Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

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Advanced Powder Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apt

Review Paper

Recent progress on the discrete element method simulations for powder

transport systems: A review q
Qi Shi a, Mikio Sakai b,⇑
a
Department of Nuclear Engineering & Management, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
b
Resilience Engineering Research Center, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Powder transport systems are ubiquitous in various industries, where they can encounter single powder
Received 6 March 2022 flow, two-phase flow with solids carried by gas or liquid, and gas–solid–liquid three-phase flow. System
Received in revised form 14 May 2022 geometry, operating conditions, and particle properties have significant impacts on the flow behavior,
Accepted 4 June 2022
making it difficult to achieve good transportation of granular materials. Compared to experimental trials
Available online 6 July 2022
and theoretical studies, the numerical approach provides unparalleled advantages over the investigation
and prediction of detailed flow behavior, of which the discrete element method (DEM) can precisely cap-
Keywords:
ture complex particle-scale information and attract a plethora of research interests. This is the first study
Discrete element method
Powder transport
to review recent progress in the DEM and coupled DEM with computational fluid dynamics for extensive
Granular flow powder transport systems, including single-particle, gas–solid/solid–liquid, and gas–solid–liquid flows.
Multiphase flow Some important aspects (i.e., powder electrification during pneumatic conveying, pipe bend erosion,
Slurry transport non-spherical particle transport) that have not been well summarized previously are given special atten-
tion, as is the application in some new-rising fields (ocean mining, hydraulic fracturing, and gas/oil pro-
duction). Studies involving important large-scale computation methods, such as the coarse grained DEM,
graphical processing unit-based technique, and periodic boundary condition, are also introduced to pro-
vide insight for industrial application. This review study conducts a comprehensive survey of the DEM
studies in powder transport systems.
Ó 2022 The Society of Powder Technology Japan. Published by Elsevier B.V. and The Society of Powder
Technology Japan. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1. Powder transport systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2. Research gap, challenge, and outlook of the DEM simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Powder single-phase flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Multiphase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Boundary model for DEM-CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4. Non-spherical particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Powder transport systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Powder single phase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.1. Screw conveyor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.2. Feeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2. Multiphase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.1. Gas-solid two-phase flow: Pneumatic conveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.2. Solid-liquid two-phase flow: Slurry transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.3. Gas-solid–liquid three-phase flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

q
This article was submitted for Virtual Special Issue of APT2021: the 8th Asian Particle Technology Symposium.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mikio_sakai@n.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp (M. Sakai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2022.103664
0921-8831/Ó 2022 The Society of Powder Technology Japan. Published by Elsevier B.V. and The Society of Powder Technology Japan. All rights reserved.
Q. Shi and M. Sakai Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

4. Large-scale simulation . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Acknowledgements . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1. Introduction ocean mining, fertilizer, and food-processing sectors. The carrier

is usually water, thus known as hydraulic conveying. Another
1.1. Powder transport systems specific application of slurry transport is proppant transport
through fracturing fluid in the gas and oil industry [18]. The frac-
Granular material, which is encountered in many manufactured turing fluid is commonly water-based. During fracturing treat-
industries, has been extensively studied in terms of various han- ments, proppant is injected into fractured reservoirs to prevent
dling and processing operations. The transport of production mate- the fracture from closing [19], which can be treated as the parti-
rials to specific processing equipment is one of the most essential cle–fluid mixture flow between two parallel plates. The place-
steps, where reliable output and intact granular are required. Dif- ment of injected proppant in a fracture significantly affects
ferent transport systems are available depending on the conveying fracturing efficiency because the productivity of fractured wells
demand, operating environment, and powder properties, e.g., par- is mainly governed by propped fracture [20]. Transport of sands
ticle size, particle shape, bulk density, and intrinsic characteristics. by gas–liquid mixtures also occurs in oil and natural gas produc-
Powders are transported by mechanical parts in a single solid- tion processes because of sand production (i.e., detachment and
phase system, and they are sometimes carried by fluids, either outward migration of sands from reservoirs) [21]. The presence
gas, liquid, or gas–liquid mixture, to achieve a certain purpose. of sands may cause blockage due to deposition and pipe erosion
Screw conveyors and various types of mechanical feeders are [22]. It has become an obstacle to limit sustainable, efficient,
commonly used for powder transport in a single phase. Screw con- and safe development. A detailed understanding of gas–solid–liq-
veyor [1–3] has long been known as effective granular transport uid transport is critical for operating the production system cor-
equipment in industries such as food, mineral processing, and agri- rectly and effectively.
culture, which features a simple structure, high efficiency, low cost, The advancements in experimental approaches have facilitated
and low maintenance requirements. Materials are moved by rotat- the understanding of the powder transport process. An instanta-
ing screws inside a barrel and the transport is usually over short to neous image of particle location, velocity, and concentration can
medium distances [2,4]. Screw feeder is a specific form of screw be obtained using optical [23,24] and tomographic [25] measure-
conveyor that can accurately control the product flow of a system ment techniques, such as a fiber-optical probe, laser-doppler
[3,5]. Despite the different use, the granular flow behavior inside velocimetry, particle image velocimetry, positron emission particle
the screw feeder is identical to that in a screw conveyor. Mechan- tracking, and magnetic resonance imaging. However, complete
ical feeders [6] are responsible for supplying powders from a stor- particle information is difficult to obtain because of the limitation
age container to downstream processing units quantitatively, of each piece of equipment, and the measurement may be difficult
which determine the final product quality. Gravity and force feed- or expensive. In contrast, numerical modeling may provide
ers are two typical feeder systems. Gravity feeders [7,8] have sim- detailed particle fundamentals and is more feasible for parametric
ple geometry, where particle flowability due to gravity is the main study and optimization. Continuum-based numerical model [26]
mechanism. However, force feeders, also known as feed frames and mechanical method [27] are computationally efficient and
[9,10], contain rotating paddles that are used to convey powders. have advantages over fast flow prediction. However, because indi-
There are different arrangements of paddle wheels [11] and paddle vidual particle data concerning size distribution, shape, or material
shapes [12]. Several mechanisms can operate simultaneously, such properties may be missing to a large extent, it is challenging to
as gravity feeding (powder falls within the system), force-feeding capture complex flow patterns and particle collision characteris-
(by rotating paddle wheels), suction fill (by the bottom punch drop tics. The discrete element method (DEM), which simulates the
to create a particle vacuum), centrifugal forces (by rotating paddle motion of individual particle, can overcome such limitations and
wheels and rotating die disk), and overhead pressure (by the turns to be very successful in revealing dynamic particle-scale
weight of the powder) [10]. Therefore, the transport of powders information. It is originally proposed by Cundall and Strack [28]
inside the feeder becomes complex to examine. for granular flow, and it has been developed to couple with compu-
Fluids can also convey solids. Pneumatic conveying and slurry tational fluid dynamics (CFD) for multiphase problems, known as
transport are two transport processes for gas–solid and solid–liq- DEM-CFD [29] for two-phase flow and DEM-volume of fluid
uid flow, respectively. Solid particles carried by gas–liquid mix- (VOF) [30] for gas–solid–liquid flow.
tures are a gas–solid–liquid three-phase problem. Pneumatic The above-mentioned powder transport systems, simulated
conveying is the most pervasive powder transport system, which using DEM-based methods, have made rapid progress in recent
has been developed for over 100 years [13] and is widely used in decades but lack a comprehensive summary. Some previous
industries such as food, chemical, and pharmaceutical. It is a reviews are restricted to specific transport systems, such as screw
closed pipe system, which is long and can prevent dust emissions conveying [3], feed frame in pharmaceutical manufacturing [10],
and cross-contamination of pure particles during transport [14]. and pneumatic conveying [16], and they only mention related
Pneumatic conveying is operated at either dilute-phase or DEM or DEM-CFD results as part of the achievements without
dense-phase mode on the basis of conveying conditions [15]. introducing modeling details. A detailed review paper [31] regard-
Based on pipeline orientation, it is also divided into horizontal, ing pneumatic conveying has presented DEM-CFD modeling
vertical, or inclined type, connected by pipe bends [16]. Flow framework and key equations for its applications, where some
behavior and particle-related phenomena vary significantly in phenomena related to flow regimes and transition, pipe wear, par-
these pipes because of the different impacts of the gravity. Simi- ticle attrition, and electrostatics are covered. However, valuable
larly, one common situation of slurry transport is pipe flow with a simulation results about powder electrification, pipe bend erosion,
solid–liquid mixture [17], which is commonly used in dredging, and non-spherical particles are less focused. Furthermore, there is

2
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
no review about common solid–liquid transport systems and gas–
solid–liquid three-phase flow yet.
1.2. Research gap, challenge, and outlook of the DEM simulations
The primary research gap of the DEM simulations on powder
transport is addressed as below.

Limitation of computational resources makes the simulations
fall in short time scale and small dimension scale in general.

Studies of actual particles with high irregularity or complex
properties are not sufficient comparing with those of the ideally
spherical particles.

Microscopic simulation results are hard to be validated through
experiments.
But at the same time, recent progress of DEM shows its promis-
ing outlook in the following aspects.

Continuous improvement of both modeling approach (e.g.,
advanced boundary model) and computer hardware allows to
perform simulations of more diverse systems containing com-
plex particles.

Particle-scale information enables in-depth analysis of not only
flow characteristics but also various phenomena relating to the
system, which is crucial for the system design guidance.

