Algebra Cheat Sheet Logarithms and Log Properties

Definition Logarithm Properties

y = log b x is equivalent to x = b y log b b = 1 log b 1 = 0
Basic Properties & Facts
Arithmetic Operations Properties of Inequalities log b b x = x b logb x = x
If a < b then a + c < b + c and a - c < b - c Example
ab + ac = a ( b + c )
æ b ö ab
aç ÷ = log b ( x r ) = r log b x
a b log 5 125 = 3 because 53 = 125
ècø c If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc and < log b ( xy ) = log b x + log b y
æaö c c
ç ÷ a a b Special Logarithms æxö
èbø = a ac If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc and > log b ç ÷ = log b x - log b y
= ln x = log e x natural log
c bc æbö b c c è yø
ç ÷ log x = log 10 x common log
ècø
Properties of Absolute Value where e = 2.718281828K The domain of log b x is x > 0
a c ad + bc a c ad - bc ìa if a ³ 0
+ = - = a =í Factoring and Solving
b d bd b d bd î - a if a < 0 Factoring Formulas Quadratic Formula
a -b b-a a +b a b a ³0 -a = a x 2 - a 2 = ( x + a )( x - a ) Solve ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a ¹ 0
= = +
c -d d -c c c c a a x 2 + 2ax + a 2 = ( x + a )
2 -b ± b 2 - 4ac
ab = a b = x=
æaö b b 2a
ç ÷ ad x 2 - 2ax + a 2 = ( x - a )
2
ab + ac èbø = If b 2 - 4 ac > 0 - Two real unequal solns.
= b + c, a ¹ 0 a+b £ a + b Triangle Inequality
a æ c ö bc x 2 + ( a + b ) x + ab = ( x + a )( x + b ) If b 2 - 4 ac = 0 - Repeated real solution.
ç ÷
èdø Distance Formula x 3 + 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 = ( x + a )
3 If b 2 - 4 ac < 0 - Two complex solutions.
Exponent Properties If P1 = ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 = ( x2 , y 2 ) are two
x 3 - 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x - a 3 = ( x - a )
3
an 1 Square Root Property
a n a m = a n+ m = a n-m = m- n points the distance between them is
am a x + a = ( x + a ) ( x - ax + a
3 3 2
) 2 If x 2 = p then x = ± p

(a )
m
=a a = 1, a ¹ 0 - a = ( x - a ) ( x + ax + a )
n nm 0
d ( P1 , P2 ) = ( x2 - x1 ) + ( y 2 - y1 )
2 2
x3 3 2 2
Absolute Value Equations/Inequalities
- a = ( x - a )( x + a ) If b is a positive number
n n
æaö a x 2n 2n n n n n
( ab )
n
= a n bn ç ÷ = n Complex Numbers p =b Þ p = -b or p = b
èbø b If n is odd then,
a -n 1
= n
1
= an x n - a n = ( x - a ) ( x n -1 + ax n - 2 + L + a n -1 ) p <b Þ -b < p < b
i = -1 i = -1
2
-a = i a , a ³ 0
a a- n p >b Þ p < -b or p >b
-n n ( a + bi ) + ( c + di ) = a + c + ( b + d ) i xn + a n
æaö æbö bn
( ) = (a )
n 1

= ( x + a ) ( x n -1 - ax n - 2 + a 2 x n -3 - L + a n -1 )
n 1

ç ÷ =ç ÷ = n a = a n m

( a + bi ) - ( c + di ) = a - c + ( b - d ) i
m m

èbø èaø a
( a + bi )( c + di ) = ac - bd + ( ad + bc ) i Completing the Square
Properties of Radicals Solve 2 x 2 - 6 x - 10 = 0 (4) Factor the left side
( a + bi )( a - bi ) = a 2 + b 2 æ 3ö 29
2

n
a =a
1
n
ab = n a n b a + bi = a 2 + b 2 Complex Modulus (1) Divide by the coefficient of the x 2 çx- ÷ =
n
è 2ø 4
x 2 - 3x - 5 = 0 (5) Use Square Root Property
m n
a = nm a n
a na
= ( a + bi ) = a - bi Complex Conjugate (2) Move the constant to the other side.
b nb 3 29 29
( a + bi )( a + bi ) = a + bi
2
x 2 - 3x = 5 x- = ± =±
2 4 2
n
a = a, if n is odd
n
(3) Take half the coefficient of x, square
it and add it to both sides (6) Solve for x
n
a n = a , if n is even 2 2 3 29
æ 3ö æ 3ö 9 29 x= ±
x2 - 3x + ç - ÷ = 5 + ç - ÷ = 5 + = 2 2
è 2 ø è 2 ø 4 4

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Functions and Graphs Common Algebraic Errors
Constant Function Parabola/Quadratic Function Error Reason/Correct/Justification/Example
y = a or f ( x) = a x = ay 2 + by + c g ( y ) = ay 2 + by + c 2 2
¹ 0 and ¹ 2 Division by zero is undefined!
Graph is a horizontal line passing 0 0
through the point ( 0, a ) . The graph is a parabola that opens right ( -3 )
2
-32 ¹ 9 -32 = -9 , = 9 Watch parenthesis!
if a > 0 or left if a < 0 and has a vertex
(x ) (x )
3 3

æ æ b ö b ö
2
¹ x5 2
= x2 x2 x 2 = x 6
Line/Linear Function at ç g ç - ÷ , - ÷ .
y = mx + b or f ( x ) = mx + b è è 2a ø 2a ø a
¹ +
a a 1
=
1 1 1
¹ + =2
b+c b c 2 1+ 1 1 1
Graph is a line with point ( 0,b ) and
Circle 1 A more complex version of the previous
slope m. ¹ x -2 + x - 3
( x - h) + ( y - k ) = r2 x2 + x3 error.
2 2

