Traffic Engineering-I (UG) - Class Note

3/28/2022
Traffic Engineering-I Prof. Bhargab Maitra

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
India
IIT Kharagpur | Traffic Engineering-I|
Contents
• Components of traffic system
• Traffic Stream Characteristics
 Uninterrupted Flow Facilities
 Interrupted Flow Facilities
• Macroscopic and Microscopic parameters

• Fundamental Relationships of Traffic Flow
• Passenger Car Equivalency/Unit
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Introduction
Traffic Engineering
• A branch of civil engineering which deals with safe
and efficient movements of people and goods
along roadways in a multi-modal system
The most common unit used by a traffic engineer

is ‘vehicles’: Transportation systems are planned,
designed and operated to move vehicles safely
and efficiently from place to place
But, the main goal is the movement of people and

goods that occupy vehicles
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Introduction
• Traffic engineering is used for designing public and
private sector transportation solutions duly
considering all elements such as traffic flow, road
geometry, sidewalks, bicycle facilities, shared lane
markings, traffic signs, traffic lights, etc.
Providing safety and efficiency became a complex

job for a traffic engineer in multimodal system
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Introduction
Person Movement
• In the context of traffic engineering, the focus is on person movements

on streets and highways (excluding rail, air, water transportation, etc.)
• Within and between urban agglomerations people normally move in a

mix of vehicles:
 Private Vehicles  Bus  Paratransit  Bicycle
• Varied level of heterogeneity in vehicular stream

prevails in developing countries
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Introduction
Goods Movement
• The efficient movement of goods is vital to the general economy of the

nation
• Timely delivery of raw material and finished products can be achieved

through a well managed freight transport system
• Long-distance shipment of goods/raw materials is

often accomplished by water, rail, or air transportation:
The final leg of the trip to deliver a good to the local
store or the home of a consumer takes place on a truck
using the road systems
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Components of Traffic Stream
Road Users Vehicles Roadways Control Devices
• Uncontrollable factors- Road Users and Vehicles

• Controllable factors- Roadways and Control Devices
General Environment: Weather, lighting, density of
development, local enforcement policies etc. influence
traffic operations
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Dealing with Diversity
• Traffic engineering would have been much simpler if different components
(e.g. road users, vehicles etc.) had uniform characteristics
If reactions of all the drivers to traffic control devices are similar, then
design of traffic control will become easier
Safety could be easily achieved if all vehicles have

uniform characteristics (In terms of size,
acceleration, speed etc.)
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• Due to non-uniformity in components of traffic engineering, simple
issues like reaction time, vision characteristics, walking speed, etc.
become complex
• Most human characteristics follow normal distribution which is

characterized by a strong central tendency
• Because of this variation, it is not desirable to design

a traffic system using average values
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If average value of pedestrian speed is used for design a pedestrian
crossing, then half of the pedestrians (50%) won’t be able to cross
due to lower speed than the average speed and may get exposed to
additional risks on roads
• Percentile values may be a better option than average

values for design purposes
15th percentile walking speed indicates only 15

percent pedestrians walk slower than this
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Addressing Diversity through Uniformity
• Although traffic engineers have less control over driver and vehicle
characteristics, a strong degree of uniformity of approach is desirable for
the design of roadways and traffic control
• Roadways of similar type and function should have a

familiar look to drivers and traffic control devices
should be as uniform as possible
• While this uniformity approach does not guarantee

similar reactions of drivers, this at least narrows the
range of behavior
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Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• Human elements separate traffic engineering from most other engineering
disciplines: Drivers, passengers, pedestrians, bicyclists are integral part
of traffic engineering
• Several critical characteristics of road users are quantifiable and can be

taken into account in traffic engineering decisions:
Visual Acuity (Static & Dynamic) and Fields of Vision
Perception and Reaction time

Hearing, Personality and Psychological Factors
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Visual Acuity
• Static visual acuity: Ability to see small stationary details clearly
• Dynamic visual acuity: Ability to see objects that are in motion relative to
the eye
• A person with normal vision is said to have 6/6 vision
• Normal vision is defined as the ability of a person to
recognize a letter or an object (size about 8.5 mm)
from a distance of nearly 6.0 m
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• Visual
acuity measurement (static) is necessary while issuing or giving
renewal of driving license (by performing a standard eye test)
• Static visual acuity test is just a prerequisite for good vision characteristics:
Can-not guarantee that the person who is having good static visual acuity
will also have a good dynamic visual acuity
• Knowledge of visual acuity of drivers is important

while designing road signs
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Peripheral Vision (120o to 180o)
Fields of Vision
• Includes acute or clear vision cone, fairly
clear vision cone and peripheral vision Fairly Clear (10o to
12o)
cone
Acute or Clear Vision Cone Acute Vision cone (3o to 10o)
3° to 10° around the line of sight
Legend can be read only within this

narrow field of vision
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Peripheral Vision (120o to 180o)
Fairly Clear Vision Cone
10° to 12° around the line of sight
Color and shape can be recognized in Fairly Clear (10o to

12o)
this field
Acute Vision cone (3o to 10o)
Peripheral Vision
May extend up to 90° to the right and

left of the centerline of the pupil, and
up to 60° above and 70° below the line
of sight

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Stationary objects are generally not seen in the peripheral vision field,
but the movement of objects through this field is detected
• Information on field of vision is important while deciding the placement of

road signs
• Shape and color of road signs needs to be uniform

considering field of vision
For example, signs should be placed within 10

degree cone of vision of drivers so that drivers do
not require to change the line of sight while driving


• However, these field of visions are defined for
stationary person
• Peripheral vision narrows as speed increases

such as from 100 degree to 40 degree while
speed changes from 32 km/h to 64 km/h 32 km/h 64 km/h
• Objects placed in the periphery vision range can draw

the attention of the drivers and appropriate action can
be taken

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For example, appropriate action can be taken when child running onto
the street after a ball or vehicles approaching to the intersections, if
these incidents happen within the clear periphery vision of the driver


Perception-Reaction Process
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Detection or Perception
In this phase, an object or condition of concern enters the driver’s field
of vision, and the driver becomes consciously aware that something
requiring a response is present
Identification or Intellection
In this phase, the driver acquires sufficient
information concerning the object or condition to
allow the consideration of an appropriate
response
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Decision or Emotion
 Once identification of the object or condition is sufficiently completed,
the driver must analyze the information and make a decision about
how to respond
Response or Volition
After a decision has been reached, the response

is now physically implemented by the driver
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• Perception-reaction time (PRT) is helpful in deciding braking distance,
overtaking distance etc. and also in amber time determination
• PRT depends on the characteristics of the driver, type and complexity of

the event to be responded by the driver
• AASTHO recommends different values of PRTs in

different situations
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Situation Recommended PRT
Normal stop at a signal control 1.0s
Normal stop on a highway 2.5s
Avoidance maneuver: Stop on a highway 3.0s
Avoidance maneuver: Stop on an Urban Road 9.1s
Avoidance maneuver: Speed/path/direction 10.2-11.2 s

change on rural road
Avoidance maneuver: Speed/path/direction 12.1-12.9s
change on sub-urban road
Avoidance maneuver: Speed/path/direction 14.0-14.5s
change on urban road
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Psychological and Physical Factors
• “Road rage” is the extreme expression of a driver’s psychological and
personal displeasure (aggressiveness) over the traffic situation he or she
has encountered
• It does, however, remind traffic engineers that drivers

display a wide range of behaviors in accordance with
their own personalities and psychological
characteristics
• Most of these factors cannot be addressed directly

through design or control decisions
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• Rather those factors can be best treated through vigorous enforcement
and educational programs
Pedestrian Characteristics
• Traffic engineering is not limited to consideration of motorists and their
vehicles but it must also consider other users of transportation system
like pedestrians:
Pedestrian Crossing and Sideways
Pedestrian Signals wherever necessary
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• Pedestrians walking speed at cross
walks is an important factor to be
considered in signal timing design
• Gap acceptance behavior of

pedestrians is important in crosswalks
involving unsignalized intersections
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Components of Traffic Stream: Vehicles

• As transportation systems accommodate a wide variety of sizes and
types of vehicles, traffic engineers must address this issue by adopting
standard vehicle characteristics for design and control purposes
Design Vehicles
Vehicle Characteristics
Physical Characteristics (Weight, Dimensions)
Operating Characteristics (Braking, Acceleration )
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• Design vehicles are used to determine a variety of geometric features of
highway such as lane width, extra widening on curves, minimum corner
radius, clearance height, etc.
Acceleration Characteristics
• Heavier vehicles have lower rates of acceleration

than passenger cars
• Difference in acceleration capability of different types

of vehicles is a major cause of inefficiency in mixed
traffic streams
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Braking Characteristics
• In highway safety and design, the most critical performance

characteristic of vehicles is braking or deceleration
• Time and distance required to stop a vehicle is a

primary consideration in almost every aspects of
traffic system design and operation
Design Driver
• A driver, albeit fictitious, who has the characteristics

chosen by a designer is called design driver
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•A designer must choose those characteristics in a way which make
design safe for most of the drivers
• General Characteristics of Design Driver:

Perception-reaction time is 2.5 seconds
Comfortable deceleration rate of 3m/s2
Allowable jerk of about 0.7m/s3
 6/7.5 visual acuity
Critical gap value between 4 and 7.5 seconds
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Components of Traffic Stream: Roadways

Functional Classification
• Highway/road facilities are classified by the relative amounts of through
traffic movement and land access service they provide
• Vehicleoperations are greatly influenced by geometric features of

roadways-
Cross Section Elements (Lane & Shoulder Width)
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
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Classification of Urban Roads
(IRC:69-1977)
Expressways
Arterial Roads Local Streets
Sub-arterial Roads
Collectors
Collector Streets
Local Streets


Expressways
• Provides 100 % through movement or mobility

with no accessibility to abutting lane is
permitted
Arterials
Expressways
• Primarily
designed for through movement but
some accessibility is permitted
Sub-Arterials
• Lower level of mobility than arterial roads
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Collector Streets
• An intermediate facility between arterials and local roads

Local Streets
• Primarily designed for access to abutting lands with minor mobility function
Arterial Roads Collector Street Local Street
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• Classification of Rural Roads (IRC:73-1980)
 National Highways  State Highways  Major District Roads
 Other District Roads  Village Roads
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Components of Traffic Stream: Traffic Control Devices

• Communication of traffic laws and regulations to drivers by means of
control device
 Road Markings
 Traffic Signs
 Road Delineators
 Traffic Signals
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• Control devices are the only measures of transmitting operational rules to
drivers: Must be clear, easily interpreted and commanding of attention
• Regulatory aspects of traffic control must be enforced
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Road Markings
• Made of lines, words, symbols or reflectors and
are intended to regulate, control, warn or guide
road users
• Code: IRC:35-2015
• Provided to ensure smooth
and orderly flow of traffic
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• To signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic
hazards for safe movement of traffic
Classification
Longitudinal Marking (LM) Arrow Marking (AM)

Transverse Marking (TM) Directional Marking (DM)
Hazard Marking (HM) Facility Marking (FM)
Block Marking (BM)
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Color
White: Widely used because of good visibility and good contrast
Yellow: Used in longitudinal marking where it is not permitted to cross

the marking and also in parking restriction areas
Blue: Used to indicate dedicated bus lanes and

other special markings which is not conventional
Green: Used to give priority to cyclists and

pedestrians to cross the road near intersection
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Red/Purple: Used in hazardous locations where different road users
sharing the road
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Traffic Control Devices: Traffic Signs

• Traffic signs are devices to promote road safety
and efficiency by providing for the orderly
movement of all road users on roads
• Code: IRC:67-2012
• Mainly divided into three categories-
Regulatory Signs
Warning Signs
Informatory Signs
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Regulatory Signs
• Inform the road users about certain laws, regulations and prohibitions
• Enhance road safety and efficiency
• Violation is a legal offense
• Usually, circular in shape
• Exceptions are octagonal red ‘STOP’ sign and
triangular ‘GIVEWAY’ or ‘YIELD’ sign
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Classification
Stop Sign: Octagonal, red background

with white border, the word “STOP” in
white
Stop Sign Give-Way Sign
Give Way Sign: Equilateral triangle with
apex downward, red border and white
background. “GIVE WAY” in black color
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 Prohibitory Signs: Circular shape with a red border, white background
and black symbol
Straight Prohibited or No Entry One-Way Signs
Pedestrian
Vehicles Prohibited Horn Prohibited Cycle Prohibited Prohibited
in both Directions
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 No Parking and No Stopping Signs: Circular shape with a red border,
blue background and oblique red bar at 45° angle
o A definition plate is placed below the sign to
indicate the required details about the
prohibition
Days of the week No Parking No Stopping or Standing
Hours of the day
Distance
Exception (if any)
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 Speed Limit and Vehicle Control Signs: Circular with red border and
bearing black symbol and numeral on white background
Speed Limit Width Limit Height Limit
Length Limit Load Limit Axle Load Limit
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 Restriction End signs: Circular with white background and diagonal
band of black color at 45° angle sloping downward from right to left
 Compulsory Direction Control Signs: Circular in

shape with blue background and white border and
symbols in white
Turn Left Ahead or Turn Left/Right Sound horn

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Warning Signs
• Warn the road users about hazardous conditions exists on the roads
• Equilateral triangle with apex pointing upward, red border and black
symbols on white background
• Distance from the point of hazard as per IRC
Right/Left Hand Curve Right/Left Hair Pin Bend
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Non-Urban Locations
Plain/Rolling Hilly Terrain

Terrain
NH & SH 360 m 90 m
MDR 230 m 60 m
ODR 155 m 33 m
VR 90 m 23 m
Urban Locations
 Located at about 50m from the point of hazard
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Different Warning Signs
Cycle Crossing School Pedestrian Crossing Men at Work Side Road Left/Right
Y-Intersection Start of Dual Staggered Intersection Cross Road

Carriageway
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Informatory Signs
• Guide the road users along their
routes, and inform them about the
destinations Place Identification
Advance Direction/
Destination Sign Sign
Classification
 Direction and place

identification: Rectangular,
green background white letters
and arrows, white border Direction Sign
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 Facility information Signs: Rectangular, blue background, black
symbol in white square
Public Telephone Filling Station Hospital
Light Refreshment First Aid Post Eating Place
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Parking Signs: Blue background with the letter ‘P’ in white color;
Additional plate below sign to show direction/ category of vehicles for
parking
Parking This Side Parking Both Sides Scooter & Motor

Cycle Stand
Taxi Stand Auto-Rickshaw Stand Cycle Stand
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Traffic Control Devices: Delineators

• Device/treatment whose aim is to outline the roadway or a portion thereof
• To provide visual assistance to drivers about alignment of road ahead-
Especially at night
Locations with changes in road geometry

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Traffic Control Devices: Delineators

At bad weather conditions like rain, fog or snow
• Reflectors on delineator: Better night time visibility

• Delineators are driving aids – NOT a substitute for warning signs, road
markings

Traffic Control Devices: Signals

Traffic Signals
•A large number of crossing and
right turn conflicts can occur at
intersections as the same space
is shared at the same time by all
type of road users from all
directions
• To regulate these movements,

traffic signals are placed
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• Traffic signals mainly are of three types
Traffic Control Signals
Pedestrian Signals
Special Traffic Signals
Traffic Control Signals
• Different type of traffic signals are used- Manually

operated, fixed time automatic and automatic traffic
actuated signals
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Pedestrian Signals
• Pedestrians signals are installed at intersections to enable the pedestrians to

cross the intersections safely
• Normally, pedestrian signals timings are interlinked with traffic signals

• At certain mid-block locations where the pedestrians crossing demand is
very high, pedestrian signals are placed
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Special Traffic Signals
• ‘Flashing beacons’ are called as Special Traffic Signals

• As for example, at flashing red signals, the drivers shall stop before entering
the nearest crosswalk
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Traffic Stream
• Individualdrivers and vehicles interact in unique
ways with each other and with elements of roadway
environment in a traffic stream
• Because both drivers and vehicles are of different
characteristics, dealing with traffic stream involves
an element of variability
• Traffic engineers analyze, evaluate and plan
improvements of traffic facilities considering this
variability
Gap acceptance behavior of drivers in an
unsignalized intersections
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Traffic Facilities
Uninterrupted Flow Facilities
• No external interruptions to traffic stream: Traffic signals, ‘STOP’ or
‘YIELD’ signs, uncontrolled access, etc.
Expressway Mid-Block section of highway
• Stream characteristics depend on internal factors:

Individual vehicles, geometric and general
environment of the roadway
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Traffic Facilities
Interrupted Flow Facilities
• Traffic flow is periodically interrupted by external devices like traffic
signals, ‘STOP’ or ‘YIELD’ signs
Signalized Intersection Urban Streets Toll Plaza
• Due to stopping and starting phenomenon,

interrupted traffic facility is more complex than the
uninterrupted one
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Traffic Stream Parameters

• Traffic stream parameters: Macroscopic and Microscopic
• Macroscopic traffic parameters describe traffic stream as a whole
Examples: Speed, Traffic Volume/Flow, Density
• Microscopic parameters concerns with the individual characteristics of

vehicles or vehicle pairs
Examples: Speed/acceleration of individual

vehicles, Headway, Spacing
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Macroscopic Speed
• Average Speed: Time Mean Speed and Space Mean Speed
Time Mean Speed (TMS): Average speed at one point/location over
a period of time and mathematically expressed as the arithmetic
mean of the speeds observed at a point
Space Mean Speed (SMS): Average speed of vehicles occupying a
certain road length over a period of time and mathematically
expressed as the harmonic mean of speeds observed at a point
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Macroscopic Speed
Example 1: Twenty five spot speed observations were made:
(i) Calculate time mean speed, (ii) Space mean speed
50 40 60 54 45 31 72 58 43 52 46 56 43 65 33 69 34 51 47 41 62 43 55 40 49
∑ 𝑽𝒊 𝟓𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟒 𝟑𝟏 ⋯………. 𝟔𝟐 𝟒𝟑 𝟓𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟗
i) 𝑽𝒕 = = = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟔
𝒏 𝟐𝟓
𝒏 𝟐𝟓
ii) 𝑽𝒔 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝟔
∑ ( ⋯………… )
𝑽𝒊 𝟓𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟗
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Traffic Volumes
• Volume/flow: Number of vehicles passing a particular point of roadway
during unit time and is expressed as vehicles/hr. or vehicles/day
• While daily traffic volume is used for general planning purposes, hourly
volume (peak period) is required for detailed design and control purposes
• Rate of flow: Generally stated in units of vehicles per

hour
Usually measured for less than one hour but

expressed as equivalent hourly flow rate
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Traffic Volumes
• Volume/flow: Number of vehicles passing a particular point of roadway
during unit time and is expressed as vehicles/hr. or vehicles/day
• While daily traffic volume is used for general planning purposes, hourly
volume (peak period) is required for detailed design and control purposes
• Rate of flow: Generally stated in units of vehicles per

hour
Usually measured for less than one hour but
expressed as equivalent hourly flow rate
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Traffic Volumes
Daily Volumes
• Forecast daily volumes can be used to plan new facilities or to improve
existing facilities
• May be expressed in different ways

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
Average 24 hour volume at a particular location
over 365 days
Annual Average Weekday Traffic (AAWT)
Average 24 hour volume observed during
weekdays in a year
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Traffic Volumes
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Average 24 hour traffic volume at a particular location over a defined
time period of less than one year
Average Weekday Traffic (AWT)
Average 24 hour weekday traffic volume at a particular location over a
defined time period of less than one year
• Usually, daily volumes are not counted per lane or

direction wise rather counted as total volume for any
traffic facility
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
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Traffic Volumes
Hourly Volumes Evening Peak
Traffic Volume (PCU/hr.)
• Important because of morning and evening

Morning Peak
rush of traffic (Demand may exceed capacity)

• Highest hourly volume is called as the peak
hour traffic volume which usually occurs
either in morning or evening rush hours Time (Hr.)
• Peak hour traffic is expressed as directional

volume: Direction of travel is opposite in
morning and evening
• Both sides of a facility must be designed to
accommodate peak directional traffic flow
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Traffic Volumes
• In design, usually AADTis used to calculate
peak hourly volume: AADT is more stable than
hourly volumes
Hourly flow
• Directionaldesign hourly volume (DDHV) is
used for design D=Directional factor
K=Proportion of daily
𝑫𝑫𝑯𝑽 = 𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻 × 𝑫 × 𝑲
traffic during peak
30th
• For design purposes, K represents the
Rank of an hour
proportion of AADT occurring during the 30th

peak hour of the year
30th peak hourly volume represents hourly
traffic that will exceed only 29 times in a year
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
Engineering-I| 73
Traffic Volumes
The design volume corresponding to such
a design hour is generally between 8 % to
10 % of AADT
Traffic flow
Sub Hourly Volumes

• Generally, peak hourly volume is used for
most of the design and analysis of traffic Minutes of an hour
facilities but sometimes volume within the

peak hour also becomes important
Traffic facilities may be adequate for the
peak hour but it may not be adequate in
shorter interval because volume within the
peak hour varies widely
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Traffic Volumes
• Design should be based on a period of (say 5minute, 15 minutes) maximum
rate of flow observed within peak hour
For most of the practical cases 15 minute period is used because flow
during this period is considered to be stable
• The relationship between hourly volume and maximum rate of flow within
the peak hour is defined by peak hour factor (PHF)
𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝑷𝑯𝑭 =
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
• Theoretical range of PHF (0.25-1.00)

 Lowest value is when entire hourly volume
occurs in a single 15 minute interval
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
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Traffic Volumes
 Maximum when there is no variation in the flow within the hour
• Practical range of PHF ( 0.70-0.98)
Example-1: Calculate PHF from the following data of an intersection
survey
Time interval 04:00- 04:15- 04:30- 04:45- 05:00- 05:15- 05:30-
04:15 04:30 04:45 05:00 05:15 05:30 05:45
Vehicles 430 446 519 398 513 481 411

Solution:
Volume counts:- 04:00-05:00=1793, 04:15:05:15=1876
04:30:05:30=1911, 04:45-05:45=1803
Maximum 15minute volume= 519
PHF= 1911/(4×519)=0.92
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Kharagpur | Traffic
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Time Headways
• It is considered to be a microscopic flow parameter
and is defined as the elapsed time between the
arrival of pair of vehicles
Distance
(h)1-2= t2-t1; (h)2-3=t3-t2
Time headway= occupancy time for the physical t1 t2 t3
vehicle to pass the observation point and the
time gap between rear end of lead vehicle and Time
front end of following vehicle

• It affects safety, level of service, driver behavior, and
capacity of a transportation system
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
Engineering-I| 77
Density
• Number of vehicle occupying a unit length of roadway at a given instant
and usually expressed as vehicles per km
• Direct
measure of traffic demand but needs higher vintage point to
measure it in the field
• Can be computed using equation,
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
• Measures the proximity between the vehicles which

influences maneuverability and psychological
comfort of drivers: Directly related to quality of traffic
flow
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Spacing/Distance Headway
• Distance between front bumpers of successive vehicles is called spacing
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑺= Where, S= Spacing in m, K=Density (veh/km)
𝑲
Relationship between Time Headway (h) and Spacing (s)

Where, Q= Rate of flow (veh/hr.)
𝑸 𝑸∗𝑺
𝐕𝐬 = = 𝑺=
𝒉 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝐕𝐬 Vs= Speed of traffic stream (km/hr.)
𝑲 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 h= Time headway in sec
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
Engineering-I| 79
Speed-Flow-Density Relationships
Development of Q-K-V Relationship Kth vehicle Flow Q veh/h
Speed V km/h
• Let, Q= Rate of flow (veh/h), K= Density (veh/km)

and V= Space mean speed (km/h)
1 km
• Now, consider one kilometer road on which all K vehicles
vehicles are traveling at same speed V km/h
• As density of the stretch is K veh/km, by

definition, there are K vehicles each with speed
V km/h in 1 km road stretch at any instant
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• If flow is recorded at the end of one km road, Q vehicles will pass per
hour
• A vehicle at the start of kilometer (Kth vehicle) will take 1/ V hour to reach
the end; again, Kth vehicle will reach end of one kilometer after K/Q hr.
𝟏 𝑲
= ⇒ 𝑸 = 𝑲×𝑽 Fundamental relationship of traffic flow
𝑽 𝑸
• Under stable flow conditions (without queue), rate of

flow estimated from this equation applies to at any
point within the defined section
IITIIT Kharagpur
Kharagpur | Traffic
Engineering-I| 81
• Under unstable flow conditions (when queue formed), rate of flow
computed from this equation represents average of all points within the
section
• This relationship is often used to estimate density as density is difficult

to measure in the field
• It suggests different K-V combinations can give the

same Q value
 Restricted by additional relationships which
exists between the pairs of variables
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• Three portions of the graphs: Left and right Stable Unstable Stable
Unstable
portion to the dashed line, middle point
Flow (Q)
Flow (Q)
• In K-Q curve, left portion represents stable flow
conditions: Demand has not exceeded the
capacity
• In K-Q curve, right portion represents unstable Density (K) Speed (V)
flow conditions: Flow within queue conditions
Generally queue occurs behind a
breakdown point (Where arrival flow rate
exceeds the downstream capacity)
• The opposite is true for V-Q curves
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• Middle point: Operation at capacity which is Stable
Flow (Q)
Speed (V)
Stable Unstable
also considered to be unstable
Any perturbation at this stage will
Unstable
propagate upstream and will not dissipate
until sufficient gaps has been created
between vehicles Density (K) Speed (V)
Zero flow
• The characteristics of the curves varies greatly
depending on local prevailing conditions
(Given graphs are generic graphs)
• Two situations where flow became zero as
evident from Speed-flow Curve
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When there are too many vehicles on the road so that motion of
vehicles are stopped / vehicles are not able to pass a specific point on
the road: Jam density
When there are no vehicle or very few vehicles running on roads, then
also there are almost zero vehicles passing on the specified point
• Although speed-density relation directly describes the

behavior of drivers, most often speed flow curve is
used as density is difficult to measure
IIT
IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
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Mathematical Models of Traffic Flow

Green shield's model (1935)
Vf
• Linear relationship between speed and density
Speed (Vs)
𝑽
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝒇 − ( 𝒇) × 𝑲 (1)
𝑲𝒋 Vm
Where, Vs= Speed of traffic stream Vf= Free-flow speed
of traffic stream, Kj=Jam density Vm= Speed at maximum V0
Km Kj
flow (optimum speed) , Km= Density at maximum flow Density (K)
(optimum density)
Boundary Conditions
• Vs ⇨ Vf When K⇨0 ; and Vs ⇨ 0 when K⇨ Kj
• At qmax, Vs⇨ Vm and K⇨ Km
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• Flow-density and speed-flow relationship is parabolic in nature if we
assume linear speed-density relationship
𝑸 𝑸
Putting 𝑽𝒔 = in equation 1 and 𝐊 = equation 1
𝑲 𝑽𝒔
𝑽𝒇 𝟐 𝒌𝒋 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑽𝒇𝒌 − 𝒌 (2) 𝑸 = 𝑽𝒔𝒌𝒋 − 𝑽 (3)
𝒌𝒋 𝑽𝒇 𝒔
Speed (Vs)
Qm
Flow (Q)
Vm
Km Density (K) Qm Flow (Q)
IIT
IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
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• At low density, flow approaches to zero and speed approaches free-flow
speed
• As flow increases, density increases and speed decreases
• At maximum flow condition, optimal density and optimal speed is
achieved
Speed (Vs)
Speed (Vs)
Flow (Q)
Optimum Point
Qm Vm Vm
Km Density (K) Km Density (K) Flow (Q) Qm
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IITKharagpur
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• Estimation of optimal density, optimal speed and maximum flow
𝒅𝑸 𝑲 𝑲𝒋
Differentiating equation (2) w.r.t K ; = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝟐𝑽𝒇 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑲𝒎 =
𝒅𝑲 𝑲𝒋 𝟐
𝒅𝑸 𝑽 𝑽𝒇
Differentiating equation (3) w.r.t Vs; 𝒅𝑽
= 𝑲𝒋 − 𝟐𝑲𝒋
𝑽𝒇
= 𝟎 ⇒ V𝒎 =
𝟐
Maximum flow, 𝑸𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎𝑲𝒎 = 𝑽𝒇𝑲𝒋/𝟒
Where, Vm= Speed at maximum flow (Optimal speed)
Km= Density at maximum flow (Optimal density)
• Although Greenshields model used extensively in

transportation analysis because of its simple form but
field observations do not fully support the shape of
the model
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IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
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Example1: Speed and density are related as, u=100-0.5k; u=kmph,
k=vehicles/km. Calculate-maximum flow on that stretch?
𝐝𝐪
Solution- For maximum flow, =𝟎; We know, 𝐪 = 𝐤𝐮
𝐝𝐤
dq
q=𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐤 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝐤 𝟐 =100−kj=0 ; ⇒ 𝐤𝐣 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
dk
𝐔𝐟 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎
𝐯𝐞𝐡
𝐪𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐡𝐫
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Example2: Space mean speed and density are linearly related; vf=80kmph,
kj=100 veh/km. What is the traffic flow corresponding to a speed of
40kmph?
𝐤
Solution- According to Greenshields model,𝐯𝐬 = 𝐯𝐟 − 𝐯𝐟
𝐤𝐣
𝐤𝟐
We know, 𝐪 = 𝐤𝐯 ⇒ 𝐪 = 𝐤𝐯𝐟 − 𝐯𝐟( )
𝐤𝐣
𝟖𝟎
= 𝟖𝟎𝒌 − 𝒌𝟐 ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐝𝐪 𝐝𝐪 𝟖
For maximum flow, =𝟎 ⇒ = 𝟖𝟎 − 𝐤
𝐝𝐤 𝐝𝐤 𝟓
𝑲𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎 & 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟒𝟎
Then, q= 2000 vehicles/hr.
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Kharagpur| |Traffic
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Characteristics of Interrupted Flow

Signalized Intersections Saturation headway (h)
Headway in Secs
• Traffic is periodically stopped and then permitted to

proceed: To maximize efficiency and safety through
sharing of time for different conflicting movements
• The constant headway achieved with a stable moving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89

queue: Saturation Headway (h, sec/veh) Vehicle in queue
• After green signal is shown, first few vehicles

consume more time because of driver’s reaction time
to green signal and as a result headway is more than
‘h’
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• If incremental headways (above ‘h’) are added for first Saturation headway (h)
few vehicles then a single value is obtained: Start-up
Headway in Secs
lost time (l1)
• Although during the initial portion of yellow, some

drivers enter the intersection, the discharge rate is
lower than the saturation flow rate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
Vehicle in queue
• Also, all red time is given so that the last vehicle

entering the intersection legally is able to clear the
intersection safely before permitting conflicting
movements
IIT
IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
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• Therefore, there is also a loss time which is called
Saturation headway (h)
clearance lost time or end lost time (l2)
Headway in Secs
• Total lost time = l1 + l2

• Saturation flow rate: The number of vehicles that
could enter the intersection if the signal were always
green for that lane, and vehicles were never stopped 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
Vehicle in queue
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑺 = 𝐯𝐞𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 /𝐡𝐫 Where, h=saturation headway
𝒉
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Kharagpur| |Traffic
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Passenger Car Equivalency (PCE)

• Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) defines PCE as “The number of
passenger cars that are displaced by a single heavy vehicle of a
particular type under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions"
• PCE is also defined as the number of passenger cars having the same
impedance effect as a vehicle of a given type under a prevailing
roadway, traffic and control condition
• PCE: Static or Dynamic?
IIT
IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
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Factors affecting PCE
• Vehicle characteristics: dimension, speed, power, braking
characteristics etc.
• Transverse and longitudinal gaps between moving vehicles: function of

speed, driver characteristics, etc.
• Traffic composition, speed distribution, volume to capacity ratio etc.

• Roadway characteristics: gradient, curves, access control, rural or
urban road, presence of intersection, type of intersection, etc.
IIT
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• Traffic control and regulation: one way traffic, speed limit, different
traffic control devices, etc.
• Environmental and climatic condition
• Typical PCE values for Indian rural road
Vehicle Type PCE
Passenger car, tempo, auto 1.0
Bus, truck, agricultural tractor-trailer unit 3.0
Motor cycle, scooter, cycle 0.5
Cycle rickshaw 1.5
Horse drawn vehicles 4.0
Small bullock cart 6.0
Large bullock cart 8.0
IIT
IITKharagpur
Kharagpur| |Traffic
Engineering-I | 97
THANK YOU
IIT
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3/28/2022

Traffic Engineering-I Prof. Bhargab Maitra

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic Engineering-I|

 Interrupted Flow Facilities

• Macroscopic and Microscopic parameters

The most common unit used by a traffic engineer

But, the main goal is the movement of people and

Providing safety and efficiency became a complex

• In the context of traffic engineering, the focus is on person movements

• Within and between urban agglomerations people normally move in a

• Varied level of heterogeneity in vehicular stream

• The efficient movement of goods is vital to the general economy of the

• Timely delivery of raw material and finished products can be achieved

• Long-distance shipment of goods/raw materials is

Components of Traffic Stream

Road Users Vehicles Roadways Control Devices

• Uncontrollable factors- Road Users and Vehicles

Components of Traffic Stream

Safety could be easily achieved if all vehicles have

Components of Traffic Stream

• Most human characteristics follow normal distribution which is

• Because of this variation, it is not desirable to design

Components of Traffic Stream

• Percentile values may be a better option than average

15th percentile walking speed indicates only 15

Components of Traffic Stream

• Roadways of similar type and function should have a

• While this uniformity approach does not guarantee

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• Several critical characteristics of road users are quantifiable and can be

Visual Acuity (Static & Dynamic) and Fields of Vision

Perception and Reaction time

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• Knowledge of visual acuity of drivers is important

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

Acute or Clear Vision Cone Acute Vision cone (3o to 10o)

3° to 10° around the line of sight

Legend can be read only within this

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

10° to 12° around the line of sight

Color and shape can be recognized in Fairly Clear (10o to

May extend up to 90° to the right and

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• Information on field of vision is important while deciding the placement of

• Shape and color of road signs needs to be uniform

For example, signs should be placed within 10

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• Peripheral vision narrows as speed increases

• Objects placed in the periphery vision range can draw

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

IIT Kharagpur | Traffic

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

After a decision has been reached, the response

Components of Traffic Stream: Road Users

• PRT depends on the characteristics of the driver, type and complexity of

• AASTHO recommends different values of PRTs in