of drainage in clay paving are surface
draining, subsurface restricted, and unrestricted.

● Surface Draining - typically occurs in clay pavement with

a mortar setting bed, where drainage happens on the
surface.

● Subsurface Restricted - It typically occurs in clay

pavement with a bituminous setting bed, where drainage
occurs below the setting bed

● Unrestricted - It typically occurs in clay pavement with

sand setting bed and aggregate base, where drainage
occurs on the surface, subsurface, and subgrade.

Architectural Terracotta - Architectural terracotta is an old form of

masonry used by different ancient structures. The terracotta is relevant
in construction today because of its sustainability, durability, low
maintenance, and thermal performance. There is handmade and
machine-made architectural terracotta that can be used today.

Examples of Buildings

1. University of Queensland, Louvred Terracotta Facade

 2. UOC Beatrice Tinsley Building Terracotta tile Cladding.

Innovative Construction

Accessible Clay Brick Pavements - new paving strategies and

techniques are used to accommodate people with disabilities.

Surface: use a paver with a planar surface and edges to

achieve a certain smoothness.

Level and Paver Lippage: Changes in level should be

kept to a minimum and not exceed 6.4 mm.

Joints: Minimize the width of the joints.

Bond Pattern: Locate joint lines parallel to the path of

travel.
 Street Trees and Utilities: Use fewer distributive trees or
add root barriers near brick pavements. Maintain the
minimum change in level and gaps between utilities and
brick.

Curbs: Minimize curbs cuts for a smoother surface

Detectable Warning Surfaces: Use truncated dome paver

or other warning surfaces in transitional areas.

Innovation in Brick Production - The innovation in the brick

industry throughout the decades resulted in improvement in the
quality, manufacturing, and techniques of bricks resulting to:

Higher Quality of Bricks: More uniform shape and sizes of

bricks lessen the use of mortar, which reduce material
consumption

Lesser energy consumption: The improvement in

manufacturing and production of bricks benefits the
environment.

Stronger Bricks: lesser waste due to lower breakage of

breakage. Innovative production increased the
compressive strength of bricks.

Engineered Clay-Based Bricks - There is development on the

production of clay-based bricks wherein adjustments of contents
of bricks using agricultural and industrial waste. The
development of clay-based bricks that utilize waster materials
can help conserve natural resources and energy consumption of
manufacturing.

d. Detail Drawings

Clay Pavement

i. Typical Section of Flexible Clay Pavement.

 i.a Drainage On Flexible Pavement

ii. Typical Section of Rigid Clay Pavement.

 i.a Drainage On Flexible Pavement

Clay Brick Venner

i.
SOURCES:
Brick industry Association (2012) Accessible Clay Brick Pavement. Retrieved from
https://www.gobrick.com/docs/default-source/read-research-documents/technicalnot
es/14e-accessible-clay-brick-pavements.pdf?sfvrsn=0

Kumari N. & Mohan C. (2021) Clay and Clay Minerals.

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/76780

Herzberg J. (2011) Clay. Retrieved from

https://leecollegelibrary.com/ceramics/clay/clay3.html
https://wheelandclay.com/4-types-of-clay/

Constro Facilitator (2002. Advantages of using clay facades for buildings. Retrieved
from
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/advantages-of-using-clay-facades-for-buildings/

ClayBricks. (n.d) Clay Brick Paths and Patios. Retrieved from

https://www.claybrick.org/19-clay-bricks-paths-and-patios

ClayBricks. (n.d) Advantages of Bricks. Retrieved from

http://www.claybricks.com/newsletter/newsletter-5/advantages-of-brick.html

Castaic Brick. (n.d) Brick Floors and Pavements. Retrieved from

https://www.clearimaging.com/cms/showrooms/castaicbricks/specifications_14floor.h
tm

Brick Industry Association. (2007) Paving Systems Using Clay Pavers. Retrieved
from https://studylib.net/doc/18771529/paving-systems-using-clay-pavers

Dines N. & Harris C. (1988) Time Saver Standards For Landscape Architecture (2nd
Edition). McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
S. Naganathan et al. (2013) Development Of Bricks From Waste Material: A Review
Paper. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306279418_Development_of_Bricks_from_
waste_material_A_review_paper
Yglesias, C (2014) The Innovative Use of Materials in Architecture and Landscape
Architecture. History, Theory and Performance. McFarland &Company, Inc., North
Carolina
6. Ceramic Tiles

The components on manufacturing ceramic tiles are composed of various

minerals and clays such as feldspar, zircon, bentonite, kaolin, and clay.

a. Characteristics

Toughness

Light Weight- A ceramic tile has 7.5mm thickness and weighs

one-third of a mosaic. It requires thinner floor bedding and costs
less compared to mosaic.

