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Some significant achievements of concrete structures

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 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE SYNERGY OF ARCHITECTURE & CIVIL ENGINEERING

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 SINARG 2023 CONFERENCE, NIŠ, 14-15 SEPTEMBER 2023

SOME SIGNIFICANT ACHIEVEMENTS OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
Nadja Kurtović Folić1, Radomir Folić2, Miloš Čokić3
Abstract
Since the beginning of the 20th century, modern concrete and its different variations
have been the most frequently used material in structural engineering. Although it is a
relatively young material (1855), thanks to its ability to take various forms, it has become
widely accepted in all fields of civil engineering, and architecture (including sculptural
architecture). Its widespread application and monolithic properties had considerably
influenced the development of the theory of structures – spatial and curved (free form)
surface carriers in particular. This created a theoretical basis for the analysis of the
structures made of reinforced concrete, and pre-stressed and post-stressed concrete
(hereinafter 'concrete'). Concrete has been the material of choice in creation of structures
of various purposes and different aesthetic values.
This paper includes a brief overview of the achievement of well-known authors and
researchers who have significantly influenced affirmation and wider application of concrete.
Examples of some significant buildings, with a variety of functions, and their particular
aesthetic properties are included in this paper. The consideration in this paper highlights
the importance of conducting the research in the field of structural engineering aimed to
improve methods of design, construction and maintenances of the structures. Current
issues and directions of future research in the field of concrete structures and structures
where concrete was combined with other materials were also pointed out.

Key words reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, design, structural art, aesthetic
of structures, bridges, schells

1
Dr, Prof. retired, . University of N. Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia; nfolic@gmail.com
2
Dr, Prof. emeritus, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia, folic@uns.ac.rs; and r.folic@gmail.com
3
Dr. Struct. designer, Termoenergo inženjering, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 298, Belgrade, Serbia;
cokicmilos@gmail.com
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INTRODUCTION
Until the 20th century, iron and steel prevailed in the construction of engineering
structures (ES), but reinforced concrete, owing to the competition between cement
factories and the steel industry, already took precedence during the last decades of
the 19th century, and especially at the beginning of the 20th century. This was
achieved thanks to the inventiveness and research of many creators who accepted
concrete as a material for shaping aesthetically valuable structures [1]. Many of well
known creators, with their talent and building philosophy, combined the structural
skills and architectural sensibility. Some of their works, as well as some other famous
authors, are presented here.
In addition to the different dates mentioned in the literature, it is believed that the
application of reinforced concrete began in 1850 when the Frenchman Lambot
reinforced the boat prepared for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1855. The
introduction of prestressing began in the 20s of the 20th century with the work of
Freysinet [1].
Many well-known structures in the World that represented the idea of structural
art were designed before advanced structural theory and modern tools were fully
developed. Structural design is concerned with much more then science and
techniques: it is very much concerned with art, common sense, sentiment, aptitude
and enjoyment of the task of creating opportune outlines to which scientific
calculations will add finishing touches, substantiating that the structure is sound and
strong in accordance with the requirements [2].
The history of the relationship between architects and structural engineers went
through a series of phases from the mid-19th century, when reinforced concrete
began to be technologically advanced. This relationship had its ups and downs, but
it became especially important when large covered spaces were formed. Both
architects and structural engineers tend to make the reinforced concrete structures
more attractive, but their design is therefore becoming more and more complex. This
complexity directly reflects on the relation between the architect and the engineer,
on the mutual understanding of the idea and the possibility of materializing it. This
paper will deal in more detail with this problem by review of several important
examples, based on which a conclusion can be drawn on the state of this
relationship in the 21st century and points out the need to harmonize the relationship
between the architect and the structural engineer [3].