Graph is a circle with radius r and center a + bx a bx bx

Slope a + bx = + = 1+
¹ 1 + bx
Slope of the line containing the two ( h, k ) . a
a a a a
points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is Beware of incorrect canceling!
- a ( x - 1) = -ax + a
y2 - y1 rise Ellipse -a ( x - 1) ¹ -ax - a
m= = Make sure you distribute the “-“!
( x - h) ( y - k)
2 2
x2 - x1 run
+ =1 ( x + a)
2
¹ x2 + a 2 ( x + a)
2
= ( x + a )( x + a ) = x 2 + 2ax + a 2
Slope – intercept form a2 b2
The equation of the line with slope m Graph is an ellipse with center ( h, k ) x2 + a2 ¹ x + a 5 = 25 = 32 + 42 ¹ 32 + 4 2 = 3 + 4 = 7
and y-intercept ( 0, b ) is with vertices a units right/left from the x+a ¹ x + a See previous error.
y = mx + b center and vertices b units up/down from More general versions of previous three
( x + a)
n
Point – Slope form the center. ¹ x n + a n and n
x+a ¹ n x + n a
errors.
The equation of the line with slope m
2 ( x + 1) = 2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) = 2 x 2 + 4 x + 2
2

and passing through the point ( x1 , y1 ) is Hyperbola

2 ( x + 1) ¹ ( 2 x + 2 )
2 2
( x - h) (y -k) ( 2x + 2)
2 2 2
y = y1 + m ( x - x1 ) = 4 x2 + 8x + 4
- =1
a2 b2 Square first then distribute!
Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and See the previous example. You can not
Parabola/Quadratic Function
right, has a center at ( h, k ) , vertices a ( 2x + 2) ¹ 2 ( x + 1)
2 2
factor out a constant if there is a power on
y = a ( x - h) + k f ( x) = a ( x - h) + k
2 2

units left/right of center and asymptotes the parenthesis!

1

The graph is a parabola that opens up if that pass through center with slope ± .
b -x2 + a2 = ( -x 2 + a 2 )2
a -x + a ¹ - x + a
2 2 2 2

a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a vertex Now see the previous error.
Hyperbola
at ( h, k ) . æaö
(y -k) ( x - h)
2 2
a ab ç ÷
- =1 ¹ a 1 æ a ö æ c ö ac
b 2
a 2 æ ö c
b = è ø = ç ÷ç ÷ =
Parabola/Quadratic Function ç ÷ æ b ö æ b ö è 1 øè b ø b
y = ax 2 + bx + c f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c Graph is a hyperbola that opens up and ècø ç ÷ ç ÷
ècø ècø
down, has a center at ( h, k ) , vertices b
æaö æaö
The graph is a parabola that opens up if units up/down from the center and æaö ç ÷ ç ÷
asymptotes that pass through center with ç ÷ ac è b ø = è b ø = æ a öæ 1 ö = a
a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a vertex èbø ¹ ç ÷ç ÷
b c æ c ö è b ø è c ø bc
æ b æ b öö slope ± . c b ç ÷
at ç - , f ç - ÷ ÷ . a è1ø
è 2 a è 2a ø ø