Coupling the DEM with CFD makes it a potentially general
method for solid–fluid mixture systems.
Based on the above background, this study aims to raise aware-
ness of the wide use of DEM application in powder transport,
including the applications in some growing fields, such as ocean
mining, hydraulic fracturing, and gas/oil production. Studies that
address critical aspects such as pipe erosion, non-spherical particle
behavior, and powder electrification are prioritized. This compre-
hensive survey covering single-phase, two-phase, and three-
phase system obtains an overview of the capability of DEM dealing
with powder transport dynamics, providing a reliable insight for
both engineers and researchers. Finally, large-scale simulation
studies to illustrate how advanced DEM technology can be applied
in industrial engineering are summarized.
This paper is organized as follows: modeling framework includ-
ing common governing equations of the DEM and CFD, boundary
conditions, and modeling of non-spherical particles are given in
the second chapter. Then, the third chapter introduces extensive
research on single-phase and multiphase flow involving granular
transport. Detailed results are classified by different assemblies,
occasions, or phenomena. Finally, the critical large-scale simula-
tions are discussed in the fourth chapter, followed by the
conclusions.
2. Modeling
2.1. Powder single-phase flow
This section provides general governing equations for a single-
particle flow in the DEM simulations. The forces acting on particles
in powder transport systems are described.
A. Governing equations for particle flow
The dynamics of granular materials are governed by Newton’s
second law of motion and Euler’s second law of motion for angular
momentum change, and they are written as follows:
P P
m ddtv ¼ fc þ f nc þ f ext ; ð1Þ
3
Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
P
I ddtx ¼ T; ð2Þ
where m, v , t, f c , f nc , f ext , I, x; and T represent the particle mass,
the translational velocity of particles, time, contact forces, non-
contact forces, external forces, momentum inertia of particles, the
angular velocity of particles, and torque due to particle/wall,
respectively.
P
In Eq. (1), f c is the overall particle–particle/wall contact
forces acting on particles, which can be divided into normal and
tangential components. Among the various contact models, a linear
spring-dashpot (LSD) model [32], which is composed of springs,
dashpots, and a friction slider, is the most popular because of its
ease of implementation for numerical code. More complex non-
linear viscoelastic models are also established and widely used,
with the normal elastic contact described by Hertz [33] and tan-
gential elastic contact based on Mindlin and Deresiewicz’s (MD)
theory [34]. Note that because complete MD theory is complicated
for code implementation, simplified models [35,36] are usually
used in practice. Regarding viscous dissipation force models, the
equations proposed by Tsuji et al. [35], Antypov and Elliott [37],
and Langston et al. [36] are commonly used. Details of different
non-linear contact force models can be found in other review stud-
ies [38,39]. Tangential contact force follows the Coulomb law of
friction, similar to that in LSD model.
P
In Eq. (1), f nc represents non-contact forces between parti-
cle–particle/wall, also referred to as inter-particle or long-range
force (such as van der Waals force, capillary force, and electrostatic
force). The non-contact force can be included by considering the
particle properties and system. Incidentally, Johnson-Kendall-
Roberts (JKR) [40] model is a an extension of the classic Hertz
model to include a cohesive force acting within contact area. Gen-
eral cohesion by the JKR model has been considered in pneumatic
conveying studies [41], whereas simplified models are proposed to
take cohesive force as, several times of gravity force in the screw
conveyor [42,43], and a product of cohesion energy density and
contact area in the pharmaceutical feeder [7,8,12,44–48]. Electro-
static force is mainly encountered in pneumatic conveying to elu-
cidate powder triboelectrification [49–55].
f ext in Eq. (1) represents external forces acting on the particle,
which are due to external fields, such as electromagnetic or elec-
trostatic forces under external magnetic or electric fields. Gravita-
tional force is the most considered force in powder transport
systems.
2.2. Multiphase flow
In multiphase flow, the mutual interaction between particle and
fluid must be considered and realized by the DEM-CFD method.
The governing equations for particle flow under multiphase flow
are provided first, followed by the general fluid equations describ-
ing one or two fluids under two-phase or three-phase powder
transport flow.
A. Governing equations for solid phase
Compared to the single flow situation, a particle–fluid interac-
tion force f pf and a torque T pf due to particle-fluid interactions
[29,31,56] are added to the governing equations of solid phase:
P P
m ddtv ¼ fc þ f nc þ f pf þ f ext ; ð3Þ
P
I ddtx ¼ T þ T pf : ð4Þ
The f pf includes fluid drag force f drag and fluid pressure gradi-
ent force f rp . Depending on the specific occasion, other interaction
forces, such as unsteady force [57–59] including Basset force and
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
virtual mass force, lift force [41,58–61] including Saffman force
and Magnus force, and lubrication force [59], may be involved.
Many correlations have been proposed to calculate these parti-
cle–fluid interaction forces, particularly in drag force. A combina-
tion of Ergun equation [62] and Wen and Yu’s correlation [63],
and Di Felice’s correlation [64] are often used in the drag force,
which are formulated using extensive data. Details of some con-
ventional drag correlations can be found elsewhere [56]. Apart
from this, numerical simulations in a sub-particle level have been
established for more general drag correlations to consider the
effects of particle shape, particle size, porosity, and non-
Newtonian fluid rheology, as summarized by Kuang et al. [31].
Researchers determine specific forces to be considered during
practical simulation. Particle–particle interactions are sometimes
ignored when particle flow is dilute, then the Lagrangian particle
tracking (LPT)-CFD or discrete phase model (DPM)-CFD may be
employed instead of DEM-CFD.
B. Governing equations for fluid phase
Deriving from the local volume average based Navier-Stokes
equations [65] in traditional continuum modeling, two models
are available to describe the fluid motion in DEM-CFD framework
[66,67]. One is mathematically the same as the original DEM-CFD
[65] and thereby applicable to all type of fluid–solid flows, while
the other is simplified with a couple of assumptions. The simplified
version has limited applicability, so only the model of general use
is formulated here. The continuity and Navier-Stokes equations are
given by:
@ ðqeÞ
@t
þ r  ðqeuÞ ¼ 0;
@ ðqeuÞ
@t
þ r  ðqeuuÞ ¼ erp þ r  ðesÞ þ f P þ qeg;
where q, e, u, p, s, and g indicate the fluid density, volume fraction,
velocity, pressure, viscous tensor, and gravitational acceleration,
respectively. f P is the volumetric fluid–solid interaction force.
For gas–solid-liquid three-phase flow, treatment of the fluid
phase is slightly different from that stated above. The VOF tech-
nique [30,68–71] is usually used in DEM-CFD to trace the interface
of gas and liquid. Although the fluids are still solved by a single set
of governing equations, an indicator function is used to distinguish
the fluid type over gas, which is defined as the volume fraction of a
liquid phase out of binary fluid mixtures. The value of the indicator
becomes 0 and 1 in gas and liquid, respectively, and falls between 0
and 1 for the interface. Local fluid density and viscosity are calcu-
lated using a weighted average of liquid and gas properties with
the indicator. To consider the capillary force induced by a gas–liq-
uid interface, a term ef s should be added to the right side of Eq. (6),
where f s represents the surface tension force. Finally, we obtain
the volume-averaged governing equation of fluid motion in the
gas–solid–liquid flow as follows:
@ ðqeuÞ
@t
þ r  ðqeuuÞ ¼ erp þ r  ðesÞ þ ef s þ f P þ qeg;
q ¼ aql þ ð1  aÞqg ;
l ¼ all þ ð1  aÞlg ;
where a, q, l, and f s are, respectively, the fluid indictor, local fluid
density, local fluid viscosity, and surface tension force. The sub-
scripts l and g denote the liquid and gas, respectively. In the dilute
flow situation where effects of particle behavior on the fluid are
ignored, the volume-averaged technique (solving fluid with e)
may be omitted.
Some researchers have also used the multi-fluid VOF model
[72,73] to calculate gas–liquid flow, which couples the VOF and
Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase model. The main difference from
VOF is that the momentum equation is solved for gas and liquid
separately in the multi-fluid VOF model, and it is not listed here
because of their similarity. The previous comparative study has
showed the multi-fluid VOF is not as efficient and stable as the
VOF model [72].
2.3. Boundary model for DEM-CFD
During the motion of particles and fluids, they interact with sta-
tionary or moving walls, of which accurate modeling via boundary
model is important for the overall flow behavior prediction. Con-
ventional wall boundaries for DEM are usually mesh-based, with
boundaries divided into a set of three-dimensional triangles. Colli-
sions are detected by analyzing each of these triangles, which
requires a complex collision detection algorithm to analyze the
particle–edge, particle–face, and particle–vertex interactions.
Therefore, there are cumbersome procedures for the calculation,
which cannot be easily implemented. Here, we focused on a simple
wall boundary model expressed by a scalar field with signed dis-
tance functions (SDF) [74,75]. Possible instability in non-
dissipative systems caused by the SDF model has been solved
and the accuracy of improved SDF model is shown to be equivalent
to that of the conventional mesh-based wall boundary [74]. The
current new SDF model is simple to conduct and can represent
complex arbitrary-shaped boundaries, as validated in various pow-
der systems [32,76–81].
The SDF is given by
/ðxÞ ¼ sðxÞdðxÞ; ð10Þ
ð5Þ
where x, sðxÞ, and dðxÞ refer to particle’s position vector, the sign
based on the particle position, and the distance between the parti-
ð6Þ cle and the surface of the wall boundary object, respectively. sðxÞ is
positive when particles are inside the domain, and vice versa. The
boundary is represented using a zero contour. The contact force
between the particle and wall in the SDF model is calculated follow-
ing that the gradient of the elastic energy equals normal elastic
force. Therefore, the energy in non-dissipative systems is conserved.
The normal contact force between the particle and wall is given as
follows:
f Cn ¼ kjr/jdSDF
n  lv r n ; ð11Þ
 
dSDF ¼ /  D2 nSDF ; ð12Þ
n
nSDF ¼ jr /
r/ j ; ð13Þ
where / is the SDF, and dSDF is the normal overlap between particle
n
and wall. The tangential component of the particle–wall contact
force is obtained as in the particle–particle contact in existing DEM.
The conventional wall boundary model in CFD is also mesh-
based, with one common type known as an unstructured mesh
[82–84]. The significant limitation of this technique is that extre-
ð7Þ
mely small mesh size is required on complex boundaries, with dif-
ficulty in modeling the moving walls [85]. In contrast, the
ð8Þ
immersed boundary model (IBM) [86] can overcome such the
problems and is typically used to simulate fluid–wall interaction
ð9Þ
with arbitrary-shaped objects using the local volume fraction of
objects in the CFD grid. A numerical technique that combines the
IBM and SDF has been established and validated [79,87–92], and
it can represent the boundary profile much easier.
IBM uses the volume-weighted average velocity to analyze the
interaction between fluid and solid objects, with the volume-
weighted average velocity:
u ¼ ð1  nÞuf þ nuwall ; ð14Þ
4
Q. Shi and M. Sakai Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

Table 1
Characteristics of the non-spherical particle models in DEM applied to powder transport systems.

