LIFE SCIENCES YEAR NOTE GRADE 10 Astraight to the point note compiled in compliance with CAPS documents and the Life Sciences Examination guidelines. ISRAEL ADEYANJUORIENTATION TO LIFE SCIENCES What is Life Science? It is the scientific study of living things from molecular level to their interactions with one another and the environment. Living systems exhibit levels of organisation from molecules to biomes. Life on Earth is dynamic, with homeostasis maintaining balance at every level of organisation. Life is characterised by changes over time. ‘Science involves contested knowledge, and non-dogmatic inferences based on evidence and peer review. Non-dogmatic conclusions — conclusions that are not influenced by any religious conviction. Peer review — when scientists that research the same topic, evaluate and contribute using their own logic and data to confirm claims. Strands in Life Sciences - Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue level ~ Life processes in Plants and Animals - Environmental Studies - Diversity, Change and Continuity Making drawings - Use a sharp HB pencil to draw - Drawings must be an appropriate size so that all labelled parts are clearly visible = Donot shade your drawings, it makes them unclear - Labels and label lines must be written in pen’ - Label lines must be drawn with a ruler and they must not cross each other - Label line must point to the exact labelled part and it must not end in an arrow head - Adrawing must have an appropriate heading that describes it. Variables INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ~ the variable that you control and may change during the experiment. It will have an effect on the dependent variable. DEPENDENT VARIABLE - variable that is measured during the investigation becaus be influenced by the change in the independent variable. FIXED VARIABLE — it remains constant in an investigation in order not to influence it. This variable is not shown on a table or a graph. It is also known as the CONTROLLED VARIABLE. Example’ In this investigation, variables might include: the amount of sunshine, the types of soil in which the tomatoes are growing, the water available to each of the plants, etc To which variable type does each factor belong? Dependent variable: mass of tomatoes Independent variable: how much light the tomato plants receive. 2 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUFixed) Controlled variables: all tomato plants will: ~ Be the same species of tomato - Get the same fertiliser (type and amount) - Grow in the same type of soil - Growin the same type of container - Get the same amount of water - Can you think of more? Hypothesis It is a statement or prediction as to what you think will be the outcome or result of your investigation The hypothesis should: - be specific = relate directly to the question you are asking - be expressed as a statement that includes the variables involved (the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’) ~ be testable (might be right or wrong) = not expressed as a question but rather as a prediction - be written in the future tense eq. the more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the larger the tomatoes will grow Evaluation of results Discuss how you ensured the validity and reliability of the investigation. Validity: Was ita fair test and did it test what it set out to test? Reiiability: f the experiment were to be repeated would the results obtained be similar? The best way to ensure reliability is to: - repeat the experiment several times and obtain an average. - Increase sample sizes (if any) Presentation of data ‘Scientific data can be represented in various ways i.e. in table form or graphically TABLE - _ Itmust have an appropriate heading - Atable consists of different columns - The independent variables are usually in the left-hand column - The dependent variables are usually in the right-hand column - The names of the variables must occur at the top of each column as a heading - The unitin which the variables are being measured must be written alongside or under the heading, 3 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU| ‘Average temperature per month in the Western Cape | |_Months of the year Average temperature (°C) { January | 27 i February { 33 i March _ ar 2 i April il 24 | t May i. 3. 20, ' \ =. { July { Me | t August C 16 | (september | 20 el { ‘October ie 2 | [November | _ \ [December | 4 LINE GRAPH It consists of two axes: x-axis (horizontal) represents the independent variable, y-axis (vertical) represents the dependent variable. The graph must have an appropriate heading. Choose the correct scale; all intervals must be of equal size ‘Axes must be labelled; correct measuring units must be indicated on the respective axes. Aline graph only starts at 0 if there is a coordinate at 0 y-axis: Dependant variable Origin (0:0) 0 2 3 x-axis: Independant variable 4 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUUrine produced (me) BAR GRAPH HISTOGRAM The influence of drinking water on the production of urine 600 400 ZX 300 x 200 8 8 100 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 Time after drinking water (min) Number of deaths by tsunamis between 1918 - 2003 in different countries Number of deaths Turkey Pakistan Mexico Japan Algeria Country Calorie requirements for active people of 3.000: 2.500. 