High Strength - the bending strength of is an indicator of the

strength of a material. Ceramic tiles are considerably extremely
strong that can withstand 350 to 400 kg/cm2 before braking,
while mosaic floors have about 100 to 150 kg/cm2.

Scratch/Abrasion Resistance - The hardness of a ceramic

tiles is on the Mohs scale is 6-7, this signifies that hard materials
with sharp edges will not leave any scratches due to its high
abrasion resistance..

Hygiene/Impermeability

Easy Washing - ceramic floors are known to have low water

absorption and make it easier in cleaning. It is important to take
consideration of the water absorption of a tile specifically for
outdoor use.

Note: If a tile absorbs 3% of moisture content, it is not suited for

cold climates where it may freeze and crack.
 Bacteria Free- one of its characteristics of a ceramic tile that no
bacteria could survive in it. This makes ceramic tiles an excellent
material for hospitals, kitchens, etc.

Stain Free - Ceramic tiles are considered to be the easiest

material to clean and maintain. Glazed and some unglazed tiles
resists to alkalies and acids that causes staining.

Safety

Fireproof - ceramic tiles are made by heating different types of

clays at 1900 degrees celsius, this makes ceramic tiles
completely fire-proof. It doesn’t have the ability to fuel fire.

Note: It provides protection to structural surfaces in times of fire.

Anti-slip - Ceramic tiles are salt glazed and are anti-slip and
non-skid.

Insulation - ceramic tiles are considerably very good insulator, this

reduces heat transfer between walls.

Note: This improves air-conditioning efficiency.

Acoustics - ceramic tiles helps in the elimination of echoes and it is

impressive in terms of acoustic damping.

Easy to lay and ready to live-in - it requires 48 hours after laying in

before utilizing the space.

Note: It has variety of color options and long exposure to light won’t
affect it

MAIN TYPES:
Glazed ceramic tiles - are ceramic tiles with a glass-like protective coating. It
thus varies from matte to semi-gloss or highly-gloss finish. Matte finish
ceramic tiles looks more similar to a natural stone finish where dirt is less
visible. While the highly-gloss finish ceramic tiles are more slippery and
scrapes are more observable. They are mostly used on the interior floors and
walls as they have better stain and moisture resistance.

Unglazed ceramic tiles - are ceramic tiles with very dense and hard surface
textures. Unlike glazed ceramic tiles, these unglazed tiles are mostly installed
on the exterior as they have a good slip resistance finish and do not provide
much protection against stains.

Most tiles are made from clay and other raw materials and fired. Thus, they
come under the same category as ceramic tiles. The following tiles are the
types of unglazed and glazed forms of ceramic tiles:

1. Earthenware tiles

2. Terracotta and faience

3. Fully vitrified tiles

4. Glazed tiles

5. Stoneware Tile

b. Application

Ceramic tiles are widely used both in commercial and residential

establishments where there is low foot traffic density. It can be used
both interior and exterior. However, indoor tiles are softer and less
durable compared to outdoor tiles. Application of these tiles in
residential areas widely increased on 2014 as it gives aesthetic look
and is budget-friendly. These are best applied on:

Flooring- ceramic tiles are widely used for flooring. It is always

available in the market and comes in a wide variety of designs and
sizes.
Walls - aside from flooring, ceramic tiles can also be applied to internal
and external walls. As it comes in a variety of designs, it makes a room
more appealing through its colors and patterns. But since ceramic tiles
are not a heat-absorbing material, it serves as a cooling effect when
used on external walls.

- In the living room

Due to the modern printing techniques nowadays, ceramic tiles

can imitate a variety of tile finishes. It can replicate popular
natural material floorings such as wood planks and marble.
Although this place is the highest traffic location, it does not
wear off easily as ceramic tiles are durable and easy to
maintain.

- In the Bathroom

Since ceramic tiles consist of a non-porous material, it makes a

significant contribution in watery areas such as the bathroom.
Dirt and stain can also be easily wiped away as it has an
easy-to-clean nature.

- In the Bedroom

The use of ceramic tiles in the bedroom is also ideal. Aside

from its aesthetically pleasing appearance, it is also …

- In the Kitchen

The glazing of ceramic tiles makes kitchen countertops

efficiently cleaned. Splashes from water or cooked foods can be
easily wiped as it is both stain and water-resistant.