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Trig Cheat Sheet Formulas and Identities
Tangent and Cotangent Identities Half Angle Formulas (alternate form)
sin q cos q q 1 - cos q 1
Definition of the Trig Functions tan q = cot q = sin = ± sin 2 q = (1 - cos ( 2q ) )
Right triangle definition cos q sin q 2 2 2
For this definition we assume that Unit circle definition Reciprocal Identities
q 1 + cos q 1
p
0 < q < or 0° < q < 90° .
For this definition q is any angle. csc q =
1
sin q =
1 cos
2
=±
2
cos 2 q =
2
(1 + cos ( 2q ) )
2 y sin q csc q
1 1 q 1 - cos q 1 - cos ( 2q )
secq = cos q = tan =± tan 2 q =
( x, y ) cos q sec q 2 1 + cos q 1 + cos ( 2q )
hypotenuse 1 1 1 Sum and Difference Formulas
y q cot q = tan q =
opposite x tan q cot q sin (a ± b ) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b
x Pythagorean Identities cos (a ± b ) = cos a cos b m sin a sin b
q sin 2 q + cos 2 q = 1
tan a ± tan b
adjacent tan 2 q + 1 = sec 2 q tan (a ± b ) =
1 m tan a tan b
opposite hypotenuse y 1 1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q Product to Sum Formulas
sin q = csc q = sin q = = y csc q =
hypotenuse opposite 1
1 y Even/Odd Formulas sin a sin b = éëcos (a - b ) - cos (a + b ) ùû
adjacent hypotenuse x 1 sin ( -q ) = - sin q csc ( -q ) = - csc q 2
cos q = sec q = cos q = = x sec q =
hypotenuse adjacent 1
1 x cos ( -q ) = cos q sec ( -q ) = sec q cos a cos b = éë cos (a - b ) + cos (a + b ) ùû
opposite adjacent y x 2
tan q = cot q = tan q = cot q = tan ( -q ) = - tan q cot ( -q ) = - cot q 1
adjacent opposite x y sin a cos b = ëésin (a + b ) + sin (a - b ) ûù
Periodic Formulas 2
Facts and Properties If n is an integer. 1
cos a sin b = éësin (a + b ) - sin (a - b ) ùû
Domain sin (q + 2p n ) = sin q csc (q + 2p n ) = csc q 2
The domain is all the values of q that Period Sum to Product Formulas
cos (q + 2p n ) = cos q sec (q + 2p n ) = sec q
can be plugged into the function. The period of a function is the number, æa + b ö æa - b ö
tan (q + p n ) = tan q cot (q + p n ) = cot q sin a + sin b = 2 sin ç ÷ cos ç ÷
T, such that f (q + T ) = f (q ) . So, if w è 2 ø è 2 ø
sin q , q can be any angle is a fixed number and q is any angle we Double Angle Formulas
cos q , q can be any angle æa + b ö æa - b ö
have the following periods. sin a - sin b = 2 cos ç ÷ sin ç ÷
æ 1ö sin ( 2q ) = 2sin q cos q è 2 ø è 2 ø
tan q , q ¹ ç n + ÷ p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K
è 2ø 2p cos ( 2q ) = cos 2 q - sin 2 q æa + b ö
cos a + cos b = 2 cos ç
æa - b ö
sin ( wq ) ® T= ÷ cos ç ÷
csc q , q ¹ n p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K w = 2 cos 2 q - 1 è 2 ø è 2 ø
æ 1ö 2p æa + b ö æa - b ö
sec q , q ¹ ç n + ÷ p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K cos (wq ) ® T = = 1 - 2 sin 2 q cos a - cos b = -2sin ç ÷ sin ç ÷
è 2ø w è 2 ø è 2 ø
2 tan q
cot q , q ¹ n p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K tan (wq ) ® T =
p tan ( 2q ) = Cofunction Formulas
w 1 - tan 2 q
æp ö æp ö
Range 2p Degrees to Radians Formulas sin ç - q ÷ = cos q cos ç - q ÷ = sin q
csc (wq ) ® T = è2 ø è2 ø
The range is all possible values to get w If x is an angle in degrees and t is an
out of the function. angle in radians then æp ö æp ö
2p csc ç - q ÷ = sec q sec ç - q ÷ = csc q
-1 £ sin q £ 1 csc q ³ 1 and csc q £ -1 sec ( wq ) ® T = p t px 180t è2 ø è2 ø
w = Þ t= and x =
-1 £ cos q £ 1 sec q ³ 1 and sec q £ -1 180 x 180 p æp ö æp ö
p tan ç - q ÷ = cot q cot ç - q ÷ = tan q
-¥ < tan q < ¥ -¥ < cot q < ¥ cot ( wq ) ® T = è2 ø è2 ø
w

© 2005 Paul Dawkins © 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Unit Circle
Inverse Trig Functions
Definition Inverse Properties
y
( 0,1) y = sin -1 x is equivalent to x = sin y cos ( cos -1 ( x ) ) = x cos - 1 ( cos (q ) ) = q
p æ1 3ö y = cos -1 x is equivalent to x = cos y sin ( sin -1 ( x ) ) = x sin - 1 (sin (q ) ) = q
æ 1 3ö çç 2 , 2 ÷÷
ç- , ÷ 2 è ø
y = tan x is equivalent to x = tan y
-1
è 2 2 ø p æ 2 2ö tan ( tan - 1 ( x ) ) = x tan - 1 ( tan (q ) ) = q
2p 90° çç 2 , 2 ÷÷
æ 2 2ö 3 è ø
ç- , ÷ 3 Domain and Range
è 2 2 ø 120° p
3p 60° æ 3 1ö Function Domain Range Alternate Notation
4 çç , ÷÷ sin -1 x = arcsin x
æ 3 1ö 4 è 2 2ø p p
ç- , ÷ 135° 45° p y = sin -1 x -1 £ x £ 1 - £ y£
è 2 2ø 5p 2 2 cos -1 x = arccos x
6 0£ y£p
6 30° y = cos x -1
-1 £ x £ 1 tan -1 x = arctan x
150° p p
y = tan -1 x -¥ < x < ¥ - < y<
2 2
( -1,0) p 180° 0° 0 (1,0)
x Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents
360° 2p

c b a
210°
7p 330°
11p
6 225°
æ 3 1ö 6 æ 3 1ö a g
ç - ,- ÷ 5p 315° ç ,- ÷
è 2 2ø è 2 2ø
4 240° 300° 7p
æ 2ö 4p 270° b
ç-
2
,- ÷ 5p 4 æ 2 2ö
è 2 2 ø 3 3p ç ,- ÷
3 è 2 2 ø
2 Law of Sines Law of Tangents
æ 1 3ö
ç - ,- ÷
æ1
ç ,-
3ö
÷ sin a sin b sin g
= = a - b tan 12 (a - b )
è 2 2 ø è2 2 ø =
( 0,-1) a b c a + b tan 12 (a + b )
Law of Cosines b - c tan 12 ( b - g )
=
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos a b + c tan 12 ( b + g )
For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos q = x and sin q = y b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos b a - c tan 12 (a - g )
=
c = a + b - 2ab cos g a + c tan 12 (a + g )
2 2 2

Example
Mollweide’s Formula
æ 5p ö 1 æ 5p ö 3
cos ç ÷= sin ç ÷=- a + b cos 12 (a - b )
è 3 ø 2 è 3 ø 2 =
c sin 12 g

© 2005 Paul Dawkins © 2005 Paul Dawkins

Linear Algebra – Maths 2 – Formula sheet
System of n equations with m Augmented matrix Coefficient matrix
unknowns

Solving systems of linear equations – Method 1 (using reduction)

 Reduce the augmented matrix to row-echelon form (Gaussian Elimination). Then re-build the system and
use back substitution to find the solutions.
 Reduce the augmented matrix to reduced row-echelon (Gauss-Jordan Elimination). The last column of the
matrix represents the solutions of the system.

