Nano Express

TOPICAL REVIEW • OPEN ACCESS You may also like

- Discussion on the Conversion Method of
A review of nanomaterials and their applications in Soil Enzyme Stoichiometry from Different
Vegetation Types in Guizhou Grassland,
oil & petroleum industries Southwest China
Fuli Yang, Leilei Ding, Yujun Zhang et al.

- Ecotoxicity risk study of petroleum

To cite this article: Ayan Roy et al 2023 Nano Ex. 4 022002 hydrocarbon contaminated soil
Heyue Xiao

- Research and Application of a Technology

Eliminating Restriction of Electrical
Equipment Capacity as Clean Electricity
View the article online for updates and enhancements. Heating Develops Rapidly
Deng Limin, Sun Lingwen, Zhao Di et al.

This content was downloaded from IP address 189.194.184.24 on 07/10/2023 at 19:50


OPEN ACCESS
RECEIVED
9 January 2023
REVISED
27 May 2023
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
7 June 2023
PUBLISHED
29 June 2023
Original content from this
work may be used under
the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0
licence.
Any further distribution of
this work must maintain
attribution to the
author(s) and the title of
the work, journal citation
and DOI.
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 https://doi.org/10.1088/2632-959X/acdc40
TOPICAL REVIEW
A review of nanomaterials and their applications in oil & petroleum
industries
Ayan Roy1, Dikshita Kabra1, Garima Pareek1, Kanak Kumari1, Pandali Pratyush Kashyap1, Samriddhi Naik1,
Utkarsh Chadha2,∗ and Senthil Kumaran Selvaraj3,∗
1
School of Chemical Engineering (SCHEME), Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamilnadu—632014, India
2
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Engineering, School of Graduate Studies, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Ontario ON M5S 2Z9, Canada
3
School of Mechanical Engineering (SMEC), Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamilnadu—632014, India
∗
Authors to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: utkarsh.chadha@mail.utoronto.ca and senthilkumaran.s@vit.ac.in
Keywords: nanomaterials, upstream, midstream, downstream, drilling, EOR (enhanced oil recovery)
Abstract
The swiftly growing global economies remain the root cause of the soaring demand for oil and gas to
satisfy their excessive energy demands, thus making the oil and gas sector one of the most important
industrial sectors. Though renewable energy technologies are the more sustainable option,
technological advances are required to make them more accessible to the common people. Therefore,
due to the limitation of renewable energy technologies, oil and gas continue to be a more viable
alternative. Extensive research is being conducted on the applications of nanotechnology to make the
upstream, midstream, and downstream processes efficient in the oil and gas sector. Nanomaterials
make the activities in processing and transportation more economical, efficient, and environment-
friendly than their conventional counterparts. In this review, we have highlighted the need for
nanomaterials in oil and gas, for example, in crude oil exploration, including drilling and EOR,
separation techniques, refining, transportation, and other related activities. Further, this review
summarizes novel nanomaterials developed and used in the activities mentioned above, and at the
end, we have briefly described the synthesis mechanism of these nanomaterials. Finally, we emphasize
the current challenges and future work prospects in this area of study.
1. Introduction
Emerging engineered nanomaterials have shown a broad spectrum of applications in science and technology,
showcasing their growth and development. Nanomaterials have extensive applications in the biotechnology,
biomedical, natural sciences, and civil & industrial areas [1]. The tendency is primarily related to the unique
properties that nanoparticles show, such as their small size, and the novel properties they exhibit which vary
highly from the bulk properties and can be modified to fit the desired applications [2]. Unlike the bulk
counterparts, when the size of a particle is decreased to near or less than the wavelength of the conducting
electrons, several properties such as optical behaviour, magnetism, thermal resistance, catalytic and chemical
activities, internal pressure, and melting point are changed. The application and study of extremely small
materials (about 1–100 nm) is the fastest-growing research field in various science and technology fields [3]. The
advances in nanotechnology have given researchers a pathway to fabricate collections of various enhanced
nanomaterials, nanotools, and nanodevices, which can be used in multiple fields such as electronics, aerospace,
medical and biomedical, smart materials and manufacturing, pharmaceutical, photography, energy, etc. In
addition, nanomaterial technology is a cost-effective and efficient industrial process with an accurate design and
conduction of atoms and molecules besides complete control of their unique properties [4].
Nanotechnology has advanced in the oil and gas industry due to its unique physicochemical properties.
Nanofluids prepared using functional nanomaterials may exhibit better performance in oil production
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

processes, and nanocatalysts have improved the efficiency in oil refining and petrochemical processes.
Nanomembranes enhance oil, water, and gas separation, oil and gas purification, and the separation of
impurities from wastewater [5]. There are numerous methods available for the production of nanomaterials.
Usually, the synthesis of nanomaterials produces a toxic effect on the surrounding environment and is very
expensive. Thus, cost-effective, simple, and green chemistry principles are highly required for synthesizing
nanomaterials. Different oil and gas industry operations have used many nano-sized materials such as metal
oxide nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and magnetic nanoparticles [6]. The preparation
of nanoparticles can be done through various methods, including the sol-gel and hydrothermal processes, which
are efficient in producing crystalline nanoparticles [7]. Many studies on the synthesizing and functionalizing of
such nanoparticles have been widely found in the literature. Significant challenges in the petroleum industry
have been discussed, including the early stage of exploration, such as reservoir mapping and management and
drilling processes, and production processes, such as refining and processing. Researchers have potentially
solved similar industrial problems in almost every aspect of the oil and gas industry, from upstream to
downstream. Significant practices, efforts, and innovations have been dedicated to developing precise design
and characterization of nanomaterials, specifically for oil and gas industry-based applications [8].
The utilization of nanoparticle suspension injections into reservoirs for improved oil recovery (EOR) has
recently gained attention in the literature. Various methods, such as altering the surface of reservoir rocks to
make them more wettable by using different nanomaterials, have been conducted. Polystyrene nanomaterials as
nanocarriers for surfactants, silica nanoparticles dispersion in polyethylene glycol, and nanomaterials as
emulsion stabilizers have shown great potential in the EOR [3]. Many studies have also identified nonionic
surfactants, mesoporous silica systems, aluminum oxide, and magnesium oxide nanoparticles as potential in
chemical flooding oil recovery. By altering the fluid’s properties, altering the rock’s wettability, reducing drag
more effectively, strengthening sand consolidation, lowering interfacial tension, and increasing the permeability
of the capillary-trapped oil, adding nanoparticles to fluids may significantly improve enhanced oil recovery and
well drilling [9]. By improving cake quality and lowering tube sticking issues, nanomaterials can also help with
oil drilling issues. Depending on the quality of the slime cake, which can be effectively modified utilizing
nanomaterials, damage issues near the reservoir can be resolved [2, 10]. The concentration and average size of
the nanoparticles influence the characteristics and functionality of the drilling fluids. According to studies, these
nanoparticles increase the surface area to volume ratio and improve the rheological characteristics of the drilling
fluid [11]. Nanoparticles have tangibly improved the oil recovery process, various drilling processes, and every
other significant process, such as exploration, monitoring, and generation in the oil and gas industry.
This review lists several synthetic methods for different nanoparticles and several functionalization
strategical methods for them that can be used in oil and gas applications. The variety of applications of the wide
range of nanoparticles in the oil and petroleum industry is also discussed. Furthermore, the recent progress on
consistent nanotechnological studies and their requirements for various major oil and gas processes will be
summarized.

2. Need for nanomaterials in the oil & petroleum industry

Nanomaterials are becoming one of the most emerging technologies used in many different fields of
applications. Examples such as nanoelectronics, nanomedicine, and nanodevices justify the efficiency and
benefits of nanomaterials in many practical applications. These nanomaterials can be vital in the oil and
petroleum industries.
Figure 1 is a pictorial description of the requirement of nanomaterials in different operations in the oil and
petroleum industry. These nanomaterials can be useful in tracing, enhancing the production of petroleum
products, increasing the water separation rate from oil, and many more. It can be clearly explained that there is a
strong urge to use nanomaterials in the oil and petroleum industries. These nanomaterials can be used in the oil
and petroleum industries in various following ways:

1. Carbon Quantum Dots as a tracer: Franco et al used Vaccinium Meridionale Swartz (also known as Mortiño)
as the main raw material for fabricating Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs). The CQDs were produced by means
of a carbonization methodology with the assistance of microwaves. These CQDs were then observed for their
reliability as a tracer to trace out the presence of pollutants and toxic agents in the crude oil. These CQDs
turned out to be a promising nanomaterial to be used as a tracer. The CQDs produced do not tend to change
any interaction between the crude oil and water. Also, there was no evidence of emulsion formation and
particle agglomeration. The CQDs are mixed with the injection fluid (here brine was used as an injection
fluid). The CQDs do not change the physical and chemical properties of the injection fluid. Hence this
example can explain the need of nanomaterials in the oil and petroleum industry as a tracer [1].

2
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

Figure 1. Nanomaterials as a helpful additive in the oil & petroleum industry.

2. Nanomaterials in the process of drilling and completion: Nanomaterials can be utilized in the process of
drilling and completion in various aspects. The nanomaterials are a useful agent to stabilize the wellbore by
preventing the water swelling phenomena and the collapsing of the wellbore. These nanomaterials also seal
off the micro or nanopores that are present on the wellbore, which results in a decrease in the filter loss. The
drilling fluid’s viscosity and dynamic shearing force can also be increased by introducing the nanomaterials in
the fluid. The rise in viscosity and dynamic shearing force enhances the rheological properties of the drilling
fluid. Nanomaterials help enhance the system’s thermal stability due to their tolerance against high
temperatures [12].
3. Preventing corrosion in pipes using nanomaterials: Nanocontainers like halloysite/polyelectrolyte can be
an excellent anti-corrosion agents in pipelines. This need for nanomaterials in oil and petroleum industries
can save a huge amount of money spent in recovering the accidents due to corrosion occurring within the
pipelines. This need can also resolve the issue of oil leakage. Shchukin et al [13] made this possible by
producing a halloysite/polyelectrolyte anti-corrosion nanocontainer. The corrosion-preventing agent (or
the corrosion inhibitor) is stuffed inside the halloysite nanotubes, then coated with a pH-sensitive electrolyte.
This coating ensures that the release of the inhibitor is at a controlled rate.
4. Nanomaterials catalyzing the refineries: Catalysts are one of the most important substances required in any
chemical industry to speed up the reaction and give more products in less time. These catalysts are immensely
used in oil and petroleum industries, especially in cracking and reforming. Nanomaterials can fulfill the
demand for catalysts as their high aspect ratio gives them some unique catalytic properties. Nano-sized
carbon catalysts, for instance, can be used to reduce the viscosity of heavy oils. Metallic nanoparticles such as
ruthenium, iron, nickel, and cobalt can be a promising catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. These
metallic nanoparticle catalysts tend to catalyze the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. The Fischer-Tropsch reaction
produces liquid hydrocarbons with the help of a series of carbon monoxide and hydrogen reactions. Hence,
there is a need for nanomaterials as a catalyst in the oil and petroleum industries.
5. Separation techniques using nanomembranes: The basic application of any membrane is to carry out a
separation process between the constituents of a mixture in the same or different phases. The membranes
whose thicknesses are in the order of nanometers are called nanomembranes. These nanomembranes can
fulfill the need to effectively separate oil from other impurities, especially water. Since the crude oil is obtained
underneath the sea level during offshore/onshore drilling, these crudes have a high chance of containing
some water and forming an emulsion. These water particles must be removed from the emulsion to get the
highest crude purity. Nanomembrane-like micro/nano dual-scaled porous nitrocellulose (NC) membrane is
one of the examples that can perform a separation of oil and water with higher efficiency. Nanomembranes
play an important role in oil purification, gas separation, and CO2 capture and storage. Nanomembranes can
also contribute to gas separation. Hazardous gas like CO2 needs to be removed from the oil. Different nano/
hybrid membranes are some examples that can fulfill the need for nanomembranes in the separation of gas
from oil.

3. Nanomaterials & their properties suitable for oil & petroleum industry

As discussed in the previous section, it has been demonstrated that nanomaterials play a significant role in the oil
and petroleum industry and there is a necessity of such nanomaterials to enhance the operational efficiency of

3
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

Figure 2. Venn diagram depicting the different applications in the oil and petroleum industries where nanoparticles are used.

the petroleum industry. But it is also important to understand the chemistry and the suitable properties of these
nanomaterials that are responsible for increasing the efficiency of the oil and petroleum industry. This section
explores the various applications of the nanomaterials in the oil and petroleum industries and the properties that
contributes to these applications. Figure 2 shows a Venn diagram that represents the involvement of
nanomaterials in the oil and petroleum industry and their various applications.

3.1. Upstream
3.1.1. Drilling
Drilling fluids should be appropriately synthesized and changeable according to the formation to be drilled in
order to perform efficiently during the drilling operation. The drilling fluid serves a variety of purposes.
However, the primary function of the drilling fluid is to clean the wellbore’s bottom, remove trimmings,
lubricate and cool the drilling bit, maintain wellbore stability by controlling formation pressure, and prevent
fluid inflow [11]. Nanomaterials possess unique properties such as high thermal conductivity, large surface area,
and pollution resistance, which make them suitable for making drilling-based products to improve the rheology
of fluid and reduce fluid loss. Even at a very low concentration of nanomaterials, it shows excellent fluid
properties [8]. Researches have been conducted on the impact of carbon nanotubes on the rheological and
filtration properties of drilling fluids. It has been found that adding 0.01 ppb Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
(MWCNTs) to an oil-based drilling fluid improves yield strength, gel strength, and emulsion stability. Because
of their propensity to form ionic bonds, metal oxide nanoparticles are expected to increase drilling fluids’ yield
point, viscosity, and gel strength. Metallic oxide nanoparticles are preferred because of their availability and
economic viability, although oxides of particular transition metals can be toxic and detrimental to the
environment [11]. Nano silica increased wellbore stability by 10–100 times through the reduction of water
invasion, which was especially beneficial in shale formation. Using these nontoxic nanoparticles in drilling fluid
can significantly cut drilling and disposal costs, resulting in significant environmental benefits [6]. Ferric
hydroxide nanoparticles have also been used to reinforce wellbore walls during drilling operations. These

4
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

Table 1. Improvement in parameters using nanomaterials.

Nanomaterials Parameter improved Application References

TiO2 nanofluid Decreases oil viscosity up to 8%; showed oil recovery of Enhanced oil recov- [16]
43%–45% ery (EOR)
AMPS grafted Clay/CuO Regular and porous surface; improvement in rheological Drilling (water-based mud [17]
nanocomposite and fluid control; improved bore hole stability system)
Cellulose nanocrystals Stabilize water-oil emulsion EOR [18]
Graphene nanoplatelets Reduce gas leakage; improve wellbore integrity; improve Cementing [19]
cement durability
Silica Nanoparticles Reduce adsorption capacity of hydroxypropyl guar gum Well simulation (reservoir [20]
molecule on surface rock; minimizing permeability simulation)
damage.
MWNTs Increasing the setting time Cementing [21]
NanoSilica Solution Decrease shale permeability Drilling (Water-based [22]
drilling fluid)
Fe4O3 High thermal stability; shear thinning behavior Drilling (water- [10]
based mud)
NiO/SiO2 Janus nanoparticle Improve swept efficiency; reduce interfacial tension; EOR [23]
Nano Synthetic graphite Maintain good pumpability; improve in compressive Cementing [24]
strength
CuO Reduce viscosity of oil Heavy oil [25]
TiO2 nanoparticle Improving rheological properties, electrical and thermal Drilling [26]
conductivity, filtration characteristics
Nanopolymer Increase wellbore strength; minimize filter loss Drilling [27]
Magnetic copper ferrite nano- Reduce viscosity of extra heavy oil Extra Heavy oil [28]
spheres (CFNS)
Surface-functionalized Improve recovery of oil through water flooding using EOR [29]
nanocellulose green technology.

nanoparticles are being used as a loss circulation material (LCM), resulting in a stronger wellbore and decreased
fluid losses. Sandstone core samples were used to test the ferric hydroxide nanoparticle compositions. The
ultimate compressive strength of exposed cores is 70 percent higher than that of unexposed cores (16.5 versus
27.5 MPa) [14].
Another drilling sector where nanoparticles show promise is in the design of drilling fluids for severe
environments, where temperatures over 120 °C impact drilling fluid shear response due to thermal
deterioration of the viscosifiers in the fluid. Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) have the ability to modify the rheology
of water-based fluids, such as drilling fluids for use in oil wells or injection water for improved oil recovery
(EOR). Heat aging was used to age CNF dispersions made mechanically, utilizing TEMPO-mediated oxidation,
carboxymethylation as a pre-treatment, and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Temperature stability was highest for
CNC and mechanically manufactured CNF, which remained stable after three days of heating to 140 °C. The
effect of additions was investigated; cesium formate and sodium formate improved the temperature stability of
the dispersions, whereas phosphate buffer had no effect [15]. Different nanomaterials and their applications are
mentioned in table 1, along with their role in enhancing different parameters.

3.2. Midstream
3.2.1. Flooding
For oil recovery, energy is needed to transport the oil from the reservoir rock into a producing well which is given
from the surface via induced pressure. Various parameters including temperature, salt compositions, different
salinity, and initial wettability of rock have an impact on enhancing the oil recovery process [9]. Nanoparticles
are added to fluids in order to alter fluid characteristics, rock wettability, and sand consolidation, decrease
interfacial tension, advanced drag reduction, and enhance the mobility of capillary-trapped oil. These
enhancements greatly improve oil recovery and well drilling [9]. One of the primary functions of nanoparticles is
their ability to diffuse through fractures easily. Therefore, they can fill cracks, tights, and pores and cause
fundamental permeability changes because of their strong effect on pore plugs [30]. The type, size, and
concentration of nanoparticles impact the mechanism used to reduce viscosity in heavy oil/bitumen. Surfactant
flooding is enhanced by adding nanoparticles, which increases oil recovery [31]. Slightly hydrophobic
nanoparticles improve surfactant flooding efficiency, and the reservoir rock wettability is changed from
hydrophobic to hydrophilic. The presence of nanoparticles alters the rheological properties of the surfactant
solution and boosts their ability to enhance oil recovery operations. The observed decrease in interfacial tension

5
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

and wetting properties is due to nanoparticles at the interfacial layers. A 19% increase in oil recovery is obtained
when nanoparticles are used with surfactants [31]. A higher polymer concentration, higher formation-damage
coefficient, and higher value of mobility ratio lead to a higher recovery factor. The oil mobility ratio is increased
from the large migration of the polymer solution from the high-permeability layers to the low-permeability
layers [30]. In porous media and fluids, nanoparticles have unique properties that have a variety of consequences
under various conditions. The nanofluid is a colloidal suspension solution containing nanoparticles with
distinct properties. This multiphase fluid system consist of different components that alter the properties of the
base fluid. Nanofluids achieve a total oil recovery of more than 88%. Cheraghian et al [4] studied how
nanoparticles and surfactants can release oil trapped in pores and throats. The responsible mechanisms are an
increase in injection fluid viscosity, a reduction in oil viscosity, surface and interfacial tension, and a change in
wettability in the rock formation. Due to the techno-economic feasibility, higher efficiency, and lower capital
expense, polymer flooding has received prior attention as a chemical-enhanced oil recovery (CEOR) method.
HPAM (partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide) is the most commonly used polymer in CEOR because of its wide
availability, ease of handling, and cost. The concentration of 2.0 to 3.0% of silica NP injected in core flooding,
Silica nanoparticles have been frequently used in flooding because of their availability and unique physio-
chemical qualities (hydrophobic to hydrophilic). The adsorption of nanoparticles at the water-rock interface
may alter the wettability of rock surface and improve HCS recovery factor [4]. Numerous factors exert a
significant influence on controlling nanoparticle migration. Some are the rise of pressure drop and increasing
flow velocity during the low-salinity water-flooding procedures [30]. Some of the nanoparticles, including
silicon dioxide for improved foam stability, titanium oxide and zinc titanate aluminum oxide for reduced oil
viscosity and mobility, and graphene oxide for improved oil recovery, are utilized in these applications.

3.3. Downstream
3.3.1. Demulsification property
The extraction of crude oil accompanies a significant amount of water with oil and thus forms an emulsion. This
water and oil mixture can pose a great challenge during refining activities due to the presence of dissolved salts in
the emulsion. These salts can contaminate the catalysts in various reactors and cause fouling and scaling.
Therefore, we need to separate the oil and water emulsion to avoid these issues in later operations. For the past
many years, chemical de-emulsifiers have been used. However, their applications have been limited due to
concerns about their toxicity to the environment and their complicated production methods. Various studies
have reported using SiO2 nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanomaterials, for example, carbon nanotubes,
graphene oxide, etc, as de-emulsifying agents. Recently, novel nanomaterials like CNTs/SiO2 have been
introduced, demonstrating positive de-emulsification and environment-friendly results. Here, CNTs are the
basic nanomaterial from which other nanomaterials have been synthesized. Oxidized CNTs have been prepared
by the chemical oxidation of CNTs with the help of HNO3 and H2SO4. Furthermore, CNTs/SiO2 nanomaterial
is prepared by grafting SiO2 nanoparticles on the surface of oxidized CNTs [32].
Wettability is one of the major properties that can indicate the demulsification properties of these
nanomaterials. The three-phase contact angle is measured to investigate wettability. CNT nanomaterials like
CNTS, Ox-CNTs, and CNTs/SiO2 exhibited different contact angles. The contact angles for CNTs, Ox-CNTs,
and CNTs/SiO2were 107.8, 83.0°and 92.8°respectively. The reduced contact angle for oxidized CNTs and,
furthermore, for CNTs/SiO2 shows the presence of various hydrophilic groups at the surface. Thus, there is
more wettability in the water phase. Moreover, in the case of CNTs/SiO2, the contact angle further reduces due
to SiO2 grafting on its surface. This reduction takes place since these nanomaterials get attached to the oil-water
interface. The results from these studies showed that θ of 90° has better demulsification performance. Regarding
the interfacial activity of these nanomaterials, CNTs get dispersed into the oil phase, and Ox-CNTs go into the
water phase. Still, CNTs/SiO2 remains at the oil-water interface even after a very long time. The nanomaterial
was easily able to coalesce the water molecules. The experiments show a demulsification efficiency of 87.4%
exhibited by CNTs/SiO2 [32]. Various other carbon-based nanomaterials have been used as de-emulsifiers
which are able to break the strong viscoelastic film between the oil-water interface due to π−π and p−π bonds
between nanomaterials and film components [33, 34]. In addition to these, rhodium borate nanoparticles were
studied as de-emulsifiers. The demulsification efficiency is given by the ratio of the volume of water separated
and water present in the emulsion. Compared with a commercial demulsifier with an efficiency of 78.9%,
rhodium borate nanoparticles provide an efficiency of 84.2%. The studies also suggested that when the
concentration of a demulsifier has increased, the separation also increases as the surface tension of the water
molecules gets reduced. Due to this greater number of water molecules come together. Also, an increase in
temperature results in better separation [35].

6
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

3.3.2. Catalytic property

One important use of nanomaterials in the petroleum industry is to upgrade the low-grade crude (with < 20°
API gravity) to a high-grade crude by cracking the low-grade crude. This process usually takes a long time and
should be performed at high temperatures. However the use of carbon nanoparticles in this process can reduce
the reaction time to less than an hour, and products could be attainable at temperatures less than 150 °C. As a
result, this process will not only reduce the environmental impact of the effluents but also cut down the
operating cost of the process to a significant level. Since nanoparticles are very small in size, they have a large
surface when compared to the bulk solid. This helps to increase the reaction on its surface and reduce the
activation energy of the thermal cracking process [2]. A few of the most widely used nanomaterials in petroleum
refineries are ZSM-5 of MFI, FAU topologies and zeolite Y. Since 1960, zeolites with Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
structures have been widely used as catalysts in the process of converting heavy crude oil into lighter ones.
Another important application of nanomaterials is in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS). FTS is one of the most
coherent ways to convert natural gas, biomass, and coal into hydrocarbons. Synthesis gas (H2+CO) is the
intermediate product of this process. A study reported that synthesis gas shows 60% (by weight) conversion into
C2 through C4 alkenes, using the catalyst that contains Fe nanoparticles evenly spread on weakly interactive
carbon nanofibers or α-alumina supports.
Every day, the amount of carbon emissions are increasing, and all the countries pledge to decrease and cut
down their carbon footprint by taking measures and imposing strict regulations on industries. One of the main
sectors contributing to emissions is the petroleum industry. In order to decrease the carbon emissions, oil and
gas manufacturers had to remove harmful compounds like Sulphur compounds (mostly oxides of Sulphur) and
reduce their level to less than 10 ppm in petroleum products. Nanomaterials derived from nickel, cobalt, and
molybdenum dispersed on different supports, are widely used as effective catalysts for confiscating Sulphur from
petroleum and its products. It has been observed that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are very good supports for
nano-catalysts such as CoMo particles. These supports provide homogeneous distribution of the catalysts on the
bulk of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [5].

4. Chemical synthesis mechanisms

4.1. Synthesis of magnetic nano-silica using barley husk

The petroleum industry can benefit greatly from magnetic silica nanoparticles. So far, the most common uses
have been water invasion control in shale, filtration and rheology control in fluids, oil well cementing, foam and
emulsion stability for better oil recovery, and drag reduction in porous media [3].
The barley husk was broken into smaller pieces and dried. The straws were properly rinsed with distilled
water to eliminate clinging sand, soil, or other visible particles. The sample was then dried in the oven. A miller
was used to crush the dry barley husk into powder form. After that, the barley husk powder was refluxed in HCl.
The material was filtered and rinsed with distilled water after the acid reflux followed by heating. After dissolving
the sample in HNO3, it was rinsed with distilled water, filtered, and allowed to cool, resulting in precipitation of
nano-silica. The organic substance of the barley was removed by heating, while metallic contaminants were
removed by acid reflux. The nano-silica powder that resulted was utilized to make a nano-silica solution.
To make Magnetic nano-silica (M-NS), it was necessary first to prepare the magnetic solution, which was
then mixed with the nano-silica solution. The magnetic nanoparticles were made using iron (III) chloride
(FeCl3) as a precursor. Barley leaf extract is mixed in FeCl3 solution. The resulting mixture was agitated, and the
color of the mixture changed to a very dark brown during this process, suggesting the creation of magnetic
nanoparticles. The mixture was centrifuged and rinsed twice with alcohol. The magnetic nano-silica (M-NS)
particles were made by gently pouring the magnetic solution into the nano-silica solution while continuously
mixing, centrifuging, and drying in the oven. Magnetic nano-silica particles with an average diameter of 162 nm
and a vast surface area of 120 m2 gm−1 were discovered to be hydrophobic. Because of these properties,
magnetic nano-silica was employed as an adsorbent to remove petrol pollutants from water. The experimental
approach revealed that with the use of just 0.6 gm. of M-NS on a petroleum concentration of 40 mg l−1, can
result in an absorption efficiency of 85 percent. Because a large volume of petroleum was removed, sorption
proved to be a successful procedure. The study also shows that as the amount of sorbent grows, so does the
sorption capacity until an equilibrium is attained [36].

4.2. Synthesis of HPAM (hydrolyzed polyacrylamide) -based Al2O3 PNFs (polymeric nanofluids)
Nanoparticles (NPs) have been thoroughly explored for their usage in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) due to their
special features and availability in large numbers. A new trend in nanotechnology is incorporating nanoparticles
as an additive with polymer to create unique materials known as polymeric nanofluids (PNFs) for EOR. The
most productive and effective method for recovering hydrocarbons from depleted reservoirs is polymer

7
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

flooding, a chemical EOR strategy. For polymer floods in the field, partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM)
is the most widely used polymer. HPAM is preferred in EOR field applications because it is resistant to bacteria,
has high water solubility and mobility control, and is a relatively low-cost polymer. Al2O3NP is a metal oxide
nanoparticle with excellent qualities as a nanofluid. They have slightly high thermal conductivity and can easily
disperse heat from fluids using Brownian motion. As a result, fluids with Al2O3NPs are less impacted by
temperature changes [37].
HPAM polymer was added directly to deionized water to make the polymer solutions. Varying polymer
concentrations from 500 to 5,000 ppm were used to establish the critical concentration of HPAM molecules. A
fixed concentration of HPAM above the critical concentration was used for rheological characterization. A two-
step technique was used to create the polymeric nanofluids. First, a predetermined number of NPs (0, 0.02, 0.03,
0.04, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 weight percent) were dispersed in DIW and ultrasonically homogenized to produce a
stable and homogeneous dispersion. The HPAM powder was then gently blended into the matching aqueous
NPs dispersion. The sample was then allowed to cool to room temperature. The use of NP as an addition for
HPAM reduced thermal degradation and chemical degradation of the aqueous polymer molecules due to their
shielding properties. Al2O3 PNF outperformed SiO2 PNF and individual HPAM solutions in both rheological
and oil displacement investigations, owing to their exceptional physicochemical properties and high thermal
conductivity. Furthermore, the Al2O3 PNF reduced the capillary force of trapped residual oil by changing the
wettability of an oil-soaked surface to a water-soaked surface. Finally, in normal reservoir conditions, 0.1 weight
percent Al2O3 PNF enhanced oil recovery efficiency from sandstone cores [37].

4.3. Synthesis of carbon nanotubes/SiO2 nanomaterials

Carbon-based nanomaterials are well known for their de-emulsifying properties. This is due to their ability to
form strong bonds with the oil and adsorbing on its surface because of the π−π and p−π bond formations. A
nanomaterial was formed using this property by transplanting nano-SiO2 over the surface of oxidized carbon
nanotubes (Ox-CNTs). For the synthesis of this particular nanomaterial, materials like CNTs, Tetraethoxysilane
(TEOS), sodium chloride (NaCl), ammonia solution (NH3·H2O), Nitric acid (HNO3) and concentrated sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) were utilized. Oxidized CNTs were prepared by subjecting CNTs to oxidation in the presence of
nitric acid and sulphuric acid mixture. This mixture was dispersed evenly using ultrasonication and later heated
at 80 degree celsius. It was then cooled to ambient temperature, filtered, washed, and dried to obtain Ox-CNTs.
For grafting SiO2 over CNTs, the solvothermal method is utilized. In this method, the precursors are solubilized
in a solvent at high temperatures where chemical reactions occur, then crystallized to give desired
nanostructures. Similarly, Ox-CNTs were dispersed in ethanol, water, and TEOS. To further adjust the pH level,
an ammonia solution was also added. This solution is heated at 110 degree celsius; after the product is formed,
the mixture is cooled to room temperature, washed, and dried. IAnd finally, it is vacuum freeze-dried. An
analysis to find out the chemical composition of the prepared nanomaterial was performed using Energy-
dispersive x-ray (EDX). During this process, distinct S, O, and C peaks were obtained, confirming the perfect
grafting of SiO2 on the CNTs. These nanomaterials are environment-friendly and have high interfacial activity
and wettability. These properties allow it to be absorbed quickly and easily on the oil-water interface. Which, in
turn, improves the coalescence of water droplets [38].

4.4. Synthesis of MgO nanoparticles

Various studies have suggested the use of Magnesium oxide nanoparticles as fuel additives. Fuel additives are
substances or chemicals that enhance their octane number when added to the fuel. Octane number directly
indicates the combustion characteristics or, more precisely, the anti-knocking properties of the fuel. Due to the
high specific surface area and high oil-dispersion properties of MgO nanoparticles, they can be used as fuel
additives in heavy fuel oils. The first step in the synthesis is to precipitate magnesium cations in the form of
Mg(OH)2. The precursors here are magnesium nitrate and NaOH. A mixture of magnesium nitrate in water is
prepared, and NaOH is added to it. Upon stirring for 2 h, we obtain our required precipitate of Mg(OH)2. The
precipitate is then washed and dried to remove any impurities. After this, calcination is done at 500 °C to obtain
MgO nanoparticles.
Capping agents are substances that are added to control the growth of nanoparticles and prevent their
agglomeration. They provide stability to the nanoparticles during their synthesis. [39] In MgO nanoparticles
synthesis, the capping agent used is oleic acid. These capping agents are added to the solution of MgO
nanoparticles and kerosene. Mixed with the capping agents, this solution is heated up to 100–200 °C.

4.5. Synthesis of carbon quantum dots

Carbon Quantum Dots, or CQDs, are used as tracers in many oil and petroleum industries. CQDs are potential
tracers that can be used and help determine the presence of any pollutants in crude oil. The raw material for the

8
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

Figure 3. Experimental setup for fabricating CQDs using Mortiño fruit in Colombian oil field reservoir.

manufacturing of CQD is Mortiño (Vaccinium Meridionale Swartz). Mortiño is a fruit that looks like a berry and
has high nutritional value. At first, Mortiño was washed with Chlorine to remove any dirt or impurities. Then
the juice of the fruit was taken out as an extract. The concentration of this extract was brought up to the desired
value by filtering the juice with Whatman filter paper and then using a 200 W microwave for around 15 min
After going through the microwave heating, the desirable concentration was achieved, which was 4 M of natural
citric acid. Now this concentrated extract is homogenized by means of a magnetic stirrer for uniform
distribution of the pulps throughout the juice. A sample of 2 ml of the extract was taken, and 0.5 ml of pure
ethylenediamine was added. This pure ethylenediamine serves as a Nitrogen donor. The mixture was thoroughly
stirred for 30 s. A brown-colored homogeneous mixture is obtained. Subsequently, the mixture is irradiated
using a domestic microwave oven of 300 W for about 5–6 min This results in the formation of a brown-colored
hot gel-like solution. This solution is then dispersed into a 5 ml water bath at 80 °C. Ultimately, the solid CQDs
are filtered from the solution. This Carbon Quantum Dots fabrication method using Mortiño fruit was done in
the Colombian oil field reservoir [12]. The experimental setup of this method is depicted in figure 3.

4.6. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles

Nonionic surfactants/mesoporous silica complexes can be used as nanocarriers for surfactant-controlled release
in improved oil recovery to reduce surfactant losses [40]. Good control of mesoporous silica nanoparticles’
morphology, particle size, uniformity, and dispersity (MSNs) is increasingly important in various fields. Several
studies have been conducted on synthesizing mesoporous silicas, and have concluded that mesostructured
surfactant–silica nanocomposites spontaneously assemble through interaction matching of the organic and
inorganic components. Cai et al [41] first synthesized silica nanoparticles. The synthesis of MSNs can be
achieved by various adjustments of synthesis conditions, including the pH of the reaction mixture, the
characteristics of surfactants or copolymers used, and the concentrations and sources of silica. The well-
controlled particle size of the MSNs would allow good control in particle–cell interactions and precise
quantitative dose in carrying cargos. Moeller et al used the base triethanolamine (TEA) as a substitute [42]. The
greater the amount of TEA used, the smaller the particle size of the produced [43]. MSNs. Rao et al [44]
synthesized the monodisperse uniform-sized silica nanoparticles by hydrolysis of TEOS in an ethanol medium
with ammonium hydroxide. First, ethanol was taken and kept in a sonication bath. After 10 min, a known
volume of TEOS was added while sonicating, and after 20 min, 28% ammonium hydroxide was added as a
catalyst to promote the condensation reaction. Sonication was continued for a further 60 min to get a white
turbid suspension. All the above experiments were conducted at room temperature [44].

9
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

4.7. Synthesis of zeolite nanoparticles

Nano zeolite crystals can be synthesized using various methods like hydrothermal crystallization, confined
space, ultrasonic, microwave, seeding, and microreactor. Out of all these methods, hydrothermal crystallization
is the most used method for synthesizing zeolite nanocrystals as the crystallization process is very easy to control.
These crystals are prepared on nucleation of clear solutions with a precursor gel under hydrothermal conditions.
To attain desired nucleation, factors like hydrothermal treatment temperature, polymerization process in the
course of preparing the initial precursor gel, concentration and type of structure-directing agents (SDAs), mass
of metal cation in the colloidal solution of precursor, etc, have to be controlled. In general, zeolites are produced
in amorphous form and then converted to crystalline form by varying the size. Basically, the zeolite nuclei are
formed in the center of the colloidal solution. Then they gradually grow and expand outwards till the entire
amorphous form of the zeolites gets converted into crystalline form. These are then heated to high temperatures
to obtain bigger cubic crystals of the zeolite. In recent times, tiny EMT-type zeolite was synthesized from a
sodium-rich precursor system that was template-free under low-temperature hydrothermal conditions and by
having the control on polymerization process in the course of preparing the initial suspension,resulted in
decreased crystal growth [5].

4.8. Synthesis of zirconia nanoparticles

Zirconia nanoparticles are catalysts in thermal decomposition, aqueous precipitation, sol-gel, and hydrothermal
synthesis. Given that thermal cracking is an example of thermal decomposition and it is a known fact that it is
employed in converting low-grade crude oil to a higher one, synthesizing of zirconia (ZnO2) has become
important [45]. Initially, yellow powder and zirconia are mixed with sodium hydroxide aqueous solution. This
mixture is then stirred for 3 h, and transferred to a high-pressure reactor where it is kept at 150 °C for around
85 h. After this hydrothermal treatment of zirconia, we obtain a product in a sol-gel state. This semi-solid
medium is then rinsed in dil. HCl and water to eliminate OH- ions. After that, it is dried for 6 h at 110 °C. The
dried product is then dispersed into acrylonitrile with the help of an ultrasonic device. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
patterns were used to determine the particles’ size and the crystalline phase. Changes in the shape and form and
aggregate size distributions were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a transmission
electron microscope (TEM). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was carried out to govern the composition of
ZnO2 before the hydrothermal treatment. A particle size of 15–30 nm can be obtained using this process.
Differences between the size of nanoparticles formed by conventional and hydrothermal methods can be seen in
figure 4 [7].

4.9. Synthesis of graphene oxide nanosheets (GONs)

Because of its peculiar two-dimensional structure and exceptional physical and chemical capabilities, graphene
and its derivatives have recently gained popularity in the oil and gas industry. Its exceptional optical, electrical,
thermal, and mechanical properties make it an excellent candidate for use in oil and gas exploration, drilling,
production, and transportation [46].
Graphene oxide (GO) has been found to be useful in chemically enhanced oil recovery because of its
surfactant-like features, such as increasing wettability, emulsifying, and lowering interfacial tension. Graphene
oxide is utilized to produce nanosheets that increase the viscosity of the aqueous solution, reduce the oil-water
interfacial tension, and change the oil-wet carbonate rocks into water-wet [47]. These nanosheets are
synthesized by using the traditional modified Hummers’ method and through the oxidation of natural graphite
flakes. To initiate the process, 50 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was added to a 500 ml volumetric beaker
containing 2 g of graphite and agitated for 1 h at 80 °C to expand graphite carbon sheets. After cooling at
ambient temperature, 2 g of sodium nitrate was added to the beaker in an ice bath (510 °C) with constant
stirring. Then, 10 g of potassium permanganate was progressively added to the suspension. After reaching a
green uniform viscous liquid, the ice bath was withdrawn, and the mixture was agitated at 40 °C for 1.5 h. Within
15 min, 160 ml of deionized (DI) water was added to the beaker. Exfoliation was completed by adding 400 ml of
DI water and 5 ml of hydrogen peroxide. The yellow suspension was filtered and rinsed with 10% HCl and DI
water until it achieved a neutral pH (6). The GO slurry was then redistributed in DI water and centrifuged at
10 000 rpm to remove the unreacted/ unexfoliated graphite residue. Large sheets of GO were obtained by
sonicating the solution in an ultrasonic bath for 1 h. Finally, a probe sonicator was used to transform huge sheets
of GO into tiny sheets of GO. The results showed that increasing the dosage of GONs to 800 ppm could modify
the viscosity of DI water to 1.6 cSt. After the addition of NaCl, GONs suspensions became increasingly viscous.
However, the viscosity augmentation was inconsistent since when the salt content reached 40 000 or 60 000
ppm, the viscosity fluctuated, reaching high points of 3 and 3.2 cSt, respectively.

10
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

Figure 4. Difference between the size of nanoparticles formed by conventional and hydrothermal methods.

5. Conclusion

Nanotechnology originated in the early 1980s, it has gained importance in the previous two decades.
Nanomaterials are used in various industries but have recently acquired prominence in the oil and petroleum
business. If the entire oil and petroleum industry is categorized into three parts, upstream, midstream, and
downstream, it is evident from the literature survey that nanomaterials have a huge role to play in all these
sectors. Unlike bulk materials, nanomaterials changed our entire perspective of dealing with things. As the
materials’ size is reduced to 1 nm and 100 nm, size-related inhibitions are annihilated. Nanomaterials like
carbon quantum dots are being used as a tracer in the oil and petroleum industry to detect the presence of
pollutants and toxic agents in crude oil. Since it is very small, it doesn’t show any noticeable change in the physio-
chemical properties of the product. With their salient features like high thermal conductivity, large surface area,
and pollution resistance, nanomaterials have its implementation in drilling operation, where it helps to clean the
wellbore’s bottom, discard cuttings, keep up wellbore stability by controlling formation pressure, cool and
lubricate the drill bit and prevent fluid inflow. To control oil spills due to the corrosion of the oil containers,
Shchukin et al have discovered a novel nanomaterial known as a halloysite/polyelectrolyte anti-corrosion
nanocontainer. So, nanomaterials are used as an anticorrosive in the oil and petroleum industry [13]. In the
midstream process, flooding, nanomaterials are used for EOR. Nanoparticles are added to the injection fluid to
alter the fluid characteristics and rock wettability, decreasing interfacial tension, improving sand consolidation,
advancing drag reduction, enhancing the ability of movement of capillary-trapped oil and countering the
challenges faced during conventional oil recovery. Nanomaterials are used as demulsifiers and catalysts in
downstream processes. Since a large amount of water is used in oil extraction, water, and oil form an emulsion. It
is important to separate oil and water before treating the crude because it can cause fouling and scaling inside the
plant equipment. Since conventional demulsifiers are very toxic and complexe to manufacture, industry experts
have devised a novel idea: using nanomaterials as demulsifiers, which are less toxic and eco-friendly than
conventional ones. The other important use of nanomaterials in downstream processes is their catalytic
property. Nanocatalysts are used to increase the API gravity value of low-grade crude oil in the thermal cracking

11
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

process. This process is very economical and doesn’t cause much harm to the environment. It is also used to
sweeten the crude by helping remove sulfur from the crude using the hydro desulphurization process (HDS).

Data availability statement

This is a review article and no new data was created or use. The data that support the findings of this study are
available upon reasonable request from the authors.

ORCID iDs

Utkarsh Chadha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5044-3761

Senthil Kumaran Selvaraj https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9994-9424

References
[1] Peng B, Tang J, Luo J, Wang P, Ding B and Tam K C 2018 Applications of nanotechnology in oil and gas industry: progress and
perspective The Canadian Journal Of Chemical Engineering 96 91–100
[2] Shingala J et al 2020 Evolution of nanomaterials in petroleum industries: application and the challenges J. Petrol Explor Prod. Technol.
10 3993–4006
[3] Fakoya M F and Shah S N 2017 Emergence of nanotechnology in the oil and gas industry: emphasis on the application of silica
nanoparticles Petroleum 3 391–405
[4] Lashari N and Tarek G 2020 Emerging applications of nanomaterials in chemical enhanced oil recovery: progress and perspective Chin.
J. Chem. Eng. 28 1995–2009
[5] Etim U, Peng B and Yan Z 2018 Nanotechnology Applications in Petroleum Refining ed T Saleh (Berlin: Springer, Cham.) (https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-60630-9_2)
[6] Paolo C, Giovanni L G and Luca V 2020 Chapter 7 - Nanotechnology for green materials and processes Studies in Surface Science and
Catalysis (Amsterdam: Elsevier) vol 179, pp 97–116
[7] Behbahani A, Rowshanzamir S and Esmaeilifar A 2012 Hydrothermal synthesis of zirconia nanoparticles from commercial zirconia
Procedia Engineering 42 908–17
[8] Zhe Z and Yuxiu A 2018 Nanotechnology for the oil and gas industry—an overview of recent progress Nanotechnology Reviews 7
341–53
[9] Cheraghian G and Luky H 2015 A review on applications of nanotechnology in the enhanced oil recovery part b: effects of nanoparticles
on flooding International Nano Letters 6 1–10
[10] Amarfio E M and Abdulkadir M 2015 Effect of Fe4O3 nanoparticles on the rheological properties of water based mud Journal of Physical
Science and Application 5 415–22
[11] Medhi S, Chowdhury S, Gupta D K and Mehrotra U 2019 Nanotechnology: an emerging drilling fluid solution Oil Gas Res 5 163
[12] Franco C A, Candela C H, Gallego J, Marin J, Patiñ o L E, Ospina N and Cortés F B 2020 Easy and rapid synthesis of carbon quantum
dots from Mortino (VacciniumMeridionale Swartz) extract for use as green tracers in the oil and gas industry: Lab-to-field trial
development in Colombia Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 59 11359–69
[13] Shchukin D G, Lamaka S V, Yasakau K A, Zheludkevich M L, Ferreira M G S and Möhwald H 2008 Active anticorrosion coatings with
halloysite nanocontainers J. Phys. Chem. C 112 958–64
[14] Nwaoji C O, Hareland G, Husein M, Nygaard R and Mohammad Ferdous Z 2013 Wellbore strengthening-nano-particle drilling fluid
experimental design using hydraulic fracture apparatus Paper presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conf. (Amsterdam, The Netherlands)
(https://doi.org/10.2118/163434-MS)
[15] Heggset E B, Chinga-Carrasco G and Syverud K 2017 Temperature stability of nanocellulose dispersions Carbohydrate Polym. 157
114–21
[16] Hogeweg A S, Hincapie R E, Foedisch H and Ganzer L 2018 Evaluation of aluminium oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles for
EOR applications In: SPE Europec featured at 80th EAGE conference and exhibition, 11–14 June (Copenhagen, Denmark) (https://doi.
org/10.2118/190872-MS)
[17] Kumar N, Kumar A and Kumar S 2018 Effect of synthesized AMPSg-clay/CuO nanocomposite on WBDFS for challenging formations
In: IADC/SPE Asia Pacific drilling technology conference and exhibition, 27–29 August (Bangkok, Thailand) (https://doi.org/10.2118/
191105-MS)
[18] Pandey A, Telmadarreie A, Trifkovic M and Bryant S 2018 Cellulose nanocrystal stabilized emulsions for conformance control and fuid
diversion in porous media Paper presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition (Dallas, Texas, USA) (https://doi.
org/10.2118/191609-MS)
[19] Alkhamis M and Imqam A 2018 New cement formulations utilizing graphene nano platelets to improve cement properties and long-
term reliability in oil wells In: SPE Kingdom of Saudi Arabia annual technical symposium and exhibition, 23–26 April (Dammam, Saudi
Arabia) (https://doi.org/10.2118/192342-MS)
[20] Li Y, Guo J, Wang S, Yang R and Lu Q 2019 Reducing hydroxypropyl guar gum adsorption on rock by silica nanoparticles for tight
reservoir damage remediation In: Int. petroleum technology conference, 26–28 March (Beijing, China) (https://doi.org/10.2523/IPTC-
19561-MS)
[21] Santra A K, Boul P and Pang X 2012 Infuence of nanomaterials in oilwell cement hydration and mechanical properties In: SPE
international oilfeld nanotechnology conference and exhibition, 12–14 June (Noordwijk, The Netherlands) (https://doi.org/10.2118/
156937-MS)
[22] Riley M, Young S, Stamatakis E, Guo Q, Ji L, De Stefano G, Price K and Friedheim J 2012 Wellbore stability in unconventional shale -
the design of a nano-particle fluid SPE Oil and Gas India Conf. and Exhibition (https://doi.org/10.2118/153729-MS)
[23] Giraldo L J 2018 Janus nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery EOR: reduction of interfacial tension In: SPE annual technical conference
and exhibition, 24–26 September (Dallas, Texas, USA) (https://doi.org/10.2118/194033-STU)

12
Nano Express 4 (2023) 022002 A Roy et al

[24] Ahmed S, Ezeakacha C P and Salehi S 2018 Improvement in cement sealing properties and integrity using conductive carbon nano
materials: from strength to thickening time In: SPE annual technical conference and exhibition, 24–26 September (Dallas, Texas, USA)
(https://doi.org/10.2118/191709-MS)
[25] Patel H kumar, Shah S, Ahmed R and Ucan S 2018 Effects of nanoparticles and temperature on heavy oil viscosity Journal of Petroleum
Science and Engineering 167 819–28
[26] Parizad A, Shahbazi K and Tanha A A 2018 Enhancement of polymeric water-based drilling fuid properties using nanoparticles J. Pet.
Sci .Eng. 170 813–28
[27] Xu Z, Jin Y and Chen M 2013 Ultrasonic curable nanoparticles strengthening technique while drilling In: SPE annual technical
conference and exhibition, 30 September–2 October (New Orleans, Louisiana, USA) (https://doi.org/10.2118/166355-MS)
[28] Mateus L, Taborda E A, Moreno-Castilla C, López-Ramón M V, Franco C A and Cortés F B 2021 Extra-heavy crude oil viscosity
reduction using and reusing magnetic copper ferrite nanospheres Processes 2021 9 175
[29] Wei B, Qinzhi L, Wang Y, Gao K, Pu W and Sun L 2018 An experimental study of enhanced oil recovery EOR using a green nano-
suspension In: SPE improved oil recovery conference, 14–18 April (Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA) (https://doi.org/10.2118/190283-MS)
[30] Davarpanah A 2020 Parametric study of polymer-nanoparticles-assisted injectivity performance for axisymmetric two-phase flow in
eor processes Nanomaterials 10 1818
[31] Mughal B et al 2021 Biogenic nanoparticles: synthesis, characterisation and applications Applied Sciences 11 2598
[32] Zhiming H, Ping L, Xiao L, Xia J, Lei L, Fan Y, Jiazhe K, Yue L and Yuanzhu M 2019 Synthesis of a novel environmentally friendly and
interfacially active CNTs/SiO2 demulsifier for W/O crude oil emulsion separation Energy & Fuels 33 7166–75
[33] Fang S, Chen T, Chen B, Xiong Y, Zhu Y and Duan M 2016 Graphene oxide at oil-water interfaces: adsorption, assembly &
demulsification Colloids Surf. A 511 47–54
[34] Fang S, Chen T, Wang R, Xiong Y, Chen B and Duan M 2016 Assembly of graphene oxide at the crude oil/water interface: a new
approach to efficient demulsification Energy Fuels 30 3355–64
[35] Basher N A and Abdulkhabeer A 2022 Synthesis of novel demulsifiernano-materials and their application in the oil industry Mater.
Today Proc. 49 2842–50
[36] Akhayere E, Vaseashta A and Kavaz D 2020 Novel Magnetic Nano Silica Synthesis Using Barley Husk Waste for Removing Petroleum
from Polluted Water for Environmental Sustainability Sustainability 12 10646
[37] Afeez G, Radzuan J, Mohammad M, Agi A, Jeffrey O and Jamilu U 2019 Synergistic application of aluminium oxide nanoparticles and
oilfield polyacrylamide for enhanced oil recovery Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 182 106345
[38] Huang Z, Li P, Luo X, Jiang X, Liu L, Ye F, Kuang J, Luo Y and Mi Y 2019 Synthesis of a novel environmentally friendly and interfacially
active CNTs/SiO2 demulsifier for W/O crude oil emulsion separation Energy & Fuels 33 7166–75
[39] Park J-Y, Lee Y-J, Jun K-W, Baeg J-O and Yim D 2006 Chemical synthesis and characterization of highly oil dispersed MgO
nanoparticles J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 12 882–7
[40] De Freitas F A et al 2019 Synthesis and evaluation of the potential of nonionic surfactants/mesoporous silica systems as nanocarriers for
surfactant controlled release in enhanced oil recovery Fuel 241 1184–94
[41] Wu S-H, Mou C-Y and Lin H-P 2013 Synthesis of mesoporous silica nanoparticles Chemical Society 42
[42] Moeller K, Kobler J and Bein T 2007 Colloidal suspensions of nanometer-sized mesoporous silica Adv. Funct. Mater. 17 605–12
[43] Pan L, He Q, Liu J, Chen Y, Ma M, Zhang L and Shi J 2012 Nuclear-targeted drug delivery of TAT peptide-conjugated monodisperse
mesoporous silica nanoparticles JACS 134 5722–5
[44] Rao K S, El-Hami K, Kodaki T, Matsushige K and Makino K 2005 A novel method for synthesis of silica nanoparticles Journal of Colloid
and Interface Science 289 125–31
[45] Narayan N, Meiyazhagan A and Vajtai R 2019 Metal nanoparticles as green catalysts Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 12 3602
[46] Neuberger N, Adidharma H and Fan M 2018 Graphene: A review of applications in the petroleum industry Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering 167 152–9
[47] Fu L, Liao K, Tang B, Jiang L and Huang W 2020 Applications of graphene and its derivatives in the upstream oil and gas industry: a
systematic review Nanomaterials 10 1013

13