2.000: 1500: 1 000. 500. Daily calorie requirements (in kilocalories) ° 45 O13 M4t8 1830 300 ST ‘Age (in years) 5 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUPIE CHART Pie charts are used when you want to give a visual representation of percentages as a relative proportion of the total of a circle. They are a type of graph even though they do not have any axes. A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors (think of them as the slices of a cake). 100% represents the whole complete circle (360°), 50% represents a half circle (180°), 25% is a quarter circle (90°), and so on. Example: 1. Count the number of each species and record it in a table. 2. Work out the total number of species in the ecosystem. 3. Calculate the percentage of each species. Insects 17 17 x 100 34 x 360 17 =100 © ayy 34 360 _ 122,42 “ ~T00 Plants 16 16 x 100 _ ,,.,| 16 x 360 = am 329g Or 15,2 Birds 9 9% 100 _ yam% | 18% 960 _ ese 30 100 Amphibians) & | 8x 100 _ 460, | 16x 360 © se = 16% inn — 87,6 Key 533 isects GE Piants Co) Birds HEE a privions 6 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTOPIC 1: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE (PAPER 1-33 MARKS) MOLECULES FOR LIFE Chemical compounds are divided into groups: INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Chemical compounds that do NOT contain the element carbon (C) and are not produced by living organisms e.g. water, gases. Exceptions are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and carbonates that do contain the element carbon ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Chemical compounds that contain the element carbon (C) and are produced by living organisms. Organic compounds are composed of carbon C, hydrogen H and oxygen O, while some also contain other elements such as nitrogen N, phosphorus P and sulphur S. Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins, which form the building blocks of cells. INORGANIC COMPOUND. Water The most important inorganic compound for living organisms, without which there can be no life. One molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (HO). Functions Water serves as a solvent for both organic and inorganic compounds to dissolve in. - Medium in which chemical reactions occur. - Serves as transporting agent (digested nutrients, metabolic waste products, gases as well as mineral salts). - Serves as lubricant (chewing and swallowing, movement of food, tears in the eye, fluids at joints etc.) - Itregulates body temperature. ~ _ Itgives shape and rigidity — hydrostatic animals (earthworm), water in plant's vacuoles. Mineral salts Inorganic substances or elements that are needed and absorbed by living organisms (plants, animals and humans). Plant roots absorb mineral salts from the soil, whereas animals obtain from the food they eat. Mineral salts can be divided into TWO groups: - Macro-elements: mineral salts that are needed in large quantities. = Micro-elements: mineral saits that are needed in small quantities. 7 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUMacro-elements Builds strong bones ond teeth Humans -rickels (poor bone Necessary for blood coagulation formation) in children. Plays a role in permeability of cell membranes ‘osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Plays a role in muscle contraction and the transmission ‘of nerve impulses Plants - weak root growth Phosphorus - Builds strong bones and teeth Humans - rarely occurs © ‘Component of ATP (energy carrer in cells) ‘Component of DNA and RNA Plants - stunted plant growth Part of phospholipids in cell membranes Sodium - Important for maintaining water balance inthe body Humans ~ muscle cramps (No) ~ Helps with the functioning of nerves and muscle contraction Plants - unknown + Controls rhythm of the heart Potassium - Important for maintaining water balance in the body Humans ~ rarely occurs. «) Faciltates the functioning of muscles and nerves ~ Helps to regulate heart rhythm Plants - yellow and brown leat Necestary to activate plant enzymes margins Micro-elements PE Helps to form haemoglobin that transports oxygen in the Humans - anaemia (shortage of blood blood) ~ Helps to form chlorophyll molecules in plants Plants ~ chlorosis (yellowing of, leaves) lodine (1) - Component of the hormone thyroxin, which is secreted Humans - goltre (swelling of the by the thyroid gland neck or larynx) Phosphates (POs) and nitrates (NOs) are also minerals. They are not elements but ‘compounds. Phosphate ions are the main source of the element phosphorus (P) in plants. Nitrate ions are the main source of the element nitrogen (N) that is needed for protein synthesis. Nitrogen forms part of the nucieotides of DNA and RNA and is aiso needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll in plants. In humans, a lack of nitrogen-cont kwashiorkor (results in stunted growth) In plants, a lack of nitrate ions causes the deficiency disease — chlorosis (yellowing of leaves due to shortage of chlorophyll) ing protein results in the deficiency disease — Fertilisers and eutrophication Fertilisers are used when the soil becomes depleted of mineral salts. Fertilisers containing mostly nitrogen, potassium and phosphates are added to the soil in large quantities. During heavy rain, many of these minerals are washed away into rivers and dams. This causes. a drastic increase in the growth of freshwater algae (algal bloom). This drastic increase in algae blocks the suniight from other photosynthesising organisms, which results in the death of many water plants. This will deplete the oxygen supply in the water. Large numbers of fish and other water organisms die as a result of an oxygen shortage. This phenomenon is known as eutrophication. 