- In the Swimming Pool

Ceramic tiles are commonly used on the swimming pool’s floor

and sides. As the pool is always wet, ceramic tiles resist molds
and bacteria from forming. It also withstands pool chemicals and
may provide a clean and healthy pool environment.
 - On terrace or patio

Ceramic tiles can be used for outdoor surfaces like terraces and
patios. However, proper waterproofing, grouting, and sealing of
tiles are highly recommended as it is much more prone to
expansion upon being exposed to the sun’s heat.

Importance of Ceramic Tile Thickness for Outdoor Use

● Indicates the required substrate

● Risk of breakage under load
● Stability of the terrace
● Processing ease

c. Construction

How are ceramic tiles made?

● The raw materials extracted to create tiles are processed into

pulverized particles by crushing them through the jaw crusher and
muller mills.

● Upon crushing, weighing, and sorting the raw materials into batches,
the manufacturing process then begins.

● Mixing and grinding the weighed materials proceeds into the mixer.
Wet milling results in a slurry or slip where water is added to the
material for a finer finish. Once achieved, the excess water of about
40-50% is removed through filter pressing followed by spray drying.

● The fine powder will then be molded into its shape through forming.
 ● To prevent possible cracks and shrinks, the formed material will then
be dried for a few days in a highly humid place. Thus, more moisture
will be removed.
● When the tile has dried enough, glazing then follows.
● To give an intense strength and improve the tile porosity, it is fired
up additionally in a low-temperature furnace or kiln.
● The tile will then be transferred, ready to be packed, and shipped.

Integration of Ceramic Tiles in Constructions

Manuel Herz’s arrestingly jagged Jewish Community Centre in Mainz, Germany is clad in glazed, bottle green
ceramic tiles; photos Iwan Baan

The walls of the centre’s interior are covered in densely packed Hebrew letters; photo Iwan Baan
 The white faience facade fronting One Eagle Place, in London’s Piccadilly, is adorned with a jazzy ceramic
cornice by artist Richard Deacon and red window reveals; photos Dirk Lindner

Spanish practice Mestura Arquitectes’ CEIP primary school near Barcelona is fronted by a double skin of ceramic
components forming a lattice, supplied by veteran ceramicist Toni Cumella
Tiles in seven, subtle shades of white, also provided by Toni Cumella, clad a building designed by architect Pedro
Campos Costa – a new addition to the existing Lisbon Oceanarium

Designed by Spanish architects-cum-landscape architects Urbanarbolismo, this ceramic wall, which doubles as a
vertical garden, soundproofs a restaurant in Ushuaïa Ibiza Beach hotel from its adjacent, open-air nightclub

d. Detail dwgs
Ceramic tile flooring system

Ceramic tile floor at ceramic tile wall

References

Characteristics

11 properties of ceramic tile flooring for use in buildings. The Constructor.

(2019). Retrieved from
https://theconstructor.org/building/11-properties-of-ceramic-tiles-flooring/34177/

A guide to ceramic tiles - tile warehouse. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.tilewarehouse.co.nz/media/1835181/guide-to-ceramic-tiles.pdf

Ceramic characteristics. RJA Floors. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.rjafloors.com/ceramic-characteristics.html

Constro Facilitator. (2020). Ceramic tiles for functional and aesthetic

performance. Constro Facilitator. Retrieved from
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/ceramic-tiles-for-functional-and-aesthetic-perf
ormance/

Tile styles. Grigsby's Carpet, Tile and Hardwood. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.grigsbys.com/tilestyles

Application

5 ways how ceramic tiles is used in modern, day-to-day life - somany. (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.somanyceramics.com/blog/applications-of-ceramic-tiles-2

Balasbaneh, A. T.,et. al. (2021). Applying three pillar indicator assessments on

alternative floor systems: life cycle study. The International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment, 26(7), 1439–1455. doi:10.1007/s11367-021-01881-6

Ceramic tile. How Products Are Made. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Ceramic-Tile.html

Types of tiles and their applications in building construction. The Constructor.

(2021). Retrieved 2022, from
https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-tiles-applications-building-constructio
n/15649/

Detail Drawing

Floor intersection details: Architectural standard drawings. Paktech Point.

(2020). Retrieved from
https://paktechpoint.com/floor-intersection-details-architectural-standard-drawin
gs/
Integration Of Ceramics Tiles in Construction

Lutyens, D. (2013). Out on the tiles: Ceramic architectural facades. Architonic.

Retrieved from
https://www.architonic.com/en/story/dominic-lutyens-out-on-the-tiles-ceramic-ar
chitectural-facades/7000794