 Reduced row-echelon form - if it satisfies all four of the following conditions:

1. If there are any rows of all zeros then they are at the bottom of the matrix.
2. If a row does not consist of all zeros then its first non-zero entry (i.e. the left most
non-zero entry) is a 1. This 1 is called a leading 1.
3. In any two successive rows, neither of which consists of all zeroes, the leading 1
of the lower row is to the right of the leading 1 of the higher row.
4. If a column contains a leading 1 then all the other entries of that column are zero.

 Row-echelon form - if it satisfies items 1 – 3 of the reduced row-echelon form definition.

Solving systems of linear equations – Method 2 (using the inverse of a matrix)

 Given a system of linear equations Ax = b, where A is the coefficients matrix, if A is invertible, then the
system of equations has exactly one solution for every n×1 matrix b. The solution is: x = A-1b.
Matrix Operations
Matrix addition/subtraction: 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵 = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ± 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
Scalar multiplication: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 �
Matrix multiplication: If A is an n×p matrix and B is a p×m matrix then the product is a
new matrix with size n×m whose ijth entry is found by multiplying row i of A times
column j of B.
Transpose of a matrix
If A is an n×m matrix then AT , is an m× n matrix that is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

Matrix Properties
10. 𝐴𝐴0 = 𝐼𝐼
11. 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 = 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛+𝑚𝑚
12. (𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 )𝑚𝑚 = 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Properties of the Transpose
Special Matrices
 Diagonal: any matrix in which the only potentially non-zero entries are on the main diagonal
 Symmetric: A = AT
 If A is a square matrix and we can find another matrix of the same size, say B, such that AB = BA = I then we
call A invertible and we say that B is an inverse of the matrix A. If we can’t find such a matrix B we call A a
singular matrix.

Finding the inverse – Option 1: using the identity matrix

Finding the inverse – Option 2: using the adjoint matrix

For 2 x 2 matrices, use this:

Minors and Cofactors

Adjoint of a matrix: adj(A)

Sign matrix for calculating the cofactors
Solving systems of linear equations – Method 3 (using determinants)

Properties of determinants

Vectors
Vector Spaces
 Calculus Cheat Sheet Calculus Cheat Sheet

Limits Evaluation Techniques

Definitions Continuous Functions L’Hospital’s Rule
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we If f ( x ) is continuous at a then lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) f ( x) 0 f ( x) ± ¥
x®a x®¥ x®a If lim = or lim = then,
x® a g ( x ) 0 x®a g ( x ) ±¥
for every e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want by
whenever 0 < x - a < d then f ( x ) - L < e . Continuous Functions and Composition f ( x) f ¢( x)
taking x large enough and positive. lim = lim a is a number, ¥ or -¥
f ( x ) is continuous at b and lim g ( x ) = b then x® a g ( x ) x®a g ¢ ( x )
x®a

“Working” Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L

x®a
There is a similar definition for lim f ( x ) = L
x® - ¥
x®a
( x ®a
)
lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( b ) Polynomials at Infinity
p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials. To compute
if we can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want except we require x large and negative. Factor and Cancel
p (x)
by taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side x 2 + 4 x - 12 ( x - 2 )( x + 6 ) lim factor largest power of x in q ( x ) out
of a) without letting x = a . Infinite Limit : We say lim f ( x ) = ¥ if we lim = lim x® ± ¥ q ( x)
x®a x®2 x2 - 2 x x ®2 x ( x - 2)
can make f ( x ) arbitrarily large (and positive) of both p ( x ) and q ( x ) then compute limit.
x+6 8
Right hand limit : lim+ f ( x ) = L . This has
x® a
the same definition as the limit except it
by taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side
of a) without letting x = a .
= lim
x®2 x
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator
= =4
2
lim
3x 2 - 4
= lim
x 2 3 - 42(
x )
= lim
3 - 42
x
=-
3
x 2 ( 5x - 2 ) x ® - ¥ x - 2
x® - ¥ 5x - 2 x 2 5
requires x > a .
x® - ¥ 2
3- x 3- x 3+ x
There is a similar definition for lim f ( x ) = -¥ lim 2
x ® 9 x - 81
= lim 2
x ® 9 x - 81 3 Piecewise Function
x®a + x
Left hand limit : lim- f ( x ) = L . This has the ì x 2 + 5 if x < -2
x®a except we make f ( x ) arbitrarily large and 9-x -1 lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) = í
= lim = lim
î1 - 3 x if x ³ -2
same definition as the limit except it requires
( )
( x 2 - 81) 3 + x x ®9 ( x + 9) 3 + x ( )
x ® -2
negative. x®9
x <a. Compute two one sided limits,
Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits -1 1 lim- g ( x ) = lim- x 2 + 5 = 9
= =-
lim f ( x ) = L Þ lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L Þ lim f ( x ) = L (18 )( 6 ) 108 x ® -2 x ® -2

lim+ g ( x ) = lim+ 1 - 3x = 7
x® a x®a x ®a x®a x ®a x®a

lim f ( x ) ¹ lim- f ( x ) Þ lim f ( x ) Does Not Exist Combine Rational Expressions x ® -2 x ® -2

x®a+
One sided limits are different so lim g ( x )
x®a
1 æ x - ( x + h) ö
x®a
1æ 1 1ö
lim ç - ÷ = lim çç ÷÷ x ® -2

è + ø è x ( x + h) ø
h®0 h x h x h ®0 h
Properties doesn’t exist. If the two one sided limits had
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then, been equal then lim g ( x ) would have existed
x®a x® a 1 æ -h ö -1 1 x ® -2
= lim çç ÷÷ = lim =- 2
1. lim éë cf ( x )ùû = c lim f ( x ) é f ( x ) ù lim f ( x) h®0 h
è x ( x + h) ø
h ®0 x ( x + h ) x and had the same value.
x® a x®a 4. lim ê ú=
x®a
provided lim g ( x ) ¹ 0
x®a
ë g ( x ) û x®a ( x )
lim g x®a

2. lim ëé f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ûù = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x ) n Some Continuous Functions

5. lim éë f ( x ) ùû = é lim f ( x ) ù
n
x® a x®a x®a
x®a ë x ®a û Partial list of continuous functions and the values of x for which they are continuous.
1. Polynomials for all x. 7. cos ( x ) and sin ( x ) for all x.
3. lim éë f ( x ) g ( x ) ùû = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) 6. lim é n f ( x ) ù = n lim f ( x ) 2. Rational function, except for x’s that give
x®a ë û
8. tan ( x ) and sec ( x ) provided
x® a x®a x®a x ®a
division by zero.
Basic Limit Evaluations at ± ¥ 3. n
x (n odd) for all x. 3p p p 3p
x ¹ L, - , - , , ,L
2 2 2 2
Note : sgn ( a ) = 1 if a > 0 and sgn ( a ) = -1 if a < 0 . 4. n x (n even) for all x ³ 0 .
9. cot ( x ) and csc ( x ) provided
1. lim e x = ¥ & lim e x = 0 5. n even : lim x n = ¥ 5. e x for all x.
x® ¥ x® - ¥ x® ± ¥ 6. ln x for x > 0 . x ¹ L , -2p , -p , 0, p , 2p ,L
2. lim ln ( x ) = ¥ & lim+ ln ( x ) = - ¥ 6. n odd : lim x n = ¥ & lim x n = -¥
x® ¥ x®0 x® ¥ x®- ¥
Intermediate Value Theorem
b
3. If r > 0 then lim r = 0 7. n even : lim a x n + L + b x + c = sgn ( a ) ¥ Suppose that f ( x ) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
x® ± ¥
x® ¥ x
8. n odd : lim a x n + L + b x + c = sgn ( a ) ¥ Then there exists a number c such that a < c < b and f ( c ) = M .
4. If r > 0 and x r is real for negative x x® ¥
b
then lim r = 0 9. n odd : lim a x + L + c x + d = - sgn ( a ) ¥
n
x ® -¥
x® - ¥ x

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet Calculus Cheat Sheet

Derivatives Chain Rule Variants

Definition and Notation The chain rule applied to some specific functions.

If y = f ( x ) then the derivative is defined to be f ¢ ( x ) = lim

h®0
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
h
. 1.
d
dx ë
( n
)
é f ( x ) ùû = n éë f ( x ) ùû f ¢ ( x )
n -1
5.
d
dx
( )
cos éë f ( x ) ùû = - f ¢ ( x ) sin éë f ( x ) ùû

If y = f ( x ) then all of the following are If y = f ( x ) all of the following are equivalent
2.
dx
e (
d f (x)
)
= f ¢( x)e ( )
f x
6.
d
dx
( )
tan éë f ( x ) ùû = f ¢ ( x ) sec 2 éë f ( x ) ùû

f ¢( x) d
equivalent notations for the derivative. notations for derivative evaluated at x = a . 3.
d
(
ln ëé f ( x ) ûù = ) 7. ( sec [ f ( x ) ]) = f ¢( x ) sec [ f ( x ) ] tan [ f ( x )]
df dy d df dy dx f ( x) dx
f ¢( x ) = y¢ = = = ( f ( x ) ) = Df ( x ) f ¢ ( a ) = y ¢ x =a = = = Df ( a ) d f ¢( x)
dx dx dx dx x =a dx x =a 4.
d
( )
sin éë f ( x ) ùû = f ¢ ( x ) cos éë f ( x ) ùû 8. (
tan -1 éë f ( x ) ùû = )
ë f ( x ) ùû
2
dx dx 1 + é
Interpretation of the Derivative
If y = f ( x ) then, 2. f ¢ ( a ) is the instantaneous rate of Higher Order Derivatives
The Second Derivative is denoted as The nth Derivative is denoted as
1. m = f ¢ ( a ) is the slope of the tangent change of f ( x ) at x = a . 2
d f dn f
f ¢¢ ( x ) = f ( ) ( x ) = 2 and is defined as f ( ) ( x ) = n and is defined as
2 n
line to y = f ( x ) at x = a and the 3. If f ( x ) is the position of an object at dx dx
equation of the tangent line at x = a is time x then f ¢ ( a ) is the velocity of ¢
given by y = f ( a ) + f ¢ ( a )( x - a ) . the object at x = a .
f ¢¢ ( x ) = ( f ¢ ( x ) ) , i.e. the derivative of the ( n) n -1 ¢
( )
f ( x ) = f ( ) ( x ) , i.e. the derivative of
first derivative, f ¢ ( x ) . the (n-1)st derivative, f ( ) x .
n -1
( )
Basic Properties and Formulas
If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are differentiable functions (the derivative exists), c and n are any real numbers, Implicit Differentiation
d Find y¢ if e 2 x - 9 y + x 3 y 2 = sin ( y ) + 11x . Remember y = y ( x ) here, so products/quotients of x and y
1. ( c f )¢ = c f ¢ ( x ) 5. (c) = 0 will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The “trick” is to
dx
2. (f ± g )¢ = f ¢ ( x ) ± g ¢ ( x ) d n differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y¢ (from the chain rule).
6.
dx
( x ) = n x n-1 – Power Rule After differentiating solve for y¢ .
3. ( f g )¢ = f ¢ g + f g ¢ – Product Rule d
7. ( )
f ( g ( x)) = f ¢( g ( x)) g¢( x) e 2 x - 9 y ( 2 - 9 y¢ ) + 3x 2 y 2 + 2 x 3 y y¢ = cos ( y ) y ¢ + 11
æ f ö¢ f ¢ g - f g ¢ dx
11 - 2e 2 x - 9 y - 3x 2 y 2
4. ç ÷ = – Quotient Rule This is the Chain Rule 2e2 x - 9 y - 9 y¢e 2 x - 9 y + 3x 2 y 2 + 2 x 3 y y¢ = cos ( y ) y¢ + 11 Þ y¢ =
ègø g2 2 x 3 y - 9e 2 x - 9 y - cos ( y )
( 2 x y - 9e x
3 2 -9 y
- cos ( y ) ) y¢ = 11 - 2e2 x - 9 y - 3 x 2 y 2
Common Derivatives
d d d x
dx
( x) = 1
dx
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
( a ) = a x ln ( a ) Increasing/Decreasing – Concave Up/Concave Down
Critical Points
d d d x x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) provided either
( sin x ) = cos x ( cot x ) = - csc2 x (e ) = e x Concave Up/Concave Down
dx dx dx 1. If f ¢¢ ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
1. f ¢ ( c ) = 0 or 2. f ¢ ( c ) doesn’t exist.
d d
dx
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
( sin -1 x ) = 1 2 d
dx
1
( ln ( x ) ) = x , x > 0 f ( x ) is concave up on the interval I.
1- x
d d 1 Increasing/Decreasing 2. If f ¢¢ ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then
dx
( tan x ) = sec 2 x d
( cos x ) = - 1 2
-1
dx
( ln x ) = x , x ¹ 0 1. If f ¢ ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is concave down on the interval I.
dx 1- x
d d 1 f ( x ) is increasing on the interval I.
( sec x ) = sec x tan x d 1
( tan x ) = 1 + x2
-1 ( log a ( x ) ) = x ln a , x > 0
dx dx dx 2. If f ¢ ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then Inflection Points
x = c is a inflection point of f ( x ) if the
f ( x ) is decreasing on the interval I.
concavity changes at x = c .
3. If f ¢ ( x ) = 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is constant on the interval I.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet Calculus Cheat Sheet