8 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUpel rae cecerepenen 9 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUORGANIC COMPOUND Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are made up of the elements carbon C, hydrogen H and oxygen O. The ratio of H atoms: O atoms is 2:1 Carbohydrates are made up of ring-shaped units — saccharides. Carbohydrates are divided into THREE groups according to the number of saccharides they contain: - Monosaccharides (one saccharide or single sugars) - _Disaccharides (two saccharides or double sugars) - Polysaccharides (many saccharides) Mono- and disaccharides are sugars because they taste sweet and are water-soluble. Polysaccharides are not sugars because they do not taste sweet and are insoluble in water. Glucose is the basic building block (monomer) of all carbohydrates. Monosaccharides — are single-ring structures. There are THREE types of monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose. Disaccharides — formed when two monosaccharides are joined. One water molecule is removed to form a disaccharide. This reaction is known as a condensation reaction. There are THREE types of disaccharides: maltose, sucrose, lactose. glucose + glucose = maltose + HO glucose + fructose = sucrose + H.O glucose + galactose = lactose + H.O Polysaccharide — long chains of monosaccharides that bind to one another by a condensation reaction. There are THREE types of polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose. - Starch ~ form in which glucose is stored in plants, - Glycogen — form in which excess glucose is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles of animals - Cellulose — forms the structural component of piant cell walls. @ @ — 5 +H20 glucose glucose maltose @-O— @0-~ glucose fructose sucrose @ O—@0D« glucose galactose lactose 10 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU@&@@20262302080 Structure of a polysaccharide Importance of carbohydrates - Source of energy — during cellular respi CO; & H.0 are formed. - Source of reserve energy — starch and glycogen are stored in plants and animals respectively and are insoluble in water. When energy is needed, they can easily be converted into glucose. Structural component - plant cell walls consist primarily of cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall. tion, energy is released from glucose while is (fats and oils) Lipids are made up of the same three elements as carbohydrates (C, H, 0). The ratio of H:O is far greater than 2:1, more than double the number of H atoms than O atoms. Lipid molecules consist of two types of building blocks — glycerol and fatty ar 1 lipid molecule = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids. Lipids are: - Insoluble in water - Soluble in ether and alcohol - Hydrophobic — water repelling Examples of lipids are fats, phospholipids and steroids. EOD at ai glycerol SATURATED FATS — are mainly derived from animals e.g. butter and lard. They are solid room temperature. Saturated fats are used by the body to synthesise cholesterol (a white, wax-like substance that forms part of cell membranes and hormones). Excessive intake of saturated fats leads to high cholesterol levels in the blood which cause fatty deposits (plaque) in arteries, thereby narrowing them — atherosclerosis. Blood platelets aggregate (clump together) at these narrowed areas and form a blood clot If the coronary artery for example is blocked by a blood clot, the cardiac muscle does not receive oxygen and cannot function. This leads to a heart attack. UNSATURATED FATS — are mainly derived from plants e.g. olive oil, canola oil and sunflower oil. These fats are liquid at room temperature and are known as oils. 11 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUImportance of lipids - Source of reserve energy ~a large amount of energy is released when fat molecules are broken down. = Insulating material - fat is @ poor conductor of heat and maintains the body temperature e.g. whales, dolphins, seals etc. = Shock absorption — organs like kidneys and eyes are surrounded by a layer of fat to protect them from mechanical injury. - Cell membrane consist of a double layer of phospholipid molecules with a protein layer on either side. = _ Waterproofing — birds for example, have oil glands that secret oil to make their feathers waterproof. - Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K can only be absorbed when dissolved in