Non-spherical particle model Represented by Advantages Disadvantages

Single- Polyhedrons Corners, edges, and faces
Applicable to particles with sharp s Complicated algorithm for contact detection
particle [93–97] edges/flat surfaces/asymmetry s Computationally expensive to construct smooth
method surface
Ellipsoids by Continuous function
High shape flexibility, covering
super- convex and concave particles
quadrics
Direct contact detection and
[60,98] overlap evaluation by resolving s Only applicable for symmetric particles
two functions s Non-linear and iterative approach needed for con-
Ellipsoids by Continuous function
Some shape freedom, from elon- tact and overlap evaluation, bringing challenge in
super- gated to flattened particles computation efficiency and stability
ellipsoids [99]
Direct contact detection and
overlap evaluation by resolving
two functions
Composite- Multi-sphere Rigidly connected spheres of
Applicable to arbitrary particle s Difficult to determine the optimal number, size, and
particle [100–109] identical/different diameters, shape in principle overlap of component spheres
method possibly with fixed overlaps
Efficient and robust contact s Complicate calculation of mass center and particle
detection algorithm with con- moment inertia
ventional sphere-sphere model

where n denotes the volume fraction obtained by counting the

saved points of SDF in a CFD grid, and uwall is the wall boundary
velocity. Then, the fluid velocity is replaced by the volume-
weighted average velocity in the Nave-Stokes momentum equation,
and the no-slip condition is included by introducing a correction
term ef IB on the right side of the Nave-Stokes momentum Eq. (6),
where the force term f IB is given by
 
nq uwall b
f IB ¼
u
: ð15Þ
Dt

2.4. Non-spherical particles

To elucidate the flow characteristics of non-spherical particles

in real industries, representation and contact detection of irregular
particles have been developed. Non-spherical particles can be rep-
resented by either single or composite particles. In a single-particle
method, the shape geometry of a particle is described mathemati-
cally, which is suitable for industrial processes where particle
shapes are controlled as specific regular shapes to accurately char-
acterize the particles. Specifically, faceted particles via polyhedrons
in terms of corners, edges, and faces [93–97], ellipsoids via super-
quadrics [60,98], and ellipsoids via super-ellipsoids [99] are seen in
previous studies of powder transport simulation. Multi-sphere
method is also often adopted to construct an irregular particle by
an assembly of component spheres (possibly with designated over-
lapping) [100–109]. This approach uses the same well-evaluated
contact detection algorithm between spheres, eliminating the need
to introduce new mechanics and benefiting from its efficiency in
DEM modeling. Compared with spherical particles, there has been
a limited number of applications in non-spherical particle model-
ing for powder transport systems thus far (related studies intro-
duced in Chapter 3), but it has been increasingly investigated
because of the development in algorithms and hardware. The rep- Fig. 1. The single-particle trajectory n standard (a) and modified screw conveyors
resentation feature, advantages, and disadvantages of the above (b–e) [110].
non-spherical particle models are summarized in Table 1.

3. Powder transport systems ing as mentioned in the introduction. The performance of screw
conveying is commonly characterized by its capacity, volumetric
3.1. Powder single phase flow efficiency, and power consumption, which is affected by the screw
geometric parameters, operating parameters (screw rotation
3.1.1. Screw conveyor speed, screw clearance, volumetric filling level, and inclination
This section introduces DEM studies of screw conveyors and angles), and the properties of the conveyed material. A thorough
screw feeders. The screw feeder is excluded from the following sec- review of screw feeders and conveyors has been published in
tion 3.1.2 for the feeder because it is homologous to screw convey- 2020 [3]. Besides transport theories, experimental and DEM