Extrema Related Rates

Absolute Extrema Relative (local) Extrema Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x ) 1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of and differentiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time
f ( x ) if f ( c ) ³ f ( x ) for all x near c. you differentiate a function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
if f ( c ) ³ f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
2. x = c is a relative (or local) minimum of Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall. Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x ) The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being starts walking north. The angle q changes at
f ( x ) if f ( c ) £ f ( x ) for all x near c.
if f ( c ) £ f ( x ) for all x in the domain. pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast 0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
is the top moving after 12 sec? between them changing when q = 0.5 rad?
1st Derivative Test
Fermat’s Theorem If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) then x = c is
If f ( x ) has a relative (or local) extrema at
1. a rel. max. of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) > 0 to the left
x = c , then x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) .
of x = c and f ¢ ( x ) < 0 to the right of x = c .
We have q ¢ = 0.01 rad/min. and want to find
Extreme Value Theorem 2. a rel. min. of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) < 0 to the left x¢ is negative because x is decreasing. Using
x¢ . We can use various trig fcns but easiest is,
If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval Pythagorean Theorem and differentiating,
of x = c and f ¢ ( x ) > 0 to the right of x = c . x x¢
x 2 + y 2 = 152 Þ 2 x x¢ + 2 y y¢ = 0 sec q = Þ sec q tan q q ¢ =
[a, b ] then there exist numbers c and d so that, 3. not a relative extrema of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) is
After 12 sec we have x = 10 - 12 ( 14 ) = 7 and
50 50
We know q = 0.5 so plug in q ¢ and solve.
1. a £ c, d £ b , 2. f ( c ) is the abs. max. in the same sign on both sides of x = c .
x¢
so y = 152 - 7 2 = 176 . Plug in and solve sec ( 0.5 ) tan ( 0.5)( 0.01) =
[a, b ] , 3. f ( d ) is the abs. min. in [a, b ] . 2nd Derivative Test for y¢ . 50
If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) such that 7 x¢ = 0.3112 ft/sec
Finding Absolute Extrema 7 ( - 14 ) + 176 y¢ = 0 Þ y¢ = ft/sec Remember to have calculator in radians!
To find the absolute extrema of the continuous f ¢ ( c ) = 0 then x = c 4 176
function f ( x ) on the interval [ a, b ] use the 1. is a relative maximum of f ( x ) if f ¢¢ ( c ) < 0 .
Optimization
following process. 2. is a relative minimum of f ( x ) if f ¢¢ ( c ) > 0 . Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) in [ a, b ] . 3. may be a relative maximum, relative one of the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
2. Evaluate f ( x ) at all points found in Step 1. minimum, or neither if f ¢¢ ( c ) = 0 . variables and verify that they are min/max as needed.
Ex. We’re enclosing a rectangular field with Ex. Determine point(s) on y = x 2 + 1 that are
3. Evaluate f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
Finding Relative Extrema and/or 500 ft of fence material and one side of the closest to (0,2).
4. Identify the abs. max. (largest function field is a building. Determine dimensions that
value) and the abs. min.(smallest function Classify Critical Points
will maximize the enclosed area.
value) from the evaluations in Steps 2 & 3. 1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) .
2. Use the 1st derivative test or the 2nd
derivative test on each critical point.
Minimize f = d 2 = ( x - 0 ) + ( y - 2 ) and the
2 2