fat. - Source of water — animals that hibernate in cold weather, or others that survive hot, dry conditions, store fat that is broken down to CO2 and HzO during respiration. Camel is an example of animal that uses metabolic water. Proteins Protein is a polymer (a very large molecule) with amino acids as monomer (building blocks). ‘Amino acids are made up of the elements carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O and nitrogen N. in some amino acids, phosphorus P, sulphur S and iron Fe are also present. There are only twenty different amino acids. The sequence (arrangement) and type of amino acids determine the type of protein. The bond or link formed between two amino acids is known as a peptide bond. Dipeptide — two amino acids linked by a peptide bond. Tripeptide - three amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Polypeptide — long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Protein — 51+ amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Every protein has its own particular shape. The specific shape of a protein determines the function it must perform, Proteins are sensitive to temperature and pH. High temperature and extreme pH will denature protein. Denature — protein loses its shape and can no longer perform its function. peptae bona @AZO-e ZO amino acid Polypeptide chai Importance of protein - Structural component of protoplasm - 15% of protopiasm consists of proteins. - Building materials myosin in muscies, collagen in bone, chondrin in cartilage, keratin in skin, hair and nails. 2 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU- Structural component of cell membrane together with phospholipids. - Acts as carrier molecules that transport other molecules through the cell membrane = Source of reserve energy — excess amino acids are broken down, through the process of deamination, into urea and GLUCOSE. - Some hormones are proteins and acts as chemical messengers. - Haemogiobin transports O2 and CO> in the blood = Antibodies are blood proteins that respond to antigens and in this way fight bacteria and viruses. - Chromosomes are made up of proteins and DNA (genetic material) - Enzymes are proteins that accelerate chemical reactions, ENZYMES They are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without itself being changed by the reaction. Chemical reactions that take place in living cells are known as metabolic reaction. During digestion of food, complex molecules are broken down into simple soluble molecules by adding water. This catabolic process is known as HYDROLYSIS. This reaction is made possible because of enzymes which catalyse the reactions. During a chemical reaction, a substance is changed from one to another. - The substance on which the enzyme acts is known as the substrate. - The substance formed during the reaction is the product. - Enzymes are substrate-specific (can only act on a specific substrate) ~The enzyme remains unchanged during the reaction and is ready to bind with the next substrate molecule. - Enzymes can be used over and over again. - A small amount of enzyme can change a large amount of substrate Anabolic reaction: ~~ — product nn Sy DS enzyme enzyme-substrate-complex agzyme unchanged Catabolic reaction: SD -S ~ Olly fish, egg yolk, liver, milk Rickets (rachits) - soft bones, malformed skeleton. E Leafy vegetables, e.g. spinach andlelluce, Deficiency is rare but can lead to neurological sunflower seeds, wholegrain and wheatgerm problems as a result of the poor transmission of, nerve impulses 15 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUFOOD TESTS Carboy Test for the presence of glucose Benedict's solution is the reagent used to test for the presence of glucose. It is a deep blue liquid that indicates the presence of monosaccharides (e.9. glucose) as well as certain disaccharides (e.g. lactose, maltose) The results can be interpreted as follows: Colour ‘Glucose present or absent change Blue No glucose present Green Yellow Tow concentration of glucose ‘Orange ‘Glucose present ‘Orange-red_| High concentration of glucose Test for starch lodine solution (yellow-brown colour) is the reagent used in testing for starch. 2-3 drops of the solution are dropped onto a test material (2.9. potato or bread). If the test material turns a blue-black colour, starch is present. ‘Test for the presence of starch Potato — > Peecied is (fats and Test for fats - Grind the test material (e.g. peanuts) to a fine consistency. - Place a small amount in a test tube. - Add 5 om? of ether and shake the test tube well. Fats are soluble in ether. - Allow the test tube to stand for approximately haif an hour. - Filter the ether and the finely ground peanuts will stay behind. = Allow a drop of the filtrate to fall onto a clean filter paper. Is 16 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUThe ether will evaporate quickly. If any fats are present, a translucent greasy spot will form on the filter paper. “filtrate — liquid that filtered through Protein Test for proteins Test material could be beans or soup powder or milk powder. This test is known as the Biuret test. Grind the test material, add a little water and boil unti it forms a thin