MA102 Linear Algebra

Lectures-9 & 10: Vector Spaces

RA, RKS, MGPP, BD

Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati

March-June 2023

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Vector spaces

Topics:
Vector Spaces and Subspaces
Linear Independence
Basis and Dimension

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).
Remark: Elements of F are referred to as scalars. For vector spaces, the real field R
can be replaced with any field F.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z?

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" #
3 4
A−1 = .
4 3

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .
Remark: For any field, usually one writes ab instead of a · b.
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms:

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.
The elements of V are vectors and the elements of F are scalars.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0? (e) All n × n
matrices A such that A2 = A?
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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.

Remark: The vector addition + and the scalar multiplication · are actually functions

+ : V × V −→ V, (u, v) 7−→ u + v, · : F × V −→ V, (α, v) 7−→ α · v,

and they should not be confused with addition and multiplication of real or complex
numbers.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check).

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector?

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1,

8 / 17
An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).
Is R2 a vector space over R?
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).
Is R2 a vector space over R?Is 1 · (x, y ) = (x, y )?
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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

4 If αu = 0 then either α = 0 or u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

4 If αu = 0 then either α = 0 or u = 0. Proof: Exercise.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.
Vector space of polynomials over the field Q, C and F is defined similarly.
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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.
The set V := {f : (a, b) → R | f 00 − 3f 0 + 7f = 0} is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R
Odd functions: Let Fo (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = −f (x)} be the set of all odd
functions. Then Fo (R) is a vector spaces over R.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

Note that {0} and V are the trivial subspaces of V.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

Note that {0} and V are the trivial subspaces of V.
Fact: Let W be a subset of V. Then the following statements are equivalent.
W is a subspace of V.
αu + βv ∈ W, for all u, v ∈ W, α, β ∈ F.
αu + v ∈ W, for all u, v ∈ W, α ∈ F.

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].
The vector spaces Fe (R) and Fo (R) are subspaces of F(R).

Question: Let Hn be the set of all Hermitian matrices in Cn×n . Is Hn a subspace of

Cn×n ? Is Hn a vector space over R?

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Linear combination and span

Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then

v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .

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Linear combination and span

Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then

v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .

The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).

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Linear combination and span

Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then

v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .

The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).

Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by

span(S):= {c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm : cj ∈ F and vj ∈ V for all m ∈ N}.

Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

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Linear combination and span

Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then

v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .

The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).

Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by

span(S):= {c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm : cj ∈ F and vj ∈ V for all m ∈ N}.

Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

If span(S) = V, then S is called a spanning set for V.

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

" # " # " #!

1 1 1 0 0 1
S2 = span , , .
0 1 0 1 1 0

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