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Math1014 Calculus II
A Short Summary of Basic Calculus in MATH1012/MATH1013

Derivatives y y=f(x)
dF ′ dy
Notation: , F (x), y′ or , etc. (x+h,f(x+h))
dx dx
f(x+h)−f(x)
dF F(x + h) − F(x)
Meaning: F ′ (x) = = lim secant line
dx h→0 | h
{z } tangent line

slope of the secant line through (x,f(x))

h
(x, F(x)) and (x + h, F(x + h))
x
Slope of secant line will approach the
= slope of tangent line at (x, F(x))
slope of the tangent line as h approaches 0.
= rate of change of F

d(constant) dx p d ln |x| 1 dex

Basic derivatives: = 0, = px p−1 , = , = ex
dx dx dx x dx
d sin x d cosx d tan x d sec x
= cos x, = − sin x, = sec2 x, = sec x tan x
dx dx dx dx
d sin−1 x 1 d cos−1 x 1 d tan−1 x 1
=√ , = −√ , = ,
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2

(Each derivative is a limit!)

Differentiation Rules: “T ERM BY T ERM ”: [a f (x) + bg(x)]′ = a f ′ (x) + bg′(x) for any constants a, b

P RODUCT RULE: [ f (x)g(x)]′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g′ (x)

 
f (x) ′ g(x) f ′ (x) − f (x)g′ (x)
Q UOTIENT RULE: =
g(x) [g(x)]2
d
C HAIN RULE : f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x))g′ (x)
dx

Antiderivatives/Indefinite
Z Integrals
Notation: f (x)dx, which means finding all “antiderivatives” of f
Z
dF
f (x)dx = F(x) +C is just another way to say = f (x), where C is an arbitray
dx
constant.
Z
1 d  1 2x  1 2x d(2x)
Example: e2x dx = e2x + C, because e = e = e2x
2 dx 2 2 2x
d dg
(By Chain Rule, eg(x) = eg(x) )
dx dx
Definite Integrals y
Z b area above the x-axis is considered as positive

Notation: f (x)dx , where f is a continuous function on [a, b]. y = f(x)

a
Z b
b − ah i x
Meaning: f (x)dx = lim f (c1 ) + f (c2 ) + · · · + f (cn ) = a b

| n
a n→∞
{z } area under the x-axis is considered as negative

“Riemann sum”: sum of +ve/-ve “rectangular areas”

sum of +ve/-ve areas
based on a partition of [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length,

with ci a point chosen from the i-th subinterval

Z 1
1h1 2 ni 1 n(n + 1) 1
Example: xdx = lim + + ···+ = lim 2 =
0 n→∞ n n n n n→∞ n 2 2
where c1 = n1 , c2 = n2 ,. . . , cn = nn are the right endpoints of the subintervals.
(The integral is of course just the area of a triangle!)
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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) tells us the connection between the two kinds of limit processes: definite
integrals by Riemann sums and differentiation/antidifferentiation.
Z b Z
d
←→ ←→
a dx
Z
d x
FTC Version I: Given a function f continuous on the interval [a, b], we have f (t)dt = f (x).
Z x dx a
i.e., the “area function” A(x) = f (t)dt is an antiderivative of f ;
a
or, the rate of change of area under the graph of f is given by f .
y
y = f(t)

A(x + h) − A(x)
A(x) A′ (x) = lim = f (x)
h→0 h
t
a x x+h

Note that A(x + h) − A(x) is the narrow area over the interval from x to x + h,
which is approximately f (x)h when h is very close to 0. More precisely,

m(h)h A(x + h) − A(x) M(h)h

≤ ≤
h h h
where m(h) = min f (t) and M(h) = max f (t), assuming that h > 0. (The
x≤t≤x+h x≤t≤x+h
interval is x + h ≤ t ≤ x if h < 0.) Taking limit as h → 0, we have A′ (x) = f (x) by
the Squeeze Theorem, since lim m(h) = f (x) = lim M(h) by the continuity of f .
h→0 h→0
Z b Z
FTC Version II: f (t)dt = F(b) − F(a) if f (x)dx = F(x) + C, i.e., if F ′ (x) = f (x).
a

In fact, by Version I, we have that the all other antiderivatives of f on an interval

are given by Z Z x
f (x)dx = f (x)dx +C
| a {z }
one antiderivative of f

Now, if F is any other antiderivative of f , i.e.,

Z
f (x)dx = F(x) + C

the two antiderivatives can differ from each other by at most a constant on any
interval. Hence there is a constant C such that
Z x
f (x)dx = F(x) + C1
a
Z a
By putting in x = a, we have 0 = f (t)dt = F(a) + C1 , i.e., C1 = −F(a) and
a
hence Version II follows:
Z x
f (x)dx = F(x) − F(a) .
a

Z Z 2 h1 i2
1 1
Example: Since e dx = e2x + C, we have
2x
e2x dx = e2x = (e4 − e2 ).
2 1 2 1 2
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Basic Derivative Formulas

Basic Formula Chain Rule Version Other Techniques

dx p d♠ p d♠
= px p−1 = p♠ p−1 Implicit Differentiation
dx dx dx
dex de♠ d♠
= ex = e♠ Logarithmic Differentiation
dx dx dx
d ln |x| 1 d ln ♠ 1 d♠
= = (If you know all these rules
dx x dx ♠ dx
d sin x d sin ♠ d♠
= cos x = cos ♠ and tricks, the derivatives of
dx dx dx
d cosx d cos♠ d♠
= − sin x = − sin ♠ ln x and sin x can give you all others.)
dx dx dx
d tan x d tan ♠ d♠
= sec2 x = sec2 ♠
dx dx dx
d secx d sec ♠ d♠
= sec x tan x = sec ♠ tan ♠
dx dx dx

Review Exercise
See if you could complete the following:
Z
d
1. (a) sin(5x) = (b) cos(5x)dx =
dx
Z
d
2. (a) tan(4x) = (b) sec2 (4x)dx =
dx
Z
d 3x
3. (a) e = (b) e3x dx =
dx
Z 1
d x2 2
4. (a) e = (b) xex dx =
dx 0

d √
Z
x
5. (a) 4 − x2 = (b) √ dx =
dx 4 − x2
Z π
d 4
6. (a) ln | sec x| = (b) tan xdx =
dx 0
Z π
d 3
7. (a) ln | sec x + tanx| = (b) sec xdx =
dx 0

Mean Value Theorem says the following:

If a function f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), there there is a number c in (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a) = f ′ (c)(b − a)

By this theorem, if f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in some open interval, then f must be a constant function on this interval since for
any two numbers a, b in the interval, say with a < b, we have certain number c in (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a) = f ′ (c)(b − a) = 0 · (b − a) = 0

i.e. f (a) = f (b). In particular, the difference of any two antiderivatives F, G of f on an open interval must be a constant,
since (F(x) − G(x))′ = f (x) − f (x) = 0. Geometrically speaking, moving the graph of F up and down will not change its
slope function.