Applsci 13 10328

applied
sciences
Article
Surface Quality Evaluation in the Milling Process Using a Ball
Nose End Mill
Ján Varga 1, * , Peter Ižol 1 , Marek Vrabel’ 2 , L’uboš Kaščák 1 , Mário Drbúl 3 and Jozef Brindza 2
1 Department of Technology, Materials and Computer-Aided Production, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 040 02 Košice, Slovakia; peter.izol@tuke.sk (P.I.);
lubos.kascak@tuke.sk (L’.K.)
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Prototyping and Innovation Centre, Technical University of Košice, Park
Komenského 12/a, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; marek.vrabel@tuke.sk (M.V.); jozef.brindza@tuke.sk (J.B.)
3 Department of Machining and Manufacturing Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Žilina, Univerzitná 1, 010-26 Žilina, Slovakia; mario.drbul@fstroj.uniza.sk
* Correspondence: jan.varga@tuke.sk; Tel.: +421-55-602-3523
Abstract: Shaped surfaces are increasingly used in the field of mold-making for casting or injection
molding, where future products include shapes with different curvatures. These are surfaces that
form convex curves, concave curves, or a combination thereof. Given these machined surfaces,
it is important to know the impact of the finishing strategies on these surfaces. This paper deals
with the comparison of finishing milling strategies in the production of shaped surfaces and the
analysis of different methods for the evaluation of surface topography. In addition, the experimental
results evaluate the roughness of the machined surface and surface shape variations. The material
used for the experiments was AlCu4Mg aluminum alloy, and Constant Z, spiral and spiral circle
strategies were chosen for the finishing strategies. The evaluation of surface topography and surface
roughness was carried out at three different specimen heights with respect to the tool’s contact with
the machined surface.
Keywords: roughness; surface topography; geometric deviations
Citation: Varga, J.; Ižol, P.; Vrabel’, M.;

1. Introduction
Kaščák, L’.; Drbúl, M.; Brindza, J.
Surface Quality Evaluation in the
Nowadays, freeform shapes are some of the most difficult surfaces to produce. They
Milling Process Using a Ball Nose
are present in various areas of production, such as the automotive industry, the aerospace
End Mill. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328. industry, or the production of dies, molds, and many others, where the shape corresponds
https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810328 to the shape of the future product [1–3].
In this group of future products, we can find different shapes comprising convex,
Academic Editor: Guijun Bi
concave, or flat surfaces. In some cases, these surfaces can be described mathematically.
Received: 21 July 2023 Each part must be manufactured to meet the recommended quality and dimensions, so
Revised: 11 September 2023 the requirement for the correct selection of milling strategy is justified. To support this
Accepted: 12 September 2023 requirement, it is necessary to know the effectiveness and influence of strategies in milling
Published: 15 September 2023 free-form shapes [4–6].
The most frequent use of freeform surfaces is in plastic moldings. Molds, whose shape
corresponds to the future product, consist mainly of free-form shapes. To achieve the
required mold shape, the milling process represents the main production operation.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
To achieve this, CNC machines are used, which can produce parts in three or five axes,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
where the NC program is generated by the CAM system [7].
This article is an open access article
For the best machining of these complex shapes, different CAM systems are used,
distributed under the terms and
where the user can choose the appropriate strategy to match the specific toolpath in
conditions of the Creative Commons
accordance with the geometry of the part. The main disadvantage of the CAM system
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
is that the simulation process does not provide the microsurface texture after machining,
4.0/).
related to the cutting edge of the tool. Proper selection of the free-form milling strategy can
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810328 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 29
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 2 of 27
to the cutting edge of the tool. Proper selection of the free‐form milling strategy can im‐
prove the surface roughness [8]. When programming with CAM systems, strategies such
improve the surface roughness [8]. When programming with CAM systems, strategies such
asaszigzag,
zigzag,radial,
radial, raster,
raster, or spiral
or spiral curvescurves are most
are most useful useful for milling
for milling freeform freeform
surfaces surfaces
[9,10].
[9,10]. Many researchers describe the effect of tool path
Many researchers describe the effect of tool path strategies on roughness, but only a few strategies on roughness, but only
a few studies address the effect of toolpath strategies on
studies address the effect of toolpath strategies on surface topography [11,12]. Currently,surface topography [11,12]. Cur‐
rently,
many many CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM systemssystems
incorporate incorporate
differentdifferent
strategies strategies
to selectto select various
various milling
milling shapes
shapes and to achieve recommended shapes and dimensions
and to achieve recommended shapes and dimensions [13]. Therefore, it is very important [13]. Therefore, it is veryto
important to select the most appropriate strategy considering
select the most appropriate strategy considering the relationship between best roughness, the relationship between
best roughness,
higher dimensionhigher accuracy, dimension accuracy,
and effective timeand effective time production.
production.
Cutting tools with ball milling cutters are used ininvarious
Cutting tools with ball milling cutters are used variousareasareasofofproduction.
production.They They
are most commonly used in mold‐making, automotive,
are most commonly used in mold-making, automotive, aerospace, and other industries. aerospace, and other industries.
InInthese
theseareas,areas,ititisisimportant
importantto toachieve
achievethe thedesired
desiredshape shapeof ofthe
thefuture
futurepart,part,which
whichcan can
includeaavariety
include variety of of shapes
shapes ranging
ranging from from convex
convexand andconcave
concavecurvescurvestotoplanar
planarsurfaces
surfaces or
orvariously
variously shaped
shaped complex
complex surfaces.
surfaces. AllAll of these
of these surfaces
surfacesmust be produced
must be produced based on pro‐
based on
duction requirements
production requirements in in
terms
terms of of
accuracy,
accuracy, dimensions,
dimensions, and
and other
other factors.
factors.
Of the three basic machining operations, such as
Of the three basic machining operations, such as roughing, semi-finishing, and roughing, semi‐finishing, and fin-
fin‐
ishing operations, ball-end milling tools are used the most in finishing operations. It isis
ishing operations, ball‐end milling tools are used the most in finishing operations. It
veryimportant
very importanttotokeep keepin inmind
mindthat thatthe
thetool–surface
tool–surfacecontact contactrelationship
relationshipisisdifferent
differentfromfrom
conventionalmilling.
conventional milling.One Oneof ofthe
themain
maincharacteristics
characteristicsof ofshaped
shapedsurface
surfacemachining
machiningisisthat that
thecontact
the contactbetween
betweenthe the tool
tool andandthethe workpiece
workpiece is constantly
is constantly changing.
changing. In addition,
In addition, machin-ma‐
chining
ing through through the center
the center of the of the cutting
cutting tool cantool can negatively
negatively affect the affect
surface the quality
surface [14,15].
quality
[14,15].
The contact Thebetween
contact between
the tool and the the
toolsurface
and theissurface
different is when
different whenfree-form
milling milling free‐form
surfaces
compared to millingtosimple
surfaces compared milling shapes.
simpleInshapes.the contact
In theposition, the cutting
contact position, thespeed
cutting varies
speed from
var‐
the
ies programmed
from the programmed value. These value.areThese
the areas are where
the areas contact
where is contact
made betweenis madethe tool and
between the
the
toolmachined surface. Insurface.
and the machined the firstInregion,
the firstthe tool axis
region, the is parallel
tool axis istoparallel
the machined surface,
to the machined
and in theand
surface, second
in theregion,
second theregion,
material theis material
cut through thethrough
is cut center ofthe thecenter
tool, and the tool,
of the position
and
of the tool axis is almost perpendicular to the machined
the position of the tool axis is almost perpendicular to the machined surface [16,17]. surface [16,17].
The
Theadvantage
advantageofofusing using a ball
a ballendendmill forfor
mill multi-axis
multi‐axis milling of free-form
milling of free‐form surfaces is theis
surfaces
ability to change the cutting-edge contact depending on
the ability to change the cutting‐edge contact depending on the angle between the ma‐ the angle between the machined
surface
chined and the and
surface tool theaxistool
[15].axis
Therefore, the nominal
[15]. Therefore, diameter
the nominal of the tool
diameter changes
of the when
tool changes
in contact
when with the
in contact withmachined
the machinedsurfacesurface
[17]. In[17].
the Incase
thewhen the cutting
case when speedspeed
the cutting of theoftoolthe
istool
zero (cutting by the center of the tool), the material is removed
is zero (cutting by the center of the tool), the material is removed not by the shearing not by the shearing
process
processbut butas asaaresult
resultofofplastic
plasticdeformation,
deformation,known knownas asplowing
plowing[15]. [15].TheThecontact
contactof ofthe
the
tool
tool with the machined surface in the ascendant and descendant directions is shownin
with the machined surface in the ascendant and descendant directions is shown in
Figures
Figure 1a 1a and
and Figure
1b, respectively.
1b, respectively.
Figure1.1.Tool
Figure Toolcontact
contactwith
withmachined
machinedsurface
surface(a)
(a)ascendant
ascendantdirection
direction(b)
(b)descendant
descendantdirection.
direction.
Toh
Tohetetal.
al.[1]
[1]was
wasinvolved
involvedininaafree-form
free‐formmilling
millingexperiment
experiment using
using aa ball
ball end
end mill.
mill.
He
Heinvestigated
investigatedthe themilling
millingdirection
directionand
andfound
foundthat
thatbetter
betterresults
resultscould
couldbe beobtained
obtainedwith
with
an
anascending
ascending milling
milling direction than with
with aa descending
descendingone.
one.Milling
Millingin in
thethe ascending
ascending di‐
direction avoids
rection avoids thethe reduction
reduction of cutting
of cutting speeds
speeds andand the problems
the problems that arise
that arise in plastic
in plastic defor‐
deformation [18,19].
mation [18,19].
Scandiffio et al. [20] investigated the ascending and descending direction of the tool in
the machining process and the relationship between the tool and the surface when using
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 3 of 27

Scandiffio et al. [20] investigated the ascending and descending direction of the tool
in the machining process and the relationship between the tool and the surface when us‐
ing a ball
a ball end end
mill.mill. The results
The results showed showed that worse
that worse surfacesurface
quality quality was obtained
was obtained when whenusing
using
descendingdescending
milling.milling. The research
The research evaluated evaluated
the roughnessthe roughness
parameter, parameter,
tool wear, tool wear,
machining
machining
forces, and forces, and
tool life. Bytool life. By the experiment
the experiment conducted, Souza conducted, Souza
et al. [21] claim et al. [21]
that claim
shear that
cutting
shear cutting or plowing that occurs during free‐form cutting
or plowing that occurs during free-form cutting when a ball end mill is used has an effect when a ball end mill is used
has an effect
on the on the
roughness roughnessThe
parameter. parameter.
reason for Thethereason
changefor inthe
the change
roughness in the roughness
of the machined of
the machined surface is due to the change in cutting speed
surface is due to the change in cutting speed during milling, which changes the contact ofduring milling, which changes
the
the contact
tool with of the
the machined
tool with the machined
surface surface and,
and, therefore, thetherefore, the effective
effective diameter diameter
of the tool with of
the tool with respect to the position
respect to the position of the tool on the toolpath. of the tool on the toolpath.
According
According to to Souza
Souza et et al.
al. [21],
[21], when
when aaball ballend endmill
millisisused,
used,the
theroughness
roughnessparameters
parameters
measured on a free‐form surface can be affected by the material
measured on a free-form surface can be affected by the material cutting mechanism-shearing cutting mechanism‐shear‐
ing or plowing.
or plowing. Machining
Machining through
through the center
the center of the of tool
the tool can have
can have a negative
a negative effecteffect
on theonfinal
the
final
surface surface quality
quality in termsin terms of surface
of surface roughness roughness
or surface or surface
topographytopography
[22,23]. [22,23].
When the When
tool
the tooliscenter
center used inis the
used in theprocess,
milling milling process,
the machined the machined
surface can surface can be negatively
be negatively affected as af‐a
fected as a result of plastic deformation, and the
result of plastic deformation, and the surface roughness increases [21]. surface roughness increases [21].
For
For free‐form
free-form milling
milling surfaces,
surfaces, the the changing
changing contact contact between
between the the tool
tool and
and machined
machined
surface
surface area depends on on the
the axial
axial depth
depthof ofthethecut cutand
andsurface
surfacegeometry
geometry[15,24].[15,24].InInFigure
Figure2,
2,
thethe cutting
cutting edge
edge is contact
is in in contactwithwith the machined
the machined surface,
surface, where where theworks
the tool tool works perpen‐
perpendicular
dicular
to the work to thesurface
work surface
(Figure (Figure
2a). Figure 2a). 2bFigure
shows 2b tool
shows tool contact
contact with thewith the machined
machined surface
surface in the ascendant
in the ascendant direction. direction. It is possible
It is possible to see to thesee thewhere
area area where the cutting
the cutting tool de‐
tool descends
scends
lower on lower
the on the machined
machined surface, surface,
and Figureand Figure 2c describes
2c describes tool contact
tool contact with thewith the ma‐
machined
surface in the ascendant direction with increasing effective
chined surface in the ascendant direction with increasing effective tool diameter. In Figure tool diameter. In Figure 2b,c,
it is also
2b,c, possible
it is also to see
possible to the
see maximum
the maximum andand minimum
minimum effective tooltool
effective radius
radiusat the bottom
at the bot‐
of the
tom of machined
the machined surface. When
surface. When milling a free
milling surface,
a free the contact
surface, the contactbetween the tool
between and
the tool
the machined
and the machined surface changes.
surface changes. TheThe value of the
value effective
of the effectivetooltool
diameter
diameter depends
depends on the
on
curvature
the curvature of the surface
of the surfaceandand the the
depth of the
depth cut.cut.
of the
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Tool contact with machined surface (a) machining with the center of the tool (b) ascend‐
Figure 2. Tool contact with machined surface (a) machining with the center of the tool (b) ascendant
ant direction (c) ascendant direction in the lower area of the sample.
direction (c) ascendant direction in the lower area of the sample.
Boujelbene
Boujelbene et et al.
al. [18]
[18] investigated
investigated thethe effect
effect of
of tool
tool orientation
orientation on on cutting
cutting speed
speed and
and
tool
tool life.
life. The
Theresult
resultwas
wasthat
thatmachining
machining withwith the
the center
center ofofthe
thetool,
tool,where
wherethe
thecutting
cutting speed
speed
is
is zero,
zero, leads
leads toto worse
worse roughness
roughness parameters.
parameters. Liu Liu et
et al.
al. [25]
[25] studied
studied the
the changing
changing contact
contact
in the tool–workpiece relationship in
in the tool–workpiece relationship in terms of the predicted geometric deviation from
terms of the predicted geometric deviation from the
the
desired geometry.Aspinwall
desired geometry. Aspinwalletetal.al. [26]
[26] examined
examined thethe effect
effect of inclined
of inclined surface
surface milling
milling when
when a ball
a ball end end
mill mill
was wasThe
used. used. The effects
effects of toolcutting
of tool wear, wear, cutting
force, andforce, and roughness
surface surface rough‐
were
ness were analyzed.
analyzed. Wojciechowski
Wojciechowski et al. [27]
et al. [27] verified verified for
a method a method for the estimation
the estimation of vibration ofand
vi‐
bration
roughness andduring
roughness during free
free surface surface
milling withmilling with
a ball end a ball
mill. endconcluded
They mill. Theythat
concluded
the tool
that the tool
overhang overhang
length length haseffect
has a significant a significant effect on parameters.
on the roughness the roughness Theparameters.
effect of the The
tool
path on the milling of the convex surface was evaluated by Shaghayegh et al. [28] when
hardened material was used. The results showed that the radial strategy achieved the best
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 4 of 27
surface texture and the spiral strategy the worst. Boujelbene et al. [18] studied the effect of
tool orientation on cutting speed and tool life. They came to the conclusion that machining
with the center of the tool, where the cutting speed is zero, leads to a worse roughness
parameter. Käsemodel et al. [29] examined the influence of the cutting direction in free-form
surface milling. The result showed that the effective radius of the tool was larger when
cutting upwards, resulting in a more favorable value of effective cutting speed. On the
other hand, in the opposite direction, in a downward movement, the effective tool radius
was found to be much smaller, and the cutting speed may be reduced to a critical value.
A suitable, effective cutting speed is usually achieved when the tool cuts approximately
tangentially. Changes in cutting speed during full surface milling can cause process
instability [26] in terms of roughness parameters [30], dimensional accuracy [27] as well
as geometric deviations. In the downward-cutting method of free-form surface milling,
elastoplastic deformation of the material in the form of a notched effect [24] may occur
on the surface of the part. In the process of cutting through the center of the tool, where
the cutting speed is low, the vibrations are maximum in this area [31,32]. For this reason,
the correct selection of the milling strategy is very important [33]. It can affect the contact
area in the machining process, which affects the tool wear, surface texture, roughness, and
vibration. According to Antoniadis [34], the choice of milling strategy for free-form surfaces
has a significant impact because their selection can affect the contact area between the tool
and the surface, vibration, roughness parameters, or tool wear. In this case, it is important
to understand the relationship between tool–workpiece contact in free-form milling [35].
The surface quality is influenced by various inputs, including feed rate, cutting speed,
or depth of cut, which are referred to as controlled inputs, and uncontrolled inputs, such as
the workpiece, tool usage, or machine vibration [36,37]. Numerous studies, as reported by
Toh [38], have investigated the roughness parameters in free surface milling and various
geometrical features such as the scallop height, the influence of the toolpath strategy, or
the cutting conditions during milling. Abuelnaga and White [39,40] elaborated on the
possibilities of free-form surface machining where surface roughness and dimensional
accuracy were evaluated. Shajari [28] investigated spiral, raster, radial, and 3D feed
strategies in free-form milling of low-curvature convex surfaces and evaluated cutting
force and surface texture. This experiment concluded that the radial strategy produced the
best surface quality, and the helical strategy resulted in the worst surface quality. Ikua [41]
complemented the results by stating that the poor quality of the sculpted machined surface
may be influenced by the lower cutting force. Matras and Kowalczyk [42] analyzed the
effect of milling strategies on the free surface topography of aluminum alloy when Z-level,
radial, offset, and circular strategies were used. It was found that the lowest roughness
parameter, as required, was obtained only when the tool path was circular.
The results obtained by Hao [43] show that surface topography is affected by the
plastic deformation of the machined surface and, in the latter case, by cutting vibration
generated during machining. The machining process incorporates a factor referred to
as “cycle time,” encompassing the duration for the machine to interpret a single line
of NC code and subsequently transmit this information to control machine movement.
Another facet involves the time required for the control unit to rectify the machine’s motion,
adjusting parameters like position, velocity, or acceleration [44]. Different toolpaths are
generated in the machining process using linear interpolation, which is defined as the path
between two successive cutting tool positions (CL). In a CAM system, a tolerance band,
also known as chord error, can be defined to modify the toolpath segments. When the
user reduces the tolerance zone, the toolpath becomes increasingly closer in resemblance to
the CAD model [45]. Yau [46,47] described in more detail the problem of interpolation of
linear segments (Figure 3a) and curved toolpaths Figure 3b, where the number of segments
increases, and the increasing number of segments affects the size of the NC program.
Figure 3 shows the trajectory view calculation for the free-shaped toolpath for the forward
step (Figure 3a) and for size length, as shown in Figure 3b.
of linear segments (Figure 3a) and curved toolpaths Figure 3b, where the number of seg‐
ments increases, and the increasing number of segments affects the size of the NC pro‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 5 of 27
gram. Figure 3 shows the trajectory view calculation for the free‐shaped toolpath for the
forward step (Figure 3a) and for size length, as shown in Figure 3b.
(a) (b)
Figure3.3.Trajectory
Figure Trajectoryview
viewcalculation
calculationfor
forfree-shaped
free‐shapedtoolpath
toolpath(a)
(a)forward
forwardstep
step(b)
(b)size
sizelength.
length.
Souzaet
Souza et al.
al. [48]
[48] found
found that
that the
thetoolpaths
toolpathsinina aCAM CAM system
system appear
appear to be
to bethethe
same, but
same,
each CAM system generates a different NC code when
but each CAM system generates a different NC code when processing identical geometry. processing identical geometry.
Accordingtotothis
According thisdifferent
differentNC NCcode,
code,aadifferent
differentmachining
machiningprocess processisisgenerated,
generated,which which
affectsthe
affects the real
real machining
machining time, time, surface roughness,
roughness, or or feed
feedrate
rateoscillation.
oscillation.According
Accordingto
Siller
to et et
Siller al.al.
[49], segment
[49], segment length
lengthdecomposition
decomposition is used as an
is used asindicator
an indicator of geometric com‐
of geometric
position. They used histograms to verify the relationship between
composition. They used histograms to verify the relationship between surface radius and surface radius and seg‐
ment length, where they obtained that a small radius of curvature
segment length, where they obtained that a small radius of curvature corresponds to a corresponds to a smaller
segment
smaller length. length.
segment
Limetetal.
Lim al.[50]
[50]studied
studiedsurface
surfacetopography
topographyin inthe
theproduction
productionof ofmolded
moldedsurfacessurfacesusing
using
theball
the ballmilling
millingprocess,
process,where
wherehe heinvestigated
investigatedmachining
machiningerrors errorscaused
causedby bytool
tool deflection.
deflection.
He
Heproposed
proposedaasurface surfacegeneration
generationmodel modeltotopredictpredictthe theresulting
resultingmachining
machiningerrors. errors.The
The
surface obtained was used to predict dimensional accuracy prior
surface obtained was used to predict dimensional accuracy prior to actual cutting. Surface to actual cutting. Surface
topography
topographyin inball
ballmilling
millingmachining
machiningand andsurface
surfaceroughness
roughnessevaluation
evaluationwere weresimilarly
similarly
dealt
dealtwith
withby byQuinsat
Quinsatetetal. al.[51],
[51],who
wholookedlookedatatthe theeffect
effectofofmachining
machiningparametersparametersand and
the
thechoice
choice of of milling strategies
strategies on on thethemachined
machinedsurface. surface.The The results
results emphasized
emphasized thethe
im‐
importance
portance of of obtaining
obtaining thethe surface
surface topography,
topography, which which is necessary
is necessary to determine
to determine the
the influ‐
influence
ence of the of different
the different parameters
parameters on the on surface
the surface roughness.
roughness. Bouzakis
Bouzakis et al.et[52]
al. [52]
dealtdealt
with
with characteristics such as chip geometry, cutting force, and
characteristics such as chip geometry, cutting force, and roughness in the production of roughness in the production
ofshaped
shapedsurfaces,
surfaces,using usingaacopy‐milling
copy-millingcutter cutter asas aa tool.
tool. He
He predicted
predicted roughness
roughness values valuesby by
defining an algorithm that accounted for tool and
defining an algorithm that accounted for tool and workpiece motions. workpiece motions.
The
Theevaluation
evaluationof ofsurface
surfacetopography
topographyand andsurface
surfaceroughness
roughnesswas wasinvestigated
investigatedby by
Layegh et al. [53], who evaluated these surface characteristics
Layegh et al. [53], who evaluated these surface characteristics in five‐axis machining. He in five-axis machining. He
proposed
proposedaamodel modelthat thatwas
wasableabletotopredict
predictthe thesurface
surfacetexture
textureand androughness
roughnessparameters
parameters
with
with a 20% deviation of the correct answer. Extensive research in reviewingmethods
a 20% deviation of the correct answer. Extensive research in reviewing methodsfor for
obtaining
obtainingsurface
surfacetopography
topographyasas well
well asasanalyzing
analyzing thethevarious
variousfactors
factors thatthat
affect thethe
affect milling
mill‐
process was described
ing process was described by Sun byinSun
his instudy [54]. He
his study [54].analyzed the mechanism
He analyzed the mechanism of machined
of ma‐
surface topography and discussed the factors that influence it.
chined surface topography and discussed the factors that influence it. Xu et al. [55] found Xu et al. [55] found that as
the
thattool
as inclination angle increases
the tool inclination angle beyond
increases 6 degrees,
beyond 6the surface the
degrees, roughness
surface improves
roughness with
im‐
the use of a ball milling cutter.
proves with the use of a ball milling cutter.
Zhou et al. [56] focused on designing a model that could obtain the surface topography
Zhou et al. [56] focused on designing a model that could obtain the surface topogra‐
directly from the cutting parameters, workpiece surface geometry, and cutter placement.
phy directly from the cutting parameters, workpiece surface geometry, and cutter place‐
The relationship between machined surface quality and interpolation line was addressed
by Zhang et al. [57], who developed a mathematical model of surface topography when
milling shaped surfaces. In his study [58], Varga analyzed milling strategies with respect to
the machined surface, where they applied the so-called fragmentation of relief surfaces.
The problem of surface quality evaluation for different materials has justification for
different milling strategies. Therefore, it is necessary to search for an optimal manufactur-
ment. The relationship between machined surface quality and interpolation line was ad‐
dressed by Zhang et al. [57], who developed a mathematical model of surface topography
when milling shaped surfaces. In his study [58], Varga analyzed milling strategies with
respect to the machined surface, where they applied the so‐called fragmentation of relief
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 6 of 27
surfaces.
The problem of surface quality evaluation for different materials has justification for
different milling strategies. Therefore, it is necessary to search for an optimal manufactur‐
ing strategy
strategy considering
considering the surface
surface quality.
quality. The
The presented
presented experiment
experiment was was focused
focused on on
verifying
verifying ourour predictions
predictions and and obtaining
obtaining input
inputfor
forfurther
furtherbroader
broaderresearch.
research.
The machining
machining of 3D surfaces is specific due to aa greater greater number
number of of factors
factors that
that can
can
affect the cutting process. Therefore, it is necessary to deal with several areas
affect the cutting process. Therefore, it is necessary to deal with several areas that will help that will
help
us tous to understand
understand the production
the production of these
of these surfaces.
surfaces. ThisThis contribution
contribution is a is a part
part of the
of the re‐
research, which will continue in the form of investigating other factors
search, which will continue in the form of investigating other factors influencing the qual‐ influencing the
quality of these
ity of these shapesshapes
in theinproduction
the production process,
process, suchsuch
as theasmachining
the machining method-upward
method‐upward mill‐
milling, the use
ing, the use of five-axis
of five‐axis machining
machining and and monitoring
monitoring of theofeffect
the effect of effective
of effective diameter,
diameter, tool
tool wear, tool length, application of high-speed milling, or analysis of cutting
wear, tool length, application of high‐speed milling, or analysis of cutting forces acting in forces acting
in
thethe cutting
cutting process.
process.
The aim
The aim of of the
theresearch
researchpresented
presentedininthe thenext
next section
section was
was to compare
to compare three
three strate-
strategies
gies
commonly used in three‐axis milling. The topography and surface roughness were were
commonly used in three-axis milling. The topography and surface roughness eval‐
evaluated,
uated, as wellas well
as theasdeviations
the deviations
of theof the machined
machined surfaces.
surfaces. The authors
The authors of thestudies
of the above above
studies
did not did not compare
compare all threeall three together
aspects aspects together or useevaluation
or use special special evaluation
equipment. equipment.
Further‐
Furthermore, the research presented in this paper offers a method for a complex assessment
more, the research presented in this paper offers a method for a complex assessment of
of the quality of machined surfaces, applicable to decisions on the production method and
the quality of machined surfaces, applicable to decisions on the production method and
the use of suitable strategies.
the use of suitable strategies.
2. Materials and Methods/Research Methodology
2. Materials and Methods/Research Methodology
A parabolic surface was chosen as the modeled surface to be parametrically described.
A shape
For the parabolic surface
surface, was chosen
the following as the was
equation modeled surface to be parametrically de‐
defined:
scribed. For the shape surface, the following equation was defined:
y 𝑦= −0.048 × x2𝑥+ 30,30,
0.048 (1)
(1)
The
The CAD
CAD system
system Solidworks
Solidworks 2022
2022 was
was used
used toto design
design the
the model
model (Figure
(Figure 4),
4), and
and the
the
CAM
CAM system SolidCAM 2022 was used to select the milling strategy. A 3D model of
system SolidCAM 2022 was used to select the milling strategy. A 3D model of the
the
test
test specimen
specimen is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4.
4.
Figure 4. 3D model of the test specimen.

Figure 4. 3D model of the test specimen.
For the
For the experimental
experimental research,
research, three
three test
test specimens
specimens were
were produced.
produced. An An aluminum
aluminum
alloy (AlCu4Mg,
alloy (AlCu4Mg,Slovalco,
Slovalco,a.a.s.,
s.,Žiar
Žiarnad
nadHronom,
Hronom,Slovakia)
Slovakia)withwiththe
the following
following mechani‐
mechanical
cal properties was selected for production: tensile strength = 420 MPa; yield
properties was selected for production: tensile strength = 420 MPa; yield strength = 240 MPa; strength = 240
MPa; hardness = 120 HB. The reason for the selection of this material is
hardness = 120 HB. The reason for the selection of this material is that AlCu4Mg is one of that AlCu4Mg is
one of the most important aluminum alloys. Due to its strength characteristics
the most important aluminum alloys. Due to its strength characteristics and resistance to and re‐
sistanceittoisfatigue,
fatigue, it is in
often used often usedairframe
aircraft in aircraft airframe(airframe,
structures structureswings)
(airframe,
and inwings) and in
the military
the military
industry industry
in general. Thein experimental
general. The tests
experimental testsout
were carried were carried
on an EMCO out on an
MILL 155EMCO
three-
axis machine with a maximum spindle speed of 5000 rpm (EMCO MAIER Ges.m.b.H.,
Hallein, Austria), which contains a Heidenhain iTNC 530 control system. Roughing, semi-
finishing, and finishing operations are mostly used in the machining process for milling
free-form surfaces [59,60]. The machining operations specifically used in the experimental
research are shown in Figure 5.
MILL 155 three‐axis machine with a maximum spindle speed of 5000 rpm (EMCO MAIER
Ges.m.b.H., Hallein, Austria), which contains a Heidenhain iTNC 530 control system.
Roughing, semi‐finishing, and finishing operations are mostly used in the machining pro‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 7 of 27
cess for milling free‐form surfaces [59,60]. The machining operations specifically used in
the experimental research are shown in Figure 5.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Selected
Selected machining
machining operations.
operations.
The
The roughing
roughing andand semi‐finishing
semi-finishing operations were the same for for all
all three
three specimens
specimens to to
achieve the
achieve the same
same surface
surface texture.
texture. Of
Of all
all the
the operations,
operations, the the finishing
finishing operation
operation is is the
the most
most
challenging because
challenging because the cutting
cutting speed
speed of
of tool–material
tool–material contact
contact andand chip
chip formation
formation change
change
during milling
during milling [61,62]. The cutting parameters with the tool used for fabrication
The cutting parameters with the tool used for fabrication are shown are shown
in Table 1. A sintered carbide
in carbide ball‐end
ball-end mill
mill was
was used
used for
for the finishing
finishing operation
operation using
using aa
fixed BT‐40
fixed BT-40 system with a mechanical collet chuck with a tool overhang of 40 mm. Cutting Cutting
parameters were selected
selected according
accordingtotothe
therecommendations
recommendationsofofthe thetool
toolmanufacturers.
manufacturers.IfIfa
aparameter
parameterwaswasspecified
specifiedby byaarange,
range,the
themidpoint
midpointof ofthe
the range
range waswas selected.
selected. Due to the the
parametric limitations of the machine used (spindle speed), the usable
parametric limitations of the machine used (spindle speed), the usable cutting speed for cutting speed for
small-diameter tools was limited by this parameter. The criteria for the surface
small‐diameter tools was limited by this parameter. The criteria for the surface parameters parameters
were based
were based on
on the
the requirement
requirement to to minimize
minimize finishing
finishing operations,
operations, which
which are are often
often closely
closely
related to the production of 3D surfaces. A mineral oil-based emulsion
related to the production of 3D surfaces. A mineral oil‐based emulsion coolant was used coolant was used for
cooling
for during
cooling production.
during production.TheThe
dimensions
dimensionsof theof test
the specimens werewere
test specimens 65 × 6565 × 40 ×mm.
× 65 40
The input data defined for the milling process of shaped surfaces are shown
mm. The input data defined for the milling process of shaped surfaces are shown in Table in Table 2.
2.
Table 1. Cutting parameters with the tool description.
Table 1. Cutting parameters with the tool description.
Tool Diameter Cutting Speed Feed per Tooth Spindle
Tool Producer Tool Code
[mm] [m.min−1 ]Tool Diameter [mm] Frequency
Cutting Speed [RPM] Spindle Fre‐
Feed per
Tool Producer Tool Code
[mm] [m.min−1] Tooth [mm] quency [RPM] Korloy
End Mill D 18 270 0.125 4800 AMS2018S
(Seoul, Republic of Korloy
Korea)
End Mill D 18 270 0.125 4800 ZPS-FN (Seoul, Repub‐ AMS2018S
End Mill D8 123 0.029 4900 273618.080
(Zlín, Czech Republic)
lic of Korea)
ZPS-FN ZPS‐FN
Ball End Mill D6 92.4 0.022 4900 511418.060
End Mill D8 123 0.029 (Zlín,
4900 Czech Republic)
(Zlín, Czech 273618.080
Republic)
Table 2. Individual operations applied for sample production. ZPS‐FN
Ball End Mill D6 92.4 0.022 4900 (Zlín, Czech 511418.060
Milling Tool Diameter Depth of Cut ap Radial Depth of ToolpathRepublic) Surface
Operation [mm] [mm] Cut ae [mm] Tolerance T [mm] Allowance P [mm]
Roughing End Mill D 18 3 3 0.1 0.5
Semi finish End Mill D 8 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.2
Finish Ball End Mill D 6 - 0.25 0.01 0
The following methods and equipment were used in the experiment:

1. Comparison and evaluation of surface topography using a Keyence VHX-5000 digital
microscope (Keyence International, Mechelen, Belgium).
2. Roughness evaluation using device Alicona InfiniteFocus G5 (Alicona Imaging GmbH,
Raaba/Graz, Austria).
3. Evaluation of shape deviations using coordinate measuring machine ZEISS Duramax
HTG (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
The following methods and equipment were used in the experiment:
1. Comparison and evaluation of surface topography using a Keyence VHX‐5000 digital
microscope (Keyence International, Mechelen, Belgium).
2. Roughness evaluation using device Alicona InfiniteFocus G5 (Alicona Imaging
GmbH, Raaba/Graz, Austria).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 8 of 27
3. Evaluation of shape deviations using coordinate measuring machine ZEISS Duramax
HTG (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
2.1. Topography Observation

Observation Methodology
Methodology
Surface topography was observed at three heights on each of the
the specimens.
specimens. These
were distances from the highest point of the specimen surface downwards of 7.5 mm, 15
mm, and 22.5 mm. The effective diameter of the tool varies depending on the depth of the
cut and the actual curvature of the surface.
surface.
2.2. Surface Roughness

2.2. Surface Roughness Analysis
Analysis Methodology
Methodology
The values of the observedsurface
The values of the observed surfaceroughness
roughnessparameters
parameterswere wereevaluated
evaluated(in (inaccord‐
accor-
dance withISO
ance with ISO2525178)
178)from
fromthe theextracted
extractedsurface
surfaceafter
after the
the removal
removal ofof its
its nominal
nominal shape
shape
(polynomial
(polynomial function of the paraboloid). For the purpose of the analysis, measurements
function of the paraboloid). For the purpose of the analysis, measurements
were
were taken
takenat
atthree
threelocations
locationsatatspecified
specifiedheights. All
heights. measurements
All measurements were taken
were at aatposition
taken a posi‐
of 0 degrees with respect to the specimen axis. The measured areas for surface
tion of 0 degrees with respect to the specimen axis. The measured areas for surface roughness
rough‐
assessment are shown in Figure 6. The area measured was 6 × 6 mm.
ness assessment are shown in Figure 6. The area measured was 6 × 6 mm.
Figure 6. Measured areas for surface roughness assessment.

assessment.
The following surface roughness parameters

parameters were
were evaluated
evaluated in
in the
the experiment:
experiment:
• S10z —Sensitiveto
10z—Sensitive to changes
changes inin the
the topography
topography ofof the observed surface; an important
parameter inin evaluating
evaluatingthe
thesurface
surfacefunctionality
functionality (affects
(affects dimensional
dimensional accuracy
accuracy of
of fit‐
fitted surfaces, tightness of joints, etc.).
ted surfaces, tightness of joints, etc.).
• Sa—A powerful statistical parameter that is used to regulate and control production.
• Ssk—Gives
Ssk—Gives us us information
information about the protrusions
about the protrusions and
and depressions
depressions ofof the
the topography
topography
of
of the
the observed
observed surface. If it
surface. If it takes
takes aa positive
positive value,
value, protrusion
protrusion dominates, and if
dominates, and if it
it
takes a negative value, depression dominates.
takes a negative value, depression dominates.
2.3. Methodology of the Shape Deviation
During the evaluation, the research area was evaluated as a whole. At a temperature
of 18–22 ◦ C, the measurement error is 2.2 + L/3 (E0 length measurement error in µm).
The profile measurement was performed by scanning, which means that the sensor was
always in contact with the measured area from the beginning to the end of the scan.
No filter or outlier elimination was used to evaluate the measured points, as this is not
recommended by the manufacturer when measuring a profile. A best-fit method was used
for the evaluation so that the scanned profile is evaluated separately and is not referenced
to the basic coordinate system. A whole set of values can be smoothly moved or rotated
around the individual axes of the coordinate system so that the average deviation is as
small as possible. ZEISS Calypso 2021 software and a sensor with a diameter D of 1 mm on
a length of 45 mm with a silicon nitride bead particularly suitable for aluminum were used
for the measurements. At the beginning of the measurement, it was necessary to establish
the basic coordinate system, which consists of a sensing plane and two 2D lines. Focusing
on the basic coordinate system-spatial alignment method 3-2-1 is shown in Figure 7.
Once the coordinate system was oriented, measurements were taken, denoted as 3D
curve 1 and 3D curve 2. Basically, measurements of 3D curves were taken in two planes:
the X–Z plane, as shown in Figure 8a, and the Y–Z plane, as shown in Figure 8b. The
normal vectors from the measurement points are marked in yellow. The scanning step was
for thethe
establish evaluation so that the
basic coordinate scanned
system, profile
which is evaluated
consists separately
of a sensing plane andand twois2D
notlines.
referenced
to the on
Focusing basic
thecoordinate system.
basic coordinate A whole setalignment
system‐spatial of valuesmethod
can be smoothly moved
3‐2‐1 is shown or rotated
in Fig‐
around
ure 7. the individual axes of the coordinate system so that the average deviation is as
small as possible. ZEISS Calypso 2021 software and a sensor with a diameter D of 1 mm
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 on a length of 45 mm with a silicon nitride bead particularly suitable for aluminum
9 of 27were
used for the measurements. At the beginning of the measurement, it was necessary to
establish the basic coordinate system, which consists of a sensing plane and two 2D lines.
Focusing
0.1 mm, soon the basic
a point coordinate
on the system‐spatial
surface was alignment
recorded every method
0.1 mm during 3‐2‐1 is shown
scanning. A total in
of Fig‐
ure 7.
749 measurement points were taken in one plane at a speed of 2 mm/s.
Figure 7. The basic coordinate system—spatial alignment method 3‐2‐1.
normal vectors from the measurement points are marked in yellow. The scanning step
was 0.1 mm, so a point on the surface was recorded every 0.1 mm during scanning. A total
Figure
of 749 7.7.The
Thebasic
measurement
Figure basiccoordinate
coordinate
points were system—spatial alignment
taken in onealignment
system—spatial plane method
at amethod
speed of 23‐2‐1.
3-2-1.mm/s.
normal vectors from the measurement points are marked in yellow. The scanning step
was 0.1 mm, so a point on the surface was recorded every 0.1 mm during scanning. A total
of 749 measurement points were taken in one plane at a speed of 2 mm/s.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Measurements
Figure of 3D
8. Measurements curves
of 3D (a) (a)
curves X–Z plane
X–Z (b)(b)
plane Y–Z plane.
Y–Z plane.
Subsequently,
Subsequently, thethe
3D3Dcurve measurements
curve measurements werewerecomplemented
complemented by by
surface measure‐
surface measure-
ments.
ments. Circular
Circular paths
paths were
were taken
taken on on
thethe surface
surface of the
of the specimens,
specimens, along
along which
which thethe sensor
sensor
moved
moved from
from thethe highest
highest point
point to to
thethe lowest.
lowest. TheThe normal
normal vectors
vectors from
from thethe measurement
measurement
points are marked in yellow. The scanning step was 0.1 mm, and the measurement speed
was 3 mm/s. The number of measurement points varied depending on the location and
(a) (b)
the height of the measurement on the surface on which the sensor was located. For the
highest
Figure 8.location, 579 points
Measurements of 3Dwere recorded,
curves (a) X–Z1039
planepoints
(b) Y–Zwere recorded in the middle level,
plane.
and 1499 points were recorded in the lowest location. The number of points measured
Subsequently,
depending the 3D curve
on the measurement measurements
location is shown in were complemented
Figure 9. by surface measure‐
TheCircular
ments. production
pathsofwere
3D surfaces
taken onisthegrowing
surface inof importance
the specimens,duealong
to thewhich
expanding
the sensor
aerospace and military industries. Furthermore, 3D surfaces are also
moved from the highest point to the lowest. The normal vectors from the measurement finding their way
into the consumer products market. These take shape using tools such as injection molds,
molding dies, or other forming tools. The production of tools is time-consuming and
expensive, so their manufacturing processes need to be addressed. The research described
thus contributes to improving the commercial application of the technologies used. In
addition, the design of a milling process ensuring the lowest possible surface roughness
means shortening the finishing process (grinding and polishing) and reducing costs.
points are marked in yellow. The scanning step was 0.1 mm, and the measurement speed
was 3 mm/s. The number of measurement points varied depending on the location and
the height of the measurement on the surface on which the sensor was located. For the
highest location, 579 points were recorded, 1039 points were recorded in the middle level,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 10 of 27
and 1499 points were recorded in the lowest location. The number of points measured
depending on the measurement location is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. The number of points measured depending on the measurement location.
The production of 3D surfaces is growing in importance due to the expanding aero‐

space and military industries. Furthermore, 3D surfaces are also finding their way into the
consumer products market. These take shape using tools such as injection molds, molding
dies, or other forming tools. The production of tools is time‐consuming and expensive, so
their manufacturing processes need to be addressed. The research described thus contrib‐
utes to improving the commercial application of the technologies used. In addition, the
design of a milling process ensuring the lowest possible surface roughness means short‐
ening the finishing process (grinding and polishing) and reducing costs.
Figure9.9.The
Figure Thenumber
numberofof points
points measured
measured depending
depending on measurement
on the the measurement location.
location.
3. Results
3. Results
The production of 3D surfaces is growing in importance due to the expanding aero‐
3.1. Surface
3.1. Surface Topography Evaluation
Evaluation
space and Topography
military industries. Furthermore, 3D surfaces are also finding their way into the
A comparison
comparison of the
the 3D
3D surface topography with respect to
to the tool–workpiece
A
consumer products ofmarket. surface topography
These take with tools
shape using respectsuch the molds,con‐
tool–workpiece
as injection con-
molding
tact
tact points
points at
at the
the same
same height
height is
is shown
shown in
in the
the following
following Figures,
Figures, where
where the
the detail
detail of the
of the
dies, or other forming tools. The production of tools is time‐consuming and expensive, so
investigated
investigated surface at 7.5 mm
surface at processes for
7.5 mm forneedthe Constant
the Constant Z strategy is
Z strategyThe shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 10. The
10. The detail
detail
their manufacturing to be addressed. research described thus contrib‐
of the
of the investigated
investigated surface
surface atat 7.5
7.5 mm
mm for
for the
the spiral
spiral strategy
strategy isis shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 11, and
11, and the
the
utes to improving the commercial application of the technologies used. In addition, the
last detail
last detail of
of the
the investigated
surface atat 7.5 mm for
7.5 mm for the
the spiral
spiral circle
circle strategy
strategy is
is shown
shown inin
design12.
Figure
of a milling process ensuring the lowest possible surface roughness means short‐
Figure 12.
ening the finishing process (grinding and polishing) and reducing costs.
3. Results
3.1. Surface Topography Evaluation
A comparison of the 3D surface topography with respect to the tool–workpiece con‐
tact points at the same height is shown in the following Figures, where the detail of the
investigated surface at 7.5 mm for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 10. The detail
of the investigated surface at 7.5 mm for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 11, and the
last detail of the investigated surface at 7.5 mm for the spiral circle strategy is shown in
Figure 12.
Figure 10. Detail of the investigated surface at 7.5 mm; Constant Z strategy.
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Detail
Detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 7.5
7.5 mm;
mm; spiral
spiral strategy.
strategy.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 11 of 27
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Detail
Detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 7.5
7.5 mm;
mm; spiral
spiral strategy.
strategy.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. Detail
Detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 7.5
7.5 mm;
mm; spiral
spiral circle
circle strategy.
strategy.
Figure 12. Detail of the investigated surface at 7.5 mm; spiral circle strategy.
AA comparison
A comparison of
comparison of the
ofthe 3D
the3D surface
3Dsurface topography
surfacetopography
topographywith with respect
withrespect
respecttotothethe
to the tool–workpiece
tool–workpiece
tool–workpiece con‐
con‐
contact
tact
tact point
pointpoint
at 15atat
mm 15 mm
15 for
mm for specific
for specific
specific strategies
strategies
strategies is shown is shown
is shown in the following
in the following
in the following figures,
figures, figures,
where the where
detailthe
where the
of
detail
detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 15
15 mm
mm for
for the
the Constant
Constant Z
Z strategy
strategy
the investigated surface at 15 mm for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 13. The is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure
13.
13. The
Theofdetail
detail detail of
of the
the investigated
surface surface
investigated
the investigated surface
at 15 mm at 15
15 mm
at for mm for
for the
the spiral spiral
spiral strategy
thestrategy strategy
is shown is shown
is in
shown
Figurein Figure
in14,
Figure
and
14,
14, and
and the
the last
last detail
detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 15
15 mm
mm for
for the
the spiral
spiral
the last detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm for the spiral circle strategy is shown in circle
circle strategy
strategy is
is
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure
Figure 15. 15. The machined
15. The surfaces
The machined machined surfaces
surfaces
of the of the
of theare
specimens specimens
specimens
represented are
areby represented
represented
a color scaleby a color
bydefining
a color
scale
scale defining
defining
the contour the
the contour
lines. contour lines.
lines. These
These contour lines contour
These contour
thus give lines
lines thus
thus give aa consistent
consistent representation
giverepresentation
a consistent representation
defining the
defining
defining the
the height
height of
height positioning positioning
positioning of
of the
the tool marks.the tool
tool marks.
marks.view
A realistic A
A realistic
of theview
realistic view
machinedof
of the machined
thesurface
machined surface
surface
element is
element
shown inis
element shown
isthe
shown in
in the
Figures the Figures
Figures
13–15 13–15
right.to
13–15
to the to the
the right.
right.

Figure
Figure 13. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; Constant Z
Z strategy.
Figure 13.
13. Detail
Detail of
of the
the investigated
surface at
at 15
15 mm;
mm; Constant
Constant Z strategy.
strategy.
Figure 14. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral strategy.

The last comparison shows 3D surface topography with respect to the tool–workpiece
contact point at the last height for specific strategies. The detail of the investigated surface
at 22.5 mm for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 16. The detail of the investigated
surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 17, and the last detail of the
investigated surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral circle strategy is shown in Figure 18.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 12 of 27
Figure 15. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral circle strategy.
The last comparison shows 3D surface topography with respect to the tool–work‐
piece contact point at the last height for specific strategies. The detail of the investigated
surface at 22.5 mm for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 16. The detail of the
investigated surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 17, and the last
detail of the investigated surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral circle strategy is shown in Figure
Figure
18. 15. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral circle strategy.
Figure 15. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral circle strategy.
The last comparison shows 3D surface topography with respect to the tool–work‐
piece contact point at the last height for specific strategies. The detail of the investigated
surface at 22.5 mm for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 16. The detail of the
investigated surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 17, and the last
detail of the investigated surface at 22.5 mm for the spiral circle strategy is shown in Figure
18.

Figure 17. Detail of the investigated surface at 22.5 mm; spiral strategy.
The surface topography for the Constant Z strategy is shown in Figure 19, and the
surface topography for the spiral circle strategy is shown in Figure 20. In Figure 19, the
toolpaths can be observed, which are arranged along the contour line and are clearly visible.
Lighter areas on the surface indicate surface defects in the form of dimples, which
cause changes in the surface texture. The formation of the defects on the machined surface
could have been caused by the irregular vibration of the cutting edge of the tool when
using the spiral circle strategy in the cutting process. Therefore, the tool marks obtained do
not achieve the ideal machined surface, which may result in a worse surface quality, as is
shown in Figure 20.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 13 of 27
toolpaths can be observed, which are arranged along the contour line and are clearly vis‐
ible.
using the spiral circle strategy in the cutting process. Therefore, the tool marks obtained
do not achieve the ideal machined surface, which may result in a worse surface quality,
as is shown
Figure in Figure
18. Detail 20.
of the investigated surface at 22.5 mm; spiral circle strategy.
toolpaths can be observed, which are arranged along the contour line and are clearly vis‐
ible.
using the spiral circle strategy in the cutting process. Therefore, the tool marks obtained
do not achieve the ideal machined surface, which may result in a worse surface quality,
Figure
as 19.Surface
is shown
Figure 19. Surface topography
in Figure 20.
topography forConstant
for ConstantZZstrategy.
strategy.
Figure19.
Figure
Figure 20.20. Surface
Surface
Surface topography
topography
topography forfor
for Spiral
Constant
Spiral circle strategy.
Z strategy.
circle strategy.
Ateach
At eachofofthese
theseheights,
heights,there
therewas wasaachange
changein inthe
theeffective
effectivetool
tooldiameter
diameterwithwithrespect
respect
tothe
to themachined
machinedsurface,
surface,the
thevalue
valueof ofwhich
whichdepended
dependedon onthe
theaxial
axialdepth
depthof ofthe
thecut
cutand
and
thecurvature
the curvatureof ofthetheworkpiece
workpiecesurface.
surface.Grooves
Groovesseparating
separatingthe theindividual
individualcutscutsduring
duringthethe
cuttingprocess
cutting processarearevisible
visibleon
onall
allelements
elementsofofthe thespecimen
specimensurfaces.
surfaces.ItItcan
canbe beassumed
assumedthat that
the
theformation
formationof ofthetheindividual
individualgrooves
grooveswas wasdetermined
determinedby bythe
themethod
methodused usedto togrind
grindthethe
cutting
cutting edge of the tool. On this basis, it can be said that the grinding tool was movedin
edge of the tool. On this basis, it can be said that the grinding tool was moved in
height
heightbybyaastep
stepchange
changein inthe
thesetting
settingangle.
angle.The
Theresult
resultin in the
the cutting
cutting process
processapproximated
approximated
aasemi-spherical
semi‐sphericalshape shapedueduetotothe
thenumber
numberofoflow lowconical
conicalsurfaces.
surfaces.
The
Thespecimen
specimenmachined
machinedwith withthe theConstant
ConstantZZstrategy
strategywas wasthetheonly
onlyoneoneto topresent
presentaa
surface
surfacefree
freeof
ofsurface
surfacedefects,
defects,resulting
resultingin inaaregular
regularalignment
alignmentof ofthe
thetool
toolpaths
pathsalong
alongthethe
contours. For the specimens where the spiral circle strategy was used,
contours. For the specimens where the spiral circle strategy was used, surface defects in surface defects in the
form of dimples
the form were observed
of dimples at all three
were observed at allheights studied,studied,
three heights compared to the spiral
compared strategy,
to the spiral
where the formation of dimples was only observed at the height
strategy, where the formation of dimples was only observed at the height of 22.5 mm. of 22.5 mm.
As
Aspart
partofofthe
theevaluation,
evaluation,distance
distancemeasurements
measurementsof ofthe
theradial
radialdepth
depthparameter
parameterwere were
made
madewhen
whenmachining
machiningin inthe
thedownward
downwarddirection.
direction. These
These werewere the
thedistances
distances from
fromthe the
highest point of the specimen, namely 7.5 mm, 15 mm, and 22.5 mm.
highest point of the specimen, namely 7.5 mm, 15 mm, and 22.5 mm. A comparison of the A comparison of the
individual
individualradial
radialdepth
depthofofcut
cutaeaat a specific height for the Constant Z strategy is shown in
e at a specific height for the Constant Z strategy is shown
Figure 21. The same comparison
in Figure 21. The same comparison of theofindividual radial radial
the individual depth depth
of cut aof
e at a specific
cut height
ae at a specific
height for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 22, and the last comparison of the indi‐
vidual radial depth of cut ae at a specific height for the spiral circle strategy is shown in
Figure 23.
From a general point of view, as the radius of curvature of the surface increases, the
highest point of the specimen, namely 7.5 mm, 15 mm, and 22.5 mm. A comparison of the
individual radial depth of cut ae at a specific height for the Constant Z strategy is shown
in Figure 21. The same comparison of the individual radial depth of cut ae at a specific
height for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 22, and the last comparison of the indi‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 vidual radial depth of cut ae at a specific height for the spiral circle strategy is shown in
14 of 27
Figure 23.
From a general point of view, as the radius of curvature of the surface increases, the
contact area of the tool with the workpiece increases, and consequently, the effective di‐
for the spiral strategy is shown in Figure 22, and the last comparison of the individual
ameterdepth
radial of theoftool
cut also
a atincreases.
a specific height for the spiral circle strategy is shown in Figure 23.
e
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the radial
radial depth
depth of
of cut
cut at
at aa specific
specific height
heightfor
forthe
theConstant
ConstantZZstrategy.
strategy.
Figure 22.
Comparison of
of the
the radial
radial depth
depth of
of cut
cut at
at aa specific
specific height
height for
for the
the spiral
spiral strategy.
strategy.
Figure 23.
Comparison of
of the
the radial
radial depth
depth of
of cut
cut at
at aa specific
specific height
height for
for the
the spiral
spiral circle
circlestrategy.
strategy.
From a general
As depicted point 21,
in Figure of view, as the radius
the utilization of theofZ‐constant
curvaturestrategy
of the surface
validatedincreases,
the as‐
the contactthat
sumption areathe
ofeffective
the tool with the workpiece
tool diameter increases,
has a more and consequently,
pronounced impact on the themachined
effective
diameter
area. Thisofwas
the tool also increases.
affirmed by observing an increase in the radial depth of cut (ae) in the
As depicted
downward in Figure
direction 21, theaway
as one moves utilization
from theof the Z-constant
highest point. strategy validated the
assumption that the effective tool diameter has a more pronounced
However, for the spiral (Figure 22) and spiral circle strategies impact on the
(Figure machined
23), this as‐
area.
sumption was not proved. The measured values of the radial depth of cut ae fore )7.5
This was affirmed by observing an increase in the radial depth of cut (a in mm
the
downward direction as one moves away from the highest point.
height are shown in Table 3, the same parameter radial depth of cut ae for 15 mm height
However,
is shown for 4,
in Table the spiral
and (Figure
the last 22)depth
radial and spiral
of cutcircle
ae forstrategies (Figureis23),
22.5 mm height this assump-
shown in Table
tion
5. was not proved. The measured values of the radial depth of cut ae for 7.5 mm height
A comparison of radial depth of cut ae at specific heights for each strategy is shown
in Figure 24.
Table 3. Radial depth of cut aee [μm] of 7.5mm.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 15 of 27
are shown in Table 3, the same parameter radial depth of cut ae for 15 mm height is shown
in Table 4, and the last radial depth of cut ae for 22.5 mm height is shown in Table 5.
Table 3. Radial depth of cut ae [µm] of 7.5mm.
Radial Depth of Cut ae [µm] of 7.5 mm

Strategy
Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3
Constant Z 347 345 325
Spiral 286 308 283
Spiral circle 182 185 173
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Table 4. Radial depth of cut ae [µm] of 15mm. 16 of 29
Radial Depth of Cut ae [µm] of 15 mm

Strategy
Table 4. Radial depth of cut aMeasurement 1
e [μm] of 15mm.
Measurement 2 Measurement 3
Spiral Radial Depth of Cut419
421 ae [μm] of 15 mm 426
Strategy
Spiral circle Measurement 202 1 Measurement
202 2 Measurement
209 3
Spiral
Table 5. 421 of 22.5mm.
Radial depth of cut ae [µm] 419 426
Spiral circle 202 202 209
Radial Depth of Cut ae [µm] of 22.5 mm
Strategy
Table 5. Radial depth of cut aMeasurement 1
e [μm] of 22.5mm. Measurement 2 Measurement 3
Spiral 488
ae [μm] of 22.5 mm 486
Radial Depth of Cut 508
Strategy
Spiral circle Measurement
182 1 Measurement
202 2 Measurement
180 3
Spiral 488 508 486
A comparison of radial depth of cut ae at specific heights for each strategy is shown in
Spiral
Figure 24.circle 182 202 180
Figure 24.
Figure Comparison of
24. Comparison of radial
radial depth
depth of
of cut
cut aaee at
at specific
specific heights
heights for
for each
each strategy.
strategy.
3.2. Roughness Evaluation

3.2. Roughness Evaluation
The comparison of surface roughness values for all three strategies at three different
The comparison of surface roughness values for all three strategies at three different
heights for a particular strategy is shown in the following figures. The surface roughness
heights for a particular strategy is shown in the following figures. The surface roughness
rating for all three strategies, with a measurement height of 7.5 mm, is presented in
rating for all three strategies, with a measurement height of 7.5 mm, is presented in Figure
Figure 25. The surface roughness rating for all three strategies, measurement height of
25. The surface roughness rating for all three strategies, measurement height of 15 mm, is
shown in Figure 26, and the last surface roughness rating for all three strategies, measure‐
ment height of 22.5 mm, is shown in Figure 27.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 16 of 27
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REVIEW 17
17 of
of 29
Appl. Sci. 2023, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 29
of 29
15 mm, is shown in Figure 26, and the last surface roughness rating for all three strategies,
measurement height of 22.5 mm, is shown in Figure 27.
Constant
Constant ZZ strategy
strategy Spiral
Spiral strategy
strategy Spiral
Spiral circle
circle strategy
strategy
Constant Z strategy Spiral strategy Spiral circle strategy
Figure
Figure 25.
25. Surface
Surface roughness
roughness rating
rating for
for all
all three
three strategies, measurement height 7.5 mm.
Figure 25. 25.
Figure Surface roughness rating for strategies,
all three measurement
strategies, height
measurement 7.5 7.5
height mm. mm.
Figure
Figure 26.
26. Surface
Surface roughness
roughness rating
rating for
for all
all three
three strategies,
strategies, measurement
measurement height
height 15
15 mm.
mm.
Figure 26. Surface roughness rating for all three strategies, measurement height 15 mm.
Figure
Figure
Figure 27.
27. Surface
27. Surface
Surface roughness
roughness
roughness rating
rating
rating for
for all
for all three
all three
three strategies,
strategies,
strategies, measurement
measurement
measurement height
height
height 22.5.
22.5.
22.5.
Figure 27. Surface roughness rating for all three strategies, measurement height 22.5.
For better
ForForbetter For better visualization
visualization
visualization of
of the
the results,
results,ofthe
themeasured
the results, the
measured measured
surface
surface surface
roughness
roughness roughness
data
data is
is also
also data is also
displayed
displayed in
in in
better visualization of the results, the measured surface roughness data is also displayed
the form
thethe
form of
of a
adisplayed
graph,
graph, as
asin the form
presented
presented of
in
in a graph,
the
the as
following
following presented
figures.
figures. in
Thethe
The following
comparison
comparison figures.
of
of surface
surfaceThe comparison
roughness
roughness Sa
Sa
form of a graph, as presented in the following figures. The comparison of surface roughness Sa
[μm]
[μm] for
forfor of surface
different
different roughness
heights
heights with
with Sa [µm]
respect
respect to for strategies
to the
the different
strategies heights
is
is shown
shown with
in respect28,
in Figure
Figure to and
28, the strategies
andandthe is shown
comparison
thethe
comparison of
of of
[μm] different heights with respect to the strategies is shown in Figure 28, comparison
surface in
roughness Figure
Ssk 28, and
[μm] the
for comparison
different of
heights surface
with roughness
respect to the Ssk [µm]
strategiesforisdifferent
shown heights
in Figure with
29.
surface
surface roughness
roughness SskSsk
[μm] forfor
[μm] different heights
different heights with respect
with to the
respect strategies
to the strategiesis shown
is shown in Figure 29.29.
in Figure
The last respect to
comparison of the strategies is shown in Figure 29. The last comparison of surface roughness
TheThe lastlast
comparison
comparison of surface
surface roughness
roughness
of surface roughness
S10z
S10z [μm]
[μm]
S10z
for different
forfor
[μm] different heights
heights
different
with
with
heights with
respect
respect
respect
to
to the
the strategies
strategies
to the strategies
is S10z [µm] for different heights with respect to the strategies is shown in Figure 30.
is shown
shown
is shown
in
in Figure
Figure 30.
30.30.
in Figure
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2023,
Sci. 2023, 13,
2023, 13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
13, 10328 PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 18
18 of 29
Appl. 17of 29
of 27
Figure
Figure 28.
28. Comparison
Comparisonof
Comparison surface
ofof
surface roughness
roughness
surface Sa
Sa [μm]
roughness [μm]
Sa for
for different
[µm] different heights
heights
for different with respect
withwith
heights respect to
to the strat‐
theto
respect strat‐
the
egies.
egies.
strategies.
Figure
Figure 29.
29. Comparison
Comparisonof
Comparison surface
ofof
surface roughness
roughness
surface Ssk [μm]
SskSsk
roughness [μm] for
for different
[µm] different
for heights
heights
different with respect
withwith
heights respect to
to the strat‐
theto
respect strat‐
the
egies.
egies.
strategies.
Figure 30. Comparisonof

30. Comparison
Figure 30. Comparison ofofsurface
surface
surface roughness
roughness
roughness SS10
10z
S z [µm]
[μm]
z10
[μm] for for different
for different
different heights
heights
heights withwith
with respect
respect
respect to theto
to the the
strat‐
strat‐
egies.
strategies.
egies.
As
As shown
As shown
shown in in Figure 28,
in Figure
Figure 28, the
28, the lowest values
the lowest
lowest values of
values of the
of the surface
the surface roughness
surface roughness parameter
roughness parameter
parameter Sa Sa were
Sa were
were
obtained
obtained
obtained forfor the
for the spiral
the spiral circle
spiral circle strategy
circle strategy for
strategy for all three
for all heights
all three
three heights evaluated,
heights evaluated, ranging
evaluated, ranging from
ranging from 0.7902
from 0.7902 µm
0.7902
to
μm 0.9089
μm to µm.
to 0.9089
0.9089 μm. The highest
μm. The values
The highest
highest valueswere shown
values were
were shownfor all
shown for three
for all heights
all three evaluated
three heights when
heights evaluated
evaluated whenusing
when
the spiral
using strategy in theinrange from from
1.4644 µm to 1.4918 µm. μm.Considering the surface
the spiral strategy the
using the spiral strategy in the range from 1.4644 μm to 1.4918 μm. Considering the
range 1.4644 μm to 1.4918 Considering the sur‐
sur‐
topography,
face it can be concluded that thisthis
parameter decreased with possible increasing
face topography,
topography, it it can
can be
be concluded
concluded that that this parameter
parameter decreased
decreased withwith possible
possible increas‐
increas‐
tool tool
ing wear. This Thisdecreasing tendency was relatedrelated
to the deterioration of the surface quality
ing tool wear.
wear. This decreasing
decreasing tendency
tendency was was related to to the
the deterioration
deterioration of of the
the surface
surface
and the
quality wear of the tool, which caused “wiping” effects on the machined surface. The
quality and
and thethe wear
wear of of the
the tool,
tool, which
which caused
caused “wiping”
“wiping” effects
effects onon the
the machined
machined surface.
surface.
original
The single, well-visible toolpaths turned into dimples formed after the material was
The original
original single,
single, well‐visible
well‐visible toolpaths
toolpaths turned
turned into
into dimples
dimples formed
formed after
after the
the material
material
stripped
was off. Although the Satheparameter was reduced by using the spiral circle strategy, the
was stripped off. Although the Sa parameter was reduced by using the spiral circle
stripped off. Although Sa parameter was reduced by using the spiral circle strat‐
strat‐
machined
egy, surfaces showed a deterioration phenomenon due to tool wear.
egy, the
the machined
machined surfaces
surfaces showed
showed aa deterioration
deterioration phenomenon
phenomenon due due to
to tool
tool wear.
wear.
For
For the spiral circle strategy, a negative value of S sk = − 0.0534 µm was measured
For the
the spiral
spiral circle
circle strategy,
strategy, aa negative
negative value
value ofof SSsk
sk =
= −0.0534
−0.0534 μm μm was
was measured
measured (Fig‐ (Fig‐
(Figure 29). It can be assumed that a greater number of valleys occur in the milled area
ure
ure 29).
29). It
It can
can be
be assumed
assumed that that aa greater
greater number
number of of valleys
valleys occur
occur inin the
the milled
milled area
area with
with
with this strategy.
this strategy.
this strategy.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 18 of 27
In contrast, the Ssk parameters for the Constant Z and spiral strategies showed positive
values for all three heights. This indicates that the milled surfaces had many peaks, and
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2023,
2023, 13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
the distribution of heights was skewed below the reference plane. The slope measurement 19 of
19 of 29
29
results shown indicate that the slope factor of the profile is positive for the constant Z and
spiral strategies. This indicates an increase in the coefficient of friction (due to the more
rounded surface the
In contrast,
contrast, roughness).
Ssk parameters
parameters for for the
the Constant
Constant Z Z and
and spiral
spiral strategies
strategies showed
showed posi‐
posi‐
In the Ssk
In the
tive values
values forevaluation
for all
all threeof the
three heights.parameter
heights. This S10z,
This indicates the
indicates that lowest
that the values
the milled were
milled surfaces measured
surfaces had
had many using
many peaks, the
peaks,
tive
spiral
and the circle milling
the distribution strategy
distribution of for
of heights
heights wasthe two
was skewedmeasured
skewed below heights
below the of 15
the reference and
reference plane.22.5
plane. Themm, as
The slopeshown
slope meas‐
meas‐in
and
Figure 30.
urement resultsThe highest
results shown S10z
shown indicatevalues
indicate that were
that the measured
the slope
slope factor with
factor of the
of the Constant
the profile
profile is Z strategy.
is positive
positive for Average
for the
the con‐
con‐
urement
roughness
stant Z and values
spiral with the standard
strategies. This deviation
indicates an are shown
increase in the in Table 6. of
coefficient The comparison
friction (due to
stant Z and spiral strategies. This indicates an increase in the coefficient of friction (due to
of average parameter values S10z is shown in Figure 31, and the comparison of average
the more rounded surface roughness).
the more rounded surface roughness).
parameter values Ssk is described in Figure 32. Finally, the comparison of average parameter
In the
In the evaluation
evaluation ofof the
the parameter
parameter S10z,
S10z, the
the lowest
lowest values
values were
were measured
measured using
using the
the
values Sa is shown in Figure 33.
spiral circle
spiral circle milling
milling strategy
strategy for
for the
the two
two measured
measured heights
heights of of 15
15 and
and 22.5
22.5 mm,
mm, asas shown
shown in in
The graphical representation shows that the most optimal parameter values were
Figure 30.
Figure 30. The
The highest
highest S10z
S10z values
values were
were measured
measured with with the
the Constant
Constant Z Z strategy.
strategy. Average
Average
obtained with the Constant Z strategy, which can be applied to the shape of machined
roughness values
roughness values with
with the
the standard
standard deviation
deviation areare shown
shown in in Table
Table 6.6. The
The comparison
comparison of of
surfaces of a similar character. In the case of the Ssk parameter, the values showed a uniform
average
average parameter
parameter values
values S10z is shown
S10z is surface,
shown in in Figure
Figure 31,
31,Saand
and the comparison
the comparison of average
of average pa‐
pa‐
characteristic over the machined but for the parameter, the worst values were
rameter values
rameter values Ssk
Ssk is
is described
described in in Figure
Figure 32.
32. Finally,
Finally, the
the comparison
comparison of of average
average parameter
parameter
shown for the spiral circle strategy, which reached 1.8 times lower values compared with
values Sa
values Sa is shown
shown in Figure 33.
the spiral isstrategy. in Figure 33.
Table 6.
Table 6. Average
Average roughness
roughness values
values with
with the
the standard
standard deviation.
deviation.
Table 6. Average roughness values with the standard deviation.
Constant Z
Constant Z Spiral
Spiral Spiral Circle
Spiral Circle
Roughness
Roughness Constant Z Spiral Spiral Circle
Roughness Average
Average
Average ±
± Standard
±Standard
Average
Standard Average
Average ±
± Standard
±Standard
Average
Standard Average
Average ±
± Standard
±Standard
Standard
Parameter
Parameter
Parameter Deviation
Deviation [mm]
Deviation [mm]
[mm] Deviation
Deviation [mm]
Deviation [mm]
[mm] Deviation
Deviation [mm]
Deviation [mm]
[mm]
S10z
S10z
S10z 47.050
47.050 ±± 6.434
6.434
47.050 ± 6.434 38.444
38.444 ±± 20.499
20.499
38.444 ± 20.499 30.051
30.051 ±± 24.339
24.339
30.051 ± 24.339
Ssk
Ssk
Ssk 1.005
1.005 ± 0.402
1.005 ±± 0.402
0.402 1.065
1.065 ± 0.805
1.065 ±± 0.805
0.805 0.814
0.814 ± 1.409
0.814 ±± 1.409
1.409
Sa
Sa 1.539 ±±
1.539
1.539 ± 0.356
0.356
0.356 1.643 ±±
1.643
1.643 ± 0.285
0.285
0.285 0.854 ±±
0.854
0.854 ± 0.060
0.060
0.060
Figure
Figure 31.
31. Comparison of
Comparison of average
of average parameter
average parameter values SS10z.
parameter values
values S10 z.
10z.

Figure 32. Comparison of
of average
average parameter values Ssk.
parameter values Ssk.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2023,
2023, 13,
13, x10328
FOR PEER REVIEW 2019ofof29
27
Figure
Figure 33.
33. Comparison
Comparison of
of average
average parameter
parameter values
values Sa.
Sa.
In terms
The of the
graphical statistical expression
representation shows that and display
the of standard
most optimal deviations,
parameter valueswhich
were ob‐ de-
termine
tained thethe
with variance
Constant of the values in
Z strategy, the case
which can ofbe the roughness
applied parameter
to the shape Sa, it can
of machined be
sur‐
confirmed that in the case of the contact of the tool with the workpiece
faces of a similar character. In the case of the Ssk parameter, the values showed a uniform at a height of 7.5 mm,
when a smallover
characteristic effective diameter surface,
the machined of the tool butisfor
usedthein Sathe cutting process,
parameter, the worst there is a were
values large
variance, and in the case where the effective diameter of the tool
shown for the spiral circle strategy, which reached 1.8 times lower values compared with increases in relation to the
curvature of the
the spiral strategy. surface, the variance decreases.
In terms
In terms of of the
the standard
statisticaldeviations
expressionofand thedisplay
evaluation of the average
of standard roughness
deviations, whichfrom de‐
termine the variance of the values in the case of the roughness parameter Sa, it can the
the total height of the machined surface for the parameters Sa and Ssk, it is clear that be
lowest variance
confirmed that in wastheobtained withcontact
case of the the Constant
of the Z strategy.
tool with the This means that
workpiece at for this strategy
a height of 7.5
used,when
mm, the standard
a small deviation varies theofleast
effective diameter within
the tool the three
is used in themeasured heights compared
cutting process, there is a
to the spiral and spiral circle strategies. Hence, for the Constant
large variance, and in the case where the effective diameter of the tool increases Z strategy, theinchange
relation in
roughness is the smallest over the entire
to the curvature of the surface, the variance decreases.machined sample area.
In terms of the standard deviations of the evaluation of the average roughness from
3.3. Shape Deviation Evaluation
the total height of the machined surface for the parameters Sa and Ssk, it is clear that the
lowest The measured
variance wassurface
obtaineddeviations
with thefrom the ideal
Constant state areThis
Z strategy. shown
meansin Figures
that for34–39. The
this strat‐
measured deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the Constant
egy used, the standard deviation varies the least within the three measured heights com‐ Z strategy is shown
in Figure 34, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 35 for the Constant Z strategy. The
pared to the spiral and spiral circle strategies. Hence, for the Constant Z strategy, the
measured deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the spiral strategy is shown
change in roughness is the smallest over the entire machined sample area.
in Figure 36, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 37, also for the spiral strategy. The
measured deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the spiral circle strategy is shown
3.3. Shape Deviation Evaluation
in Figure 38, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 39, also for the spiral circle strategy. At
The measured
a height of 7 mm below surface
thedeviations
top, in all from
cases,thetheideal state deviation
positive are shownbecomes
in Figures 34–39. The
negative, i.e.,
measured
non-cutting becomes undercutting. The negative deviation is also present at the is
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the Constant Z strategy topshown
21ofofall
29
in Figure 34, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 35 for the Constant Z strategy. The
specimens.
measured deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the spiral strategy is shown in
Figure 36, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 37, also for the spiral strategy. The meas‐
ured deviation plot of the curve in the X–Z plane for the spiral circle strategy is shown in
Figure 38, and the Y–Z plane is shown in Figure 39, also for the spiral circle strategy. At a
height of 7 mm below the top, in all cases, the positive deviation becomes negative, i.e.,
non‐cutting becomes undercutting. The negative deviation is also present at the top of all
specimens.
Figure 34. Measured deviations plot of the curve in X–Z plane for Constant Z strategy.
Figure 34. Measured deviations plot of the curve in X–Z plane for Constant Z strategy.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 20 of 27
Figure
Figure 34.
34. Measured
Measured deviations
deviations plot
plot of
of the
the curve
curve in
in X–Z
X–Z plane
plane for
for Constant
Constant Z
Z strategy.
strategy.
Figure 35.
Figure35.
Figure Measured
35.Measured deviations
Measureddeviations plot
deviationsplot of
plotof the
ofthe curve
curveinin
thecurve the
inthe Y–Z
theY–Z plane
Y–Zplane for
planefor Constant
ConstantZZ
forConstant strategy.
Zstrategy.
strategy.

Figure 36.
Figure36. Measured
36.Measured deviations
Measureddeviations plot
deviationsplot of
plotof the
ofthe curve
curveinin
thecurve X–Z
inX–Z plane
X–Zplane for
planefor spiral
forspiral strategy.
spiralstrategy.
strategy.
Figure
Figure37.
Figure 37.Measured
Measureddeviations
deviationsplot
plotof
ofthe
thecurve
curveininthe
theY–Z
Y–Zplane
planefor
forspiral
spiralstrategy.
strategy.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 21 of 27
Figure 37.
Figure 37. Measured
Measured deviations
deviations plot
plot of
of the
the curve
curve in
in the
the Y–Z
Y–Z plane
plane for
for spiral
spiral strategy.
strategy.
Figure38.
Figure
Figure 38.Measured
38. Measureddeviations
Measured deviationsplot
deviations plotof
plot ofthe
of thecurve
the curvein
curve inX–Z
in X–Zplane
X–Z planefor
plane forspiral
for spiralcircle
spiral circlestrategy.
circle strategy.
strategy.
Figure 39.
Figure 39. Measured
Measured deviations
deviations plot
plot of
of the
the curve
curve in
in the
the Y–Z
Y–Z plane
plane for
for spiral
spiral circle
circle strategy.
strategy.
Figure 39. Measured deviations plot of the curve in the Y–Z plane for spiral circle strategy.
The obtained
The obtained deviation
deviation values
values are
are also
also presented
presented inin the following
following Tables;
Tables; the
the meas‐
meas‐
The obtained deviation values are also presented in thethe
following Tables; the measured
ured deviation
ured deviation values for the Constant Z strategy are shown in Table 7. The measured
deviation values values
for the for the Constant
Constant Z strategy
Z strategy are shown areinshown
Table 7.inThe
Table 7. The measured
measured deviation
deviation values
deviation values for
for the
the spiral
spiral strategy
strategy are
are shown
shown inin Table
Table 8, 8, and the
the last
last measured
measured devi‐
devi‐
values for the spiral strategy are shown in Table 8, and the lastandmeasured deviation values
ation
ation values for the spiral circle strategy are shown in Table 9. Data are extended with the
for thevalues
spiralfor the strategy
circle spiral circle
are strategy
shown in areTable
shown9. in Table
Data are9.extended
Data are extended
with the 3Dwith the
area
3D area
3D area
profile profile
profile
item, item,
item,
which which achieved
which achieved
achieved the largest
thepositive
the largest positive
largest deviation deviation
positive deviation for the
for the
for the spiral spiral strategy
spiral and
strategy strategy
the
smallest for the Constant Z strategy. The largest negative deviation was for the Constant
strategy Z and the spiral circle strategy, and the smallest for the spiral strategy.
Table 7. Measured deviation values for Constant Z strategy.
Maximum Maximum
Calculated Set Tolerance
Area Evaluated Negative Positive
Deviation [mm] [mm]
Deviation [mm] Deviation [mm]
2D profile X–Z 0.1231 0.15 −0.0549 0.0616
2D profile Y–Z 0.0874 0.15 −0.0411 0.0437
3D area profile 0.1372 0.15 −0.0686 0.0665
tion [mm] tion [mm]
2D profile X–Z 0.1231 0.15 −0.0549 0.0616
2D profile Y–Z 0.0874 0.15 −0.0411 0.0437
3D area profile 0.1372 0.15 −0.0686 0.0665
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 22 of 27
Table 8. Measured deviation values for spiral strategy.
Maximum Maximum
Area 8.
Table Evaluated
Measured deviation values for spiral strategy. Negative Devia‐ Positive Devia‐
Deviation [mm] [mm]
tion [mm] tion [mm]
2D profile X–Z 0.1249 0.15 Maximum
−0.0580 Maximum
0.0625
2D profile Y–Z Deviation
0.0905[mm] [mm]
0.15 −0.0440 0.0453[mm]
Deviation [mm] Deviation
3D area profile 0.1983 0.15 −0.0561 0.0991
2D profile X–Z 0.1249 0.15 −0.0580 0.0625
2D profile Y–Z 0.0905 0.15 −0.0440 0.0453
Table
3D 9. Measured
area profile deviation values for spiral circle
0.1983 0.15strategy. −0.0561 0.0991
Maximum Maximum
Table Calculated
Measured deviation Set Tolerance
values for spiral circle strategy.Negative Devia‐ Positive Devia‐
Area 9.
Evaluated
Deviation [mm] [mm]
tion [mm] tion [mm]
Maximum Maximum
2D profile X–Z Calculated
0.1228 Set Tolerance
0.15 −0.0557 0.0614
Deviation [mm] [mm]
2D profile Y–Z 0.0868 0.15 −0.0411[mm]
Deviation 0.0434[mm]
Deviation
3D
2Darea profile
profile X–Z 0.1371
0.1228 0.15
0.15 −0.0686
−0.0557 0.0670
0.0614
2D profile Y–Z 0.0868 0.15 −0.0411 0.0434
3DDeviation
area profilecomparisons
0.1371 0.15areas for each−milling
of the evaluated 0.0686 strategy is0.0670
shown in
Figure 40.
The graph comparisons
Deviation in Figure 37 compares the maximum
of the evaluated areas forshape
each deviations for allisevaluated
milling strategy shown in
strategies.
Figure 40.
Figure40.
Figure Deviationscomparison
40.Deviations comparisonof
ofthe
theevaluated
evaluatedareas
areasfor
foreach
eachmilling
milling strategy.
strategy.
Themaximum
The graph in Figure 37and
positive compares thedeviations
negative maximum shape
were deviations
similar for all evaluated
for all strategies. In the
strategies.
X–Z plane, the maximum positive deviations were in the range of 0.0614–0.0625 mm, and
The maximum
the maximum positive
negative and negative
deviations deviations were
were 0.0549–0.0580 mm.similar
In thefor allplane,
Y–Z strategies. In the
the range
X–Z plane, the maximum positive deviations were in the range of 0.0614–0.0625 mm, and
the maximum negative deviations were 0.0549–0.0580 mm. In the Y–Z plane, the range was
0.0434–0.0453 mm and 0.0411–0.044 mm. The orientation of the axes in the measurement
was identical to the orientation of the axes in the milling. From the comparison of the
measurements in the X–Z and Y–Z planes for all strategies, larger deviations were obtained
in the X–Z plane. This fact points to a machine deviation and the need to correct the system
scale factor in one of the horizontal axes.
4. Discussion
The strategies are not universal but predetermined for certain surface shapes. For
surfaces with vertical walls of rotational shape, as in the case of the presented specimens,
strategies with contouring in parallel planes or with radial paths are suitable. Zig-zag or
raster strategies are not suitable.
The proposed approach in the experiment focused on the possibility of evaluating the
surface pattern, where the contact zone between the tool and workpiece was investigated
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 23 of 27
with respect to the chosen finishing machining strategy. The results of the surface roughness
measurements are consistent with those published in [18,21,28,30]. Like [42], the circle
strategy was the best in terms of roughness and like [28], the spiral was the worst. The
evaluation of the texture of the surfaces corresponds to the findings in [33]. The results
from the accuracy evaluation are like those in [39,40].
The variations in toolpaths were discernible, attributed to the impact of tool interaction
in the connection between the tool and the machined surface. Better surface topography
was obtained with the Constant Z strategy, which is visible and different in comparison to
the spiral circle strategy. In the Constant Z strategy, the tool path was in line with the ideal
machined surface and produced a uniform and periodic surface topography along the feed.
This resulted in highly visible tool grooves aligned along the contours. At distances from
the highest point, the radial depth of cut ae increased in a descending direction under the
influence of the Constant Z strategy. When using the spiral-circle strategy, such an increase
in the radial depth of cut was not confirmed. This could have been caused by the vibration
of the tool in the cutting process.
In the case of the spiral circle strategy, it was possible to see an increase in the wear
of the tool, which led to an increase in the number of dimples. This led to an increase
in the friction between the tool and the workpiece, resulting in instability of the cutting
process and the formation of defects on the surface. The cracks and dimples were caused
by plastic deformation at the cutting point due to the pressure between the tool and the
machined surface as the tool moved in the feed direction. Due to material extrusion and
tool movement, these surfaces were plastically deformed by the blunt rounding of the
cutting edges. The adhered material particles could detach and subsequently remove some
part of the workpiece material and create a tear on the surface.
Among the other causes of the formation of dimples we can include:
1. Dimples as the result of an inadequate control system of the CNC milling machine.
The overall machining process involves a so-called cycle time, in which the control
system reads the generated NC code line and then converts this data from the code
line into a tool position change. Thus, in the case of creating a toolpath consisting of
multiple small segments, the machine control system must recalculate a number of
NC blocks in a short time. If the control system is not able to handle the calculations
related to the required toolpaths and the cutting conditions in the cutting process, it
will adapt to its calculation capabilities in the form of a reduced feed rate.
2. The Z-constant strategy generates toolpaths using a set of contours from surfaces that
describe the shape of the surface at different levels of the Z-axis. In the spiral and
spiral circle strategy, in addition to the side force of the tool against the work surface,
there is also an axial force in the direction of the tool axis.
3. Insufficient sharpness of the tool. A blunt tool deforms the workpiece much more
before the chip separates from the main part. This has the effect of adding cutting
forces and driving the cutting edge deeper into the part as the deformation increases
and then the chip suddenly breaks off, leaving a small hole. The amount of them on
the surface causes the surface quality to be much lower.
4. The last reason for defects on the surface in the form of dimples may be a poor
selection, or not enough coolant. The use of coolant can increase the surface quality,
while insufficient cooling and lubrication leads to overheating and shorter tool life.
The evaluation of the surface roughness shows that the spiral circle strategy gives
the most consistent results for the Sa parameter, while the Constant Z strategy has the
highest variance. On the other hand, this strategy has the most balanced Sz parameter. The
machined surface obtained by the spiral circle strategy showed regular peaks and valleys.
The machined surface in micro dimensions was not smooth and presented various distinct
properties. Higher degrees of surface deterioration increased significantly when using the
spiral circle strategy. Surface defects on the machined surface, such as tool feed marks,
grooves, plastic flows, stuck material particles, scratch marks, and cracks, were produced.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 24 of 27
Based on the data evaluated by the ZEISS Calypso software, which is shown in
Tables 5–7, it can be stated that the differences of the measured deviations were in the
hundredths of a millimeter. No tolerance deviations were recorded for the Constant Z and
spiral circle methods. For the spiral method, a tolerance limit was observed when scanning
the 3D profile, as can be seen in Table 8 (value 0.1983). Based on the evaluation of the
geometric deviations, the Constant Z and spiral circle methods can be classified as suitable
and the spiral method as not suitable.
5. Conclusions
The research aimed to present the effect of finishing strategy on surface topography,
surface roughness, and variations in machining curved surfaces. The choice of the specimen
shape was based on the wide occurrence of such surface areas in the machining of injection
molds and other shape tools where it is necessary to achieve the required quality and
accuracy of production with respect to the future shape of the product. Three strategies
were evaluated—Constant Z, spiral, and spiral circle, whose paths were programmed in the
CAM system SolidCAM. The material used for the experiments was the aluminum alloy
AlCu4Mg. The evaluation of surface topography and surface roughness was carried out at
three different specimen locations selected to significantly change the effective diameter
of the tool on which the tool comes into contact with the machined surface. The results
showed changes in the monitored parameters due to a change in the effective diameter of
the cutting tool as well as the influence of the strategy used. To produce specimens with
corresponding shapes in terms of topography, the Constant Z strategy is the most suitable,
in which uniform tool paths were achieved over the whole height of the specimen.
From the experiments carried out, the spiral with discontinuous circle-shaped tool-
paths appears to be the most advantageous strategy. Due to the large variation of conditions
when machining 3D surfaces, it should be noted that changing the conditions can cause a
change in the results. Machining 3D surfaces is a very specific matter with many influencing
factors. Only the gradual discovery of the regularities of this process leads to knowledge
on the basis of which generally valid conclusions can be formulated. The conclusions
presented added to the already-known findings and are helpful for technologists/CNC
programmers when planning the technology for the production of similar surfaces.
One limitation of the study was the sample size used in the experiment. Since larger
dimensions are experienced in the machining of molds and some shaped surfaces, this paper
offers only a part of the further research that needs to be conducted to better understand
any impact on the machining of these shapes.
The following outlines are offered for further study in this area:
1. Shape surface decomposition focused on a deeper understanding of the influence of
milling strategies on surface topography.
2. To compare the machining efficiency when using three-axis and five-axis machining
due to changing tool–workpiece contact, resulting in a change in effective tool diame-
ter. This should show better surface properties not only in the case of topography but
also in the case of roughness parameters or surface deviations.
3. In the case of five-axis machining, there is an opportunity to investigate the effective-
ness of the tilt angle of the tool and thus specify the ideal angle for machining shaped
surfaces in five-axis machining with respect to the dimensional and shape accuracy of
the part.
4. One further possibility of the study is to change the milling method and use ascending
instead of descending milling.
5. Similarly, a topic for further study could be to compare the effectiveness of the
overhang length of the tool in the cutting process when machining shaped surfaces,
where tool stiffness, cutting forces, and, therefore, tool deflection in contact with the
workpiece would be evaluated.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328 25 of 27
6. Another study could analyze the type of chuck on the precision of production because,
in practice, different types are used due to the shape and precision of the part we
want to achieve.
7. Comparing conventional strategies with milling strategies known as HSM (High-
Speed Machining) is also of importance in the field of mold and surface forming.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.V.; methodology, J.V., P.I. and M.D.; validation, J.V. and
M.D.; formal analysis, J.V. and L’.K.; investigation, J.V.; resources, J.V.; writing—original draft prepa-
ration, J.V.; writing—review and editing, J.V. and L’.K.; visualization, J.V.; J.B. and L’.K.; supervision,
L’.K.; project administration, P.I. and M.V.; funding acquisition, M.V. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by The Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the
Slovak Republic, grant number VEGA 1/0457/21, VEGA 1/0384/20, KEGA 036TUKE-4/2021.
Data Availability Statement: The research data can be obtained from the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
Nomenclature
CNC computer numerical control

NC numerical control
CAM computer-aided manufacturing
CL cutter location
CAD computer-aided design
HB hardness Brinell
D diameter of milling tool
RPM revolutions per minute
ae radial depth of cut
ap depths of cut for given strategies
fz feed per tooth
Eff rad max maximum effective radius
Eff rad min minimum effective radius
F feed
T tolerance
P surface allowance
ISO International Organization for Standardization
S10z Ten-point height of surface
Sa Arithmetical mean height
Ssk Skewness
Lc cutoff
µm micrometer
vc cutting speed
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1 Department of Technology, Materials and Computer-Aided Production, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Keywords: roughness; surface topography; geometric deviations

Citation: Varga, J.; Ižol, P.; Vrabel’, M.;

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10328. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810328 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. 3D model of the test specimen.

The following methods and equipment were used in the experiment:

2.1. Topography Observation

2.2. Surface Roughness

Figure 6. Measured areas for surface roughness assessment.

The following surface roughness parameters

Figure 7. The basic coordinate system—spatial alignment method 3‐2‐1.

Figure 9. The number of points measured depending on the measurement location.

The production of 3D surfaces is growing in importance due to the expanding aero‐

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 29

Figure 14. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral strategy.

Figure 14. Detail of the investigated surface at 15 mm; spiral strategy.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 29

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Table 3. Radial depth of cut aee [μm] of 7.5mm.

Table 3. Radial depth of cut ae [µm] of 7.5mm.

Radial Depth of Cut ae [µm] of 7.5 mm

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Radial Depth of Cut ae [µm] of 15 mm

3.2. Roughness Evaluation

Figure 30. Comparisonof

Figure 32. Comparison

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 29

Table 7. Measured deviation values for Constant Z strategy.

CNC computer numerical control

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