DESIGN AND AESTHETICS OF STRUCTURES

Many buildings with remarkable structures are visually dominant in the urban
landscape, so their aesthetics has an exceptional social significance. Their
aesthetics permanently affects the mood of the people who use them or just observe
them. That is why it is considered that technical progress in the theory and analysis
of structures is not complete without the participation of the aesthetic values of the
structures [F Priest]. Concrete is extensively used for the structures of various
buildings, including sculptural architecture with artistic design. Engineers - designers
of structures, rarely explicitly consider the aesthetic component when designing.
The idea of structural art, creation of aesthetic values, is associated with D. Billington.
However, the famous British engineer T. Telford defined design skills as early as
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1812 as an individual expression of the structure in the light of satisfying efficiency
(reliable performance with a minimum of material and labor costs) and economy
(restriction of building and maintenance costs). The unity of the form of the structure
and materials is important. Concrete makes it possible to achieve most diverse
shapes, so it is often called a sculptural material [1].
Architects, sculptors and engineers work on the form shaping. The engineer-
designer provides a scientific criterion, the architect a social one, and a sculptor a
symbolic one. The designer must satisfy safety, serviceability and economy, but also
achieve an adequate structural form. In the case of engineering structures and
bridges, that form generally results from a structural idea, so the architect does not
significantly influence its solution. Only the integration of form and structural
requirements results in the structural skills [26].
The design of a structure begins with the choice of the structural form, with the
layout of the supporting elements and the assessment of their dimensions. F.
Candela [4], P. L. Nervi [28], E. Torroja [29] and the contemporary creator S.
Calatrava especially contributed to those values. All of them, with their talent,
combined the structural skills and architectural sensibility. The possibility of applying
various forms of concrete structures has contributed to the development of the
Theory of structures (structural supports) and the Technology of the execution of
works, especially in the case of bridges.

REVIEW OF SOME AESTHETICALLY VALUABLE STRUCTURES

One of the first exceptional aesthetic accomplishment was achieved by R. Maillart
(1872-1940) with the Salginatobel bridge over the ravine in Switzerland, in 1930. It
is an example of an extraordinary fitting of a structure into the natural environment
(Fig. 1). The hollow box arch enabled the record span of that time, 90 m, and the
height/span ratio is 1/7.
Bridges placed in a natural or built environment attract the attention and looks of
passers-by from different angles. They should have a clear composition and
conception, sturdy and without unnecessary decorations [1]. In addition to
knowledge of the theory of structures, materials and geotechnics, skill is necessary
- the ability to compose in order to achieve harmony and agreement (balance of the
span, height and transverse dimensions). The sequencing of openings and columns
(rhythm) is also important. The building should maintain its function and possess
clear uninterrupted structural lines and transmission of forces. In some cases, the
bridge also has a semiotic component.
Aesthetics depends on the concept expressed through the general disposition,
which reflects "elegant simplicity, structural definition, clarity and sincerity of
expression of appearance and treatment of visible parts. It depends

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Figure 1. Salginatobel Bridge, Switzerland (Maillart) 1929/30, after [1]

on the play of light and shadow, on the landscape in which the bridge is situated,
on the originality and modernity of the solution, on the surfaces and the line seen by
the eye, on the impression of calm stability".
Public buildings have special features and occupy dominant positions in the built
environment, so the aesthetic design is extremely important. They represent very
attractive and recognizable objects [Sanches-Arcas, cit. in 1]. We recognize the
cities by some attractive concrete buildings built in them. In evaluation and research
of the form and structure, the initial points differ, depending on whether they are
formed after the natural forms, or after those from the built up environment.
The first examples of dwelling shelter construction could only be observed by
forms in nature and which the first men considered suitable to replicate to build forms
that are required for certain purposes. The various construction developed by
imitating the natural forms of bridging, sheltering, covering, space limiting.
This way of creating architecture could be traced through whole history until
today. Since the laws of nature usually make the starting point for the
fundamental laws of aesthetics, then, by their imitation, architectural aesthetics
is largely related to their appearance in natural environment [6], [7] and [8].
Structures imitating the forms from natural world were built in many big cities,
such as the Guggenheim Museum in New York, with an unusual shape of spiral
structure. At the Guggenheim Museum, it is thought that Franck Lloyd Wright was
inspired by nautilus shell for the spiral ramp and that the radial symmetry of a
spider web initiated the design of the central space skylight (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Inspirations for Guggenheim Museum, New York, F. L. Wright, 1959 [3]
The TWA Flight Center, designed by renowned architect Eero Saarinen and
Associates, is an iconic airport terminal and hotel complex located at JFK airport in
New York City. Built between 1959 and 1962, the original terminal building features
a distinctive shape of a bird with spread wings with wiwing-shaped roof supported
by “Y”-shaped piers and boasts an open interior with tall windows and two tube-

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shaped departure-arrival corridors. Despite its demolition in parts, the head house
remained and was adapted into the TWA Hotel in 2019. The encircling Terminal 5
addition, designed by Gensler, was constructed between 2005 and 2008 and
houses the 26 active gates at Terminal 5, as well as various dining and shopping
options. Recognized as both a New York City and National Landmark, the TWA
Flight Center remains a timeless masterpiece (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 The TWA Flight Center, New York, E. Saarinen and Associates, 1962.
The Sydney Opera House is a modern expressionist design, with a series of
large precast concrete "shells", each composed of sections of a sphere, forming
the roofs of the structure, set on a monumental podium. Although the 'shells' of
the Opera House resemble sails of a ship, the building's design was actually
inspired by nature. Architect Jørn Utzon says he was more influenced by birds,
clouds, walnuts and trees. Devising the roof sails proved to be one of the most
difficult aspects of the process. The Opera House was also the focus for many
architectural innovations. These included the pioneering use of computers to
calculate the stresses and loads on the two-way curved roofs, and development
of a way to build the roofs in concrete (Fig. 4).
At the same time in Europe was opened the Bürgi Garden Center. This thin
shell that floats over a part of the garden in Camorino, Switzerland is a project of
civil engineer Heinz Isler from 1973. His work, which imitates the sky, is the best
evidence that thin shells were more popular than ever in the mid-XX century (Fig.
5).
An example of an in-depth approach to the nature of human body is the study
drawing for the Torso building project in Malmö-Sweden and the building itself,
by S. Calatrava. The building with 54 floors, 190 m high, was built in 2005. Its
design was inspired by a marble sculpture of a twisting human torso made by
Santiago Calatrava himself. Multi-educated as an architect, civil engineer and
artist, it is no surprise that he describes his approach to architecture as more of
an art than a science (Fig. 6). Thin shells were additionally seen as a sound
design choice because when shaped correctly, they experienced little to no
bending moment, and any compression that was found within the shell was
uniformly distributed [12].

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Figure 4. Inspirations for developing the form of Sidney Opera House, J. Utzon , 1973.

Figure 5. Heinz Isler, Bürgi Garden Center, Camorino, Switzerland, 1973, [3].

Figure 6. Torso building in Malmö, Sweden S. Calatrava, 2005.

Known both as architect and an engineer Pier Luigi Nervi (1891 – 1979) explored
the limitation of reinforced concrete by creating a variety of imaginative and inventive
structural projects. Hei started his incredible career, especially in the field of sports
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facilities, even before the Second World War. The Artemio stadium in Firenza, with
a giant canopy over the auditorium and a number of other attractive details was built
in 1931 (Fig. 7).

Figure 7.Stadio Artemio, Firenza, Italy, P.L. Nervi, 1931.

A special category of architectural buildings after WW II is curved structural
supports (shells). They are classified in terms of the Gaussian curve, expressed
through the ratio 1/ρ1ρ2 ; where ρ1 and ρ2 – are curve radii. If the Gaussian curve is
zero, those are cylindrical shells with low strength without peripheral elements and
diaphragms at its extremes. If the Gaussian curve is negative, those are saddle and
hyperbolic paraboloid shaped curves, with tensions dominant in them. The positive
curve characterizes domes and elliptical paraboloids. The support shape affects the
stress state (membrane and bending). Membrane compression forces are favorable
for concrete, and tensile forces are resisted by the reinforcement and/or cables.
Monolithic construction requires the use of scaffolding and formwork, when
inaccessible depressions are bridged; they are expensive and slow down
construction. With the improvement of the span bridge construction technology, this
problem has been overcome. Instead of an earlier method of construction which
used fixed scaffolds resting on the ground, mobile and suspended scaffolds were
introduced. Suspended scaffolds rest on bridge piers and are efficient when the span
structure is located high above the terrain to be bridged. They are made from
prefabricated segments, at a "work station" from which, after prestressing, they are
pushed by hydraulic presses over the columns into a new position. Prestressed
concrete and prefabricated construction are used for beam bridges, as efficient. It
turned out that the expedient method of construction is prefabricated - monolithic.
This construction method is also popular with high-rise buildings. By the stiffness of
the carrier, i.e. reinforcement in the zone of the supports results in more cost efficient
constructions, because it is possible to cover the negative moment surface in the
upper zone with significantly less steel than the positive moment in the lower zone.
For the Olympic Games stadion in Rome in 1960, P. L. Nervi applied the
prefabricated construction. The Palace of Sports, consists of 1620 elements, with
only 19 different types. One element was applied 108 times, and peripheral elements
were repeated 36 times. The spherical dome is formed by 1008 elements of 9 types.
Nervi has patented ribbed floor slabs with ribs in the direction of the main stress
trajectories [9]. Figure 8 show the details of this creation and the harmony of the
structure from outside and inside..

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Figure 8. Palazzeto dello sport, Rome, P. L. Nervi with A. Vitellozzi, 1956-5, [9].
The variety of buildings where thin concrete shells and other concrete sculptural
forms were used for special functions as is shown in figures 9, 10 and 11. Memorial
structures were a great challenge to express the sculptural possibilities of concrete
through them. Although innovative materials are often used today for sculptural
forms, concrete as a material has survived and is still used in memorial structures
until now, as evidenced by the memorial park in Ethiopia, which is being built in 2023.
The monumental memorial-ossuaries represents the great concrete architecture
and symbolic originality.

Figures 9, 10 and 11. Memorial ossuary in Veles, N. Macedonia, Lj. Denković, S.

Subotin, R. Folić, 1979; Monument-ossuary to the fallen parisans, Bologna, Italy, P.
Bottoni, 1959; The Meles Zenawi Memorial Park, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Studio Other
Spaces, Fasil Giorghis and Vogt landscape architects, 2023.
Engineering structures such as the bridge with its attractive silhouette also
stand out with their elegance. Top achievements were also made in the
construction of bridges that have technical, utilitarian, and aesthetic values [1].
The Djurdjevića Tara Bridge, designed by M. Trojanović, although it was built
before the World War II, it is still shown as an example of an elegant crossing
solution in many books and magazines. It is really an exceptional achievement
in reinforced concrete (Figure 12). Footbridge Kingsgate across the River Wear
in Durham is still a striking, modern, reinforced concrete construction. It was the
last personally designed structure of Ove Arup in 1963 (Fig. 13).

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Figure 12. Djurdjevica Tara Bridge, Montenegro, M. Trojanovic, 1939.

Figure 13. Kingscross footbridge, Durham, U.K., O. Arup, 1963.
The bridge accross the Danube river near Beška was designed by B. Žeželj, It
was built by using the cantilever "balance" method (shown in the process in Fig. 14,
and had a record mid span of 211 m. During its construction, a bridge with a larger
span was built in Australia, unfortunately. The concrete bridge of the arch system,
connecting Krk island to the mainland, designed by I. Stojadinović, with a span of
390 m, was for a long time the longest span in the world (Fig. 14). During the
construction of this bridge, the cantilever method of construction was also used,
which avoided expensive scaffolding considering the nature of the obstacle.

Figure 14. Bridge Krk-St. Marc-mainland, Croatia, I. Stojadinovic, 1980.

P.L. Nervi, E. Torroja and F. Candela improved structures with the use of
concrete built in situ, which required a large expenditure of wooden formwork and
scaffolding [23]. However, some shells of double curvature, such as, for example,
a hyperbolic paraboloid (hyppar) can be made by formwork from flat - straight
boards (Fig. 15, 16, 17 and 18). Concrete shell roofs were, however, built in
countries rich in wood, which was used for formwork and scaffolding. As mention
above, the most intensive use is related to the 50s and 60s of the 20th century
[8]. After that, the introduction of prefabricated construction for these structures
began, and the use of new materials, too.
The most ambitious cover of E. Torroja, perhaps of his entire career, was that
of the Táchira club in Venezuela, carried out together with the architect Fruto
Vivas. For this project, this scale model was made at the Institute of Construction
Sciences in Madrid. These work seemed to resume his career in the world of
architecture, but Eduardo Torroja died in 1961 before it was completed. Another
world known Spanish and Mexan architect was F. Candela Outerño. His major
contribution to architecture was the development of thin shells made out of
reinforced concrete, popularly called cascarones. Candela was real admirer of
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reinforced concrete in the shape of a dome or shell. That is why he had a great
influence on the work of his student Santiago Calatrava. The above-mentioned
creators should be joined by the extremely successful team of architect L. Costa
and constructor O. Nimayer. In the brand new city of Brasilia, they were free to
develop concrete architecture to unimaginable proportions. The aforementioned
creators should be joined by the extremely successful team of architect L. Costa
and architect and constructor O. Nimayer. In the brand new city of Brasilia, they
were free to develop architecture from concrete to unimaginable proportions.
Niemeyer himself has many buildings that border on exhibitionism.

Figure 15. Scale model of Táchira club, Venezuela, E. Torroja

Figure 16. Los Manantides Restaurant, Xachimica, Mexico, F. Candela, 1958.
Figure 17. Hemisphere of Aquarium, Valencia, S. Calatrava and F. Candela 1998.
Figure 18. Oscar Niemayer Museo, Curatiba, Brasil, O. Niemayer, 2006.
Some concrete structures built in Serbia through the originality of implemented
solutions and building technology can be ranked among the global
achievements. This should encourage the young generations, to follow the
creative efforts of the previous generations in the field of concrete structures.
Apart from the bridges, this refers to the Fair Hall 1, construction designed by
B. Žeželj, and Fair halls 2 and 3 constructed by M. Krstić in Belgrade, which are
assessed to be the world’s top design creations in concrete (Fig.19). The
prestresssing IMS system is known in our country and worldwide. It has been
used to construct the double prestressed beams on the JAT hangar 2 on the
Belgrade airport, and the “Arena” roof on New Belgrade, designed by M. Ivković
et al. The TV tower on Avala by M.Krstic destroyed by NATO in 1999 belonged
to the category of exceptional designs, too. New tower, on the same location has
been built from steel.

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Figure 19. Panoramic view of Belgrade Fair - Hall 1, B. Žeželj, Halls 2 and 3, M.
Krstić, 1957.
However, even younger architects and constructors could not resist the
attraction of concrete, as evidenced by the buildings shown in Figures 20, 21 and
22, with extraordinary aesthetic values. In the XXI century, several exceptional
creators did not completely renounce the joy of creating in concrete. Although in
many of their works they use the most modern materials and technologies, they
also designed bold concrete structures.

Figure 20. Meiso no Mori Municipal Funeral Hall, Kagengahari, Japan, T. Ito, 2006.
Figure 21.Heidar Aliev Centre, Baku, Azerbejan, Z. Hadid, 2012.
Figure 22. Sarpi Border Checkpoint, Georgia, J.Mayer H. Architect, 2011.

FINAL NOTES AND CONCLUSIONS

The previous analysis and the presented superior achievements, with exceptional
aesthetic values, confirm that concrete is undoubtedly the material of the 20th
century, but also could be the material of the future [12] and [13]. Intensive theoretical
and experimental research contributed to this. Great progress has been made with
the development of high-strength concrete. Today, it is relatively easy to achieve
concrete with strength of 80 MPa and higher quality. Combined materials (coupling
of concrete with concrete, steel or wood) and the use of concrete from recycled
aggregates are increasingly being used. The application of "smart" materials in
constructions has also been worked on. Concrete is indispensable for the
construction of foundations and structures in contact with water.

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In designing, improving conceptual design will be developed. In addition to EN
1992 for design, guidelines for design and construction are being improved, such as
in the International Federation for Concrete fib, the American Concrete Institute and
others. In order to increase the durability of CS, protection against corrosion in the
design and application of special types of reinforcement and protective measures is
under way. Of particular importance is mitigating the impact of natural hazards on
CS. In the future, the impact of climate change on the behavior of CS will gain
importance. A very topical analysis of structural robustness (prevention of chain
collapse) was introduced in EN 1990:2002, because of possible incident actions. In
doing so, complex non-linear analyzes must be implemented, which require the use
of computers and software.
One of the goals of this work was precisely to point out the strength of talent,
sound construction logic and intuition that guided the builders creating incredibly
striking concrete forms, with no or minimal application of modern computer
techniques and other modern technologies.

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