soup. Pour + 5 cm® of the soup into a test tube and add 2-3 drops of dilute copper sulphate solution Add 5 ~ 10 om? of sodium — hydroxide solution to the mixture. Shake the test tube. Heat the mixture over a Bunsen burner to obtain a deeper colour. Blue — no protein present; Purple/violet — protein present. v7 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTOPIC 2: CELLS: Basic units of life (PAPER 1-19 MARKS) MICROSCOPY Microscope — an instrument used to see objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. In 1674, the Dutchman Antonie van Leeuwenhoek buitt a simple microscope with only one lens in order to study among other things blood, yeast and insects. He is regarded as the father of microscopy. He was the first person to describe bacteria. In 1839, Theodore Schwann, Mathias Schleiden and Rudolf Virchow, formulated the cell theory. Cell theory can be summarised as follows ~All living organisms are made up of celis ~The cell is the basic and smallest unit of life - All cells originate from existing cells Electron microscope was invented in 1939 by the Germans Max Knott and Emst Ruska. Greater magnifications were achieved (about 1000000 times). Today's light microscopes can ‘magnify up to 1250 times in ordinary light. Parts of a light microscope 18 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUDO Fye piece (ocular) Consists ofthe st of lenses closest othe eye for magnification (e.g. 10x) Coarse adjustment knob Moves the microscope tube stage using laige movements fo bring the specimen cleat ino focus Fine adjustment knob ‘Moves the microscope fube/stage fora precise and final adjustment or focus Am Handle used fo cany the microscope and fo which the microscope tube, adjustment knobs and slage are atached Hinge Enables he arm fo be moved fo diferent angles Base Boom ofthe microscope; keeps the microscope stable light source ‘Atached fo the base and provides light that shines through the opening inthe stage, as wll as through the mounled specimen, upto the eye tis diaptrogm COpeningin the condenser a smal ever is used fo reguate he amount o igh that shines onthe specimen Condenser CConcentates light ays rom the ight source onto the specimen Stage Fic surface wih an opening trough which ight shines and on which the specimen side is placedfor study Clps/clamps Hold the specimen side in poston on he stage Objectives Magnifes he image Nosepiece Holds the objectives and can be rolated fo focus he diferent objectives onthe specimen Microscope tube Holds the eyepiece in postion and connects if the objectives, CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Cells are mostly made up of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and water. Both animal and plant cells consist of a cell nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. Not all cells contain nucleus, e.g. bacteria. A cell without a nucleus is known as a prokaryotic cell. The one with a nucleus is known as a eukaryotic cell. A\l cells do not look the same: their size, shape and structure change in order to perform specific functions — differentiation. Cells become specialised to perform a specific function — specialisation e.g, - Muscle cells contract and relax - Nerve cells conduct impuises - Glandular cells secrete substances (secretion), Main Components of Plant & Animal Cells All cells are made up of protoplasm. Protoplasm refers to the living material in piant and animal cells. Plant cells have a non-living part, cell wall 13 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUCELL Cell wall (in plant cells) Protppasm Cyopasm Nucleus Cell membrane Organelles (plasma membrane) Cell wall The only non-living part of a cell and only occurs in plant cells. The cell wall consists of three parts: Primary cell wall: All plant cells have a primary cell wall. Its thin and occurs on the outside of the cell membrane. It mainly consists of cellulose fibres that can stretch as the cell grows. Middle lamella: consists of pectin (a soluble jelly-like polysaccharide) and occurs outside the primary cell wall. The cell walls of adjacent piant cells are connected by the middle lamella. Secondary cell wall: develops between the cell membrane and the primary cell wall as the Cells grow older. It consists of thick cellulose fibre. The secondary cell wall is inelastic. The cell wall is permeable. It allows free movement of all substances. Cell walls in young cells 4 pit ‘cell membrane primary cell wall ‘plasmodesmata ‘le lamella Cell walls in older cells pit ‘plasmodesmata ‘primary cel! wall ‘secondary cell wall ‘cell membrane middie lamella Functions = It gives rigidity to the plant cell = Itprotects the living contents of the plant cell 20 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUCytoplasm The inside of the cell. Some of the cytoplasm is in liquid (sol) form, while some is in a jely-like (gel) state. Funotions - All chemical processes (metabolic processes) that are responsible for the survival of an organism takes place in the cytoplasm. - _ It'stores substances essential to life e.g. globules of fat - Ithelps to maintain the shape of the cel. - Substances circulate through the movement of the cytoplasm. This process is known as cyclosis. Cell (plasma) membrane Itis very thin and forms the outer, living boundary of the cytoplasm. In animal cells, the cell membrane encloses and protects the contents of the cell as the cell wall is absent. The cell membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipid molecules, with large protein molecules embedded in the layer of phospholipids. Function - The cell membrane is selectively/cifferentially permeable and controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. Selectively permeable means it allows certain substances to enter or leave the cell, but not others. MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES Substances such as water, gases, dissolved salts as well as amino acids and glucose continuously move into and out of a cell The following processes are responsible for this movement: + Diffusion - Osmosis - Active transport 21 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUDIFFUSION - itis the spontaneous movement of molecules of a liquid or gas from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached (molecules are evenly distributed). The movement of the molecules takes place because each particle has Kinetic energy. The difference between the high concentration of molecules in one area and the low concentration of the same molecules in another area is known as the concentration gradient. OSMOSIS - it is a special type of diffusion. It is the movement of water molecules from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential, through a selectively permeable membrane, until equilibrium is reached, ACTIVE TRANSPORT - molecules move from a low concentration to a high concentration through membranes, against the concentration gradient. Energy is needed for this process. Example of active transport is the absorption of food from the small intestine into the bloodstream. In diffusion and osmosis, molecules move from a high to a low concentration as a result of their kinetic energy. This is known as PASSIVE TRANSPORT; no energy is required for this, type of transport. Nucleus It consists of four parts: - NUCLEAR MEMBRANE: double membrane that contains small pores and encloses the nucleus. The pores control the passage of substances into and out of the nucieus. - NUCLEOPLASM: jell é fluid that filled the nucleus. - NUCLEOLUS: dark body that consists of RNA and proteins and is visible in the nucleoplasm, - CHROMATIN NETWORK: tangled threads in the nucleoplasm. When the cell divides, the chromatin network condenses (shortens and thickens) to form chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures that consist of DNA and proteins (histones) and carry hereditary characteristics. 22 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUEndoplasmic reticulum Nucleolus Chromatin Nucleoplasm Nuclear pore Nuclear envelope: Functions = Itcontrols all the activities of the cell (control centre). = Italso carries hereditary characteristics from cell to cell and to the next generation. Mitochondria (Singular: mitochondrion) They are dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells. It is a cylindrically shaped hollow rod. Function - The process of cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria. During cellular respiration, energy is released from carbohydrates (GLUCOSE), in the presence of oxygen. The energy that is released forms part of the compound ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is energy-cartier in cells. Due to large amount of energy that is released during cellular respiration, the mitochondria are often known as the “power house” of the cell The number of mitochondria that occur in a cell depends on the energy need of the cell. The more active the cell is, e.g. a muscle cell, the more mitochondria it will contain. 23 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJURibosome Ribosome consists of RNA and proteins. They occur in the ER, in mitochondria, chloroplasts and in groups in the cytoplasm (known as polyribosomes). Function - Ribosomes ate the site of protein synthesis (formation of protein). Endoplasmic reticulum There are TWO types of ER: - Rough ER — has ribosomes on its surface = Smooth ER —has no ribosome on its surface Functions = Ittransports substances from one part of the cytoplasm to another. ~ Itincreases the internal surface area of the cell. Golgi body It occurs in plant and animal cells near the nucleus. Abundant in cell that have a secretory function, Functions - Plays a role in producing and processing secretions such as mucus and saliva. ~ It prepares protein for transport to other parts of the cell Plastids Only occur in plant cells ‘There are THREE types of plastids: - CHLOROPLASTS - occur in the photosynthesising parts of the plant (in the leaves of gteen plants). It contains the green pigment chlorophyll in its lamellae. - CHROMOPLASTS - occur in yellow, orange and red flowers, leaves and fruits. They contain the pigment called carotenoids. Chloroplasts change into chromoplasts when fruit ripens, or when autumn leaves change colour. 24 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU- LEUCOPLAST — colourless plastids that mainly occur in cells that store food in an insoluble form. Leucoplasts can change into chloroplasts if exposed to light e.g. potatoes that turn green in light. Vacuoles Fluid-filled compartments in the cytoplasm. It is filled with a fluid, the CELL SAP. The cell sap consists of water and dissolved substances. Functions - The cell sap in the vacuole causes a TURGOR PRESSURE, that gives the plant cell rigidity. - The cell sap often contains pigments known as ANTHOCYANINS, which gives the blue, violet and purple colour to flowers and fruit. Lysosome ‘Small vacuoles that are filled with digestive enzymes. They occur only in animal cells. Function - They play a role in digestion of food in unicellular animals. Centrosome It is an area in the cytoplasm near the nucleus of an animal cell. Plant cells do not have centrosome. There are TWO small cylinder-shaped structure known as CENTRIOLES. Function - The centrioles play a role in cell division by forming SPINDLE threads or fibres. 25 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUDIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS Plant cell ‘Animal cell Cail wall present Call wall absent Plastids present Plastids absent Large vacuole present | Small or no vacuole present Lysosome absent Lysosome present Centrosome absent Centrosome present Regularifixed shape Irregular shape ‘Structure of a plant call 26 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUimal cell a COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTOPIC 3: CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS (PAPER 1 - 19 MARKS) Ceiis in multicellular organisms have the ability to divide continually. There are TWO types of cells in the human body: - Somatic cells (body cells) - Sex cells or gametes — sperm cells in male, egg celis/ova (ovum) in female The division of somatic cells, which results in growth, is known as MITOSIS. During mitosis, a mother cell (original cell) divides to form two identical daughter (new) cells which are also identical to the mother cell. They have the same genetic material in their cell nuclei as in the nucleus of the mother cell The process of cell division, during which gametes are formed, is known as MEIOSIS ~ This topic will be discussed later in Grade 12. CHROMOSOMES Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the cell nucleus of virtually ALL cells. ‘Chromosomes transfer hereditary characteristics from generation to generation. When the cell is not dividing, the chromosome appears as a mass of threads, the chromatin network. When the cell Is dividing, the chromatin network condenses (the threads become shorter and thicker) and is visible as single-stranded chromosomes. A chromosome consists of DNA and proteins known as HISTONES. There are various segments of DNA known as GENES which determines a particular hereditary characteristic. Before a cell divides, all genetic material in the nucleus (i.e. the DNA) has to be duplicated. Exact or identical copy of DNA is made. This process is known as replication. Replication makes sure that the two new cells formed during mitosis have exactly the same genetic information as in the original mother cell Structure of a part of a chromosome ‘histones ‘chromatid . e aa men ‘DNA stranded Double-stranded chromosome some before after replication 28 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTHE CELL CYCLE This is a period during which a cell grows, replicates genetic material and divides. The cell cycle is divided into: - Interphase Mitosis Interphase The period before cell division. The chromosomes are visible as the chromatin network. Cell growth and DNA replication take place during this phase. cell membrane nuclear | Mitosis Mitosis takes place in TWO stages: Karyokinesis — division of the nucleus and chromosomes. Cytokinesis — division of the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane. FOUR clear phases can be distinguished during the process of mitosis. = Prophase - Metaphase - Anaphase Telophase 29 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUProphase - The chromatin network condenses to become visible as chromosomes - The chromosomes are double-stranded (because of replication). - Each chromosome consists of 2 identical chromatids joined to each other by a centromere. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear. The centrioles separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibres form between the two centrioles to form the spindle. Metaphase The chromosome moves to the equator and arrange themselves in a single row on the ‘equator of the cell. ~ Spindle fibres attach to the centromere. Anaphase ‘The two chromatids separate from each other and move to the opposite poles. The chromatids are now known as daughter chromosomes. - Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) begins. 30 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTelophase - Two identical daughter (new) cells are formed. - _Cytokinesis is complete. nuclear membrane nucleolus chromatin network (single-stranded) Two identical daughter cells The role/importance of mitosis = Ensure that the organism grows and increase in size. - Ensure that worn-out and damaged cells are repaired and replaced. - Mitosis results in asexual reproduction in some simple piants and animals. CANCER Cancer is the result of uncontrolled mitotic cell division in the body. A group of cells is formed that lose their original function. Repeated divisions lead to a growth known as TUMOUR. ‘Atumour can be BENIGN or MALIGNANT. Benign tumour does not penetrate the tissues and is usually enclosed in a capsule. A malignant tumour spreads between the cells of the tissues, damaging them. Causes of cancer ‘Any agent that causes cancer is known as a CARCINOGEN or a CARCINOGENIC AGENT. Possible carcinogenic agents are: - Cigarette smoke > Sun - Exposure to certain chemicals e.g. asbestos - Radiation (e.g. x-rays) - Pollutants - Hormonal imbalances - Hereditary factors Beliefs and attitudes toward cancer - Many people still believe that cancer is a death sentence. - Some people believe that exercising sufficiently and eating organic food will prevent cancer, or indeed cure it if they do get the disease. - Others firmly believe in the power of modern medicine, the latest and best treatment and the effects of a positive attitude. - Some assumed that aged cancer patients will not be able to handle the severe treatment, oF it is a waste of resources to treat them 31 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTreatment of cancer Many types of cancer can be prevented, but MOST cannot. If diagnosed early, cancer can be cured with the appropriate treatment. Even in cases where it is not fully cured, i is possible to lead an active life for years in spite of the concition. Cancer that has already spread throughout the body is difficult to treat. Cancer can be treated by: SURGERY — tumours or growth can be surgically removed CHEMOTHERAPY - the use of chemical agents to destroy cancer. RADIOTHERAPY ~ use of radioactive radiation to destroy cancer. 32 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUTOPIC 4: PLANT AND ANIMAL TISSUES (PAPER 1 - 28 MARKS) PLANT TISSUES Plant tissue is divided into TWO main groups’ Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue MERISTEMATIC TISSUE ~ is actively dividing tissue in which new cells are continually formed by mitosis. The cells are not yet differentiated to perform a specific function. It includes apical meristem and lateral meristem, PERMANENT TISSUE — is tissue that is already differentiated to perform a specific function, It includes epidermis, parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma and vascular tissue. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE pret rts rd i DIAGRAM fs APICAL Group of - Thecellsare relatively Cells are MERISTEM cellsfound small responsible nearthe - Cellwallsarethin forthe tipsof roots - Cellsare cube-shaped primary and stems. - Cellnucleiarelarge growth and prominent (growth in ~ Vacuoles are absent length) in ~ Nointercellularspaces plants (spaces between cells) LATERAL = Found = Cells are similar to Cells are MERISTEM between apical meristem except responsible ~also xylemand _that the cells are for secondary known as phloem in flatterand slightly ——_growth CAMBIUM the vascular longer. (growth in bundles of thickness) in dicotyledon - Cellshave thicker cell stems of ous plants. _wallsthan that of the plants. apical meristem, 33 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJUPERMANENT TISSUE Doan ecu Prernten Eire fg EPIDERMIS Formsthe - Epidermal cells are brick- Epidermis protects outer shaped and arranged ina underlying tissues from layer single layer. injury and desiccation around ~ Cellsare transparent and do (drying out) roots, not contain chloroplasts. - The cuticle prevents stemsand - Nointercellularairspaces excessive moisture loss in leaves. between the cells. leaves and stems. ~ Epidermal cells of leaves Transparent epidermis and stems are covered bya allows sunlight through ‘waxy layer (THE CUTICLE) for photosynthesis PARENCHY Themost - Cells are large with thin cell It stores food and water MA abundant — walls Itproduces carbohydrates plant Large intercellular air through photosynthesis tissue spaces occur between the Intercellular air spaces (stem, cells allow gaseous exchange leafand - Cellshavelarge vacuoles _—_totake place root) ~ Stem and leaf parenchyma Cell sap in vacuole contain chloroplasts. provides rigidity Pron eurostar Biren i SCLERENCH Cellsare - Cellwallsare - It serves as strengthening YMA found in evenly tissue leaves, thickened ~ Itprovides mechanical support stems and - Eachcell hasa to the plant fruit. small lumen (cell cavity) COLLENCHY Occursin - Cellwallsare - Servesasstrengthening tissue MA young, unevenly Provides mechanical support to growing thickened with the plant herbaceo cellulose us plants VASCULAR Occurin - Xylemconsists - XYLEM transports water and TISSUE~ the roots, of xylem vessels dissolved mineral salts from consistsof stemsand and tracheids the rots tothe rest ofthe XYLEM and leaves plants, PHLOEM = Phloem consists - Italso serves as strengthening of sieve tubes tissue for the plant ‘and companion cells ~ PHLOEM transports produced organic nutrients from the leaves to the rest ofthe plant Hyenvesse 34 COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU