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Delegation refers to the assignment of certain responsibilities along with the necessary authority
by superior to his/her subordinate managers. According to F.C Moore, “delegation means
assigning work to the others and giving them authority to do so”. However According to O.S
Minor, Delegation takes place when a person gives another the right to perform work on his
behalf and in his name and the second person accepts the responsibility, duty or obligation to do
what is required to do.

STAGES OF DELEGATION

There are four major stages of delegation which include; assignment of duties to subordinate,
transfer of authority, acceptance of assignment and creation of responsibility as explained below.
Assignment of Duties to Subordinate

Delegation begins with the assignment of specific tasks or duties to a subordinate. The manager
or leader identifies the responsibilities that can be entrusted to a team member based on their
skills, qualifications, and job role. This stage involves clear communication about the nature of
the tasks, desired outcomes, deadlines, and any relevant expectations. Effective delegation at this
stage involves matching the right task with the right individual, ensuring that they have the
necessary skills and resources to carry out the delegated duties successfully.

Transfer of Authority

After the assignment of duties, the next step in delegation is the transfer of authority. This
involves granting the subordinate the necessary decision-making power and autonomy to carry
out the assigned tasks. It's important to define the scope of authority, including the limits and
boundaries, so that the subordinate understands their level of empowerment. This stage ensures
that the individual has the freedom to make choices and take actions to achieve the desired
outcomes within the parameters set by the delegator.

Acceptance of Assignment

In this stage, the subordinate accepts the delegated responsibilities and acknowledges their
commitment to fulfill them. It is crucial for both parties to have a clear understanding of the
expectations, including the goals, standards, and timeframes. The subordinate should express
their willingness and ability to undertake the tasks, and any concerns or questions should be
addressed at this point. Effective communication and mutual agreement between the delegator
and the subordinate are key to the successful acceptance of the assignment.

Creation of Responsibility

Responsibility is the final stage of delegation, and it involves holding the subordinate
accountable for the delegated tasks. It includes monitoring progress, providing support and
guidance as needed, and evaluating the results. The subordinate is responsible for delivering the
expected outcomes, and the delegator plays a supervisory role to ensure that the assigned duties
are carried out effectively and efficiently. This stage also includes providing feedback,
recognition, and addressing any issues or challenges that may arise during the execution of the
tasks.

OBSTACLES OF DELEGATION

The obstacles of delegation include; fear of competition, lack of confidence in the subordinate,
lack of ability to direct, absence of controls to identify potential problems and desire to dominate
subordinate as explained bellow.

Fear of Competition

One obstacle to effective delegation is the fear of competition, where a manager may be hesitant
to delegate tasks that they excel in or are passionate about, out of concern that the subordinate
might perform better. This fear can stem from a desire to maintain control or to protect one's own
position within the organization. However, such reluctance to delegate can hinder an
organization's growth and limit opportunities for subordinates to develop their skills and
contribute to the team's success. Overcoming this obstacle requires recognizing that effective
delegation is not about competition but rather about leveraging the strengths of the entire team to
achieve collective goals.

Lack of Confidence in the Subordinate

When a manager lacks confidence in their subordinate's abilities, it can impede the delegation
process. This lack of trust can be due to past performance issues, inadequate training, or a lack of
understanding of the subordinate's capabilities. To overcome this obstacle, it's essential to invest
in the subordinate's development through training, clear communication, and providing
opportunities for them to demonstrate their skills and competencies. Building trust through a
gradual increase in delegated responsibilities can help the manager gain confidence in the
subordinate's abilities over time.

Lack of Ability to Direct

Effective delegation involves providing clear guidance, expectations, and support to the
subordinate. If a manager lacks the skills or ability to direct and mentor their team effectively, it
can hinder the delegation process. To address this obstacle, the manager may need to improve
their own leadership and communication skills, seek guidance from mentors or superiors, or
consider delegating to subordinates who are more capable of providing direction and support to
others.

Absence of Controls to Identify Potential Problems

Without appropriate controls and monitoring systems in place, delegation can lead to potential
problems going unnoticed until they escalate. This obstacle arises when managers do not
establish mechanisms for tracking progress, identifying issues, and providing feedback to the
subordinate. To address this, it's crucial to implement clear performance metrics, regular check-
ins, and reporting procedures to ensure that any problems are detected early and can be addressed
promptly.

Desire to Dominate Subordinate

Some managers may struggle with delegating due to a desire to maintain control and dominance
over their subordinates. This can result from a need for power or a fear of losing authority.
However, such a desire can stifle team members' growth and create a hostile work environment.
Overcoming this obstacle requires recognizing that effective leadership involves empowering
and developing subordinates. Shifting the focus from control to collaboration and mentoring can
help break this domination mindset and foster a more productive and positive work environment.

REASONS WHY SUBORDINATES RESIST DELEGATION

These reasons include; fear of criticism, lack of information about the assignment, lack of self-
confidence, difficulty in decision making and fear of being expose (inferiority complex) as
explained below.

Fear of Criticism

Subordinates may resist delegation due to a fear of criticism, as they worry that they might make
mistakes or not meet the expectations of their superiors. This fear can stem from a concern that
any errors in their work will lead to negative feedback, reprimands, or damage to their
reputation. To address this, managers should create a supportive environment that encourages
learning from mistakes, provide constructive feedback, and assure subordinates that they will
receive guidance and coaching rather than harsh criticism.
Lack of Information about the Assignment

Subordinates may resist delegation when they do not have sufficient information about the
delegated task. Without a clear understanding of the assignment's requirements, objectives, and
expected outcomes, they may feel overwhelmed or anxious. To mitigate this, managers should
ensure that they provide comprehensive briefings and share all relevant details with their
subordinates. Open communication and the opportunity to ask questions can help subordinates
feel more comfortable with the delegated task.

Lack of Self-Confidence

Some subordinates may lack self-confidence in their abilities, which can make them hesitant to
accept delegated responsibilities. They may doubt their skills and worry about their capacity to
perform the task effectively. Managers can address this resistance by offering training and
development opportunities to build confidence, offering ongoing support, and recognizing and
appreciating the subordinates' achievements.

Difficulty in Decision-Making

Subordinates might resist delegation when they are unsure about their decision-making
capabilities, particularly in situations where they need to exercise judgment and make choices.
Managers can alleviate this resistance by providing guidance on decision-making processes,
offering a framework for problem-solving, and gradually increasing the complexity of delegated
tasks as the subordinate's confidence and decision-making skills grow.

Fear of Being Exposed (Inferiority Complex)

Subordinates who have an inferiority complex may fear that delegation will expose their
perceived weaknesses or inadequacies, leading to feelings of vulnerability. Managers can help
subordinates overcome this fear by emphasizing their trust and confidence in the subordinate's
abilities, highlighting their strengths, and providing support and mentorship to help them grow
and develop. Creating a positive and encouraging work environment can also help subordinates
feel valued and less threatened by delegation.
PRINCIPALS OF EFFECTIVE DELEGATION

Principals of effective delegation include; knowledge of objectives, unity of command, clarity of

delegation, absoluteness of responsibility and reword for effective delegation as explained
below;

Knowledge of Objectives

Effective delegation starts with a clear understanding of the objectives and goals that need to be
achieved. Before delegating tasks, the delegator must have a comprehensive grasp of what needs
to be accomplished, the expected outcomes, and the relevance of the delegated duties to the
overall mission of the organization. This knowledge enables the delegator to communicate the
purpose and importance of the tasks to the subordinate, ensuring alignment and clarity in the
delegation process, which ultimately contributes to the success of the delegated tasks.

Unity of Command

The principle of unity of command emphasizes that each individual should receive instructions
and directives from a single supervisor to avoid confusion and conflicting priorities. Delegation
should follow this principle to maintain a clear chain of command. For example, an employee
should ideally report to only one manager to ensure consistency in their assignments and to
prevent conflicting demands that can hinder productivity and create ambiguity.

Clarity of Delegation

Clarity in delegation involves providing detailed and explicit instructions regarding the assigned
tasks, including expectations, deadlines, resources, and any relevant constraints. The subordinate
should have a clear understanding of what is expected, which helps prevent misinterpretations
and misunderstandings. Clear delegation ensures that the subordinate can perform the tasks
efficiently and align them with the organization's objectives.

Absoluteness of Responsibility

The principle of absoluteness of responsibility means that once a task is delegated, the
subordinate becomes fully responsible for its completion. This responsibility includes both the
authority to make necessary decisions within the scope of the task and being held accountable for
the outcomes. It's crucial for the delegator not to interfere excessively or take back control once
the delegation has occurred. This principle ensures that subordinates are empowered to execute
their tasks and take ownership of their responsibilities.

Reward for Effective Delegation

Effective delegation should be recognized and rewarded to incentivize and encourage the
practice. Managers and leaders who delegate successfully, empowering their teams to achieve
goals, should be acknowledged for their leadership skills. This recognition fosters a culture of
delegation within the organization, motivating others to delegate more effectively and promoting
collaboration and growth. Rewards can come in various forms, such as career advancement
opportunities, performance bonuses, or public acknowledgment of successful delegation efforts.

DECISION MAKING IN MANAGEMENT

Types of decision-making

Types of decision-making include; programed and non-programmed, major and minor decisions,
routine and strategic decisions, organizational and personal decisions, individual and group
decisions and operational decisions, long long-term departmental and non-economic decisions as
discussed below.

Programmed and Non-Programmed Decision-Making

Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive, often following established rules and
procedures. An example of programmed decision-making is a customer service representative
following a script to handle common customer inquiries. Non-programmed decisions, on the
other hand, are unique and require creativity and problem-solving. For instance, a marketing
manager making decisions about entering a new, uncharted market would involve non-
programmed decision-making, as it requires analyzing new and unpredictable variables.

Major and Minor Decision-Making

Major decisions have significant impacts on the organization, such as setting the annual budget,
while minor decisions are less significant and concern day-to-day operations, like ordering office
supplies. A major decision could involve a CEO deciding to merge with another company, while
a minor decision could be made by a team leader determining the schedule for the next team
meeting.

Routine and Strategic Decision-Making

Routine decisions relate to daily operational matters and follow established processes. An
example of routine decision-making is a project manager assigning tasks to team members based
on their skills and workload. Strategic decisions, on the other hand, focus on the long-term
direction of the organization, like deciding to diversify a company's product line to enter new
markets or industries.

Organizational and Personal Decision-Making

Organizational decisions impact the entire company, while personal decisions affect an
individual's work or role. For instance, an organizational decision might involve a department
head choosing to restructure the team to improve efficiency, while a personal decision could be a
team member deciding how to organize their work tasks for the day.

Individual and Group Decision-Making

Individual decision-making involves a single person making choices without input from others.
An example could be an IT specialist deciding how to troubleshoot a technical issue. In contrast,
group decision-making involves multiple individuals collaborating to reach a consensus. For
instance, a product development team may collectively decide on the features and design of a
new product to meet market demands.

Operational Decision-Making

Operational decisions revolve around daily activities and tasks necessary for the organization's
smooth functioning. An example is a manager deciding on the work shifts for customer service
representatives to ensure adequate coverage during business hours.

Long-Term, Departmental, and Non-Economic Decision-Making

Long-term decision-making pertains to planning and strategies for the future. For instance, a
company's CEO deciding to invest in research and development to remain competitive in the
market is a long-term decision. Departmental decision-making focuses on specific functional
areas within an organization, such as HR or marketing. An HR manager deciding to revamp the
company's performance appraisal system is an example of departmental decision-making. Non-
economic decisions encompass choices that extend beyond financial considerations and involve
ethical or social aspects. An example would be a company deciding to implement
environmentally friendly practices and reduce its carbon footprint, reflecting non-economic
decision-making driven by corporate social responsibility concerns.

TECHNIQUES OF DECISION MAKING

Decision-Making Type Modern Techniques Traditional Techniques

Programmed and Non- Modern techniques include Traditional techniques
Programmed the use of advanced data involve relying on
analytics, machine learning experience, intuition, and
algorithms, and artificial historical data without the use
intelligence to analyze large of advanced technology.
volumes of data and make
data-driven decisions.
Major Decisions For major decisions, modern Traditional techniques for
techniques include decision major decisions involve
support systems, scenario relying on expert opinions,
planning, and advanced formal committees, and in-
modeling to assess potential depth feasibility studies.
outcomes.
Routine and Strategic Modern techniques for Traditional techniques for
Decisions routine decisions involve routine decisions include
workflow automation, following standard operating
software solutions, and procedures, checklists, and
standardized processes. manual tracking systems.
Organizational and Personal Modern techniques for Traditional techniques for
Decisions organizational decisions organizational decisions
include consensus-building involve top-down command
tools, organizational decision- structures and hierarchical
making software, and decision-making processes.
strategic planning software. Personal decisions are
typically left to individual
discretion.
Individual and Group Modern techniques for group Traditional techniques for
Decisions decisions involve group decisions often involve
collaboration software, online face-to-face meetings,
voting platforms, and virtual brainstorming sessions, and
team meetings. group discussions without
digital tools.
References

Moore, F. C. (1903). Fire Insurance and how to Build: Combining Also a Guide to Insurance
Agents Respecting Fire Prevention and Extinction, Special Features of Manufacturing Risks,
Writing of Policies, Adjustment of Losses, Etc., Etc. Baker & Taylor Company.

O.S. Miner (2023). Understand the Concept of Delegation: Sorting Hat Technologies Pvt Ltd.
https://unacademy.com/content/cbse-class-12/study-material/business-studies/understand-the
concept-of-delegation

Akrani. G. (2010). Delegation of Authority Principles and Importance of Delegation. © Kalyan

City Life Blog. https://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2010/07/delegation-of-authority-principles-
and.html