5
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
studies are summarized, discussing the effect of geometric design,
operating parameters, and the mixing. This review selects some
less-concerned aspects of DEM studies of screw conveying, orga-
nized as mixing concept during screw conveying, vertical screw
conveyors, and transport of particles with complex properties.
Finally, the effect of air is considered.
The use of modified structure to improve powder mixing per-
formance has been investigated in horizontal screw conveyors
[4,110]. Complementary helices, which orient in either the same
or opposite direction with original screws, are added as blades to
standard geometry. Five different types of screw transporters have
been examined, with various screw lengths [4,110] and particle
diameters [110]. According to the DEM result shown in Fig. 1, the
particle paths of a single particle are dramatically prolonged in
modified screw transporters (Fig. 1(b)–(e)) compared with the
standard geometry (Fig. 1(a)). The modification of the conveyor
in Fig. 1(b) and (c) lies in the additional helices, orienting in the
same and opposite direction as the screw helix, respectively, while
the conveyor in Fig. 1(d) has three truncated additional helices in
the opposite direction as the screw helix, and additional straight
line blades are mounted on the helix periphery in the conveyor
in Fig. 1(e). These modifications are assumed to increase the prob-
ability of contacts between particle–particle and particle–sur-
roundings to enhance mixing, and the transporter in Fig. 1(e) is
found to have the longest single-particle path and shows better
mixing results than the other modified types. Qi et al. [111] have
simulated the transport and mixing of poly-dispersed biomass par-
ticles and glass beads in a double screw mixer. Screw rotation
speed, pitch length, and particle feed rate have been extensively
evaluated for the effects on mixing in terms of mean particle mix-
ing time and mixing index. According to the analysis, screw rota-
tion speed has negligible effects, whereas increased pitch length
and decreased feed rate are detrimental to mixing. Recirculation
behavior of particles, similar to that in rotary drum mixer, is
observed following the particle path line, which may promote par-
ticle mixing. Park et al. [112] have proposed novel methods to eval-
uate continuous powder mixing and applied it in screw conveying
systems. An extra mixing zone is designed, which is composed of
blades between screw-conveying zones, demonstrating improved
powder mixing performance compared with the simple screw con-
veyor containing no mixing zone. The optimal angle of the blades is
determined under their simulated conditions.
Compared to the horizontal screw conveyor and feeder, limited
DEM studies have been conducted in the vertical screw geometry,
in which insufficient feeding and low conveying efficiency are the
two main problems. Han et al. [113] have investigated screw feed-
ing of a vertical rice mill, where the rotational screw drags rice par-
ticles from the hopper. The effects of rotation speed, height, and
Fig. 2. Irregular filling of the screw feeder pitches for the faceted particles with different adhesive stiffnesses (left: K adh = 0.3 and right: K adh = 0.5) [93].
6
Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
feed inlet geometry have been examined. The best conveying con-
dition for the study is determined regarding the above three
parameters. Tian et al. [114] have proposed a new type of vertical
screw conveyor with flexible discrete spiral blades to reduce parti-
cle gathering risk. A wear-resistant fiber is used for flexible blades,
and different rotation speeds and spiral angles are investigated
using the DEM. It is found that conveying efficiency increases with
speed and spiral angles. Recently, Yuan et al. [115] have modeled
vertical screw conveyors containing a variable screw section below
the constant screws. The screw at the bottom possesses maximum
flight diameter and is set to different values to evaluate the efficacy
of this design. The results show that the particle volume fraction in
the inlet and the mass flow rate increase with the variable screw
section to some degree, although the maximum screw flight diam-
eter cannot be oversized to maintain the positive effect of this
design. Power consumption of the conveyor also increases with
variable screw sections. Yang et al. [104] focus on the axial velocity
of particles in a vertical screw conveyor and have investigated the
effects of spiral speeds, filling rates, pipe diameters, and pitches.
Multivariate fitting is used to derive a formulation of the average
axial velocity of the particles using simulation results, which is
found to have acceptable errors compared with the experimental
tests. The above studies show that DEM is very useful to improve
and optimize the traditional vertical screw conveyors, as flow
behavior can be reliably predicted when changing the geometric
structure and operation parameters.
Instead of only considering non-cohesive spherical particles,
researchers have been making efforts to numerically simulate
cohesive, irregular, and multi-sized particles using DEM, and have
obtained special conveying behaviors of the complex particles. Hou
et al. [42] are the first to study the effect of cohesion between par-
ticles in a screw feeder in detail. The mass flow rate is correlated
with the screw rotational speed and the magnitude of cohesive
force based on DEM results, and three flow regimes of the cohesive
flow are quantitatively classified. Recently, a new asymmetrical
screw design has been proposed [43], in which the cohesive force,
screw designs, and rotation speed have been examined using DEM.
It is found that asymmetrical designs can induce extra perturbation
at a bulk scale to detain bridge formation and facilitate cohesive
particle transport through the analysis of macroscopic behavior
and dynamics (in terms of contact forces). López et al. [93] have
analyzed the flow behavior of cohesive faceted particles inside a
screw feeder. It is found that particle shape significantly influences
the mass flow rate, while increasing the particle adhesive stiffness
and screw rotation speed both bring higher void fraction in the fee-
der. Transient arching in the hopper and irregular filling of screw
pitch have also been observed, with the latter one shown in
Fig. 2. Govender et al. [94] have analyzed the sensitivity of faced
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
particles with different polyhedral shapes under varied rotation
speeds, screw inclination, and hopper position. Compared with
spheres, macroscopic bulk behavior and microscopic characteris-
tics of polyhedra differ, that is, polyhedra generally has larger nor-
mal dissipation for particle–particle/wall interactions and a higher
attrition rate between the screw and casing. Sun et al. [99] have
compared the conveying of spheres and two types of non-
spherical particles (supper-ellipsoids). Sphericity significantly
affects particle movement, force distribution, filling level, and mass
flow rate. The wear of conveyors and particle breakage are also dis-
cussed. Lian et al. [105] have simulated the mixed feeding of spher-
ical coal and cylindroid biomass particles (represented by
overlapped multi-spheres) in a screw feeder. The effects of biomass
feeding ratio, feeding rate, and screw rotational speed on the feed-
ing performance are investigated, with emphasis on continuous,
uniform, and stable feeding. Yang et al. [104] have simulated the
conveying behavior of raw coal particles using the multi-sphere
method in a vertical screw conveyor, which are spindle-shaped.
Minglani et al. [116] have considered multi-sized biomass particles
with a mass-based uniform size distribution in a screw feeder and
have investigated the effects of operational (screw rotational speed
and particle feed rate) and geometric (pitch flight ratio) conditions
on average mass flow rate, average particle speeds, and contact
forces. Qi et al. [111] have conducted a DEM study in a double
screw mixer, in which the mixing-demixing-mixing oscillation
patterns in the axial direction are found for multi-sized multicom-
ponent systems, but not for mono-sized binary mixtures.
Wang et al. [117] have compared DEM and DEM-CFD simula-
tions in screw conveyors. It is found that under varied rotation
speeds and inclination angles, the predicted mass flow rate and
volumetric efficiency using the DEM-CFD model are significantly
higher than those obtained using DEM, and the results of DEM-
CFD simulations agree better with the experiments. This shows
that gas flow can improve solid transport and the authors have
suggested not to ignore gas flow in screw conveyor simulations,
especially at high screw speeds for accuracy. To the best of our
knowledge, this is the first study to compare DEM and DEM-CFD
methods in screw conveyors, the finding of which may provide ref-
erence to account DEM simulation deviation compared with exper-
iments on some occasions.
In summary, DEM is a promising approach for simulating com-
plex granular flow behavior within screw conveyors or feeders. It is
especially useful and cost-effective for optimizing geometry and
predicting various particle-related phenomena, such as mixing,
arching, as well as irregular filling. Recently, inter-particle forces
(cohesion), complicated particle shape, and size distribution of par-
ticles have been increasingly considered, although we are still far
from systematic understanding. Particle shape effects on mixing
during the conveying process have not been investigated. Also note
that cohesive force acting on the particles in the studies is very
simplified, that is, proportional to gravity force. Incorporation of
a general cohesion theory in modeling is needed for parametric
study. New designs to overcome the problems occurring in trans-
port of complex particles are desired in the future, and the same
goes for corresponding experimental validation.
3.1.2. Feeder
Feeders are critical for realizing steady and accurate transport
of powders from storage hoppers into dies. Flow dynamics within
various kinds of feeders in eccentric and rotary tableting have been
extensively investigated using DEM.
In eccentric tableting, a simple gravity feeder (known as a feed
shoe) is commonly used, which moves back and forth to make the
fixed die filled with powder. In a recent study [118], DEM has been
used to study the segregation of binary mixtures to improve geom-
etry design. Rolling and sieving are found predominant to cause
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
segregation during feeder shoe filling. Inserts are then designed
to diminish segregation between fine and coarse particles. Reduc-
tion of segregation index by up to 51% has been finally achieved.
In rotary tableting where the die disk rotates to obtain high pro-
ductivity, the force feeder, known as feed frame, is popular and has
received high attention recently. A review of computational and
experimental studies on feed frames has been conducted by
Sierra-Vega et al. [10], providing classified flow properties and var-
ious measuring techniques. Reduced particle sizes, cohesion, and
mixing effects are suggested for future study. Specifically, we orga-
nize related DEM studies of force feeders in high-speed rotary
tablet presses based on the number of paddle wheels, including
single paddle wheel [46,48], two paddle wheels [47,119], three
paddle wheels [12,44,45,120], and a study to compare these three
types of wheels [11]. Regarding the single paddle wheel, Ketterha-
gen [46] has studied the impact of paddle-wheel shapes, rotation
speed, and rotation direction on metrics for tablet quality. Large-
hub wheel is found preferable compared with standard and angled
type wheel because of more uniform fill weights and less likely
severe attrition or lubrication, whereas rotation speed is a
double-edged sword for these index marks. High powder cohesion
is not beneficial for high fill weight and small weight variability.
Mateo-Ortiz and Méndez [48] have found that faster
paddle-wheel speeds or a larger number of paddles result in a
lower relative standard deviation of the die weight inside a
single-paddle-wheel feed frame. A rough calculation of the force
exerted by the paddle to the powder bed is used to further discuss
particle microdynamics. The comparison of the paddle force and
DEM total force shows that as the number of paddles increases,
the two forces become closer. Mateo-Ortiz et al. [47] have studied
a standard Manesty Beta Press feed frame with two paddle wheels
and considered feeding of size-distributed particles. Percolation is
attributed as the main segregation mechanism through velocity
file analysis, with paddle-wheel speed contributing most to con-
trolling particle size segregation. Following that, effects of resi-
dence time distribution and paddle forces on powder attribution
and over-lubrication have been studied [119]. It is demonstrated
that the level of powder confinement and the paddle-wheel speed
significantly affect powder attrition. Hildebrandt et al.
[12,44,45,120] have devoted lots of efforts to study three-paddle-
wheel feed frame in a lab-scale rotary tablet press recently, in
which a dosing wheel is on the top, while the filling wheel and
reverse dosing wheel are at the bottom. Poly-disperse particle size
distribution is used to mimic a low-dose direct compression for-
mulation. The performance of the system filling and high-speed
tableting has been evaluated by focusing on the final tablet mass
[120]. Different process parameters (turret speed and paddle-
wheel speed) and material properties (API content, cohesion, and
particle–wall friction) are investigated. The simulations show that
the three highest influence factors are turret speed, particle–wall
friction, followed by paddle-wheel speed. Instead of considering
only tablet mass, more critical quality attributes (i.e., tablet mass
variation and content uniformity) have been included in Ref. [44]
to extend the work [120]. The quality by design (QbD) framework
is combined with DEM to find the optimal process conditions and
material attributes. Particle velocity distribution and size segrega-
tion have been further quantified for each wheel zone and the
complete force feeder [45]. Demixing in the force feeder and shear
forces that particles experience are found to directly influence the
final die height differences. The tracking of colored particles in the
hopper and the three paddle wheels during high-speed tableting is
also discussed (Fig. 3). Phenomena, such as non-uniform feed from
the hopper, different refeeding rates of the two bottom paddle
wheels, and the intermixing between them are indicated by parti-
cles coloring analysis, which is supported by the residence time
analysis. In a continuation of the above studies, the effects of the
Q. Shi and M. Sakai Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

Fig. 3. Tracking of colored particles within a three-paddle force feeder (particles under force feeder are non-colored and in blue) [45].

paddle-wheel blade shapes (cylindrical or cuboid) of the dosing binary mixtures in a tank-shaped gravity feeder, and the different
and filling wheel on tablet quality have been investigated [12]. geometry designs and feeding methods are compared in terms of
Paddle-wheel shapes act differently on powder flow pattern and segregation index.
tablet quality attributes depending on the process parameters In summary, the numerical method using DEM has become
and material properties. Overall, the work of Hildebrandt and increasingly important in feeders, particularly feeders in rotary
coworkers provides good understanding of the powder dynamics tablet presses. Particle flow patterns considering the cohesion
in the three-paddle-wheel force feeder, while the only limitation and size distribution are well described in irregular-shaped gravity
lies in the computer power. Note that the particle size used in sim- feeders or complex force feeders, which are used to analyze impor-
ulations has been enlarged and the process time is reduced com- tant issues such as final tablet quality and segregation phe-
pared to reality. Siegmann et al. [11] have compared the nomenon. DEM also provides valuable information for
behavior of free flowing and cohesive particles in one-paddle, conducting optimal feeder designs and determining the most influ-
two-paddle, and three-paddle force feeder systems, in which all ential factors. However, study of feeders in eccentric tableting is
feeder wheels are set at the same speed that changes over a wide basically lacking. In addition, computation capacity constitutes
range. From the point of achieving narrow residence time distribu- the main obstacle of DEM to simulate pharmaceutical feeding pro-
tions and uniform tablet weight, the three-paddle feed frame is cess with fine particle and long processing time in real industry.
recommended for both continuous and batch processing, because
their advantages are independent of material properties and speed
3.2. Multiphase flow
settings.
A few researchers have adopted an eccentric gravity feeder in
3.2.1. Gas-solid two-phase flow: Pneumatic conveying
their rotary tablet press machine. Gopireddy et al. [8] are the first
In pneumatic conveying, gas–solid flow behavior is influenced
to investigate a powder flow within a gravity feeder in detail,
by multiple factors, such as material properties, system geome-
which consists of a cylindrical pipe, an inclined chute, and a rect-
tries, as well as operating conditions. Many complicated phenom-
angular feeding box. The particles are mono-dispersed spheres,
ena are generated by the physical interaction between solid–fluid,
and the impacts of material parameters on the flow pattern as well
besides general observations [122] and unusual ones [123]. DEM-
as tablet quality have been studied. The cohesive particles are
CFD studies have enabled fundamental analysis of key phenomena
found to flow inappropriately, leading to decreased tablet mass
such as flow regimes, powder electrification, particle attrition, and
and increased mass variation. Increasing particle–wall friction
pipe wear [31]. However, a thorough understanding of pneumatic
coefficient can prevent the dead zones in the feeder, whereas the
conveying is still challenging, especially with the difficulty in mod-
coefficient of restitution shows no effects on any flowability char-
eling non-spherical, multi-distributed, and cohesive particles [13].
acteristic. Hildebrandt et al. [7] have simulated particles of poly-
Recent progress in DEM-CFD simulations about several uncommon
disperse size distribution and investigated the main segregation
but significant aspects, namely, powder electrification phe-
influencing factors in the same feeding system. The influence of
nomenon, pipe bend flow, and conveying of non-spherical parti-
the coefficient of friction and particle cohesion has also been stud-
cles, are summarized here to provide additional insight.
ied. The cohesive particles are found less likely to segregate but not
good for tablet quality. Low particle–particle friction results in uni-
A. Powder electrification
form die filling. High particle–wall friction can increase particle
motion, although unfavorable for content uniformity. Ramírez-
In gas–solid systems, particles can gain electrostatic charge
Aragón et al. [121] have studied the segregation mechanisms of
from the collisions with particles or pipe walls. It is undesirable
8
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 4. Specific absolute powder charge under nine cases involving different powder and pipe properties (permittivity e, particle elasticity parameter cp , pipe elasticity
parameter cw , particle electrical resistivity up ) [52].
in pharmacal, flour, and grain handling industries because the
charge buildup may lead to spark discharge and even dust explo-
sions [124]. Generally, when the conveying pipe is metal and
well-grounded, any charge is drained through the ground. How-
ever, the existence of non-conductive pipes or improper ground
of system retains electrostatic charges, which could influence flow
patterns and conveying performance. DEM can simulate the behav-
ior of charged particles by incorporating a charge transfer model
and calculating the non-contact electrostatic force [125,126].
Korevaar et al. [49] have proposed a simple charging model
based on particle’s normal impact velocity to account for parti-
cle–wall charging, with electrostatic forces calculated in this
model. The charging due to inter-particle collisions is ignored for
the dilute flow. Induced charges on conducting walls are found
to influence the spatial distribution of particles as well as their
acquired charges beyond a critical mean charge per particle. Gros-
shans and Papalexandris [50] have established a dynamic charge
transfer model for particle–wall and particle–particle collisions,
and they describes the charge distribution in the insulating hose
using RC circuits. An electric force is included, as derived from elec-
tric potential. At the beginning of conveying, it is observed that
there is an increase in the particle charge until a maximum, during
which particle–particle collisions are critical in transferring
charges from strongly to weakly charged particles. A higher veloc-
ity of the conveying air increases the charge of powder and pipes.
In their subsequent studies, the effects of system design parame-
ters [51] and material properties of powder and pipe [52] have
Fig. 5. Impact charge vs. initial charge difference diagrams for inter-particle collisions computed with (a) the uniform charge model and (b) the non-uniform charge model
[53].
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
been evaluated. Statistical analysis reveals that the main contribu-
tor to charge is air velocity, which should be set to a low value to
reduce electrostatic charging generally, while the pipe diameter
and solid mass flow rate should be sufficiently high [51]. The sim-
ulation results of the average particle charge leaving the pipe
under varied particle and pipe properties are shown in Fig. 4
[52]. The mechanical properties of the pipe do not influence the
charge significantly (seen from the data related to changing pipe
elasticity parameter cw ), whereas particle properties impact pow-
der electrification apparently, providing a desired method to
reduce powder charges, such as increasing the particle’s electrical
resistivity up and material permittivity e, or decreasing elasticity
parameter cp . Grosshans and Papalexandris [53] have also devel-
oped a new model to account for non-uniform charge distribution
on insulating particle surface during particle–wall and
inter-particle collisions. The simulation results show that the
charge distributions of complete powder output are nearly identi-
cal for non-uniform and uniform contact charging model, and
diagrams of the exchanged charge against the initial charge for
particle–wall collisions are also similar. However, the exchanged
charge against the initial charge during inter-particle collisions
are significantly different between the two models, as shown in
Fig. 5. In the non-uniform charge model, most particle–particle col-
lisions lead to zero charge transfer even with initial charge differ-
ence, indicating a high probability that pre-charge areas are remote
form each other. Non-uniform charge model also enables predic-
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
tion of charge transfer between particles carrying equal pre-
charge, which cannot be done with uniform model.
Recently, Yao et al. [54] have investigated the electrostatic
effect on particle dispersion in a dilute turbulent flow, with satu-
rated electrostatic charges given on granules and pipe walls. Gran-
ular with multiple sizes are involved. The electrostatic force is
found significantly larger than drag force and gravity force in the
near-wall region independent of particle size, which dominates
the particle accumulation there. While in the other region, electro-
static force tends to decrease granular concentration and particles
are well distributed. Li et al. [55] have conducted a similar study to
investigate the combined effects of a turbulence flow and electro-
statics on particle distribution but have included a particle–wall
charge transfer model. The development of electrostatic charging
that continues until a saturated state is obtained, and particles
with higher Stokes numbers turn to be affected more by electro-
statics and gain more charges. Zhao et al. [127] have investigated
electrostatic effects in a dilute-phase turbulent bend flow with
saturated-charge on particles, straight-pipe walls, and bend walls.
The effects of electrostatics on particle–wall impact angle and par-
ticle–wall impact velocity have been analyzed at different gas flow
rates. Three regions are identified in the bend according to the
function of particle forces.
Overall, powder electrification is a complex phenomenon. Even
from a physical viewpoint, it is still controversial whether charge
transfer between surfaces is caused by electrons, ions, the
exchange of material species, or a combination of these mecha-
nisms [107]. DEM-CFD method is a critical approach for simulating
the effects of powder electrification on solid transport since both
charge transfer via collisions and electrostatic force are directly
considered on individual particle level. But as we noticed, many
previous studies have ignored the charging between particle–par-
ticle collisions in dilute flow. Varied treatments of wall charge dis-
tribution exist as well. Further experiments are in great need to
validate and evaluate these simulations, after which more accurate
and predictive DEM-CFD model should be developed. Note that
parameters examined in simulations are also not exhaustive hith-
erto, such as particle shape, air humidity, and air temperature
influencing electrification.
B. Pipe bends
In most situations, pneumatic conveying simulations are per-
formed in straight pipes placed horizontally or vertically. Pipe
bends, used to interconnect these pipes, are the least investigated
section despite their geometry simplicity, so the complicated inter-
actions in bend are poorly understood [128]. Bends introduce sec-
ondary flow in the flow regime, which can be strong enough to
induce a particle rope with turbulence effects. Pipe erosion, mainly
caused by particle–wall collisions, is also markedly influenced by
gas flows. Recent DEM-CFD studies have enabled a better under-
standing of the typical problems related to bends, such as overall
pressure drop, particle rope formation and dispersion, as well as
pipe erosion.
Kruggel-Emden and Oschmann [95] have numerically
examined the rope formation and dispersion for spheres and
non-spherical particles including cubes, pyramids, plates, and
icosahedrons. Their results show that the differences in pressure
drop, particle velocity distribution, rope dispersion, and particle–
particle/particle–wall/particle–fluid forces strongly depend on
particle shapes. Oschmann et al. [96] have investigated the mixing
performance of particles in a pipe bend, which is influenced by
rope formation and dispersion. Various particle shapes have been
considered covering spheres, cylinders, plates, and cubes. The rope
of spheres and cylinders disperses faster than that of the cuboids,
and fully dispersed spheres at the outlet reach the best mixing.
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
Recently, Olaleye et al. [41] have studied the pneumatic conveying
of cohesive dairy powder in a pipe system containing three bends,
namely, a vertical-horizontal (V-H) bend, a horizontal-vertical
(H-V) bend, and a horizontal-horizontal (H-H) bend. The effect of
conveying parameters on powder deposition, pressure drop, and
particle volume fraction is determined using experiments and
DEM-CFD simulations. Compared to V-H and H-V bends, the depo-
sition pattern in the H-H bend (Fig. 6) exhibits a more complex
flow structure. There are varying degrees of particle deposition at
inner walls because the formed rope does not disperse directly as
in the other two bends, but instead keeps a spiral moving around
the bend walls. Lower solids loading and higher gas velocity are
found to cause minimum powder deposits in the H-H bend, as
shown in Fig. 6(c). Sheng et al. [129] have explored gas–solid flow
dynamics in several pipe bends of varied curvature-radius-to-
diameter (R/D) ratios, where gas flow patterns and particle rope
formation/dispersion have been examined. Particle rope dispersion
is clearly observed with lower R/D ratios, where the stronger
secondary-flow pattern of gas phase exists, whereas the rope for-
mation is significant for larger values of R/D.
Xu et al. [130] have used the erosion model, known as the shear
impact energy model, to predict erosion in bends as a function of
particle concentrations and particle properties, with shear impact
energy obtained from DEM simulations. The wear rate on the inner
wall of the extrados increases significantly near the outlet direc-
tion as particle concentrations become higher, whereas the coeffi-
cient of friction only affects erosion slightly. Zhou et al. [106] have
investigated the effects of particle shape and gas swirling intensity
on erosion in bends of different directions. Distinct differences in
erosion patterns exist among V-H, H-V, and H-H bends, in terms
of magnitude, distribution, and the position of the maximal erosion
rate, respectively. The mean erosion rate is found to vary with the
particle sphericity in a nearly inclined ‘‘S” form and decrease with
the gas swirling number for all bends. Zeng et al. [107] have
obtained a detailed erosion distribution of a bend for sphere
particles (Fig. 7). The causes for erosion scars are identified from
particle trajectories and gas secondary flow vortices. The obvious
V-shaped erosion scar below the maximum erosion area is attrib-
uted to the secondary collisions between rebound particles and
the wall. Two significant red erosion scars in area A are due to slid-
ing and direct collisions. The rare erosion scars in the downstream
straight pipe near the elbow outlet are caused by complex flow
fluid. Zeng et al. [107] have also considered different polyhedral
particles. It is found that erosion is affected by impact concentra-
tion, impact velocity, and impact angle, whereas the dominant fac-
tors vary under different sphericity ranges. Ji et al. [61] open up the
investigation of lifting bends and have studied the effects of lifting
angles on erosion. A lifting angle of 30° minimizes the erosion
within the range from 0° to 90° because the impact angle between
particles and the wall surface is approximately 0° in that situation.
Furthermore, the size and location of the erosion depth differ with
lifting angles, whereas the maximum erosion region is indepen-
dent of airflow velocity, lifting angle, and solid mass flow rate. Zhao
et al. [127] have investigated the electrostatic effects on dilute
bend flow pattern, where particle–particle interaction and the
effect of particle flow are ignored. The electrostatics reduce bend
erosion compared with the no-electrostatics flow at the same flow
rate, albeit this effect decreases with the gas flow rate.
Above studies show that distinctive flow characteristics occur in
bends compared with those in straight pipes. DEM-CFD simula-
tions are advantageous to obtain detailed collision information as
well as particle trajectories to analyze the erosion mechanism,
which is of great engineering significance. Nevertheless, the stud-
ies are limited to flow analysis to some extent without geometric
optimization. Particle shape has been positively considered by
the researchers, but transport of polydisperse particles remains
Q. Shi and M. Sakai Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

Fig. 6. Comparison of DEM-CFD simulated flow patterns of particle deposition with experiments on the inner wall of the H-H pipe bend under different powder feed rates
Gsolid (g/s), air velocities V air (m/s): (a) 0.5, 11.5; (b) 1.1, 11.5; (c) 0.5, 16.5; (d) 1.1, 16.5 [41].

to be discovered where the segregation phenomenon is the main
interests.
C. Non-spherical particles
Modeling of non-spherical particles in gas–solid flow using the
DEM-CFD method has not started for long compared to non-
spherical DEM in the single-phase granular flow because of the
main challenge of obtaining accurate drag force correlations
[131]. Only a few studies have been conducted in fluidized beds
[132,133], spouted beds [134], and pneumatic conveying. Based
on our survey, besides several studies [95,96,106,107] about pipe
bend wear considering particle shape, the conveying of non-
sphere particles in pneumatic systems is difficult to collect over
the recent decade though DEM-CFD simulations have increasingly
considered particle shape to demonstrate the significant difference
in gas–solid flow behavior.
Hilton and Cleary [60] have first explored the effect of particle
shape on pneumatic conveying regimes in a horizontal rectangular
duct. Spheres, cuboids, elongated and flattened ellipsoids have
been modeled, and the shape is found critical to the flow transition.
At the given gas pressure gradient, spherical particles form a slug

11
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 7. Erosion distribution of the elbow in gas-sulfur particle flow [107].
Fig. 8. Comparison between pneumatic conveying of spherical and prolate ellip-
soidal particles (velocity with hot colors being faster motion and purple being
nearly stationary) [98].
flow, whereas ellipsoids and cuboidal particles present a dilute
flow with no slug. Analysis of slug stability demonstrates that
the lower voidage fraction of ellipsoids increases pressure gradient
within slugs, which destabilizes the slug formation. Cleary et al.
[98] have conducted a similar study in the same duct as Ref. [60]
but have used particles with much higher density. A comparison
of the developing flow patterns between conveyed spheres and
prolate ellipsoidal particles is shown in Fig. 8, producing the same
observation that slugs only form for spheres. The ellipsoids form a
vertically stratified moderately dilute flow over a slowly shearing
dense lower layer instead. Oschmann et al. [96] have found that
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
particle shape influences the mixing performance of particles
(spheres, cylinders, cuboids, and plates) in a pipe bend accompa-
nied by different rope formation and dispersion behaviors,
although the effects are not revealed via particle microdynamics.
Ebrahimi et al. [100] have simulated horizontal pneumatic trans-
port of low-aspect-ratio cylindrical particles. A flat horizontal pro-
file of mean axial particle velocity has been obtained, which
decreases at larger solid loading ratios. Compared to the experi-
mental data, qualitatively good agreement has also been achieved,
whereas a discrepancy of 18%–25% is attributed to the selected
drag force models. Olaleye et al. [41] have found that for simulat-
ing cohesive irregular-shaped powder, parameter calibration of
DEM by experiments is significant to correctly predict flow behav-
ior, such as the calibration of particle shape and sizes, surface
energy, and the friction coefficient.
Recently, the suspension behavior of large non-spherical coal
particles in vertical pneumatic conveying has been investigated,
with a focus on the suspension velocities [101]. It is shown in
experiments and simulations that particles rotate in the vertical
flow field. This rotation motion is attributed to irregular shape
and internal non-uniform structures of coal particles for experi-
ments but is attributed to the pressure gradient of the flow field
for simulations as shown in Fig. 9. Particles with diameters of 20,
25, and 30 mm effectively cut off the center flow field and induce
a larger area of flow around the particle, causing particles to rotate
under an unbalanced force.
Generally speaking, transport of non-spherical particles has not
been comprehensively understood. Accurate prediction is a chal-
lenging task with difficulty in establishing reliable drag force
model and considering all particle–fluid interactions. Much more
simulation studies, which cover various operating conditions and
system geometries, are expected in the future. Meanwhile, addi-
tional experiments are needed to assist model improvement.
3.2.2. Solid-liquid two-phase flow: Slurry transport
Powder transport in solid–liquid systems has dispersive appli-
cations and different characteristics compared to pneumatic con-
veying in pipe systems, whose research has lasted for a long time
and yields relatively systematic findings. Pipe and fracturing flows
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 9. Instantaneous dynamic pressure of the airflow field in a vertical pipe with non-spherical large coal particles of different diameters [101].
are selected as two main transport types of slurry transport
because of their significance in dredging, fertilizer, food-
processing, ocean mining, and gas/oil production industries. The
slurry characteristics vary depending on the liquid and granular
properties, operating conditions, and pipe or delivery channel
geometries, which are reliably captured using the DEM-CFD
method.
A. Pipe flows
Flow patterns accompanied by pressure loss along the pipeline
are major industrial concerns for hydraulic conveying. Roughly
three types of solid–liquid flow patterns can occur in horizontal
pipes as proposed by Doron and Barnea [135], namely, fully sus-
pended flow, stationary bed flow, and moving bed flow. Fully sus-
pended flow is present with a sufficiently high flow rate to keep all
solids suspended. Otherwise, particles accumulating at the pipe
bottom form a packed bed, either sliding or not. Experiments indi-
cate that a minimum pressure gradient at the transition exists
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
between fully suspended and bed flows, which corresponds to a
threshold velocity. Operating above the critical velocity is the best
strategy to control particle deposition, avoid pipe blockage, and
optimize production flow rates. Ren et al. [136] have first reported
the trend of pressure drop per unit length versus the flow velocity
by DEM-CFD study in narrow rectangular channels, with the simu-
lated pressure gradient slightly higher than the experimental
results. Zhou et al. [137] have further confirmed the validity of
DEM-CFD in predicting the pressure characteristics in circular
pipes as shown in Fig. 10, where dimensionless pressure drop I
in terms of hydraulic gradient across a pipe section is considered.
The simulation results under two different feed solid concentra-
tions (represented by cv ) have similar trends with the experiments.
Based on the simulations, pressure drop correlations involving a
few key variables are also developed, corresponding to Eqs. (28)
and (29) in the paper. Fig. 10 shows that calculated results by
the two correlations fit the simulations well, while
over-prediction against the experiments exists, especially at high
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 10. DEM-CFD prediction of pressure drop versus conveying speed at different
feed solid concentrations compared with calculated and experimental results [137].
conveying speeds. Note that general prediction of pressure drop
should include more key variables such as particle diameter.
Januário and Maria [138] have predicted critical velocity using
DEM-CFD in pipeline test rigs. The simulations are higher than
the experimental values with approximately 22% difference, prob-
ably because pipe roughness cannot be considered in simulations,
and accurate result from experiments is challenging to obtain since
the critical condition is hard to discern.
Zhou and co-workers’ study [137] has accurately reproduced
flow regimes and transitions of sand-water flow in horizontal
Fig. 11. Flow regimes of sand-water flow at different conveying velocities in a horizontal pipe [137].
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
pipes. As shown in Fig. 11, stationary-bed, moving-bed,
heterogeneous-suspension, and pseudo-homogeneous suspension
flows appear as the conveying speed increases. When the convey-
ing speed is very low, stationary-bed flow regime is observed,
where particles generally settle down with nearly zero velocity
at the bottom and dunes form over the particle bed (Fig. 11(a)).
Under higher conveying speed, the dunes no longer form, and par-
ticles move forward by moving bed, over which only a few parti-
cles are suspended (Fig. 11(b)). With further increase in
conveying speed, more particles become suspended and dispersed.
In heterogeneous-suspension flow (Fig. 11(c)), particles on the top
have much higher velocities than those at the bottom, while this
vertical heterogeneity reduces in the pseudo-homogeneous sus-
pension flow (Fig. 11(d)) where particles disperse more signifi-
cantly. Based on force analysis, a new phase diagram is
established to identify the flow regimes and boundaries during
transitions. Xiong et al. [139] have investigated the flow-regime
transition processes of coarse particles large as a 10-mm diameter.
Fixed-bed, sliding-bed, and sliding-flow regimes, as depicted in
Fig. 12, are observed in the horizontal sand-water slurry. The first
two regimes are almost identical to usual stationary-bed and
moving-bed flows. At a low carrying fluid velocity, the particles
injected rapidly settle in the inlet and the continuous particle accu-
mulation causes a blockage, so a fixed bed forms where particles
cannot be pushed forward by the fluid (Fig. 12(a)). As the fluid
velocity increases, particles at the bottom forms a forward-
sliding layer and the whole particle bed moves, which corresponds
to the sliding-bed flow (Fig. 12(b)). The third regime, named
sliding-flow, is distinct for coarse particles. For fine and medium-
sized particles, heterogeneous transport appears after a sliding-
bed, which does not form in coarse particle situations because
the turbulence could not sufficiently lift the coarse particles under
the same carrier velocity. Therefore, coarse particles settle, which
results in high-speed sliding flow with the characteristics of sliding
Q. Shi and M. Sakai Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664

Fig. 12. Flow regimes of sand-water flow containing coarse particles at different conveying velocityes in a horizontal pipe [139].

Fig. 13. Contour plots of instantaneous flow regimes and solid volume fraction at different operating conditions in a vertical pipe [141].

friction, as shown in the upper layer of Fig. 12(c) and (d), whereas
the bottom layer is in sliding-bed regime. The concentration distri-
bution on cross-section is provided in each regime, and the force
analysis shows that the interaction between particles is the main
force at any conveying speed. Uzi and Levy [140] have examined
the effects of various operating parameters including fluid velocity,
particle concentration, particle size, and pipe size on the horizontal
salt-brine conveying, in which moving-bed flow and heteroge-
neous flow regimes are focused. Flow characteristics are analyzed
comprehensively in terms of particle and fluid velocity, as well as
concentration profile, fluctuant turbulent velocity, delivered con-
centration, and the forces. Chen et al. [102] have investigated the
conveying of the spherical and non-spherical particles (square pla-
tens and line-shaped coarse particles) under different flow veloci-
ties in a horizontal pipe. The effects of particle shape on flow
regime, solid concentration distribution, particle force, as well as
transport stabilities are analyzed in detail. Non-spherical particles,
especially the line-shaped type, are prone to cause pipe clogging
that is hard to clear. Furthermore, compared to sliding-bed flow
or transitional state, the sliding-flow regime is favorable to obtain
a stable solid flow rate at the outlet for all particle shapes.
Flow characteristics could be different in vertical pipes of ocean
mining compared to those in horizontal pipes. Zhou et al. [141] are
the first to comprehensively study the flow features of vertical
hydraulic conveying, where the effects of feed solid concentration,
flow speed, and particle diameter have been examined. It is found
that particles tend to concentrate on the middle of the vertical
pipe. Increased feed solid concentration and conveying speed make
the distribution of particles more dispersed (shown in Fig. 13(a)
and (b)), which also increase the pressure drop. However, the

15
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
particle diameter has a negligible influence on instantaneous flow
regimes (shown in Fig. 13(c)) as well as pressure drop. Recently,
Dai et al. [142] have studied the effects of feed solid concentration
and flow speed on the distribution of particle concentration, parti-
cle velocity, and pipe wall shear stress in vertical lifting pipe. The
asymmetric particle distribution at the pipe inlet has also been
examined, which severely affects transport and pipe wear, and
should be avoided. In the experimental and numerical validation
tests, it is found that larger lifting speed and smaller particle size
can cause less radial movement of particles and fewer collisions.
The studies of pipe bend slurry flow focus on the erosion pat-
tern. Zhang et al. [143] have used DEM-CFD to predict the location
of maximum erosive wear in bend during the solid–fluid trans-
portation process, which is represented by the maximum impact
force on the wall. The influences of slurry velocity, bend orienta-
tion, and angle of bend (90° and 180°) on the maximum erosion
location are figured out in detail. Chen et al. [144] have obtained
a relative wear rate through their erosion model to study the max-
imum erosion in solid–liquid pipe bends. Three bends of different
angles (45°, 60°, 90°) have been compared in terms of erosion, par-
ticle motion, and the flow field. Maximum erosive locations are at
or near the exit for all bends, while 90° bend is the most erosive.
Small bend-angles are advised for practical use. A recent study
by Zhou et al. [145] has considered bends of three pipe orienta-
tions, whose conveying performance is compared in terms of pres-
sure drop, conveying stability, and erosion rate under different
conveying speeds. Flow regimes and their transitions in straight
pipes are analyzed covering stationary-bed, moving-bed, and
heterogeneous-suspension flows. Note that two anti-erosion
mechanisms have been observed. To reduce erosion, Li et al.
[146] have added bumps to a 120° pipe bend, which would influ-
ence the solid–liquid flow by changing particle motions and flow
field. It is found that this design may not necessarily reduce wear,
depending on the bump location, mass concentration, and particle
size. When the bump locates near the region particles first collide
with bend wall, the reduction of the maximum wear rate is the
most significant. Under higher mass flow rate and larger particle
size, the most severe wear area moves toward the bend inlet, so
the installation of bump should also be toward inlet side.
To sum up, DEM-CFD has been proved to qualitatively capture
the crucial trend of pipe pressure loss against conveying speed in
hydraulic conveying, despite of the deviation from experimental
data due to the incomplete variables involved. Flow regimes and
dynamics in horizontal pipe, vertical pipe, as well as pipe bend
have also been widely studied, but mainly for spherical particles.
In addition, a few studies in vertical pipe yield inconsistent obser-
vation regarding the effects of particle size on flow features, which
requires further validations as there are not many applications of
DEM-CFD simulations in vertical ocean mining.
B. Proppant flows in fracture
The transport of proppant in fracture has been widely investi-
gated by experiments as a common engineering problem in gas
and oil production industries. Modeling the flow of particle–fluid
mixture in fractures is a new application of the DEM-CFD method,
which has developed for the recent six years but has gained abun-
dant research results toward the proppant placement and trans-
port mechanisms under various operating conditions, fracture
structures, and proppant properties.
The first study using DEM-CFD to simulate proppant distribu-
tions between horizontal fracture walls is conducted by Blyton
et al. [147], who have investigated the effects of the injection rate
and fluid rheology. Then, Zhang et al. [148] have provided detailed
flow patterns and micro-transport mechanisms of proppant parti-
cles in a horizontal well. The operating condition is settled after a
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
sensitive analysis of particle stiffness, particle friction coefficient,
wall friction coefficient, and fluid cell height. As the particles are
continually injected, a particle dune first forms at the bottom
and develops to the particle bank finally, during which four devel-
opmental stages are identified. Apart from the three transport
mechanisms (settlement, fluidization, and suspension) as previ-
ously observed in experiments, a new mechanism known as vortic-
ity is presented. Zhang et al. [149] have subsequently investigated
the transport of multi-sized proppants, with the sizes following a
normal distribution, in both horizontal and vertical wells. In the
vertical wall (Fig. 14A.), particles of different sizes are almost uni-
formly mixed. Proppant transport is dominated by settlement and
fluidization mechanisms, leading to a long proppant bank at the
fracture bottom. However, in the horizontal wall (Fig. 14B.), large
proppant particles quickly settle near the wellbore, whereas small
proppant particles are transported deeper. The mechanism of two
vortices at the beginning of injection can drag the injected prop-
pants in two directions to form a dual dune. Additionally, fracture
tip screen-out effect and graded proppant injection strategy are
explored. Baldini et al. [150] have examined the effects of flow
injection heights and proppant injection strategies in vertical
wells, focusing on the flow pattern of the initial stage. The position
and shape of the settled dune differ for the varied injection heights,
and injecting two types of proppants in different orders or as a
mixture produces distinctive proppant distributions. Zheng et al.
[151] have simulated the proppant transport in supercritical CO2
fluid in a vertical fracture. The developmental stages, flow regimes,
and transport mechanisms are determined for the supercritical CO2
slurry. Supercritical CO2 is found less efficient for proppant trans-
port compared with the commonly used fracturing fluids. The
effects of slurry injection velocity, injection temperature, proppant
concentration, and proppant diameter on proppant placement are
evaluated, providing different ways to improve the proppant trans-
port efficiency. Yamashiro and Tomac [152] have investigated the
clustering mechanism of proppant injections with varying flow
rates and concentrations in horizontal fractures. Particle clustering
shape and spatial distribution are significantly influenced by the
injection rate, injected particle volumetric concentration, and par-
ticle settling. Lu et al. [153] have explored the effects of fracturing
fluid viscosity and proppant density on horizontal proppant trans-
port. The injection scheme for the fracturing fluids of different vis-
cosities and the proppants with different densities are discussed to
improve effectiveness.
Proppant transport in a more complex fracture geometry, rather
than simple parallel panels, has been investigated by DEM-CFD.
Vega et al. [154] have modeled the fluid flow and proppant rear-
rangement in a fracture close to the perforation during flow-back
stages. The factors, such as wall roughness, perforation position,
the initial proppant position, and the pressure gradient between
the inlet and outlet are widely investigated. Zeng et al. [155] have
investigated the proppant settling behavior in inclined narrow-
channel fractures. Three mechanisms are identified for the prop-
pant settling acceleration. Two types of granular-induced instabil-
ity are observed to cause spatial inhomogeneity such as particle
clustering. A critical inclination angle is shown to exist, corre-
sponding to a minimum settling velocity, which is affected by fluid
viscosity, particle size, and particle density. Wang et al. [156] have
considered fracture networks of different apertures and branch
fracture orientations, where the screen out in fracture tip and fill-
ing sequence in fracture networks are investigated. A systematic
study in a single fracture also examines various parameters,
including fracture closure, injection velocity, non-uniform inlet
opening, perforation position, as well as proppant properties such
as density and diameter.
Some recent studies have investigated the transport of non-
spherical proppants. Tang et al. [108] have simulated the transport
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 14. Placement of multi-sized proppants in a fracture with particles randomly injected into the fracture (largest particles marked by red while blue indicated the smallest
particles): A. in vertical wells; B. in horizontal wells [149].
of spheres and two types of non-spherical proppant particles
(cylindrical-shaped and four-direction line-shaped) in horizontal
fracture. It is found that better transport performance could be
achieved by non-spherical particles than that of spheres in terms
of longer transport distances and slower settling. Fluid viscosity
and proppant density impact the transport of three types of parti-
cles differently. Xu et al. [157] have simulated non-spherical prop-
pant transport in more complicated tortuous fractures with
unfixed fracture width, which is closer to the real fracture geome-
try of a shale reservoir. The effects of proppant density, proppant
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
concentration, fracturing fluid velocity, and fluid viscosity are indi-
vidually examined; combining the above factors demonstrates a
feasible method for solving distribution problems of proppant.
Zeng et al. [109] have obtained the particle settling velocity and
slurry apparent viscosity as a function of the fracture width in peri-
odic narrow channels for spherical and cylindrical proppants. Akh-
shik and Rajabi [103] have studied the proppant transport at
different intersections of hydraulic and natural fractures, investi-
gating the effects of particle shape, natural fracture aperture, fluid
velocity, and proppant concentrations. Proppant blockage
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
Fig. 15. Sand distributions with time series under gas–liquid slug flow in horizontal pipe bend [159].
formation is also discussed with the introduction of a blockage
coefficient.
Overall, DEM-CFD is proved to be very successfully applied into
proppant transport study in fracturing fluid. Not only detailed
micro-transport mechanisms and flow patterns have been
revealed, but the simulations show excellent flexibility dealing
with varied proppant injection schemes, diverse fracture struc-
tures, and other parameters related to the process. Effects of frac-
turing fluid properties are also explored, which provides optimal
choice for practice at low cost.
3.2.3. Gas-solid–liquid three-phase flow
Because the interaction of particles and flow field is much more
complicated in gas–liquid flow than that in a single-fluid flow, i.e.,
the interaction between gas–solid, solid–liquid, and gas–liquid
should be simulated simultaneously, studies of gas-sand-liquid
flow have received little attention. Similar to the research interests
in solid–liquid flows, frictional pressure loss, flow regime, and min-
imum operating velocity (deposition velocity) are also the most
critical design parameters of gas–solid–liquid flows [158], while
related numerical studies are deficient.
Erosion prediction of sand particles in gas–liquid flows is a hot
research topic by experimentally validated simulations
[72,73,159,160], focusing on the relationship between the gas-
sand-liquid multiphase distribution and erosion profile. In these
simulations, the VOF or multi-fluid VOF model is mainly used to
calculate the gas–liquid two-phase flow. Sedrez et al. [73] have
investigated maximum erosion rates, erosion locations, and ero-
sion patterns in liquid-dominated dispersed-bubble-solid flows.
Maximum erosion increases as the mixture velocity increases,
whereas the erosion location and erosion pattern are similar for
each case. Peng et al. [159] have studied bend erosion in the gas–
liquid slug flow. Gas-sand-liquid distributions show that the liquid
phase is responsible for the sand particle carrying. Particle trajec-
tories, as shown in Fig. 15, are complex and different from that
of the gas–solid and solid–liquid flows because of the intermit-
tently appearing liquid film and slug body under the operating
condition. Particles exhibit significant local aggregation at the top
side of the horizontal bend and at the downstream straight pipe,
which is consistent with the liquid phase distribution. Additionally,
three particle collision mechanisms dominating wall erosion have
been proposed, namely, micro-cutting, plowing, and impact defor-
mation. Jia et al. [160] have quantitatively described the synergistic
effect of the erosion and corrosion induced by solid particles and
acidic liquids in a bend, respectively. The effects of mixture veloc-
ity and liquid phase fraction are explored in the simulations. It is
found that the maximum erosion-corrosion rate increases with
higher mixture velocity and gradually decreases with higher liquid
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
fraction, whereas the synergistic effects of erosion-corrosion react
differently in varied areas.
The above-mentioned numerical studies have several main lim-
itations. First, the LPT or DPM is adopted where particle–particle
interactions are commonly not considered under low particle load-
ing, together with many assumptions made during modeling.
Therefore, once the operating conditions change and the solid con-
centration goes higher, the applicability of these models may be
questionable. Second, local-volume averaged technique has not
been properly applied in the fluid model, which is important for
precisely simulating dense particle flow. Another significant draw-
back is that before solving the governing equations for each phase,
gas–liquid flow regimes must be specified in advance according to
gas–liquid flow pattern maps [161]. The calculation procedures in
different flow regimes are thereby significantly limited. To some
extent, we can conclude that no general DEM-CFD model exists
now that can accurately predict sand transport and deposition in
gas–liquid pipe flows. This research gap has also been observed
by Leporini et al. [162].
4. Large-scale simulation
A long-standing issue with DEM for simulating a granular flow
is how to apply it to real industry, which is characterized as large-
scale, involving complex particulate behavior, and in typically
complex geometries. However, the advantage of DEM over high
resolution on particle level comes at a high computational cost,
so the number of computational particles is limited. Therefore, size
enlargement is usually performed in studies close to the actual
case [163]. Another limitation is the particularly long calculation
time for poly-disperse size distributions, irregularly shaped parti-
cles, and multicomponent mixtures because various types of
inter-particle interaction forces must be discerned and computed
for a certain accuracy. For example, in pharmaceutical industries,
it is impossible to simulate a complete tableting production pro-
cess as long as a couple of hours, though no more than 60 s’ calcu-
lation has been achieved [45]. Based on these problems, several
approaches have been established and developed to promote
large-scale DEM calculation.
The coarse grained DEM (CGDEM) has been proposed to
increase the total number of particles simulated in various powder
systems [88,91,164–172], that is, simulating a group of original
particles by a coarse-grain particle with the coarse-grain ratio l.
This is a scaling method where the coarse-grain particle possesses
equivalent behavior to the original ones, and therefore the coarse
grained DEM makes it possible to effectively simulate large-scale
powder systems on a single PC. However, despite its wide validity,
Q. Shi and M. Sakai
within the field of powder transport, only Sakai and Koshizuka
[173] have applied the coarse grained DEM to pneumatic convey-
ing and have reasonably reproduced slug flow pattern. Kuang
et al. [16] deem that one potential problem to promote coarse
grained DEM in pneumatic conveying is the difficulty to deal with
precise particle–particle interactions such as particle attrition and
electrification.
Because of the advancement in computer hardware, graphical
processing unit (GPU)-based DEM has gained wide interest in sim-
ulating complex and large-scale granular processes. Shigeto and
Sakai [174] have studied multi-thread parallel computation of
DEM on a GPU and have successfully simulated a large-scale screw
conveyor containing double helices, where complicated-shaped
and moving wall boundaries are involved. A maximal particle
number of 1,280,000 is included. Gan et al. [175] have also realized
the calculation of screw conveying for a large number of particles
(one million) by GPU-based DEM and have obtained reliable
results. Recently, GPU-enhanced DEM has been used to simulate
the complex twin-screw granulation (TSG) process in a full-scale
twin-screw granulator [97]. It is the first time that the effects of
particle shape on the conveying characteristics are examined in a
full-scale TSG. GPU-based DEM has also enabled simulations of a
great many particles (several million) in the tablet press feed
frames and has extended the processing time to several minutes
[11]. Note that no application of GPU technique has been found
in DEM-CFD studies for multiphase powder transport systems.
When the dimension of the system is elongated or of long-
distance in one or more directions, periodic boundary condition
(PBC) is used to simulate the behavior of the entire system by a
smaller domain with fewer particles. It is frequently adopted in
long screw conveyors in the axial direction, either applied to a sin-
gle pitch of the screw [4,110,176] or several screw sections
[117,177,178]. Furthermore, Kuang et al. [179,180] have estab-
lished systematic PBCs for the DEM-CFD simulation of pneumatic
conveying in long pipes. The simulations are conducted sequen-
tially by dividing the pipelines into startup and developed sections,
allowing for the numerical study of large-scale pneumatic convey-
ing systems as long as 102 m. The computation time can be signif-
icantly reduced by reducing the calculation dimension. Overall,
PBC is suitable for calculation domain reduction when the flow
regime is regular and spatially periodic.
5. Conclusions
Various flow characteristics and particle-related phenomena
can occur during the powder transport process in virtue of system
geometry, material properties, and operating parameters. There-
fore, there is a high demand for an in-depth understanding of the
complicated flow behavior effectively and reliably. The rapid
development of DEM and DEM-CFD approaches has shown the
promising capability of dealing with these intricate problems.
Besides quantifying system performance and predicting key flow
parameters, it is also possible to reveal microscopic particle
motions and conduct system optimal design. To our knowledge,
this is the first study to comprehensively review DEM simulation
progress in diverse powder transport systems and summarize the
related large-scale calculation approaches. The following are the
main conclusions.
(1) The DEM has been well established for a single-phase gran-
ular flow in screw conveying, where particle shape effects,
size distribution, and inter-particle forces are properly sim-
ulated. Fluid effects are new topics shown to improve simu-
lation accuracy under high screw speeds. Studies on
pharmaceutical feeders concentrate more on complex force
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Advanced Powder Technology 33 (2022) 103664
feeders than gravity feeders. The effects of feeding flow on
tablet quality and the segregation phenomenon of poly-
diverse particles have been hot issues.
(2) Various DEM-CFD models have been applied to study parti-
cles involving two-phase flow behavior. Charge transfer
models and electrostatic force are incorporated to under-
stand the powder electrification phenomenon in pneumatic
conveying. Flow characteristics of various types of channels,
bend erosion, and non-spherical particle conveying are
increasingly concerned within both pneumatic conveying
and slurry transport. The new-rising applications of vertical
hydraulic conveying in ocean mining and proppant transport
within fractures in gas and oil industries are promising for
obtaining particle-scale flow behavior predictions.
(3) Transportation of sands by gas–liquid mixtures is a typical
problem in gas and oil production processes, of which the
numerical studies fall far behind experiments. A few
attempts of LPT-CFD or DPM-CFD have been made for ero-
sion prediction in the gas–solid-liquid flow where contact
model is ignored, whereas a general model to predict com-
plicated flow regimes and other critical design parameters
is difficult to be established.
(4) To improve the efficiency of DEM simulations, the use of the
coarse grained DEM, GPU-based computing technique, and
periodical boundary condition has made some accomplish-
ments in calculating complex flow behavior and large-scale
powder transport systems, though track record of the coarse
grained DEM is not rich and GPU-based DEM has been only
seen in a single-phase system other than multiphase flow.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by JSPS KAKENHI [Grant
Number 21H04870 and 21K19760]. Qi SHI is supported by Quan-
tum Science and Technology Fellowship Program (Q-STEP) at The
University of Tokyo.
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