Mean Value Theorem Maximize A = xy subject to constraint of constraint is y = x 2 + 1 . Solve constraint for
If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval [ a, b ] and differentiable on the open interval ( a, b ) x + 2 y = 500 . Solve constraint for x and plug
x 2 and plug into the function.
into area.
f (b ) - f ( a) x2 = y -1 Þ f = x 2 + ( y - 2)
2

then there is a number a < c < b such that f ¢ ( c ) = . A = y ( 500 - 2 y )

b-a x = 500 - 2 y Þ
= y -1 + ( y - 2) = y 2 - 3 y + 3
2
= 500 y - 2 y 2
Newton’s Method Differentiate and find critical point(s). Differentiate and find critical point(s).
f ( xn ) A¢ = 500 - 4 y Þ y = 125 f ¢ = 2y -3 Þ y = 32
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f ( x ) = 0 then (n+1)st guess is xn +1 = xn - By 2nd deriv. test this is a rel. max. and so is nd
By the 2 derivative test this is a rel. min. and
f ¢ ( xn )
the answer we’re after. Finally, find x. so all we need to do is find x value(s).
provided f ¢ ( xn ) exists. x = 500 - 2 (125 ) = 250 x 2 = 32 - 1 = 12 Þ x = ± 12
The dimensions are then 250 x 125. The 2 points are then ( 1
2 )
, 32 and - ( 1
2 )
, 32 .

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet Calculus Cheat Sheet

Integrals Standard Integration Techniques

Definitions Note that at many schools all but the Substitution Rule tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
( )
ò a f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx = ò g ( a) f ( u ) du
b g b
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b] into n subintervals of is a function, F ( x ) , such that F ¢ ( x ) = f ( x ) . u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert using
width D x and choose x from each interval. Indefinite Integral : ò f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c du = g ¢ ( x ) dx . For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.
*
i
¥
b
f (x )D x . where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) . 2
cos ( x 3 ) dx
2
cos ( x3 ) dx = ò
8
ò a f ( x ) dx = nlim å ò1 5x ò1 5x cos ( u ) du
* 2 2 5
Then Ex.
®¥
i
1 3
i =1
u = x3 Þ du = 3 x 2 dx Þ x 2 dx = 13 du (sin (8 ) - sin (1) )
8
= 53 sin ( u ) 1 = 5
3
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus x = 1 Þ u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 Þ u = 2 = 8
3 3

Part I : If f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b] then Variants of Part I :

d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u¢ ( x ) f ëé u ( x ) ûù
dx ò a
x
g ( x ) = ò f ( t ) dt is also continuous on [ a, b]
b b b

a
Integration by Parts : ò u dv = uv - ò v du and ò a u dv = uv a
- ò v du . Choose u and dv from
a
d b
d x f ( t ) dt = -v¢ ( x ) f éë v ( x ) ùû integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = ò dv .
dx ò v ( x )
and g ¢ ( x ) = ò f ( t ) dt = f ( x ) .
dx a
ò xe
-x 5
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f [u ( x ) ] - v¢ ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
Ex. dx Ex. ò3 ln x dx
dx ò v ( x ) u=x dv = e - x Þ du = dx v = -e - x
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = ò f ( x ) dx ) u = ln x dv = dx Þ du = 1x dx v = x
ò xe dx = - xe + ò e dx = - xe - x - e - x + c
-x -x -x

dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5 5 5 5
ò3 ln x dx = x ln x 3 - ò3
b
then ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) . 3
a

Properties = 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2

ò f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx ò cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b b b b b Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions
ò a f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò a f ( x ) dx ± ò a g ( x ) dx ò a cf ( x ) dx = c ò a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant For ò sin n x cos m x dx we have the following : For ò tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
a b

ò a f ( x ) dx = 0 ò c dx = c ( b - a )
a
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
convert the rest to secants using
b a b b
cosines using sin 2 x = 1 - cos 2 x , then use
ò a f ( x ) dx = - òb f ( x ) dx ò f ( x ) dx £ ò f ( x )
a a
dx the substitution u = cos x . tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution
b c b
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest u = sec x .
ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx for any value of c.
a a c
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
b b the substitution u = sin x . to tangents using sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then
If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ ò g ( x ) dx 3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan x .
a a
b 4. n and m both even. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
If f ( x ) ³ 0 on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ 0 and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
a
b integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
If m £ f ( x ) £ M on a £ x £ b then m ( b - a ) £ ò f ( x ) dx £ M ( b - a )
2(
a Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2 sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) = 1
1 + cos ( 2 x ) ) , sin 2 ( x ) = 12 (1 - cos ( 2 x ) )

Common Integrals
ò tan sin 5 x
ò cos x dx
3
Ex. x sec5 x dx Ex.
ò k dx = k x + c ò u du = sin u + c ò tan u du = ln sec u + c
3
cos
ò tan x sec xdx = ò tan x sec x tan x sec xdx
3 5 2 4 5 4 2 2
(sin x ) sin x
ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx
sin x sin x sin x
ò x dx = n1+1 x + c, n ¹ -1 ò sin u du = - cos u + c ò sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
n n +1
3 3 3

= ò ( sec 2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx 2 2

ò x dx = ò x dx = ln x + c
-1 1
ò sec u du = tan u + c
2
ò a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c
2
1
2
u 1 -1
=ò
(1- cos x ) sin x
cos x
dx 3( u = cos x )
= ò ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du ( u = sec x )
ò a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c ò sec u tan u du = sec u + c ò a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1 u (1- u ) 2 2
= -ò du = - ò 1- 2u +u du
1 1 -1 2 4
2 2 u 3 u 3
= sec x - sec x + c
1 7 1 5

ò ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c ò csc u cot udu = - csc u + c 7 5

= 12 sec 2 x + 2 ln cos x - 12 cos 2 x + c

ò e du = e + c ò csc u du = - cot u + c
u u 2

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet Calculus Cheat Sheet

Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and Applications of Integrals
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions. b

a 2 - b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab sin q b 2 x 2 - a 2 Þ x = ba sec q a 2 + b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab tan q

Net Area : ò a f ( x ) dx represents the net area between f ( x ) and the
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1 sec 2 q = 1 + tan 2 q

òx ó ( 23 cos q ) dq = ò sin122 q dq
16
Ex. dx 16
2
4- 9 x2 õ 4 sin 2 q ( 2 cos q ) Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
9
b d
x = sin q Þ dx = cos q dq
2 2
y = f ( x) Þ A = ò - éë lower dx & x = f ( y ) Þ A = ò - éëleft dy
3 3 = ò 12 csc dq = -12 cot q + c
2
a
é upper function ù
ë û function ùû
c
é right function ù
ë û function ùû

4 - 9x = 4 - 4 sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q

2 2 2
Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
substitution we have sin q = 32x so, sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.
Recall x 2 = x . Because we have an indefinite
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d
need to compute q ’s and remove absolute value
bars based on that and,
ì x if x ³ 0 4- 9 x2
x =í From this we see that cot q = 3x
. So,
î - x if x < 0
òx
4- 9 x2
16
dx = - 4 +c d
In this case we have 4 - 9x 2 = 2 cos q . 2
4 -9 x 2 x b
A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx A = ò f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy c b
A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + ò g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
a c a c

P( x)
Partial Fractions : If integrating ò Q ( x ) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = ò A ( x ) dx and V = ò A ( y ) dy . Here is
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of some general information about each method of computing and some examples.
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the Rings Cylinders
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
(
A = p ( outer radius ) 2 - ( inner radius ) 2 )A = 2p ( radius ) ( width / height )

Factor in Q ( x ) Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D
Horz. Axis use f ( x ) , Vert. Axis use f ( y ) , Horz. Axis use f ( y ) , Vert. Axis use f ( x ) ,
A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b ( ax + b )
k
+ +L + g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b )2 ( ax + b )
k

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
+L +
( ax + bx + c ) Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0
k
2
ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c ( 2 + bx + c )
k
ax + bx + c
2
ax

7 x 2 +13 x
ò 7 x 2 +13 x +C A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
Ex. 2
( x -1) ( x + 4 )
dx 2
( x -1) ( x + 4 )
= A
x -1 + Bx
x2 +4
= 2
( x -1) ( x + 4 )

7 x 2 +13 x Set numerators equal and collect like terms.

ò ( x -1) ( x 2 + 4 )
dx = ò 4
x -1
+ 3 x +16
x2 + 4
dx
7 x 2 + 13 x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C - B ) x + 4 A - C
= ò x4-1 + 3x
x2 + 4
+ 16
x2 + 4
dx Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve
= 4 ln x - 1 + ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 )
3 to get constants.
2
A+ B = 7 C - B = 13 4A-C = 0 outer radius : a - f ( x ) outer radius: a + g ( x ) radius : a - y radius : a + y
Here is partial fraction form and recombined. width : f ( y ) - g ( y )
A=4 B=3 C = 16 inner radius : a - g ( x ) inner radius: a + f ( x ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in. y = a £ 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a £ 0 ) interchange x and
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5 A which gives A = 4 . This won’t always work easily. y to get appropriate formulas.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object Average Function Value : The average value
b
b of f ( x ) on a £ x £ b is f avg = 1
ò a f ( x ) dx
in a £ x £ b , the work done is W = ò F ( x ) dx b- a
a

Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b b b
L = ò ds SA = ò 2p y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = ò 2p x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a

where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.

( ) ( dxdt ) ( )
2 2
dx if y = f ( x ) , a £ x £ b dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a £ t £ b
dy 2 dy
ds = 1 + dx
ds = + dt

1+ ( ) ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a £ q £ b
2 2
ds = dx
dy
dy if x = f ( y ) , a £ y £ b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.

Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesn’t exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.

Infinite Limit
¥ t b b
1. ò f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx 2. ò ¥ f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx
a t®¥ a - t® -¥ t
¥ c ¥
3. ò ¥ f ( x ) dx = ò ¥ f ( x ) dx + ò
- - c
f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.
Discontinuous Integrand
b b b t
1. Discont. at a: ò f ( x ) dx = lim+ ò f ( x ) dx 2. Discont. at b : ò f ( x ) dx = lim- ò f ( x ) dx
a t®a t a t®b a
b c b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b : ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx provided both are convergent.
a a c

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) ³ 0 on [ a, ¥ ) then,

¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
1. If ò f ( x ) dx conv. then ò g ( x ) dx conv. 2. If ò g ( x ) dx divg. then ò f ( x ) dx divg.
a a a a
¥
Useful fact : If a > 0 then òa dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p £ 1 .
1
xp

Approximating Definite Integrals

b
For given integral òa f ( x ) dx and a n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define Dx = b -n a and

divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals [ x0 , x1 ] , [ x1 , x2 ] , … , [ xn -1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,

ò f ( x ) dx » Dx éë f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x ) ùû , xi* is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
b
* * *
Midpoint Rule : 1 2 n
a

b Dx
Trapezoid Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » 2 éë f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )ùû
a
0 1 2 n -1 n

b Dx
Simpson’s Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » é f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x2 ) + L + 2 f ( xn - 2 ) + 4 f ( xn -1 ) + f ( xn ) ûù
a 3 ë
Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins