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INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
CONTENTS PAGE
HARDWARE ...................................................................................... 2
SOFTWARE ...................................................................................... 76
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
HARDWARE
COMPUTER
An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept process
& output data/information for use by the operator.
A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program,
generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and
control units.
A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures) as input and
processes (works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form) as
output.
*HARDWARE*
*SOFTWARE*
Refers to the intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions of
the computer.
Is a set of instructions or programs instructing a computer to do specific tasks.
_Software is a generic term used to describe computer programs_
Scripts, applications, programs and a set of instructions are the terms often used to
describe software.
Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as computer
programs.
The hardware needs these instructions to function
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*PROGRAM* (computer program)
*NB* _Software alone is useless, so is the hardware. The two are inseparable_
*FIRMWARE*
_Firmware was originally designed for high level software and could be changed without
having to exchange the hardware for a newer device. Firmware also retains the basic
instructions for hardware devices that make them operative. Without firmware, a
hardware device would be non-functional_
*PERIPHERAL DEVICES*
These are devices that are external (not part of the computer) but can be connected to a
computer.
They are not essential for the functioning of the computer but can be connected to the
computer for specific reasons.
Examples are: _scanners, modems, printers, speakers, digital cameras, etc._
*FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER*
*Input (Data)*
o The computer accepts data from outside for processing. Input is the raw
information entered into a computer from the input devices.
o Transferring of information into the system. This may be through a user
input device - i.e. keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.. Or though previously
loaded software/program, cd etc.
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*Processing*
o The computer performs operations on the data that it holds internally.
o Processing is the operation of data as per given instruction.
o It is totally internal process of the computer system.
o This is where the computer actually does the 'work' - manipulating and
controlling data over the entire system.
*Output*
o The computer produces information for external use.
o Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is
also called as Result.
o Output is the exact opposite of input.
o Output is the function that allows a computer to display information, from
the system, for the user.
o This can be accomplished through the monitor (or other graphical
display), printer, speakers etc.
*Storage*
o The computer stores data before, during and after processing.
o We can save results of processing in the storage devices for the future use.
o Most computers are able to store data both temporarily (in order to
process), but also long-term (i.e., permanently).
o Storage takes place on hard-drives or external storage devices.
*Communication*
o The computer can send or receive data to or from other computers when it is
connected on a network
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HARDWARE VS SOFTWARE
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Hardware starts functioning once software To deliver its set of instructions, Software is
is loaded. installed on hardware.
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*INPUT UNIT*
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
*OUTPUT UNIT*
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
*STORAGE UNIT*
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from
input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In processing this
data, the CPU performs four basic steps:
1. Fetch Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes
this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which
instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data is
written to the memory.
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central processing unit of a
computer system. It does all processes related to arithmetic and logic operations that need
to be done on instruction words. In some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is
divided into the arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
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_ALUs routinely perform the following operations_
*Logical Operations*: These include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NOR, NAND, etc.
*Bit-Shifting Operations*: This pertains to shifting the positions of the bits by a
certain number of places to the right or left, which is considered a multiplication
operation.
*Arithmetic Operations*: This refers to bit addition and subtraction. Although
multiplication and division are sometimes used, these operations are more
expensive to make. Addition can be used to substitute for multiplication and
subtraction for division.
*CONTROL UNIT*
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and output flow,
fetches code for instructions from microprograms and directs other units and models by providing
control and timing signals. A CU component is considered the processor brain because it issues
orders to just about everything and ensures correct instruction execution.
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The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.
These memories are also called as internal These memories are also called as external
memory memory
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
*According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid*
*Analog Computer*
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved
*Digital Computer*
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system
1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer
*SUPERCOMPUTER*
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
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organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for
space exploration purpose.
The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an
entire building.
*Uses Of Supercomputers*
Space Exploration
Earthquake studies
Weather Forecasting
Nuclear weapons testing
*MAINFRAME COMPUTER*
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are
quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses
Mainframes to run their business operations.
The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms
because of its size.
Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data.
Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to
store data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
*MINICOMPUTER*
*MICROCOMPUTER*
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones
are all types of microcomputers.
The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers.
These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.
The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment,
education and work purposes.
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Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony &
Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car,
Netbooks, Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.
*The main differences among the above computer types are in*:
Processing speed,
Memory capacity
Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the
computer
Usage.
*COMPUTER APPLICATIONS*
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.
1. *COST*; how much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal
computers range from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more
feature-rich PCs are usually more expensive.
2. *AREA OF USE*; where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in
your home or office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need
to take it with you, you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer.
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4. *DURATION*; How long will I keep this computer?Try to estimate the length of
time (years) you will use your computerbefore BUYING the next one. If you expect
use your PC for several years or if you think you may later want to add new
applications, CONSIDER one that is expandable, so you can add new components,
such as a modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so
you can connect these devices to your PC.
9. *MAIN MEMORY* (RAM). Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary
storage of programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application
software requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer
software versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now
come with 2 gigabytes (GB), 5GB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has
sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.
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11. *PORTS*. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines
the number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For
example, you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is
equipped with an appropriate port (slot).
12. *INPUT DEVICES*. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although
other kinds of input devices are available.
13. *OUTPUT DEVICES*. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard
copy form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have
to purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.
14. *MONITORS*.
Resolution refers to the clarity of the text and images being displayed. Before
making a purchase, carefully evaluate the monitor’s resolution.
Monitor size is another important consideration.
DATA PROCESSING
DATA
Data is raw information
a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully knowledge
for the person who receives it. Information is the output of information systems.
Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
DATA PROCESSING
Used specifically, data processing may refer to a discrete step in the information processing cycle
in which data is acquired, entered, validated, processed, stored, and output, either in response to
queries or in the form of routine reports; the processing is the step that organizes the information
in order to form the desired output. Used in a more general sense, data processing may also refer
to the act of recording or otherwise handling one or more sets of data, and is often performed with
the use of computers. The word data is commonly used to mean “information” and often suggests
large amounts of information in a standardized format. Data may consist of letters, numbers,
equations, dates, images, and other material, but does not usually include entire words.
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CATEGORIES OF DATA PROCESSING
Data is processed to get the required results. Different operations may be performed on
data. Therefore, data processing is defined as:
"A sequence of operations on data to convert it into useful information is called data
processing". The important operations that can be performed on data are:
In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or tool
to get required result. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical
operations are manually performed on the data. Similarly, data is manually transferred
from one place to another. This method of data processing is very slow and errors may
occur in the output.
In Zimbabwe, data is still processed manually in many small business firms as well as
government offices & institutions.
All the calculations on data are performed manually. This is a slow method and errors
may occur. This is an old method. It was used before the invention of calculators. But
data is still processed manually in many small shops.
Example: A book seller (a small book shop) records his daily transactions manually. He
prepares bills by pen, paper and carbon paper (no doubt, brain is the main data processor
in this case). At the end of day he will use carbon copies made on a particular date to
know how many books he sold and how much income he got.
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2. Mechanical Data Processing
In mechanical data processing, data is processed by using different tools like calculators
or other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is faster and more accurate
than manual data processing.
Mechanical data processing is more accurate than manual. Calculators, computer
programs and other devices are used on the data however someone still has to step in
between operations.
In mechanical data processing data is processed with the help of devices or machines.
These machines that help the people in data processing may be calculators and type
writers etc. Obviously, this method is faster easier and more accurate than manual data
processing.
Example: Book seller can use a calculator to speed up his data processing system. There
will be a less chance of errors in calculations. Bill calculations will be much more faster
with a calculator and easier too.
It is the modern technique to process data. The data is processed through computer. Data
and set of instructions are given to the computer as input and the computer automatically
processes the data according to the given set of instructions.
The computer is also known as electronic data processing machine. This method of
processing data is very fast and accurate. Now-a-days, the data is processed and analyzed
through computers. For example, the results of students are prepared through computer;
in banks accounts of customers are processed through computers etc.
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It is the latest and fastest method of data processing. Data is processed with the help of
computer. First of all, data and set of instructions are given to the computer. Computer
gives output results after processing the data according to instructions. This method of
data processing is very fast and accurate. Electronic data processing is used in banks and
business firms, Government offices, colleges, schools, universities, businesses and other
institutes. Electronic data processing is being used in almost every field of life. Example:
Suppose there are 800 students in a college. There is a manual library system in this
college. If we want to know which students have not returned books since one year? We
will have to search registers for 800 students’ record. But computer can do this job within
seconds.
The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages:-
Input
This is the first event in the cycle. This stage involves collection of data from the outside or also
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from within the system. One can break this stage into three more stages, namely acquisition, data
entry and validation. After the data has been acquired from the source, it is entered into the
current system, upon which the data is validated, so that correct results are given at the end of the
cycle. The input devices are many. The commonly used input devices are computer keyboard, bar
code readers, scanners, output from another system, etc.
Processing
In this stage the computer processes the minutest details entered. This processing makes the data
entered usable. If the computer was not to process the data, it would not be of any use and it
would also be a big mess of data. For example, if the spreadsheet was not to process the data, then
the data in the spreadsheet would only be a mess of numbers. The spreadsheet is a program which
gives the data out back to the user in the usable form. The system used for processing, along with
the data entered will decide the kind of output, which the user will get.
Output
If you have to look at the diagram of data/ information processing cycle, the step after processing
is the output stage. The processed information is now transmitted to the user. This stage can also
be further divided. After processing the data, there can be further interactive queries asked or
routine reports can be given. There are different forms in which the output can be given to the
user. There can be print report, which may be given to the user. The output can also be given in
the form of audio, video as well. In some cases, the results may only be displayed on the
computer monitor.
Storage
After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the data is also stored.
Different computer storage devices can be used for the same. Some of the commonly used data
storage methods are disk storage, tertiary storage, etc. Storing the data also serves another
purpose. You will not have to repeat the entire cycle again. Often the storage is done in both
digital as well as hard copy format. At the same time, backup of the digital format is also
maintained, which can be retrieved in case of system crash.
The most important advantage of this cycle is that the information is processed quickly. At the
same time retrieving the data is an easy task as well. The processed information can further be
passed unto the next stage directly in case the need be. The necessary data is stored, which helps
in avoiding duplication of data as well as time.
Quality Commentary
Required
Relevant The information obtained and used should be needed for decision-making. it
doesn't matter how interesting it is. Businesses are often criticised for producing
too much information simply because their information systems can "do it". A
good way of ensuring relevance is to closely define the objectives of any
information reports. Another way to improve relevance is to produce information
that focuses on "exceptions" - e.g. problems, high or low values, where limits have
been exceeded.
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Up-to-date Information needs to be timely if it is to be actioned. For example, the manager of
a large retail business needs daily information on how stores are performing,
which products are selling well (or not) so that immediate action can be taken. To
improve the speed with which information is produced, businesses usually need to
look at upgrading or replacing their information systems.
Accurate As far as possible, information should be free from errors (e.g. the figures add up;
data is allocated to the correct categories). The users of information should be
informed whenever assumptions or estimates have been used. Accruate
information is usually a function of accurate data collection. If information needs
to be extremely accurate, then more time needs to be allocated for it to be checked.
However, businesses need to guard against trying to produce "perfect" information
- it is often more important for the information to be up-to-date than perfect.
Meet the Users of information have different needs. The managing director doesn't have
needs of the time to trawl through thick printouts of each week's production or sales listings -
User he or she wants a summary of the key facts. The quality control supervisor will
want detailed information about quality testing results rather than a brief one-line
summary of how things are going. It is a good idea to encourage users to help
develop the style and format of information reporting that they require.
Easy to use Information should be clearly presented (e.g. use summaries, charts) and not too
and long. It also needs to be communicated using an appropriate medium (e.g. email,
understand printed report, presentation. Businesses should also consider developing
"templates" which are used consistently throughout the organisation - so that users
get used to seeing information in a similar style.
Worth the Often forgotten. Information costs money. Data is costly to collect, analyse and
cost report. Information takes time to read and assimilate. All users should question
whether the information they recieve/have requested is worthwhile
Reliable Information should come from authoritative sources. It is good practice to quote
the source used - whether it be internal or external sources. If estimates or
assumptions have been applied, these should be clearly stated and explained.
1) Valid
2) Fit for use
3) Accessible
4) Cost effective
5) Understandable
6) Time
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COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
INPUT DEVICES:
Graphics Tablets
Cameras
Video Capture Hardware
Trackballs
Barcode reader
Digital camera
Gamepad
Joystick
Keyboard
Microphone
MIDI keyboard
Mouse (pointing device)
Scanner
Webcam
Touchpads
Pen Input
Microphone
Electronic Whiteboard
OMR
OCR
u) Punch card reader
v)MICR (Magnetic Ink character reader)
w) Magnetic Tape Drive
OUTPUT DEVICES:
Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc)
Printers (all types)
Plotters
Projector
LCD Projection Panels
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Speaker(s)
Head Phone
Visual Display Unit
Film Recorder
Microfiche
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Network cards
Touch Screen
Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone. Speaker act Output
Device and Microphone act as Input device)
Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to
Print the document)
Audio Cards / Sound Card
INPUT DEVICES
These are some devices that feed data into the computer for processing. Some examples
include:-
1. KEYBOARD
2. MOUSE
3. TRACKBALL
4. LIGHT PEN
5. TOUCH SCREEN
6. MODEM
7. SCANNER
8. MICROPHONE
9. BAR CODE READER
10. DIGITAL CAMERA
11. VIDEO DIGITISER
12. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
13. MAGNETC STRIPS OR STRIPES READER
14. KEY TO DISK
15. GRAPHICS TABLET
16. OCR
17. OMR
18. VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
KEYBOARD
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
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MOUSE
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
Easy to use
Not very expensive
Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
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JOYSTICK
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
LIGHT PEN
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
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TRACK BALL
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than
a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
SCANNER
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
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DIGITIZER
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet
because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as
digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
MICROPHONE
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
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OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc.
It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale ( POS ) scanner, is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode
reader consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect
the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode
into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software application can
make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port ,
keyboard port , or an interface device called a wedge . A barcode reader works by directing a
beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back. (The
dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them.) The scanner
converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder
and forwarded to a computer.
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OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen
or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Recognition, OMR is the process of
gathering information from human beings by recognizing marks on a document. OMR is
accomplished by using a hardware device (scanner) that detects a reflection or limited
light transmittance on or through piece of paper.
OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or thousands of physical documents per hour.
For example, students may recall taking tests or surveys where they filled in bubbles on
paper (shown right) with pencil. Once the form had been completed, a teacher or teacher's
assistant would feed the cards into a system that grades or gathers information from them.
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STYLUS
In computing, a stylus is a pen-shaped instrument used with graphics tablets or
devices that utilize touchscreen input. It is used to write or draw on a screen,
similar to how you would on a sheet of paper. Unlike a pen, styluses have a
plastic or felt tip depending on its purpose and functionality. The picture example
shows the Palm Z22 Stylus.
Which devices use a stylus?
Originally, the stylus was not commonly found or used with devices other than
graphics tablets and PDAs. However, with the rising popularity of touch screens
on mobile devices, many individuals like to use a stylus as a replacement for their
finger. The reasoning varies, but it's usually for more accurate navigation or to
keep oils from their fingers off of their device's screen.
PUNCH CARD
Early method of data storage used with early computers. Punch cards also known
as Hollerith cards and IBM cards are paper cards containing several punched
holes that were punched by hand or machine to represent data. These cards
allowed companies to store and access information by entering the card into the
computer. The picture is an example of a punch card.
Punch cards are known to be used as early as 1725 for controlling textile looms.
The cards were later used to store and search for information in 1832 by Semen
Korsakov. Later in 1890, Herman Hollerith developed a method for machines to
record and store information on punch cards to be used for the US census. He
later formed the company we know as IBM.
Punch cards were the primary method of storing and retrieving data in the early
1900s, and began being replaced by other methods in the 1960s and today are
rarely used.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
TOUCHSCREEN
A touchscreen is a monitor or other flat surface with a sensitive panel directly on
the screen that registers the touch of a finger as an input. Instead of being touch-
sensitive, some touchscreens use beams across the screen to create a grid that
senses the presence of a finger.
A touchscreen allows the user to interact with a device without a mouse or
keyboard and is used with smartphones, tablets, computer screens, and
information kiosks.
How do you use the touchscreen?
Note: Not all touchscreens act the same, and any of the below actions may react
differently on your device.
Tap - A gentle touch or tap of the screen with a finger once to open an app or
select an object.
Double-tap - Depending on where you are a double-tap can have different
functions. For example, in a browser double-tapping the screen zooms into where
you double-tapped. Double-tapping text in a text editor selects a word or section
of words.
Touch and hold - Gently touching and holding your finger over an object selects
or highlights the object. For example, you could touch and hold an icon and then
drag it somewhere else on the screen or highlight text.
Drag - After you have touched and held anything on the screen while keeping the
your finger on the screen drag that object or highlight in any direction and then
lift your finger off of the screen to drop it in place or stop highlighting.
Swipe - Swiping your finger across the screen scrolls the screen in that direction.
For example, pressing the finger at the bottom of the screen and quickly moving it
up (swiping) scrolls the screen down.
Pinch - Placing two fingers on the screen and then pinching them together zooms
out and pinching your fingers together and then moving them away from each
other zooms into where you started.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
WEBCAM
DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera is a camera that stores the pictures and video it takes in
electronic format instead of to film. The picture is of a Casio QV-R62, a 6.0 Mega
Pixel digital camera and example of a typical digital camera.
Note: A camera that is always connected to your computer with no storage could
also be referred to as a digital camera. However, it is more appropriate to refer to
this camera as a webcam.
Digital camera advantages
Below are key advantages that make digital cameras a popular choice when
compared to film cameras.
LCD screen
The LCD screen can show photos and videos after they have been taken, which
allows you to delete the photo if you do not like the results or show other people.
Storage
A digital camera can store hundreds of pictures instead of only up to 36 pictures.
Picture development
Digital camera pictures can be developed, but you can pick and choose what
pictures to develop instead of having to develop a full role of film with pictures
you don't want.
Size
Because a digital camera does not need a place for film a digital camera (not an
SLR) is much smaller and can easily be carried in your pocket or purse.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
BIOMETRICS
When referring to computers and security, biometrics is the identification of a
person by the measurement of their biological features. For example, a user
identifying themselves to a computer or building by their finger print or voice is
considered a biometrics identification. When compared to a password, this type of
system is much more difficult to fake since it is unique to the person. Below is a
listing of all known biometric devices.
Other common methods of a biometrics scan are a person's face, hand, iris, and
retina.
Types of biometric devices
Face scanner - Biometric face scanners identify a person by taking measurements
of a person face. For example, the distance between the persons chin, eyes, nose,
and mouth. These types of scanners can be very secure assuming they are smart
enough to distinguish between a picture of a person and a real person.
Hand scanner - Like your finger print, the palm of your hand is also unique to
you. A biometric hand scanner will identify the person by the palm of their hand.
Finger scanner - Like the picture shown on this page a biometric finger scanner
identifies the person by their finger print. These can be a secure method of
identifying a person, however, cheap and less sophisticated finger print scanners
can be duped a number of ways. For example, in the show Myth Busters they
were able to fake a finger print using a Gummy Bear candy treat.
Retina or iris scanner - A biometric retina or iris scanner identifies a person by
scanning the iris or retina of their eyes. These scanners are more secure biometric
authentication schemes when compared to the other devices because there is no
known way to duplicate the retina or iris.
Voice scanner - Finally, a voice analysis scanner will mathematically break down
a person's voice to identify them. These scanners can help improve security but
with some less sophisticated scanners can be bypassed using a tape recording.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
PADDLE
o More commonly known as a game paddle or gamepad, a paddle is an
input device commonly used with games that may contain various buttons
used to steer and utilize different options in a game. All console game
systems utilize a paddle or gamepad for control. The picture shows an
example of a game paddle used with the Atari 2600.
o The term paddle may also be used to describe various handheld devices
that are capable of controlling a function on a computer or electronic
device.
TOUCHPAD
Alternatively referred to as a glide pad, glide point, pressure sensitive tablet, or
trackpad, a touchpad is an inputdevice on laptops and some keyboards to move
a cursor with your finger. It can be used in place of an external mouse.
A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging it across the flat surface
of the touchpad. As you move your finger on the surface, the mouse cursor moves
in that same direction. Like most computer mice, the touchpad also has two
buttons below the touch surface that allows you to left-click or right-click.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
MICR
Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of
recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right
hardware and software can print or read the character printed in such ink.
MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons,
etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada,
Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created
according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and
most other Spanish speaking countries.
LIGHT GUN
A light gun is a pointing input device that detects light using a photodiode in the
gun barrel. When the player of the game pulls the trigger on the gun, the screen is
blanked out for a fraction of a second, which allows the photodiode to determine
where the gun is pointed. Light guns were most widely used with early console
gaming systems such as the NES Zapper light gun, as shown in the picture. Using
this gun the player could play games where they were required to point the gun at
the screen and shoot targets, such as ducks in the popular Duck Hunt game.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
GRAPHICS TABLET
Alternatively referred to as a drawing tablet and pen tablet, a graphics tablet is
a hardware input device that enables an artist to draw or sketch digitally using a
pen or stylus. They are helpful because they provide a more natural and precise
feel than a standard computer mouse. The picture to the right shows an example
of a Pen Graphics Tablet from Wacom.
Similar to an artist drawing with a pencil and paper, a user draws on the graphics
tablet with a stylus. The computer will convert the drawing strokes into digital
form, displaying them on the computer screen.
The graphics tablet can also be used to capture users' signatures. This use is
similar to the signature pads found at many retail stores, where you would write
your signature after using a credit card to make a purchase.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
OUTPUT DEVICES
3D Printer
Braille embosser
Braille reader
Flat panel
GPS
Headphones
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Monitor
Plotter
Printer (Dot matrix printer, Inkjet printer, and Laser printer)
Projector
Sound card
Speakers
Speech-generating device (SGD)
TV
Video card
Buzzers
Motors
Switched outputs
Lights
Mechanical devices, eg a robot arm
Keep in mind that drives such as a CD-ROM, DVD, Floppy diskette drive, and USB
Flash drive may be capable of receiving information from the computer, but they are not
output devices. These are considered storage devices.
1. 3D PRINTER
Created by Charles Hull in 1984, the 3D printer is a printing device that creates a
physical object from a digital model using materials such as metal alloys,
polymers, or plastics.
An object's design typically begins in a computer aided design (CAD) software
system, where its blueprint is created. The blueprint is then sent from the CAD
system to the printer in a file format known as a Stereo lithography (STL), which
is typically used in CAD systems to design 3D objects. The printer then reads the
blueprint in cross-sections and begin the process of recreating the object just as it
appears in the computer aided design. In the picture below is an example of a 3D
printer called the FlashForge.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Application of 3D printers
3D printers are used in many disciplines--aerospace engineering, dentistry, archaeology,
biotechnology, and information systems are a few examples of industries that utilize
them. As an example, a 3D printer might be used in the field of archaeology to physically
reconstruct ancient artifacts that have been damaged over time, thus eliminating the
2. SPEAKER
Allows a user to hear sounds and music from the computer provided the system has
installed a sound card.
3. MODEM
An Input/ Output electronic device with circuits which changes data to be transmitted
from its machine form (digital form) into a form suitable for transmission over the
telephone line (analogue form). At the receiving end it converts data vice-versa. It is
only necessary when one needs to communicate information over a long distance and
when connected to the internet.
4. HEADPHONES
Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers,
except they are worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time
5. SOUND CARD
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The picture is an example of a sound card audio ports or audio jacks on the back of
your computer, associated colors, and the connector symbols.
Digital Out (White or Yellow; words: "Digital" or "Digital Out") - Used with
surround sound or loudspeakers.
Sound in or line in (Blue; Arrow pointing into waves) - Connection for external
audio sources, e.g. tape recorder, record player, or CD player.
Microphone or Mic (Pink; Microphone) - The connection for a microphone or
headphones.
Sound out or line out (Green; Arrow pointing out of waves) - The primary sound
connection for your speakers or headphones. This sound card also has a second
(black) and third (orange) sound out connector.
Firewire (Not pictured) - Used with some high-quality sound cards for digital
video cameras and other devices.
MIDI or joystick (15 pin yellow connector) - Used with earlier sound cards to
connect MIDI keyboard or joystick.
Tip: Usually the cables connecting to the devices are also color-coded and will match or
be close to the colors the cables connect into. For example, the end of the speakers cable
may have a green line or be completely green.
Games
Audio CDs and listening to music
Watch movies
Audio conferencing
Creating and playing Midi
Educational software
Business presentations
Record dictations
Voice recognition
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
6. PLOTTERS
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for
printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than
a series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for
computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by
wide-format printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics
and other similar applications.
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings.
They are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacture (CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.
Plotters:
How it works: A drum plotter prints by moving a pen sideways
over the surface of a sheet of paper.
One high precision motor moves the pen from side
to side.
Another high precision motor moves the paper
backwards and forwards.
An electromagnet lifts and drops different coloured
ink pens onto the paper to draw lines.
A flat-bed plotter uses two high precision motors, one to move the
pen in the X direction and one to move it in the Y direction.
The paper does not move.
Suitable uses: Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid
region of colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for
drawing building plans, printed circuit boards and machine parts.
Advantages: They are accurate and can produce far larger printouts than
standard printers.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Disadvantages: Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
They cannot print raster (photographic) images.
They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.
7. SPEAKER
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built
into the computer and some are separate
8. BRAILLE READER
A braille reader, also called a braille display, is an electronic device that allows
a blind person to read the text displayed on a computer monitor. The computer
sends the text to the output device, where it is converted to Braille and
"displayed" by raising rounded pins through a flat surface on the machine.
Braille readers come in various forms, including large units (about the size of a
computer keyboard) and smaller units, designed to work with laptops and tablet
computers. There are also Braille reader apps for smartphones and tablets that
work in conjunction with a Bluetooth-connected Braille output device.
9. VIDEO CARD
Alternatively known as a display adapter, graphics card, video adapter, video board,
or video controller, a video card is an IC or internal board that creates a picture on a
display.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Video card ports
The picture above is an example of a video card with three connections, or video ports,
on the back.
VGA connector
S-Video connector
DVI connector
In the past, VGA or SVGA was the most popular connection used with computer
monitors. Today, most flat panel displays use the DVI connector or HDMI connector (not
pictured above).
Video card expansion slots
In the picture above, the video card is inserted into the AGP expansion slot on the
computer motherboard. Over the development of computers, there have been
several types of expansion slots used for video cards. Today, the most common
expansion slot for video cards is PCIe, which replaced AGP, which replaced PCI,
which replaced ISA.
10. GPS
Short for Global Positioning System, GPS is a network of satellites that
helps users determine a location on Earth. The thought of GPS was conceived
after the launch of Sputnik in 1957. In 1964, the TRANSIT system became
operational on U.S. Polaris submarines and allowed for accurate positioning
updates. Later this became available for commercial use in 1967. The picture
shows an example of the GARMIN nuvi 350, a GPS used to find locations
while driving.
On September 1, 1983 Soviet jets shot down a civilian Korean Air Lines
Flight 007 flying from New York to Seoul and kill all 269 passengers and
crew. As a result of this mistake, President Ronald Regan orders the U.S.
military to make Global Positioning System (GPS) available for civilian use.
Today, with the right equipment or software, anyone can establish a
connection to these satellites to establish his or her location within 50 to 100
feet.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
11. PROJECTOR
A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface. For example,
projectors are used in meetings to help ensure that all participants can view the
information being presented. The picture is that of a ViewSonic projector.
The VDU is output device. It displays images and text in colour or black and white as it.
It displays results of processing. It is also called a monitor.
Flat-panel display
13. PRINTERS
It produces output on paper i.e. hard copy or on other print-key media. The 2 types of
printers are impact and non-impact.
Impact printers
The printing device being a series of pins have a direct impact on the paper. The pins
form characters on the paper by pressing a printing element and an inked ribbon
against paper. An example of such a printer is the Dot Matrix. The printers are
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
reasonably fast, inexpensive and can produce both text and graphics. They also
accommodate various paper sizes but are however noisy.
Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The
Laser printers are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing
technique similar to that used in a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to
form an image onto the paper using toner. The print quality is high. Lasers are fast,
and quiet. They print graphics but are more expensive.
The ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the
image colour and spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are
slow, expensive and have a high print quality.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - LASER PRINTERS:
How it works: These print individual pages and work in a
similar way to photocopiers.
A drum is charged to match the image and
powdered ink (toner) sticks to the surface. The
toner is then transferred to the paper and fixed
by heat and pressure.
A school or business printer would have a
typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per minute
(ppm).
Suitable uses: Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Disadvantages: Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but
the difference is narrowing).
Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed
and high quality output means they are becoming more popular).
Advantages: They are quiet and fast and produce high quality printouts.
Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are expensive
to replace, they last a long time.
A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a
reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is
transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure
2 - INK-JET PRINTERS:
How it works: The print head contains tiny nozzles
through which different coloured inks can
be sprayed onto the paper to form the
characters or the graphic images.
The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny
piezoelectric crystals which change shape
when an electric current is applied across
them.
Suitable uses: A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are
done and photographic quality colour printing is needed.
Disadvantages: The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs can be high.
The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
Advantages: These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality
black and white or photographic quality borderless colour printing.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the
ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet printersare capable of
producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers
3. Thermal transfer printers- A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the
image or barcode is then transferred to labels or tags. This technology produces a higher quality,
longer lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
-1 to 2 years media shelf life
-Media is not heat sensitive
-Medium to high image quality
-Wide range of available types
-Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
-Special ribbons required
-Average operational cost
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
-Single-pass ribbons only
4. Direct thermal printers - A type of printer that applies heat directly to specially
treated paper, labels or tags to form the image or barcode.
Advantages
-No ribbon required
-Low operational cost
Disadvantages
-Short media shelf life
-Very heat sensitive media
-Limited image quality
-Limited number of available types
-Not recommended for use in industrial, outdoor, or harsh environments
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
IMPACT PRINTERS
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
so the characters are printed out.
The paper is usually continuous with holes
down each side and perforations so the pages
can be easily separated by tearing.
Because the pins make an impact against the
paper the characters can be printed through
several layers of self-carbonating paper to
produce duplicate copies.
Suitable uses: Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is
not too important.
Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders
need to produced quickly and cheaply.
Disadvantages The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium
: quality black and white printing and can only print low resolution
graphics.
Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be
quite noisy.
Advantages: The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple
copies are being printed in one print run.
They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then
the impact will produce duplicate copies.
A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink ribbon
to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.
Advantages
-Can print to multi-page forms-
-Moderately priced
-Multi-pass ribbons (saves money)
Disadvantages
-Noisy operation
-Low-quality output
-Slow print speed
-Multi-pass ribbons (decrease in quality with each pass)
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Advantages
More reliable than DMP
Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
Slower than DMP
Noisy
More expensive than DMP
3. LINE PRINTERS
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
4. DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The
different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print
300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
Very high speed
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed
5. CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
Noisy
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
STORAGE DEVICES
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium,
a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently.
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device,
such as RAM, and a secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can
be removable, internal, or external storage.
Without a storage device, your computer would not be able to save any settings or
information and would be considered a dumb terminal.
Floppy diskette
Hard drive
SuperDisk
Tape cassette
Zip diskette
Blu-Ray disc
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
CD-ROM disc
CD-R and CD-RW disc
DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc
Flash memory has started to replace magnetic media as it becomes cheaper as it is the
more efficient and reliable solution.
Cloud storage
Network media
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
PAPER STORAGE
Early computers had no method of using any of the above technologies for storing
information and had to rely on paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or
found.
OMR
Punch card
When saving anything on a computer, it may ask you for a storage location, which is the
area in which you would like to save the information. By default, most information is
saved to your computer hard drive. If you want to move the information to another
computer, save it to a removable storage device such as a flash drive.
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary
storage devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-
b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and rewritten
and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The disks are either
High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/ compactly than
on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 31/2inches.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes
c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic
tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to audiotapes.
Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slow.
g) ZIP DISKS
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These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They have a
capacity of about 100MB.
Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any device to be
used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy disk drive.
Flash memory is increasingly being used in a wide range of devices. Some examples include:
Small, lightweight USB memory sticks, available for many Gigabytes.
Memory cards for digital cameras.
Main internal storage for tablet computers (SSD)
Digital audio players.
Mobile phones.
Video game hardware.
Flash memory offers very fast access to data and programs. However, retrieving data from an
external flash memory device such as a USB stick would be slower than an internal hard disk
because the speed of access is restricted by the USB link or connection.
With the development of tablet computers, flash memory is used as the main form of internal
storage because there is no room for a traditional hard disk. These disks are called SSD (solid
state storage). In this case, access to the data stored in flash memory would be much faster
than from a hard disk because there are no moving parts involved.
Currently, the down side to using flash memory as the main storage method is that it has a
limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful life span.
Flash memory, when packaged in a "memory card", is very resilient to damage, unlike many
other storage devices. It can withstand extremes of temperature, being immersed in water or
being accidentally dropped.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
DISK CARE
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.
TYPES OF MEMORY
COMPUTER – MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
SECONDARY MEMORY
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
These are magnetic and optical memories
It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.
RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon
as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
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RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
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Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
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Advantages of ROM
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Differentiate between Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM)
RAM ROM
Stands for Random-Access Memory Stands for Read-Only Memory
Normally ROM is read only memory and it cannot be
RAM is a read and write memory
overwritten. However, EPROMs can be reprogrammed
RAM is faster ROM is relatively slower than RAM
RAM is a volatile memory. It means
ROM is permanent memory. Data in ROM will stay as it
that the data in RAM will be lost if
is even if we remove the power-supply
power supply is cut-off
There are mainly two types of RAM; There are several types of ROM; Erasable ROM,
static RAM and Dynamic RAM Programmable ROM, EPROM etc.
RAM stores all the applications and
ROM usually stores instructions that are required for
data when the computer is up and
starting (booting) the computer
running
Price of RAM is comparatively high ROM chips are comparatively cheaper
RAM chips are bigger in size ROM chips are smaller in size
Content of ROM are usually first transferred to RAM and
Processor can directly access the
then accessed by processor. This is done in order to be
content of RAM
able to access ROM content at a faster speed.
RAM is often installed with large Storage capacity of ROM installed in a computer is much
storage. lesser than RAM
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BENEFITS OF COMPUTERS
With the advent of new technology, various processes have been very dependent with
automation. As the years go by, more and more inventions are introduced in the market
and in the society all for one purpose - convenience. Let us tackle for instance two of the
most influential aspects of this modern world; the societal and the entrepreneurial feature.
These two have been greatly influenced by the advancements that are continuously taking
place. With that said, a number of essential advantages are becoming more evident in
these two facets. To further draw a clearer picture on the benefits of computers on each of
the mentioned aspect, here are brief descriptions of each.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
1. Data Storage: Many small businesses keep and store important business documents
on their computers. Since these computers have big storage hard-drives, they can be in
position to store millions of files and the discovery or retrieval of these files is very easy.
Data can be stored in specific folders to make it easy to access, and some data can be
made private by use of password protected folders. For medium size growing companies,
they invest in a centralized powerful computers which store all business data, this data
can be accessed via an internal or external network with in the company. This all process
creates efficiency within a business and it also helps in the transfer of data and
information from one department to another.
2. Education: Many companies use computers as a training tool at work. Due the
increased advancement in technology and business trends, it is very important for a
business to train their employees new skills. So for a business to save money in this
process of training employees, computers can be used to educate and update their
employees. However, to save time, business owners or human resource managers can use
virtual technologies to communicate and train their staff; this means that employees will
stay in their departments and on their desks as they attend a lesson. Virtual
communication software like SKYPEcan be used to train employees virtually, all you
have to do is to create a GROUP and add all your employees in that group, so you will
talk to them at once and they can also ask you questions via their computers.
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Compete.com will help you measure your competitors’ strength online and this will help
you make wise business decision basing on facts and figures.
4. Accounting: Since accounts deals with facts and figures, it is very essential to use a
computer during the accounting process, this reduces on human errors and it also helps
business owners keep track of their businesses without any need of learning accounting
basics. Computers make accounting look too simple, so any one can use programs like
QuickBooks to balance and track inventory. Mobile computers like tablets and notebooks
can be used to access accounting data remotely. Online QuickBooks software from
companies like intuit.com can automate the invoicing process, billing and reporting
which creates efficiency in a business.
6. Creating and Editing of Business documents: One of the most popular business
applications you can use to create and edit documents is ”Microsoft Word” with this
word processing application, you can create any type of business document, Microsoft
Word can check spelling errors , correct grammar mistakes, include graphics in the
document. You can also use Microsoft Excel spread sheet to organize data inform of
figures. Spread sheets can help business owners manipulate decision variables and
determine their impacts on outcomes like profits and sales. Using a spread sheet, a
business owner can have an accurate answer to a given question in minutes and can often
glance at the whole financial image of the company on a single page. You can also use
spread sheets to set a price for a proposed product.
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very important to stay in touch with your customers and listen to their needs and
demands, many small businesses are using electronic mail as a communication media to
reach their customers and business partners. Also computers can be used in virtual
communication, in this process both parties need to install a virtual communication
software like SKYPE on their computers and start communication through VIDEO, small
businesses can create group chat rooms on SKYPE for free, this will help them stay in
touch with each other from anywhere.
9. Office and Supply Management: On a daily basis, businesses deal with buying and
selling of goods and services, a computer can be used to manage supplies and inventory
efficiently. Companies like Intacct.com will provide you with a cloud based inventory
management software which will enable you gain control and visibility into inventory
from anywhere using a computer. This all process will help you maximize cost savings
and also improve on capital efficiencies. You can as well use a computer to manage and
track basic supplies in a business, these supplies can include papers, printer-ink, and other
small supplies used on a daily basis in a business.
10. Human Resources Management: Computers can be used to manage, hire and
interview new employees, today, many small businesses and human resource managers
use the internet to find talented individuals. Human resource managers can use a
computer to train new employees on how a business operates and also allocate tasks to
each new employee. Business managers can use computers to monitor the performance of
each individual at work, this process ensures that no employee misuses company
facilities and time.
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS:
1. Requires Training: In most cases, small business owners don’t know how to use a
computer for business purposes, so they have to hire experts to teach them and their
employees on how to use computers to accomplish specific business tasks. To some
extent, this process is costly and it takes time. For example, if a small business owner
wants to use Quickbooks to manage their accounts , they have to take off time and learn
how Quickbooks works, or they will have to pay an extra fee to hire a Quickbooks expert
to teach them. Even though the end result is good, time and money will be spent during
this process.
2. Computer Crime: Computers are used to provide efficient ways for employees to
share information, but at the same time employees with malicious intentions can use this
opportunity to hack into the system to access private business information for their
personal gains. In most cases this information can be sold to business rivals, which is
harmful to a business. Computer crime is on the rise and many small businesses have
been victims of data loss. Some times employees or outsiders can modify computer
programs to create false information or illegal transactions or install viruses to corrupt
stored information.
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3. Require Additional Infrastructure: Integrating computers in a business can be
costly, you don’t stop at buying a computer, you need to invest money in different types
of business software, this software is used to accomplish specific business tasks like
accounting, tracking inventory, sales, data security and so much more. You also have to
invest money in computer maintenance contracts with Geek experts who will service
your computers every month to ensure that they operate efficiently. This all process can
be costly and some small businesses can’t afford them.
6. Wastage of time and energy. Many people use computers without positive purpose. They
play games and chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young
generation is now spending more time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter
etc or texting their friends all night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and
their health. And it also has adverse effects on the social life.
7. Data Security. The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons
through networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.
8. Computer Crimes. People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card
numbers of the people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big
organizations.
9. Privacy violation. The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy
of a person can be violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
10. Health risks. The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders
of hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the
computer in proper position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for
longer period of time. It is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes
of computer usage.
11. Impact on Environment. The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are
polluting the environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic
materials. Green computer is a method to reduce the electricity consumed and environmental
waste generated when using a computer. It includes recycling and regulating manufacturing
processes. The used computers must be donated or disposed off properly.
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USES OF COMPUTERS
Home Budget
Computer can be used to manage Home Budget. You can easily calculate your
expenses and income. You can list all expenses in one column and income in
another column. Then you can apply any calculation on these columns to plan
your home budget. There are also specialize software that can manage your
income and expenses and generate some cool reports.
Computer Games
An important use of computers at home is playing games. Different types of
games are available. These games are a source of entertainment and recreation.
Many games are available that are specially developed to improve your mental
capability and thinking power.
Working from Home
People can manage the office work at home. The owner of a company can check
the work of the employees from home. He can control his office while sitting at
home.
Entertainment
People can find entertainment on the internet. They can watch movies, listen to
songs, and watch videos download different stuff. They can also watch live
matches on the internet.
Information
People can find any type of information on the internet. Educational and
informative websites are available to download books, tutorials etc. to improve
their knowledge and learn new things.
Chatting & Social Media
People can chat with friends and family on the internet using different software
like Skype etc. One can interact with friends over social media websites like
Facebook, Twitter & Google Plus. They can also share photos and videos with
friends.
CBT are different programs that are supplied on CD-ROM. These programs include text,
graphics and sound. Audio and Video lectures are recorded on the CDs. CBT is a low
cost solution for educating people. You can train a large number of people easily.
Benefits of CBT
Some benefits of CBT are as follows:
1. The students can learn new skills at their own pace. They can easily acquire
knowledge in any available time of their own choice.
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2. Training time can be reduced.
3. Training materials are interactive and easy to learn. It encourages students to learn
the topic.
4. Planning and timing problems are reduced or eliminated.
5. The skills can be taught at any time and at any place.
6. It is very cost effective way to train a large number of students.
7. Training videos and audios are available at affordable prices.
Distance Learning
Distance learning is a new learning methodology. Computer plays the key role in
this kind of learning. Many institutes are providing distance learning programs.
The student does not need to come to the institute. The institute provides the
reading material and the student attends virtual classroom. In virtual classroom,
the teacher delivers lecture at his own workplace. The student can attend the
lecture at home by connecting to a network. The student can also ask questions to
the teacher.
Online Examination
The use of computer technology in business provides many facilities. Businessmen are
using computers to interact with their customers anywhere in the world. Many business
tasks are performed more quickly and efficiently. Computers also help them to reduce the
overall cost of their business. Computer can be used in business in the following ways.
Marketing
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also be used in deciding pricing strategies. Companies can know more about their
customers and their needs and requirements etc.
Stock Exchange
Stock Exchange is the most important place for businessmen. Many stock
exchanges use computers to conduct bids. The stockbrokers perform all trading
activities electronically. They connect with the computer where brokers match the
buyers with sellers. It reduces cost as no paper or special building is required to
conduct these activities.
Specialized hospital management softwares are used to automate the day to day
procedures and operations at hospitals. These tasks may be Online appointments,
payroll admittance and discharge records etc.
Patient History
Hospital management systems can store data about patients. Computers are used
to store data about patients, their diseases & symptoms, the medicines that are
prescribed.
Patients Monitoring
Monitoring systems are installed in medical wards and Intensive care units to
monitoring patients continuously. These systems can monitor pulse, blood
pressure and body temperature and can alert medical staff about any serious
situations.
Specialized devices are used to help impaired patients like hearing aids.
Diagnosis Purpose
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1. COMPUTER PROGRAMMER
Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the programs that computers follow
when performing specific functions. While job titles and descriptions vary by company,
the main task of computer programmers is problem solving and development of systems
solutions using the appropriate methodologies and techniques.
Programmers often work on projects as a team, each team member assigned according to
strength and ability. A programmer uses programming languages, such as C++, PHP, or
Java to communicate with computer to perform a set of instructions. By typing code in
2nd and 3rd level programming languages (which are languages become more like words
as the generation goes up and more like machine code as the generation goes down , eg
assembler) helps computer programmers easier to code with. Once finished coding they
compile the program into machine language so the computer can follow the set of
instructions.
Job Titles
Network Designer
Systems Analyst
Solutions Architect
Senior Systems Engineer
Senior Solutions Architect
Systems Architect
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Principal Solutions Architect
Duties The role of system analysts and designers is critical in contemporary system
development. The systems analyst is a key partner with project managers and system
developers.
Systems analysts define software requirements and specifications and guide program
design and development. A systems analyst may supervise a software development or
maintenance team of analyst / programmers and programmers.
Depending on the level of responsibility and the particular job role involved, duties may
also include:
3. DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
Job Description:
Also called Database Co-ordinator, Database Programmer Closely related jobs Database
Analyst, Database Modeller, Programmer Analyst, Systems Manager
In summary
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requirements. They may also plan, co-ordinate and implement security measures to
safeguard the database.
4. NETWORK ADMINISTRATOR
Job Description:
In summary
Install, configure and maintain pcs, networking equipment and network operating
systems
Monitor and configure networks to optimise performance and resolve faults
Undertake recovery action in the event of a system failure
Establish and control system access and security levels
Provide training and support for system software
Implement and co-ordinate housekeeping procedures, including system back-ups,
setting up user accounts, monitoring file access etc
Plan and implement maintenance and upgrades for system software and hardware
Maintain peripheral devices connected to the printer such as printers and scanners
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6. COMPUTER SCIENTISTS
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COMPUTER PERFORMANCE
Computer performance is characterized by the amount of useful work accomplished by
a computer system or computer network compared to the time and resources used.
Depending on the context, high computer performance may involve one or more of the
following:
The speed of the CPU is also known as the clock speed of the CPU. The clock speed of
the CPU is the frequency of which the processor executes instructions or the frequency
by which data is processed by the CPU. It is measured in millions of cycles per second or
megahertz (MHz). If the Clock speed of the CPU is fast then definitely the performance
of the computer will be affected positively, in other words the computer will carry out
processing functions at a faster pace.
The CPU
High performance, compatibility and upgradability are features that are important. The
higher the generation, the better. For example, because of high performance new features,
Pentium 75 (fifth generation with the clock rate 75 MHz) will outperform 80486DX100
(which is the fourth generation CPU with the clock rate 100MHz).
Another important feature is word size measured in bits. 80386 and 80486 processors are
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32 bit whereas Pentiums are 64 bit processors, thus Pentiums can transfer twice as much
data at a time compared to third and fourth generation CPUs.
RAM.
It does not make much sense to have a fast processor if you dont have fast RAM. But
note: faster RAM is more expensive.
The amount of RAM is also important. Today, advanced operating systems require at
least 4 megabytes of memory just to boot up a computer. Using more than one
application at a time requires at least 8 megabytes, and reasonable performance today
calls for 16 megabytes or more. The benefits of adding more RAM include letting you
open more applications at the same time, and working with large files or documents.
More memory may also make your machine run much faster.
The quality of DRAM chips used in a memory module is the most important component
in determining the overall quality and reliability of RAM. So which chips to consider?
Enhanced Data Output (EDO) DRAM provides faster data throughput. Systems using
EDO DRAM will be faster than similar systems using regular DRAM. EDO DRAM
provides even higher performance benefit when used with an L2 cache.
Enhanced DRAM (EDRAM) can be thought of as RAM that carries its own cache on
each module. In an EDRAM-based system, essentially the entire system memory bank is
the cache. This can provide dramatic performance improvements. However, at this time,
EDRAM is scarce, very expensive and has not been adopted by many system vendors.
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Hard disk capacity and seek time.
High-performance hard drives have at least 1.2 G of capacity, provide an average seek
time of 12 milliseconds, a 128 to 256 K hard disk buffer cache with both write-caching
and read-caching capabilities, and spin about 4,500 rotations per minute. (You may be
familiar with using a disk cache, such as Microsoft SmartDrive, which uses a small RAM
buffer to speed up access to a large hard disk.)
7) DEFRAGMENTING FILES
Files that are broken or it takes long to read them will mean that the computer will have
to defragment them first. This will slow down the performance of the computer.
The data bus is the highway that carries information between the processor and the
memory subsystem. The wider the data bus, the more information it can transfer. Because
of its external 64-bit data bus, the Pentium processor can transfer data to and from
memory at rates up to 528 Mbytes/second (five times faster than the transfer rate of the
Intel486 (TM) DX2-66MHz microprocessor).
The PCI local bus greatly improves I/O performance. It can transfer data between the
processor and the peripherals at up to 132 MB/second, far faster than the ISA bus rate of
5 MB/second
Since any step of processing can happen only on the "tick" of the clock (called clock
cycle), the faster the rate the quicker the CPU works. The Intel486(TM) processor, for
example, is able to execute many of its instructions in one clock cycle, while previous
generations of Intel microprocessors require multiple clock cycles to execute a single
instruction. The Pentium processors have the ability to execute multiple instructions per
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clock cycle due to the fact that the Pentium processor's two pipelines can execute two
instructions simultaneously. If other modules of the system require more than one clock
pulse, the CPU has to wait for them to keep up. This is called a wait state.
The bigger the on-chip cache size, the better since more instructions and data can be
stored on the chip, reducing the number of times the processor has to access slower, off-
chip memory areas to get data. For example, Intel has doubled on-chip cache size to 32K
on the Intel Pentium processor with MMX technology.
L2 Cache.
System memories composed of dynamic RAM (DRAM) alone have not been able to keep
up with the dramatic increases in CPU speeds over the years. In order to optimize the
memory performance in these systems, designers are implementing architectures using
cache memory, resulting in speed increases up to 45%. Expanding secondary cache (e.g.
from 128K to 512K) can greatly improve the performance of some applications.
In a recent industry magazine test of notebook computers, a 486 machine with L2 cache
outperformed a Pentium 90 machine without L2 cache by 30%.
At the time of writing of these notes the slowest CD-ROM drive available on the market
is quad speed. It may be enough, if you are not running applications from CD-ROM, but
only installing them. Otherwise look at octal or ten-speed technologies.
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HARDWARE SUMMARY
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched.
Hardware and software are mutually dependent. Both of them must work together
to make a computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded
into the hardware.
Software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
Hardware is the body and software is the soul.
Hardware does all the work as like our body. But it’s the software which instructs
(Set of instructions are passed to the processor for each process to be done) the
hardware what to do.
For example when you switch on the computer it is the BIOS which first checks
the hardware and booting order and then instructs the hardware to load(boot) the
OS from the hard-disc or pen-drive or external drive or the cd/dvd drive. once the
instruction is passed the hardware starts to function according to the instruction
received.
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SOFTWARE
The intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions of the computer.
Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as computer programs. The
hardware needs these instructions to function.
Computer software refers to the various programs or instructions that are stored in the
computer (stored program concept) and used to either manage or control the operation of
a computer system or to direct the computer in solving specific problems. Software is
divided into two major types.
SOFTWARE HIERARCHY
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1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared
by computer manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in
low-level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to
provide a platform for running application software.
The computer BIOS and device firmware, which provide basic functionality to
operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer.
The operating system (prominent examples being Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X
and Linux), which allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing
tasks like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a
display device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system software and
application software.
Utility software, which helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the
computer.
In some publications, the term system software is also used to designate software
development tools (like a compiler, linker or debugger).
System software helps use the operating system and computer system. It includes
diagnostic tools, compilers, servers, windowing systems, utilities, language translator,
data communication programs, database systems and more. The purpose of system
software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the
complexity and specific details of the particular computer being used, especially memory
and other hardware features, and such accessory devices as communications, printers,
readers, displays, keyboards, etc.
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BIOS
Hypervisors
Boot loaders
Database Management Systems(SQL, NoSQL)
Major development programs are language translators, programming tools and CASE
[computer-aided software engineering] packages
Close to system
Fast in speed
Difficult to design
Difficult to understand
Less interactive
Smaller in size
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language
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1. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
o Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as word
processors, database systems, and spreadsheet programs.
o Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the
completion of specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and
word processing programs or inventory or payroll programs.
Software that is designed and written for a specific personal, organizational, or
processing task, such as graphics software.
These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating
system software allows the computer to work. A computer-aided dispatch system
is application software, as is each word processing program.
Close to user
Easy to design
More interactive
Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language
Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage space
FREEWARE
Public domain software that is freely available in magazines and on the
internet at no charge to users though manuals may be offered at a cost.
Freeware may or may not have copyrights and may or may not have
distribution restrictions.
SHAREWARE
Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as
freeware BUT is always copyrighted and includes a software license that
requires its users to pay for the privilege of using the software beyond a
certain trial period. If you decide to use it, you are expected to pay for the
license. There is usually a disabling system in the program after a certain
period of time i.e. a month.
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OPERATING SYSTEM
It is a program with following features:
Examples include
AmigaOS Unix Windows ME
Android Vector Linux Windows NT
HP-UX Windows 2000 Windows Vista
iOS Windows 2003 Windows XP
IRIX Windows 3.X Xenix
Linux Windows 7
MAC OS 8 Windows 8 Windows 10
MAC OS 9 Windows 95
MAC OS 10 Windows 98
MAC OS X Windows 10
MS-DOS Windows CE
As computers have progressed and developed, so have the operating systems. Below is a
basic list of the types of operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that
fall into each of the types. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one
of the below types.
1. GUI
Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI operating system contains graphics and icons
and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. Examples of GUI operating
systems are:
System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE
2. MULTI-USER
A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the
same time and different times. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this
category are:
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Linux
Unix
Windows 2000
3. MULTIPROCESSING
An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer
processor. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux
Unix
Windows XP
4. MULTITASKING
An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the
same time. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux
Unix
Windows 8
5. MULTITHREADING
Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently.
Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux
Unix
Windows XP
6. Single-task
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking
operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is
achieved by time-sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple
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processes that are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling
subsystem of the operating system.
7. Single-user
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow
multiple programs to run in tandem.
8. Time-sharing
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and
may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass
storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
9. Distributed
10. Templated
11. Embedded
12. Real-time
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13. Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system
provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries. These libraries are
composed with the application and configuration code to construct unikernels –
which are specialized, single address space, machine images that can be deployed to
cloud or embedded environments.
1. Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
2. Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
3. Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
4. Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
5. Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as
DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex
operating systems.
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This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time.
Multi-tasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using
the resources of the computer.
This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the
printer and downloading a web page.
However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this,
you would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal
computers.
Multiprocessing
An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job)
concurrently.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within
a single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to
support more than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between
them.There are many variations on this basic theme, and the definition of
multiprocessing can vary with context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are
defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple chips in one package, multiple
packages in one system unit, etc.).
Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent
software processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant.
However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to
describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas
multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware
CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of
the two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to
use the same system together.
Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person
can make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower
the response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response
time at the most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt
with immediately.
o Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application
software that allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer.
Time-sharing systems are multi-user systems. Most batch processing
systems for mainframe computers may also be considered "multi-user", to
avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits for I/O operations to complete.
However, the term "multitasking" is more common in this context.
o An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access
(such as via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time.
Another example uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple
terminals powered by a single machine - this is an example of the use of
thin client.
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o Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,
typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only
by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license
agreement.E.g. MSDOS.
Batch processing
A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a
batch and processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity
bills, invoices and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and
outputs where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until
the computer is ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs are done
overnight.
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Windows
Windows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating
system.
It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer
through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images
(mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the
same time.
Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same
time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked together.
Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio,
photographs and video.
Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main
memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
Deleted files go to the recycle bin
Makes use of easier input methods, e.g. mouse, joystick
Windows operating system has MS-DOS option
Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology) and
Windows 95.
In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display
screen that can have a different display.
OS/2
It is called the Operating System /2
It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the
OS/2 Warp version as the latest one.
It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and
telecommunications.
UNIX
Originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and
microcomputers.
It is a popular choice for network servers.
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OPERATING SYSTEM PROGRAMMING SINGLE USER MULTI USER SINGLE TASK MULTI TASK
1. MS DOS 16 bits X X
BOOTING (also known as "booting up") is a bootstrapping process that starts operating
systems when the user turns on a computer system. A boot sequence is the initial set of
operations that the computer performs when power is switched on. The bootloader
typically loads the main operating system for the computer.
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What utilities are available with the OS? Some of the most commonly used
utilities on microcomputer OS are delete, copy contents of one diskette to
another, format a diskette, delete files stored in a diskette, and compress data.
Is the OS hardware dependent? An OS may be limited to running on
specific hardware or may have versions that allow it to run on different types
of computer systems.
What user interface is offered by the operating system? Graphical User
Interface and Command Driven User Interface are examples of user
interfaces. See Interface section.
The operating system is responsible for managing allocation of the processor between
the different programs using a scheduling algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally
dependent on the operating system, according to the desired objective.
The OS is responsible for managing the allocation of processor time to the different
programs that will be using the computer. The processor can only execute one
instruction at a time and in a multi-user system, conflicts are bound to arise when
several user programs request usage of the processor at the same time. The OS
therefore allocates processor time to all users either in a round robin fashion or using
a system of priorities.
The operating system is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to
each application and, where relevant, to each user. If there is insufficient physical
memory, the operating system can create a memory zone on the hard drive, known as
"virtual memory". The virtual memory lets you run applications requiring more
memory than there is available RAM on the system. However, this memory is a great
deal slower.
The OS is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each application.
If there is insufficient physical memory the OS can create a memory zone on the hard
drive known as virtual memory which lets you run applications requiring more
memory than is available on the system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
memory management.
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed
3. MANAGEMENT OF INPUT/OUTPUT:
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5. MANAGEMENT OF AUTHORISATIONS:
6. FILE MANAGEMENT:
The operating system manages reading and writing in the file system and the user and
application file access authorizations.
The OS manages reading from and writing to files and also controls the creation,
manipulation and access to files.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
file management:
File creation and deletion
Directory creation and deletion
Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
7. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT:
The operating system provides a certain number of indicators that can be used to
diagnose the correct operation of the machine.
8. ERROR DETECTION
The OS is responsible for detecting and any hardware or software malfunctioning and
reporting them to the user
9. USER/SYSTEM INTERFACE
The OS acts as an interface between the computer and the user, hiding all the
complexities of the computer from the user and making the computer more user
friendly
The OS compiles a report on the events that take place in a computer from the time a
user logs on to a computer, what he/she does up to the time he/she logs off
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COMPUTER INTERFACE
Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the
computer so that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks?
When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a
screen, keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.
The interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of
data between a computer and its peripherals.
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A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing
in commands. The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command
and presses enter or return.
A COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with
a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific
tasks. This text-only interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a
graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user
interface (TUI) to select options.
In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order
or the command will not work.
Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without
having to find their way around menus.
An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory
and processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec
machines.
Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could
launch half a dozen programs to do its task.
An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult
to use because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
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Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment
with images rather than text commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual
indicators, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text
navigation to fully represent the information and actions available to a user.
When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and
Linux are all graphical user interfaces.
3. WIMP interface
Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with
a computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much
more intuitive 'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating
systems provide
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line interface. The WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers
since they were invented, and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft
Windows and on Unix and other workstations through the X Window system.
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often
leads to a further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a
numbered list of options to choose from:
USER INTERFACE
A user interface is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any
number of modalities of interaction (such as graphics, sound, position, movement...)
where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.
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MS DOS VS WINDOWS
Note: Although it appears that using the command line wins this comparison, it is beneficial for user know how both methods work as
they excel in different areas.
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APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the
shelf.
Application software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks for
users. Application software can be used as a productivity/business tool; to assist
with graphics and multimedia projects; to support home, personal, and
educational activities; and to facilitate communications. Specific application
software products, called software packages, are available from software
vendors. Although application software also is available as shareware, freeware,
and public-domain software, these usually have fewer capabilities than retail
software packages.
Word processors, for example, Microsoft Word or the free Open Office Writer
Spreadsheet software, for example, Microsoft Excel or Open Office Calc
Graphics software, for example, Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop, Corel Paint shop
Pro
Web design software, for example, Adobe Dreamweaver
System software controls how the computer system works and it enables the user to
access the system hardware and application software. Applications software does not
control the system; instead it allows the user to perform everyday tasks such as creating a
document or webpage.
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2 Spreadsheet A spreadsheet is used to manage, analyze and present numeric information. Ms Excel,
software Some common uses of spreadsheet software are financial reports, personal Quattro
finances and business finances. Spreadsheet programs can also create a chart Pro,
from the numeric data. Lotus 1-2-3
The working screen is laid out in rows and columns, much like a ledger. The
information is typed into a "cell." A cell is the intersection of a row and a
column. The cell can contain a number, a word or phrase (generally used to
identify what the number represents, such as a column or row heading), or a
math function or formula.
Spreadsheets allow you to use simple math expressions such as add,
subtract, multiply or divide, or advanced math such as the type of
calculations performed by architects, engineers, economists and scientists.
Spreadsheets also have a special group of built-in formulas, called functions
that let you perform calculations without having to type long, complex
formulas. Functions are grouped into categories, such as financial, statistical,
engineering, logical, math and trigonometry, database and list management,
date and time, and information.
3 Database Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in different records. Ms Access,
Management DBMS is an important managerial decision support tool for managers at all DbaseIV,
Software levels of the organization. A database is an organised store of information, Oracle
for example an address book, list of employees, list of students, customers or
items of assets. Database package is used to store records. Data can be sorted
or filtered for separate viewing. Also Calculations and comparisons between
data items can be done. Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel,
lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data Ease.
Use this software to store data such as address, membership and other text
information. A database can be used to easily sort and organize records
4 Payroll Payroll software is technology that aims to streamline and automate the Pay plus ,
process of paying a company's employees.A payroll system calculates the Pay well
amount you owe your employees based on factors such as the time they
worked, their hourly wages or salaries, and whether they took vacation or
holiday time during the pay period. The system adjusts gross pay by
calculating and subtracting taxes and other withholding amounts.
5 Accounting Accounting software describes a type of application software that records Pastel,
and processes accounting transactions within functional modules such as Tetra 2000
accounts payable, accounts receivable, payroll, and trial balance. It functions e.g. Pastel,
as an accounting information system. It may be developed in-house by the TurboCash,
organization using it, may be purchased from a third party, or may be a QuickBook
combination of a third-party application software package with local s
modifications. Accounting software may be on-line based, accessed
anywhere at anytime with any device which is Internet enabled, or may be
desktop based. It varies greatly in its complexity and cos
6 Presentation Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images. Ms
graphics software Presentation graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art images PowerPoint
that can be cut and pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and , Lotus
informative. These are applications designed solely for designing graphs and freelance
text charts/posters and often used to produce slides for use on overhead graphs
projectors, or presentations on computer-projectors. They can also produce
various types of charts. Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft
PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics and Corel Draw,
HyperStudio, Flash, Director.
Use this software to create multimedia stacks of cards/screens that can
effectively present a lesson or a sales pitch. The user often clicks on buttons
to advance to the next screen in a sequence
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7 Desktop Use this software to make signs, banners, greeting cards, illustrative Ms
Publishing worksheets, newsletters, etc publisher,
Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile Aldus
page design capabilities. The user can incorporate text and graphics on very
exact page layouts. These applications produce magazines, catalogues,
invitation cards, business cards and other sophisticated documents. It links
up well with other applications as the user can import text and graphics from
the other applications. Examples of DTP packages are: Microsoft Publisher,
PageMaker, Ventura and Frame maker.
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1. Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and
upgrades.
2. Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
3. Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
4. Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on
existing hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without
re-keying? Can files created in the package be exported to other systems in use in
the company?
5. It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase
software on CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
6. Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are
appropriate for those who use the software infrequently.
7. Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier
details and user manual.
8. Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in
that area
9. Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
10. Easiness of installation
11. Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical
support contract can add 50% or more to the price of a package, but without it no
support at all will be given by the manufacturer.
12. Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in
bookshops? Are training courses available?
13. Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull
down menus, icons, helpful error messages when you do something wrong?
14. Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
15. Do you have enough resourceson your PC to install it e.g. it may require
256MB RAM, 80GB HDD. Memory requirements; software packages vary in
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the amount of memory they require. Will the system require expenditure on more
powerful hardware?
16. Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my
personalcomputer system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh,
Sun, and so on)? with the processor used in my computer (486, Pentium,
Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)? and with the operating system that I am
running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
17. Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device
drivers, that I have on my personalcomputer system?
18. Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use
immediately but powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as
my familiarity with the program increases?
19. Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
20. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to
learn?
21. Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or
documentation?
22. Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical
assistance number included in the software documentation? Does the
manufacturer have a bulletin board or Internet address for technical assistance
questions? Does the manufacturer charge for technical assistance? for product
revisions or upgrades?
23. Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
24. Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
25. Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my
use of the program?
26. Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that
warranty?
27. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?
Utility programs - these can be part of an operating system, but are also
available for separate purchase. Examples include virus checkers, disk
defragmenters, back up utilities and disk checker software.
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Generic - general purpose software that is not written for any particular type of
business. Examples of this include word processors and spreadsheets.
Integrated - a collection of software that has a common set of commands/icons.
Usually they include word processors, spreadsheets and graphics software, but
they can contain databases as well. They tend to be cheaper than purchasing each
application separately.
Specific - software written for a defined purpose. Accountancy software is a good
example of this, and can be bought by anyone.
Bespoke - also known as 'tailor made'. A company may need a particular piece of
software that it cannot purchase because it does not exist yet - or it does not like
what is available. The company can commission the software to be specially
written for them. This tends to be expensive.
SOURCES OF SOFTWARE
1. Freeware
o Freeware is the type of freely available software whose developer decides to
distribute it for free. In contrast to the open source software, the source code in this
case is not available for modifications and further development. Also, it should be
noted that the distribution of the software may also be restricted by its developer,
often allowing users to download it from his site only. Many free to download
applications are available on the Internet. It is always wise to read the license before
downloading the software. Many people tend to unknowingly share such applications
with other people, without realizing that this may actually be illegal.
2. Shareware
o Shareware is very different from these other forms of free software and to some
extent also a misnomer. The authors of shareware maintain their full intellectual right
over shareware. The only difference between shareware and other commercially
available software is that in this case the software is available for freely for trial for a
limited number of days, or a limited number of times. After the expiry of the ‘free’
period, the users of shareware are required to pay for it. Source code and
collaboration communities which exist around open source projects do not exist in
this case.
5. Outsourcing
This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better
known as outsourcing, especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.
Advantages
o Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the
organisation
o Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
o Organisation can get support from the contractor.
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Disadvantages
o There could be breach of confidentiality.
o Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no
support.
o Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the
problem; thus the solution might not be satisfactory.
o It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and
operations, which makes the approach expensive.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place i.e.
o Word Processing packages
o Spreadsheet packages
o Database /Information retrieval Packages
o Graphics packages
o Data communications Software
Advantages
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o There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.
o It is cheaper than custom-written software. The development costs of the
package may be millions of pounds, but the customer may be able to buy it for
a few hundred pounds, since sales are made to thousands of other customers.
o It is immediately available and already thoroughly tested so is unlikely to have
major bugs in it
o Documentation is usually available in the form of reference manuals, user
guides and tutorials
o Training courses may be available form third party trainers.
o Technical support is usually available from the manufacturers via a Web site
or telephone line [at a price].
o Other users of the package can be consulted as to its suitability before
purchase.
o Upgrades are usually available every year or two
Disadvantages
o The package may not do exactly what you want it to do;
o It may not run on the firm’s existing hardware
o The organization might need to pay for the features that are not
required and never used.
o The package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the
user.
o The user has no direct control over the package,
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Advantages
o Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can
produce an accurate solution.
o The Software usually meets user requirements.
o Management are in total control of the development process
o More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
o Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an
organisation software programmes that are easily tailored to a unique
problem or task.
Disadvantages
Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other
options
In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project
Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the
system
Disadvantages
1. Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other
organization.
2. It has huge support costs after implementation.
3. Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the
developers of the software for its continued existence & maintenance
4. Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts down,
or liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
5. May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
6. You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance
contract with.
7. Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive
to build.
8. Custom built is expensive to maintain
9. Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological
advancement in the field of computers.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility routine)
is computer software designed to help manage and tune the computer hardware, operating
system or application software by performing a single task or a small range of tasks.
Some utility software has been integrated into most major operating systems.
Examples
Disk storage utilities
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o Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken
across several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one
location to increase efficiency.
o Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas
that are corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate
them for a more efficiently operating hard drive.
o Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or
take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to
decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
o Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting
the size for each folder (including subfolders) & files in folder or drive.
showing the distribution of the used space.
o Disk partitioners can divide an individual drive into multiple logical
drives, each with its own filesystem which can be mounted by the
operating system and treated as an individual drive.
o Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and
restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected
files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
o Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the
contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
o File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging,
moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
o Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a
directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually
do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive
utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse
operation.
System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and
hardware attached to the computer.
Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
Text and Hex Editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could
be data or an actual program.
Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when
provided with a stream or file.
Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application
software.
Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old
registry keys that are no longer in use.
Network managers check the computer's network, log events and check data
transfer.
Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI) Allows the
user to contact and make changes to the operating system.
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INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
Integrated software is software for personal computers that combines the most
commonly used functions of many productivity software programs into one
application.
The integrated software genre has been largely overshadowed by fully functional
office suites, most notably Microsoft Office, but at one time was considered the
"killer application" type responsible for the rise and dominance of the IBM PC in
the desktop business computing world.
In the early days of the PC before GUIs became common, user interfaces were
text-only and were operated mostly by function key and modifier key sequences.
Every program used a different set of keystrokes, making it difficult for a user to
master more than one or two programs. Programs were loaded from floppy disk,
making it very slow and inconvenient to switch between programs and difficult or
impossible to exchange data between them (to transfer the results from a
spreadsheet to a word processor document for example). In response to these
limitations, vendors created multifunction "integrated" packages, eliminating the
need to switch between programs and presenting the user with a more consistent
interface.
The potential for greater ease-of-use made integrated software attractive to home
markets as well as business, and packages such as the original AppleWorks for
the Apple II and Jane for the Commodore 128 were developed in the 1980s to run
on most popular home computers of the day.
Context MBA was an early example of the genre, and featured spreadsheet,
database, chart-making, word processing and terminal emulation functions.
However, because it was written in Pascal for portability, it ran slowly on the
relatively underpowered systems of the day. Lotus 1-2-3, which followed it, had
fewer functions but was written in assembler, providing it with a speed advantage
that allowed it to become the predominant business application for personal
computers.[2]
The integrated software market of today is exemplified by entry-level programs
such as Microsoft Works which are often bundled with personal computers as
"starter" productivity suites.
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processing, spreadsheet, database management, graphics, communications and
sometimes organizers.
These applications are from the same software manufacturer and are packaged
together in a large box and sold at prices that are much lower than if they were
purchased individually - usually less than half of the original collective price! The
software applications contained in a suite or bundle are the same applications a
professional user might purchase individually. No corners have been cut, and
additional features may have been added such as a "common interface" that
allows any of the programs to be accessed from the same "main menu," a
consistent screen layout used by each of the programs, and the ability to easily
exchange data from one program to another.
integrated software
A group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.
Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single
program (e.g. word processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and
communications)..
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Option to install all of the programs at the same time or only the programs you
want to use
Consistent interface from one application to another
The ability to share information between applications
Future upgrades can update each application all at the same time
Ideal for personal use, professional use, large or small business
Each application is the full-featured version
Disadvantages
Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that you
wish to open the document.
Offer fewer features and less versatility than stand alone versions or software.
Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
Open source is a type of software which is freely available and its source code is
available for further development, modification. Generally all open source
software have a community of developers who provide support, documentation
and even binary versions of the software to people who may be interested in it.
These additional services, though, may not be free monetarily.
There are several ongoing open source software projects. The open source nature
of these projects means that there will be several people working on modifying
and improving the software from around the world. Some such examples include
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the Web browser Mozilla Firefox, content management software like Drupal,
Joomla etc.
SOFTWARE COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a legal concept, giving the creator of an original work exclusive rights to
control its distribution for a certain time period.
Copying computer software is therefore a breach of copyright and a criminal offence. The
Act covers stealing software, using illegally copied software and manuals, and running
purchased software on more machines than the license allows.
The legal penalties for breaking the copyright law include unlimited fines and up to two
years in prison.
All the software that you use should be fully licensed. When you purchase software you
usually are licensed to use it on just one computer. It is illegal to make copies of the
software to use on other computers, even if they are your own.
Software protection
Software companies try to prevent illegal copying of their disks using the following
methods:
Copy protection - the disk (or CD-Rom) may be formatted in a special way so it
cannot easily be copied.
Restricting the number of installations - each installation is recorded on an
installation disk and only a certain number are allowed.
A registration key - a unique series of letters and numbers that is asked for when
running the program. The software will not run if the registration key is not typed
in correctly and online multiplayer games will not to run if another user is online
who has used the same key.
A phone or Internet activation code - this requires the user to call a number or
go online to register the product. They then receive a unique computer-specific
serial number.
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Encryption - data can be scrambled up and cannot be read without the correct
software.
A Dongle - a piece of hardware that must be plugged into the computer to run the
software. Each one contains a unique electronic serial number and as they are
expensive to produce they are mostly used to protect high-end software packages.
Details of the user are built into the software - when the software is run it
displays the original users name. This does not prevent the copying but it makes is
obvious that the copy is illegal.
A Keyfile - a small file with a unique code that is placed in the same directory as
the program. If the code is not valid then the software will not run.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
Unauthorized copying of software.
Unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
unauthorized copying of software
The production of illegal copies of software.
By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is
software piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge
problem mainly because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult
to steal a program than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a
friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical
support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy
Loss of business to software companies.
Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a
result you can’t install it.
Virus Spread
Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and
money.
Piracy harms all software publishers, Regardless of their size. Software
publishers spend years developing software for the public to use. A portion
of every dollar spent in purchasing original software is channeled back into
research and development so that better, more advanced software products
can be produced. When you purchase pirated software, your money goes
directly into the pockets of software pirates instead.
Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer
legitimate software sales result in lost tax revenue and decreased
employment. Software piracy greatly hinders the development of local
software communities. If software publishers cannot sell their products in
the legitimate market, they have no incentive to continue developing
programs. Many software publishers simply won’t enter markets where the
piracy rates are too high, because they will not be able to recover their
development costs.
Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including
you, the end user. How?
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1) Piracy results in higher prices for duly licensed users,
2) Piracy reduces levels of support, and
3) Delays in the funding and development of new products, causing the
overall selection and quality of software to suffer.
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sample product and is not licensed for normal commercial distribution and
use, is diverted into normal commercial channels of distribution.
(3) Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) stand-alone product. This form
of license misuse occurs when OEM version software has been unbundled from
its designated computer system and distributed as a separate, “stand-alone”
product. Microsoft’s agreement with computer manufacturers prohibits them from
distributing Microsoft products in this fashion, i.e. without accompanying
computer hardware.
Microsoft products on the retail shelf should never include a line on the front
cover of the User’s Guide that states, “For Distribution Only With New Computer
Hardware.”
(3) “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product misuse. This form of license
misuse occurs when a “Microsoft Easy Fulfillment” (MEF) product is diverted
into normal commercial channels of distribution. The MEF product may be
distributed only to end users who have a Select or Open (MOLP) license and
who order the product in accordance with their license terms. The MEF
product has a sticker on the jewel case identifying the product as “Microsoft
Easy Fulfillment.”
(4) Volume licensing misuse. Volume Licensing enables organizations to acquire
the rights to copy and use specific Microsoft software products with
agreements tailored to the number of products needed at the particular
organization. These volume programs offer a broad range of products and
licensing options and reduce administrative overhead and software
management costs.
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Is a collection of files?
An organized collection of interrelated files.
Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly
and easily from a chosen reference point?
Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common
pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
This is programming with files. Each user defines and implements the files
needed for a specific application so that each application has its own separate data
files and software programs
Although both users will be interested in the same data, each maintains separate
files and programs to manipulate these files and this results in data redundancy
and a lot other problems associated with it.
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Disadvantages
Database systems are complex, difficult and time consuming to design
There is greater impact of failure
Extensive conversion costs involved
Initial training is required for all users
Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to update
the same record at the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent this.
Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and thus
refuse access by other individuals or departments in the organisation.
Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more
workstations and other devices. Substantial hardware and software startup costs
are involved
Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorised entry into the data.
However, this could be reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords and by
physically denying access to unauthorised users.
DATABASE TERMINOLOGY
Entity - a real world object or event or anything that is capable of independence
existence and about which we can collect information e.g. person, building,
transaction, election
Attribute – a characteristic or property of an entity e.g. name
Primary key – an attribute that uniquely identifies an entity or record. A field
that uniquely identifies a record in a table. In a students table, for instance, a key
built from last name + first name might not give you a unique identifier (two or
more Jane Does in the school, for example). To uniquely identify each student,
you might add a special Student ID field to be used as the primary key.
Foreign key - A key used in one table to represent the value of a primary key in a
related table. While primary keys must contain unique values, foreign keys may
have duplicates. For instance, if we use student ID as the primary key in a
Students table (each student has a unique ID), we could use student ID as a
foreign key in a Courses table: as each student may do more than one course, the
student ID field in the Courses table (often shortened to Courses.student ID) will
hold duplicate values.
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Normalization - The process of structuring data to minimise duplication and
inconsistencies. The process usually involves breaking down a single table into
two or more tables and defining relationships between those tables. The process
of breaking up a table into multiple tables, each of which has a single theme,
thereby reducing data redundancy; 2) The technique that reduces or eliminates the
possibility that a database is subject to modification anomalies
Query - A view of your data showing information from one or more tables. For
example, you could query a Students database asking "Show me the first and last
names of the students who take both history and geography and have Alice
Hernandez as their advisor". Such a query displays information from the Students
table (firstname, lastname), Courses table (course description) and Advisor table
(advisor name), using the keys (student ID, course ID, advisor ID) to find
matching information. Literally, a question you ask about data in the database in
the form of a command, written in a query language, defining sort order and
selection, that is used to generate an ad hoc list of records; 2) The output subset of
data produced in response to a query.
SQL - Structured Query Language (pronounced sequel or ess-queue-ell). A
computer language designed to organize and simplify the process of getting
information out of a database in a usable form, and also used to reorganize data
within databases.
Relation - A single store of related information. A table consists of records, and
each record is made up of a number of fields. You can think of the phone book as
a table: It contains a record for each telephone subscriber, and each subscriber’s
details are contained in three fields – name, address and telephone.
DBMS - Database management system. A program which lets you manage
information in databases. Microsoft Access is a DBMS, although the term is often
shortened to ‘database’. So, the same term is used to apply to the program you use
to organize your data and the actual data structure you create with that program.
Domain - A collection or range of all the possible values a field can contain.
Although a field’s domain is typically finite, it may be infinite as well.
Derived attribute - Synonymous with computed attribute, for which the value is
calculated from those contained in other fields. Usually, computed fields’ values
are calculated from other fields’ values that occur in the same record
Metadata - Data about data and the data’s structure within a database. Technical
metadata reflects the description of the structure, content, keys, and indexes of
data and their source of origin, while business metadata reflects definitions about
measures (facts) using calculations
OLAP - (Online Analytical Processing)The OLAP Council defines online
analytical processing as, "A category of software technology that enables
analysis, managers and executives to gain insight into data through fast,
consistent, interactive access to wide variety of possible views of information that
have been transformed from raw data to reflect the real dimensionality of the
enterprise as understood by the user."
Record - Synonymous with row and tuple. An instance of data in a table, a record
is a collection of all the facts related to one physical or conceptual entity; often
referring to a single object or person, usually represented as a row of data in a
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table, and sometimes referred to as a tuple in some, particularly older, database
management systems.
Schema - The database’s metadata -- the structure of an entire database, which
specifies, among other things, the tables, their fields, and their domains. In some
database systems, the linking or join fields are also specified as part of the schema
2) The description of a single table. Also called a Logical Schema.
Concatenated key – a key formed by joining two or more attributes
Relationship a link or association between any two entities in a database
ERD - An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates
the interrelationships between entities in a database. ER diagrams often use
symbols to represent three different types of information. Boxes are commonly
used to represent entities. Diamonds are normally used to represent relationships
and ovals are used to represent attributes.
One-to-Many
o Exactly one record in one table is related by a common linking field to one or
more records in another table, implying that each value of the linking field is
unique in the first table, but not necessarily so in the second. The primary key
table contains only one record that relates to none, one, or many records in the
related table. This relationship is similar to the one between you and a parent. You
have only one mother, but your mother may have several children.
Many-to-Many
One or more records in one table may be related to one or more records in a
second table by a common value or linking (join) field. This implies that each
value of the linking field may appear any number of times in either or both tables.
Each record in both tables can relate to any number of records (or no records) in
the other table. For instance, if you have several siblings, so do your siblings
(have many siblings). Many-to-many relationships require a third table, known as
an associate or linking table, because relational systems can't directly
accommodate the relationship.
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The Database Administrator
This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the organisation's
database. This person relates to the management, system analysts, programmers and other
stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to have adequate managerial and technical
abilities to suit the job. He therefore must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the
database and the DBMS.
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The DBMS is an application program that provides an interface between the operating
system and the user in order to make access to the data as simple as possible. It has
several other functions as well, and these are described below.
1. Data storage, retrieval and update. The DBMS must allow users to store
retrieve and update information as easily as possible, without having to be aware
of the internal structure of the database.
2. Creation and maintenance of the data dictionary
3. Managing the facilities for sharing the database. The DBMS has to ensure that
problems do not arise when two people simultaneously access a record and try to
update it
4. Back up and recovery. The DBMS must provide the ability to recover the
database in the event of system failure.
5. Security. The DBMS must handle password allocation and checking, and the
‘view’ of the database that a given user is allowed.
# ADVANTAGES # DISADVANTAGES
1 Supports data sharing 1 Limitations of databases arise from increased
technological complexity
2 Ensures increased data security 2 Developing a large database and installing a
DBMS can be difficult and expensive.
3 Ensures data independence 3 More hardware capability is required, since
storage requirements for the organization of
data, overhead control data, and the DBMS is
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greater
4 Data integrity is guaranteed. The functions 4 Problems of data inconsistency can arise if a
in the DBMS can be used to enforce the distributed database approach is used.
integrity rules with minimum programming in
the application programs.
5 Reduces or minimizes data redundancy 5 Longer processing times may result from
high volume transaction processing
applications since extra layer software [the
DBMS] exists between application programs
and the Operating system.
6 Consistence of data is ensured 6 Security and integrity of data are major
concerns.
7 Support data integration. Since related data Centralized databases are vulnerable to
is stored in one single database, enforcing errors, fraud and failures.
data integrity is much easier
8 Related data can be shared across
programs since the data is stored in a
centralized manner
9 Enforcing of standards in the organization
and structure of data files is required and also
easy in a Database System, since it is one
single set of programs, which is always
interacting with data files
10 The application programmer need not build
the functions for handling issues like
concurrent access, security, data integrity, etc.
The programmer only needs to implement the
application business rules. This brings in
application development ease.
A collection of software programs that stores organizes and allows access to the
data in a uniform and consistent way
Is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database?
A general purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining
constructing and manipulating databases for various applications.
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Database Environment
i. Database
ii. Database users
iii. DBM System
iv. Data Dictionary
v. Database Administrator
vi. User/system interface
Database Users
i. Casual users
ii. Naïve users – parametric users
iii. Sophisticated end users
I. Occasionally use it, and if they do a HLL such as AQL may be used.
II. Those who use Standard queries and updates only e.g. bank cashiers, data entry
clerks’ e.t.c.
III. Know the whole range of facilities on a database environment.
4. Concurrency Control
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that the database is updated correctly when
multiple users are updating the database concurrently
LOCKING OR DEADLOCK situations must be avoided
5. Recovery
- Allows a mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the database is
damaged in any way.
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- A before / after image is usually created
6. Security
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the database.
- Authorizations, encryption features and limited views can be used as security
provisions
7. Communication
- Must be capable of integrating with communications software on the database
environment on a multi-user environment.
8. Integrity
- Allows a mechanism to ensure that both the data in the database and changes to
the data follow certain rules.
9. Data Independence
- (Has facilities to) support the independence of programs from the actual structure
of the database.
10. Utilities
- Provide a set of utility services e.g. optimized
COMPONENTS OF A DBMS
1. Data dictionary/directory
2. Data language
3. Application development tools
4. Security software
5. Report writers
6. Query language
7. Web server software
8. Teleprocessing monitors
9. Archiving, backup and Recovery systems
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You can ask ad-hoc questions of the database interactively without the aid of
programmers.
Examples SQL, NLQ, QBE. Structured Query language, Natural language Queries and
Query by Example.
7. WEB SERVER SOFTWARE
Turns the computer system housing database into a web server and enables users with
web connection to access data from wherever they are located.
Also convert data into a format that is readable by standard browsers.
8. TELEPROCCESSING MONITORS
A software package that manages communication between the database and remote
terminals.
9. ARCHIVING, BACK UP AND RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Provides the database manager with tools to make copies of the database.
Restart/ Recovery systems are tools used to restart the database and to recover lost data in
the event of a failure.
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iii) Relational database model
iv) Object-oriented database model
Diagram
DEPT
Course
Student
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Allows entry into a database at multiple points because any data element or record
can be related to many other data elements.
Permits a record to be a member of more than one set at a time Hierarchical and
network models are less flexible than other database models because the
relationship between records must be determined and implemented before a
search can be conducted.
Diagram
Diagram
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER NO. CUSTOMER NAME CUSTOMER ADDRESS
- - -
- - -
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The objects use messages to interact with one another e.g. the object building in a
database can have the attributes: type, size, colour etc
This model uses objects and messages to accommodate new types of data and
provide for advanced data handling
Each object in an object-oriented database model is bound together with its own
data and a set of instructions that describe the behavior and attributes of the
objects.
Objects use messages to interact with one another.
Every object is described by a set of attributes.
E.g. the object building in a database or architectural drawing may have the
attributes TYPE, SIZE, COLOUR just as in any.
Every object must have a set of procedures or routines or a set of methods.
E.G methods for an architectural drawing might include instructions to display,
rotate, or explode the drawing on a screen.
Data Security/Protection
Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural
hazards, deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by
malicious or terrorist acts, illegal access to data by hackers [people who break
into the system] & accidental destruction of data by hardware or software
failure [operator error].
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Cipher text
Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information
content (ie, its meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
2. Firewall
A firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC
or network through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data
sent to and from the PC and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security
criteria. Any data that does not meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also
process encrypted data. They verify the validity of the user. User would require
access to the firewall before they can transmit data. Latest firewalls also have the
ability to detect virus software in packets of data that is sent through the network.
Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data being
transmitted.
3) Usernames & Passwords
Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to the data or
computer rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is
deleted, the person with the password will be reported as the culprit through
logging. Passwords can be forgotten. Widely used by companies to protect their
equipment & data
4) Authorized entry to computer installations
Most installations have card readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the
doors that prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
5) Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6) Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3 generations
of backup.
7) Saving work frequently
8) Avoiding viruses.
9) Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through codes, voice
recognition etc.
10) Installing fire alarms.
11) Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12) Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
13) Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
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Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling
entry to these areas by means of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards.
Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense
BACK UP
Copying or saving data to a different location. One can restore the backup
copy if data is lost or damaged.
To create a copy of a disk’s contents on another location for safe keeping.
Since hard drives are not infallible, it is recommended that you backup its
contents regularly.
DISASTER PLANNING
Many companies have comprehensive emergency plans so that even after suffering a
severe:
Bomb
Fire damage
Natural disaster, the company can be up and running within a day or
two.
Disaster plan
The documented policies and procedures intended to either prevent damage,
minimize damage, or recover from damage to record materials.
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Part of an overall contingency plan. The plan for a process whereby an enterprise
would restore any loss of data in the event of fire, vandalism, natural disaster, or
system failure.
Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact
and preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it. [15].
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DATA INTEGRITY/RELIABILITY
Refers to the correctness AND The accuracy of data after being transmitted or
processed
Data in the computer system may become incorrect, corrupted or of poor quality
in many different ways & at any stage during data processing.
COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information
technology to gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with
intent of damaging, deleting or altering computer data. Computer crimes also
include the activities such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft
and data as well as system interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily
involve damage to physical property. They rather include the manipulation of
confidential data and critical information. Computer crimes involve activities of
software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is hampered. These criminal
activities involve the breach of human and information privacy, as also the theft
and illegal alteration of system critical information. The different types of
computer crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer and more
effective security measures.
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Computer Fraud/Crime
Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems,
especially with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make
unauthorized use of computer resources.
E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another
Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access
is known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system
in order to obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is
called hacking. The unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an
unauthorized access to the private communication of an organization of a user is one of
the widely known computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the
hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identity, thus remaining
anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.
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Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate
themselves and harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the
system users. Viruses spread to other computers through network file system, through the
network, Internet or by the means of removable devices like USB drives and CDs.
Computer viruses are after all, forms of malicious codes written with an aim to harm a
computer system and destroy information. Writing computer viruses is a criminal activity
as virus infections can crash computer systems, thereby destroying great amounts of
critical data.
Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and
obtaining other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be
someone else by using someone else's identity as one's own. Financial identity theft
involves the use of a false identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity
theft is the using of someone else’s business name or credit card details for commercial
purposes. Identity cloning is the use of another user's information to pose as a false user.
Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity
theft.
The different types of computer crimes involve an illegal exploitation of the computer
and communication technology for criminal activities. While the advancing technology
has served as a boon to mankind, the destructively directed human intellects are all set to
turn technology into a curse. However, crimes are sure to end, as it is truth that always
triumphs!
1. Intellectual crime – cracking into a computer system with the sole aim of
transferring or stealing funds, e.g. Salami slicing which is the activity of
obtaining or stealing money repeatedly in extremely small quantities over a period
of time
2. Destruction of property
3. Software piracy
4. Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems or unauthorized access to
or modification of computer programs and data; i.e. hacking which attempts to
bypass the security mechanism of a computer system or network
5. Theft of computer hardware and software or taking away software without the
owner’s consent
6. Making and distributing pornography
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Cloutier shares his tip for crafting a hard-to-crack password: use a combination of
capital and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols and make it 8 to 12
characters long.
You should definitely avoid using: any personal data (such as your
birthdate), common words spelled backwards and sequences of characters or
numbers, or those that are close together on the keyboard.
Use their convenient password checker to see how strong yours is.
As for how often you should change your password, Cloutier says that the
industry standard is "every 90 days," but don't hesitate to do it more frequently if
your data is highly-sensitive.
Another key: make sure every individual has their own username and password
for any login system, from desktops to your CMS. "Never just use one shared
password," says Cloutier.
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"They're the last line of defense" should an unwanted attack get through to your
network, Cloutier explains.
4. Update your programs regularly
Making sure your computer is "properly patched and updated" is a necessary step
towards being fully protected; there's little point in installing all this great
software if you're not going to maintain it right.
"Your security applications are only as good as their most recent update,"
Watchinski explains. "While applications are not 100 percent fool-proof, it is
important to regularly update these tools to help keep your users safe."
Frequently updating your programs keeps you up-to-date on any recent issues or
holes that programmers have fixed.
5. Secure your laptops
Because of their portable nature, laptops are at a higher risk of being lost or stolen
than average company desktops. It's important to take some extra steps to make
certain your sensitive data is protected.
Encryption software changes the way information looks on the harddrive so that,
without the correct password, it can't be read.
6. Secure your mobile phones
Cloutier points out that smartphones hold so much data these days that you should
consider them almost as valuable as company computers -- and they're much
more easily lost or stolen. As such, securing them is another must.
The must-haves for mobile phones:
Encryption software
Password-protection (Cloutier also suggests enabling a specific "lock-out"
period, wherein after a short amount of time not being used, the phone locks
itself)
Remote wiping enabled
7. Backup regularly
Scheduling regular backups to an external hard drive, or in the cloud, is a painless
way to ensure that all your data is stored safely.
The general rule of thumb for backups: servers should have a complete backup
weekly, and incremental backups every night; personal computers should also be
backed up completely every week, but you can do incremental backups every few
days if you like ("however long you could live without your data," Cloutier
explains).
Getting your data compromised is a painful experience -- having it all backed up
so you don't completely lose it will make it much less so.
8. Be careful with e-mail, IM and surfing the Web
It's not uncommon for a unsuspecting employee to click on a link or download an
attachment that they believe is harmless -- only to discover they've been infected
with a nasty virus, or worse.
9. Educate your employees
Teaching your employees about safe online habits and proactive defense is
crucial.
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"Educating them about what they are doing and why it is dangerous is a more
effective strategy than expecting your IT security staff to constantly react to end
users’ bad decisions," Watchinski says.
It's not easy: "One of the most difficult things to do is protect end users against
themselves," he adds. But ultimately, prevention is the best approach to handling
your data security.
Make sure your employees understand how important your company's data is, and
all the measures they can take to protect it.
10. Data encryption
Encryption scrambles data, and is used to protect information that is being held on
a computer, stored on external media such as DVDs or transmitted over a
network.
11. Intrusion detection
These products monitor system and network activity to spot potential security
breaches. If a detection system suspects an attack, it can generate an alarm, such
as an email alert, based upon the type of activity it has identified.
COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
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Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth
DEFINITION2.
A virus is a computer program designed to enter your computer and tamper with your
files without your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the
activated virus can not only infect other programs and documents on your computer, it
can duplicate and transmit itself to other computers that are connected to yours, just like
a physical virus can move from one human host to another.
Virusesbegan in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards
became more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and
other programs were stored on floppy disks. Hidden Viruseswere programmed onto these
disks; as the disks were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.
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The CHKDSK command does not show the correct amount of bytes available.
Bit errors frequently occur while running Windows.
The disk drive is active when it should not be.
The hard drive is inaccessible when booting from a floppy drive.
Unrecognized files appear.
File names change.
The keyboard makes a clicking noise.
The screen becomes distorted.
Text on screen does unusual things.
CMOS settings, AUTOEXEC.BAT, or CONFIG.SYS files change unexpectedly
(Symantec).
A large part of detection is anti-virus software. Like a doctor, anti-virus
software often uses the above listed symptoms to identify and eradicate an
infection.
It’s not always easy to tell if your computer has been compromised. More than ever
before, the authors of viruses, worms, Trojans and spyware are going to great lengths to
hide their code and conceal what their programs are doing on an infected computer.
That’s why it’s essential to follow the advice given in this guide: in particular, install
Internet security software, make sure you apply security patches to your operating system
and applications and backup your data regularly.
Your computer behaves strangely, i.e. in a way that you haven’t seen before.
You see unexpected messages or images.
You hear unexpected sounds, played at random.
Programs start unexpectedly.
Your personal firewall tells you that an application has tried to connect to the
Internet (and it’s not a program that you ran).
Your friends tell you that they have received e-mail messages from your address
and you haven’t sent them anything.
Your computer ‘freezes’ frequently, or programs start running slowly.
You get lots of system error messages.
The operating system will not load when you start your computer.
You notice that files or folders have been deleted or changed.
You notice hard disk access (shown by one of the small flashing lights) when
you’re not aware of any programs running.
Your web browser behaves erratically, e.g. you can’t close a browser window.
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How computers are infected with Viruses?
Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or
other media that users can exchange.
Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.
Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.
Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.
Booting a PC from an infected medium.
Executing an infected program.
Opening an infected file.
Shareware.
Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,
clicking on spam,
visiting corrupt websites and links online,
Opening spreadsheets or even the original method—infected disks.
But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.
Sharing of storage media
Through e-mail attachments
Networks – if your computer is connected to a home network or if your work
computer is part of network, you may find yourself with an infection through no
fault of your own. There isn’t much you can do to stop these kinds of infections,
short of having your network administrator ensure that everyone’s antivirus
software is up to date so that the invading bug can be removed as quickly as
possible.
Internet downloads including software piracy
Rogue Websites. It is depressing to know that you may become infected with
spyware or a virus by doing nothing more than simply visiting a website, but it
istrue. Many adult websites, gambling websites and other less than trustworthy
websites will attempt to automatically access your computer when you visit them.
They often install adware bugs that will cause a flurry of pop ups to appear on
your screen. This adware will often allow for other programs with even more
nefarious purposes to be installed and before you know it, your computer will be
swamped. To stop these rogue websites, adjust the settings on your antivirus
software and firewall so that no outside connections can be made and no
programs can be installed without your express permission.
1) Size.The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been
demonstrated to be surprisingly small. This has facilitated the ability of these
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programs to attach themselves to other applications and escape notice for long periods
of time.
3) Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is
running, the virus is able to spread to other programs and files accessible to the
computer system. The ability to propagate is essential to a virus program.
6) Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data,
programs, and even system operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many
cases, especially in networked operations, eradication of viruses has been complicated
by the ability of the virus program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the
networked system from a single infected copy.
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o Slow machine performance
o Corrupt data
o Damage software, hardware and files
o Damage the computer by damaging programs
o Reformatting of the hard disk
o Deletion of files
SCANNER – examine every file on a specific disk drive, looking/searching for known
virus
“signatures”. A “signature” is a string of software code that identifies a virus program.
Every virus has a unique signature
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9. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or
replacing corrupted data.
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and other items. However, since these downloads are so massive, it can be easy to sneak
a virus along for the ride. Only download these files from trusted sites that you can count
on, or, at the very least, scan them before you open them.
Updates, Updates, Updates – There is a reason why Windows has a feature called
Critical Updates. There is an entire branch of Microsoft dedicated to staying one step
ahead of the hackers out there so when they manage to fix a possible security loophole,
you need to download the patch right away. Help Microsoft help you prevent computer
viruses from causing too much trouble.
Know What To Look For – Even if you are just a casual computer user, you should
have an idea of how your machine operates, what normal pop up windows look like and
what popular viruses are out there, that way, when your computer begins exhibiting tell
tale signs, you’ll know. You can help prevent computer viruses by staying updated and
educated.
Stay Away From Cracked Software – It is so secret that you can download illegal,
cracked versions of some programs online. As tempting as it may be, these files are
almost always infested with advanced and difficult to detect bugs. Play it safe and get
your software from the source.
Install a Firewall – A firewall is a program that screens incoming Internet and network
traffic. Along with your virus program, it can help prevent unauthorized access to your
computer.
Be prepared to Lock Down – If you hear of a virus that is spreading like wildfire
through the Internet, make an extra effort to be careful. Don’t open any suspicious emails
or accept any downloads for a week or two until your virus protection program has been
updated and you are, once again, safe.
FILE CONCEPTS
The purpose of a computer file is to hold data required for providing information. A
computer file is a collection of related records. Records consist of fields and the fields are
made up of characters. A character is the smallest element of a file. A character may be a
letter of the alphabet, a digit or of a special form (symbols). Logical files show what data
items are contained and what processing may be done while physical files are viewed in
terms of how data is stored on storage media.
Types of Files
a) Master Files
They hold permanent data for use in applications such as stock control and
credit control. Usually much of the data items in these files do not change
frequently or with each transaction, e.g. name, address or date of birth.
b) Transaction files
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These are also called movement files. They hold temporary records of values.
They are used to update the master file and are overwritten after the updating
of the master file. Examples of Transaction files:
A customer order file or records, each of which has data on a particular
order.
A time sheet data file that contains records, each of which has data on
the number of hours worked by a particular employee.
A stock transaction file that contains records of stock additions or
removals – one record for each movement.
c) Look up files
They are reference files from which such information as prices list and mailing
list can be obtained.
d) Archive files
These are files that are used to store information that has not been in use in the
recent past and would not be in use in the near future – so are used to store
historical data.
e) Backup files
These are copies of transaction files and master files held for security purposes
f) Transition files
Derived from a transaction file by the addition or deletion or ammendment of
data. It is produced as a temporary file during data processing often by the
addition of master file information to a transaction file prior to updating or
output. Examples of transition files:
An employee time sheet transaction file which has had employee
names added (from an employee master file) and re-sorted into
department order
A customer order transaction file to which the price of each item
ordered has been taken from a (computerised) catalogue and added
FILE PROCESSING
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Databases
Batch processing is also used for efficient bulk database updates and automated
transaction processing, as contrasted to interactive online transaction processing
(OLTP) applications.
Images
Batch processing is often used to perform various operations with digital images.
There exist computer programs like Batch Image Processor that let one resize,
convert, watermark, or otherwise edit image files.
Converting
Batch processing is also used for converting a number of computer files from one
format to another. This is to make files portable and versatile especially for
proprietary and legacy files where viewers are not easy to come by.
Job scheduling
UNIX utilizes cron and at facilities to allow for scheduling of complex job scripts.
Windows has a job scheduler. Most high-performance computingclusters use
batch processing to maximize cluster usage.
2. REAL-TIME PROCESSING,
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Each time a sale is made the stock information is updated and the
sale information is also updated.
It is expensive and complicated.
Record and file locks are implemented to avoid problems with
real-time processing.
Benefits
Online Processing has two key benefits: simplicity and efficiency. Reduced paper
trails and the faster, more accurate forecasts for revenues and expenses are both
examples of how OLP makes things simpler for businesses.
Disadvantages
As with any information processing system, security and reliability are
considerations. Online transaction systems are generally more susceptible to
direct attack and abuse than their offline counterparts. When organizations choose
to rely on OLP, operations can be severely impacted if the transaction system or
database is unavailable due to data corruption, systems failure, or network
availability issues. Additionally, like many modern online information technology
solutions, some systems require offline maintenance which further affects the
cost-benefit analysis.
Centralized processing
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An information system where all critical data and programs are
stored on one main computer, usually a mainframe. Unlike the
task-sharing concept of a client/server system, the central
computer retains all the brains and brawn.
A computing environment in which all processing takes place on a
mainframe or central computer.
Puts all processing and control authority within one computer to
which all other computing devices respond.
Distributed Processing
The ability to have several computers working together in a
network, where each processor runs different activities for a user,
as required.
Computers connected together by a communications network. Data
processing occurs on each of the computers, unlike a centralized
processing system in which terminals are connected to a host
computer that performs all of the data processing.
Use of computers at various locations, typically interconnected via
communication links for the purpose of data access and/or transfer.
A computer system in which processing is performed by several
separate computers linked by a communications network. The term
often refers to any computer system supported by a network, but
more properly refers to a system in which each computer is chosen
to handle a specific workload, and the network supports the system
as a whole.
Offline processing
When your computer performs an operation when it is not
connected to any other computers, it is working offline.
Means that your computer is not currently connected to an Internet
server.
Not connected (to a network). Not available to the network
Time sharing
A way of sharing out computer facilities between a number of
people who want to use the computer at the same time. Each has a
separate terminal and gets the impression that they have sole use
of the computer with their own 'account'. Similar to
NETWORKING.
Transaction processing
o A type of computer processing in which the computer responds
immediately to User requests, with each User interaction considered to
be a transaction. Automatic teller machines for banks are probably the
best-known example.
o In computer science, transaction processing is information processing
that is divided into individual, indivisible operations, called
transactions. Each transaction must succeed or fail as a complete unit;
it cannot remain in an intermediate state.
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Master file is the main information source in any type of
organization.
File processing is the update of the master file [actual
records] through manual or computerized methods.
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Updating on tape is carried out in batch mode by reading the whole file
and rewriting it after necessary modification on to a new file.
On disk can be carried out without rewriting the whole file.
RETRIEVAL
Retrieval of a record from a sequential file on tape media can be made
only in the sequential mode by reading all the records in sequence till the
desired record is reached.
Retrieval of a record from a sequential file on direct access media (DISK)
can be made by using sequential reach skip search, binary search.
HIT RATE
In a batch processing run: The proportion of the number of records
processed during a run to the total number of records on the file is called a
hit rate.
The higher the volatility and the lower the frequency of updating,, the
higher the hit rate.
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Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often used
because it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
2. HALF DUPLEX
A half-duplex transmission can send and receive in one direction, but not at the same time.
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It's like a one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one
end transmits at a time, the other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error
detection and request the sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. In some
aspects, you can think of Internet surfing as being half-duplex, as a user issues a request for
a web document, then that document is downloaded and displayed before the user issues
another request.
Another example of half-duplex is talkback radio, and CB Radio (Citizens Band). You
might have seen movies where a truck driver (drivers of very big trucks) communicates to
each other, and when they want the other person to speak they say "over". This is because
only one person can talk at a time
3. FULL DUPLEX
Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit
to receive mode like in half duplex. It like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway. Have
you ever watched these television talk shows where the host has a number of people on the
show, and they all try to talk at once. Well, that's full duplex!
Of course, in the world of data communications, full duplex allows both way
communications simultaneously. An example can be a consumer, which uses a cable
connection not only, receives TV channels, but also the same cable to support their phone
and Internet surfing. All these activities can occur simultaneously.
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DATA COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
Properties
Computer networks:
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information
stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to
data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many
networks.
3. Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use
resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a
shared network printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a
network to accomplish tasks.
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4. May be insecure
A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer
viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent
these devices from normally accessing the network (denial of service).
5. May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio
communication, e.g., amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access
technologies such as ADSL and VDSL.
6. May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very
costly to set up an effective computer network in a large organization or
company.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used
to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet
arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN
can see all packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data,
enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another. ...
Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed
to support the work of one person.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to the
destination can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. In the
previous topologies star and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every computer,
especially in bus topology. Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one
direction i.e clockwise or anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the
message finds its route for its destination. Router works in find the routes for the
messages and in reaching them to their destinations. The topology in which every devices
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connects to every other device is called a full Mesh topology unlike in the partial mesh in
which every device is indirectly connected to the other devices.
STAR TOPOLOGY
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workstations or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a
common termination point for the nodes, called a hub.
A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for
multiple nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the
appropriate paths.
Definitions of star network on the Web:
A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a
star coupler.
A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub
or concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central
point representing the points of the star.
BUS/LINEAR TOPOLOGY
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Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.
This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual
nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to
keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with
other messages already in the line.
The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for any
messages coming to them.
RING NETWORK
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A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.
Each node has two neighboring nodes
Data flow is unidirectional.
A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination
with intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to
the ring.
This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the
source.
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TREE TOPOLOGY
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.
This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.
Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper
layer and lower layer.
The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of
the tree from which all nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.
Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even
though it is not the single point of failure.
Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into
unreachable segment.
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Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Tree Topology
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
The diagram below represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology.
The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain
topologies.
Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to
them are mostly Star topology networks.
Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
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1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It
typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices.
LANs offer computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and
applications, file exchange between connected users, and communication between users
via electronic mail and other applications. The development of standard networking
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protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout
business and educational organizations.
Typically connects computer in a single building or campus.
Developed in 1970s.
Medium :optical fibres, coaxial cables, twisted pair, wireless.
Low latency (except in high traffic periods).
High speed networks (0.2 to 100 Mb/sec).
Speeds adequate for most distributed systems
Problems : Multimedia based applications
Typically buses or rings.
Ethernet, Token Ring
A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a
school or a college.
A network consisting of computers of LAN's connected across a distance WAN can cover small
to large distances, using different topologies such as telephone lines, fiber optic cabling, satellite
transmissions and microwave transmissions. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger
geographic areas. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this
type of network. Using a WAN, schools in Harare can communicate with places like Pretoria in a
matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like
the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a
MAN.
Developed in 1960s.
Generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
Medium: communication circuits connected by routers.
Routers forwards packets from one to another following a route from the sender to the
receiver. Store-and-Forward
Hosts are typically connected (or close to) the routers.
Typical latencies : 100ms - 500ms.
Problems with delays if using satellites.
Typical speed: 20 - 2000 Kbits/s.
Not (yet) suitable for distributed computing.
New standards are changing the landscape.
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1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the
disks from one computer to another shares files. This method of transferring files
(referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
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However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be
shared by many users. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It
allows users on different machines to share modems, printers, tape drives and
disk space, for example, users can send network messages requesting to use a
central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource. Users realize the benefit
of sharing information. Data files can be shared between machines on the
network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company newsletters,
and other information.
7. Flexible Access. Networks allow data & information access from any computer
in the campus.
DISADVANTAGES
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only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune
the network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network
integrity (ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network
may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to
necessary programs and files.
4. Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can
stop the entire network.
5. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data. There
is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures
are needed to prevent such abuse. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback
is security concerns; therefore, network security is a priority in the development
of network applications.
NETWORK SECURITY
The field of network security in general and of TCP/IP security in particular is too wide
to be dealt with we take the most common security exposures and measures to counteract
them. Because many, if not all, security solutions are based on cryptographic algorithms.
Security Issues
This section gives an overview of some of the most common attacks on computer
security, and it presents viable solutions to those exposures and lists actual
implementations.
Common Attacks
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For thousands of years, people have been guarding the gates to where they store their
treasures and assets. Failure to do so usually resulted in being robbed, neglected by
society or even killed. Though things are usually not as dramatic anymore, they can still
become very bad. Modern day I/T managers have realized that it is equally important to
protect their communications networks against intruders and saboteurs from both inside
and outside. We do not have to be overly paranoid to find some good reasons why this is
the case:
Tapping the wire: to get access to clear text data and passwords
Impersonation: to get unauthorized access to data or to create unauthorized e-
mails, orders, etc.
Denial-of-service: to render network resources non-functional
Replay of messages: to get access to and change information in transit
Guessing of passwords: to get access to information and services that would
normally be denied.
Guessing of keys: to get access to encrypted data and passwords (brute-force
attack, chosen cipher text attack, chosen plaintext attack)
Viruses, Trojan horses and logic bombs: to destroy data
Though these attacks are not exclusively specific to TCP/IP networks, they should be
considered potential threats to anyone who is going to base his/her network on TCP/IP,
which is what the majority of enterprises, organizations and small businesses around the
world are doing today. Hackers (more precisely, crackers) do likewise and hence find
easy prey.
User IDs: Make sure that every user has a password and that users are locked out
after several logon attempts with wrong passwords (typically five attempts). Keep the
passwords to superuser accounts (root, supervisor, administrator,etc.) among a very
limited circle of trusted system, network and security administrators.
System defaults: Make sure that default user IDs are either disabled or have
passwords that adhere to the minimum requirements stated above. Likewise, make
sure that only those services are enabled that are required for a system to fulfill its
designated role.
Physical access: Make sure that access to the locations where your systems and users
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physically reside is controlled appropriately. Information security begins at the
receptionist, not at the corporate firewall.
Help desk: Make sure that callers are properly identified by help desk representatives
or system administrators before they give out "forgotten" passwords or user IDs.
Social engineering is often the first step to attack a computer network.
INTERNET& EMAIL
Internet, by definition is a network of networks that interact with each other through
exchange of data packets. The Internet hosts an enormous information base and
carries numerous information resources and services..
When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web
(WWW) which is the most used feature of the Internet.
The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can
contain text, pictures, movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a
language or code called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web
pages is called a website.
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Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the
format "http" and a domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary,
but often has the term "www "such as in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it
doesn’t have to (e.g. http://news.bbc.co.uk).
Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This
is called the homepage.
Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be
taken to another page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you
need a program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet
Explorer.
To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There
are many different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of
searching and indexing web content. Google, MSN and Alta Vista are all examples
of search engines, while Yahoo and Exciteare web directories (a bit like the
Yellow Pages phone book) which have a search function built in.
The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It
must have an address in a recognized format.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Most offer the same basic package of Internet access, email addresses, web space for
your own pages and local rate call charges.
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used kind of user agent. The largest networked collection of linked documents is
known as the World Wide Web.
Is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web? The most widely
used are
1. Internet Explorer
2. Mozilla Firefox
3. Google chrome
4. Opera
5. Safari
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
Forward and back buttons to move between pages
A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
Search engines
Internet search engines help users find web pages on a given subject. The search
engines maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as
"spiders" or "robots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the search
engine. Similar services are provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of
websites, eg Yahoo!
Examples of search engines are: Google, MSN, Bing, Yahoo, AltaVista
Internet address
The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a
particular network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate.
Internet addresses are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
Examples of internet addresses
1. www.facebook.com
2. www.google.com
3. www.yahoo.com
4. www.gmail.com
5. www.herald.co.zw
IP address
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number, a kind of telephone
number, used by machines (usually computers) to refer to each other when sending
information through the Internet. This allows machines passing the information
onwards on behalf of the sender to know where to send it next, and for the machine
receiving the information to know that it is the intended destination.
Internet Service Provider: A company, which provides users with an access to the
Internet, is known as an Internet service provider or Internet access provider. ISP, as it is
called, offers email accounts and other services like remote storage of files for its
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customers.
Internet Protocol Suite: It is a set of communication protocols, which are used for the
Internet. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) were the two
pioneering protocols to be introduced in the Internet protocol standard. The Internet
protocol suite is composed of a set of layers wherein; each layer provides a service to the
upper layers in the set. The upper layers deal with abstract data while the lower layer
protocols translate data into physically transmittable forms.
PPP: Point-to-Point protocol (PPP) is a data link protocol that facilitates the
establishment of a direct connection between two nodes on a network.
MAC Address: Media Access Control address (MAC) is the physical hexadecimal
address assigned to each device on a network.
Domain Name System: DNS, as it is called, refers to the hierarchical naming system
used for computers, resources and services on the Internet. It translates the computer
hostnames to IP addresses. By way of the implementation of DNS, the domain name
'www.buzzle.com' translates to its IP address, say, 208.70.178.150. With the help of
DNS, domain names can be assigned to Internet users.
Cyberspace: This term coined by William Gibson, is used to refer to the computer
networks connected to each other and the content they host. It is often used to refer to the
Internet.
WWW: It is a collection of interlinked documents that are accessible over the Internet. It
consists of millions of web pages that contain text, images, voice and videos. Sir Tim
Berners-Lee, a British scientist working at CERN, created the World Wide Web.
Website: A website is a set of web pages consisting of text, audio and video. Web servers
host websites.
URL: It specifies the location of a resource on the Internet. It consists of the basic
address and path.
Web Page: Web pages are resources of information. They are generally created in the
HTML format and provide the web users with navigational abilities through hyperlinks to
other web pages on the web.
Home Page: The term home page is used to refer to the page that is the default page of
any website. It is the main page of a complex website.
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Proxy Server: Client machines on a network connect to the proxy server, which forwards
the client requests to other servers and returns responses to the clients.
Web Server: A web server is a computer program that accepts HTTP requests from web
clients and provides them with HTTP responses.
Web Browser: A web browser is a software application that facilitates user interaction
with the text, audio, video and other information that is located on the web.
Cache: Web browsers maintain a cache of recently visited web pages. Some of them use
an external proxy web cache, which is a server program through which web requests
pass. This enables the browsers to cache frequently visited pages. Even search engines
make available already indexed web pages through their caches.
Web Cookie: Also known as an HTTP cookie, it is piece of text that is exchanged
between the web client and the web server. It is sent by the web server to the web client
and returned unchanged by the client each time it accesses the server. You might want to
know how do websites use cookies?
Internet security: It is one of the major concerns today. As the Internet acts as a
communication platform that can be accessed by millions of users around the world, it
becomes necessary that proper measures be implemented. Issues like Internet safety that
deal with the content that is made accessible over the Internet are equally important.
Internet privacy relates to safeguarding the privacy of the web users and the sensitive
information on the web from hackers and stalkers.
Email Address: It identifies the network location to which an email can be delivered. An
email address is a combination of the user name of the mail user and the host name of the
mailing system. It is of the form, 'username@domain-name'. An email alias is a
forwarding email address. It simply forwards emails to specific email addresses.
Spamming: The act of sending unsolicited bulk messages over an email system is known
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as spamming. It is an undesirable use of the electronic messaging systems.
Email Scams: With the increase in the use of email systems, its security needs also rose.
Fraudulent users started tampering with the email systems to breach security.
Email Virus: It is a computer code that is transmitted through an email in the form of an
attachment. The email attachment causes the destruction of some of the files on the
receiver computer's hard disk and is programmatically emailed to the contacts in the
address book of the receiver.
Email Client: It is also known as a mail user agent (MUA). An email client is a front-end
computer program or an agent that acts as a client for the email server.
Mail Server: It can also be called Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) and is responsible for
receiving incoming email from local users and forwarding outgoing mails for delivery. A
mail server application forms the heart of a messaging system that performs all the
functions to keep the mails moving over the network.
SMTP: Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP is the standard for the
transmission of electronic mails. The electronic mail server software uses SMTP to send
and receive mail messages. ESMTP, that is known as extended or enhanced SMTP refers
to the protocol extensions made to SMTP and is widely used today.
POP3: Short for Post Office Protocol, POP3 is an application layer Internet standard
protocol. It is used to retrieve mails from a remote server. Here is a brief introduction to
POP3.
Internet Chat: It is a real-time Internet chat or synchronous conferencing that is used for
group communication as well as one-to-one communication over the Internet. Jarkko
Oikarinen, a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu is the developer of the first Internet chat
network. He developed the client and server programs for Internet Relay Chat in August
1988.
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ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, abbreviated as ADSL, is used for the
transmission of digital information using high bandwidths on existing phone lines. ADSL
technology is characterized by high download and low upload rates.
Dial-up: It is the means to connect to the Internet using the copper phone lines and a
modem. Dial-up connections are capable of sending information from the client's end at
very slow speeds of about 56kbps.
Modem: It is a device that modulates analog carrier signals to encode digital information
and demodulates carrier signals to decode information. A cable modem provides access
to data signals sent over the cable television infrastructure. Modems are commonly used
for facilitating Internet access.
Communication Bandwidth: It refers to the data that can be transferred between two
points in a given period of time. It is expressed in terms of bits per second. It is
commonly known as the bit rate.
Blogs: Blogs are the expressions of the common masses about social or political issues or
simply anything. Blogs can often be in the form of creative write-ups by writers in
different parts of the world.
Internet Forums: It is a bulletin board that serves as a platform for group discussion.
Registered users are free to contribute to the issues raised in forums thus making them
open discussion platforms.
Search Engine Optimization: The process of organizing the content of a website with
intent to increase its relevance with respect to keywords and search engines. The process
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of optimization involves editing website content and HTML coding to support search
engine strategies of ranking and indexing.
Internet Bookmark: The Internet browsers of the modern times aim at enabling the
users to organize the web pages they access. Links once visited can be saved in the
favorites or preferences categories. Bookmarks are usually integrated into browsers.
Social bookmarking is a method used by Internet users to store and manage web pages.
Web Directories: It is a directory, which links to other websites and organizes those
links. They should not be mistaken as being search engines.
OTHER TERMS
Router: A router connects two or more logical subnets and performs the functions of
routing and forwarding information.
Intranet: It is a relatively smaller private network that uses the Internet protocols and
connectivity. It is an extension of the Internet and is privately used by organizations.
Extranet: It is a private network that uses Internet technology to share a part of the
business information and operations with suppliers and customers. It can be a part of a
company's intranet that provides access to the users outside the company.
Virtual Private Network: It is a private network that allows the exchange of information
between computers over a shared or a public network.
Wireless Networking: It refers to computer networking that is carried out over the
wireless media.
Broadband Internet: Broadband connectivity to the Internet provides the users with a
high-speed Internet access.
Dial-up Internet: In this type of access to the Internet, the user's computer is attached to
a modem connected to a telephone line. Dial-up Internet access involves a modem that
dials into an Internet service provider to establish a connection.
Satellite Internet: Internet services that make use of the satellite communication media
are termed as satellite Internet services. They are used in locations that are mobile thus
making terrestrial Internet connectivity, an impossibility.
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2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a
cheque book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.
Advantages
Faster Communication
The foremost target of Internet has always been speedy communication and it has
excelled way beyond the expectations. Newer innovations are only going to make it faster
and more reliable. Now, you can communicate in a fraction of second with a person who
is sitting in the other part of the world. For more personal and interactive communication,
you can avail the facilities of chat services, video conferencing and so on. Besides, there
are plenty of messenger services in offering. With the help of such services, it has
become very easy to establish a kind of global friendship where you can share your
thoughts and explore other cultures.
Information Resources
Information is probably the biggest advantage that Internet offers. Internet is a virtual
treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is
available on the Internet. The search engines like Google, Yahoo are at your service on
the Internet. There is a huge amount of information available on the Internet for just
about every subject known to man, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs
and conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support, the list is simply
endless.
Students and children are among the top users who surf the Internet for research. Today,
it is almost required that students should use it for research or the purpose of gathering
resources. Even teachers have started giving assignments that require extensive research
on the Internet. Besides, you can have an access to latest researches in the field of
medicine, technology and so on. Numerous web sites such as America's Doctor also
allow you to talk to the doctors online.
Entertainment
Entertainment is another popular raison d'être why many people prefer to surf the
Internet. In fact, the Internet has become quite successful in trapping the multifaceted
entertainment industry. Downloading games or just surfing the celebrity websites are
some of the uses people have discovered. Even celebrities are using the Internet
effectively for promotional campaigns. Besides, there are numerous games that can be
downloaded for free. The industry of online gaming has tasted dramatic and phenomenal
attention by game lovers.
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Social Networking
One cannot imagine an online life without Facebook or Twitter. Social networking has
become so popular amongst youth that it might one day replace physical networking. It
has evolved as a great medium to connect with millions of people with similar interests.
Apart from finding long-lost friends, you can also look for job, business opportunities on
forums, communities etc. Besides, there are chat rooms where users can meet new and
interesting people. Some of them may even end up finding their life partners.
Online Services
The Internet has made life very convenient. With numerous online services you can now
perform all your transactions online. You can book tickets for a movie, transfer funds,
pay utility bills, taxes etc., right from your home. Some travel websites even plan an
Itinerary as per your preferences and take care of airline tickets, hotel reservations etc.
e-commerce
The concept of e-commerce is used for any type of commercial maneuvering or business
deals that involves the transfer of information across the globe via the Internet. It has
become a phenomenon associated with any kind of shopping, business deal etc. You
name a service, and e-commerce with its giant tentacles engulfing every single product
and service will make it available at your doorstep. Websites such as eBay allow you to
even bid for homes, buy, sell or auction stuff online.
Additional advantages
1. Global Audience
Content published on the World Wide Web is immediately available to a
global audience of users. This makes the World Wide Web a very cost-
effective medium to publish information. Reaching more than 190 countries.
2. Operates 24 hours, 7 days a week
You don't need to wait until resources are available to conduct business. From
a consumer's perspective as well as a provider's business can be consummated
at any time. The fact that the Internet is operational at all times makes it the
most efficient business machine to date.
3. Relatively Inexpensive
It is relatively inexpensive to publish information on the Internet. At a fraction
of the cost to publish information by traditional methods, various
organizations and individuals can now distribute information to millions of
users. It costs only a few thousand dollars to establish an Internet presence and
publish content on the Internet.
4. Product Advertising
You can use the World Wide Web to advertise various products. Before
purchasing a product, customers will be able to look up various product
specification sheets and find out additional information. You can use the
multimedia capabilities of the World Wide Web to make available not only
various product specification sheets but also audio files, images, and even
video clips of products in action. The beauty of the Web is that it allows
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customers to explore products in as much detail as they desire. If the client
just wants a general overview, he or she can look at the advertising
information. For those wanting more in depth information, you can provide
white papers and product descriptions for download. The Web allows a
business to provide timely information, you can simply place the information
on the Web page and it is available immediately for your customers.
5. Distribute Product Catalogs
The World Wide Web is a very effective medium for distributing product
catalogs. In the old days, putting together a product catalog used to be very
costly in terms of time and money needed to publish and distribute it. The
World Wide Web changes all this by allowing content developers to put
together a sales catalog and make it available to millions of users
immediately. Furthermore, unlike printed product catalogs that are usually
updated around once a month, product catalogs on the World Wide Web can
be updated as needed to respond to various changing market conditions.
6. Online Surveys
Traditional methods of performing surveys are often relatively slow and
expensive compared to online surveys conducted on the Internet. For example,
in order to fill out various needs of customers or what they would like to see
in a future product, it's often necessary to compile a list of address and mail a
questionnaire to many customers. The success of such an attempt is not
always guaranteed and can be very costly in terms of mailing the
questionnaires and entering responses to a databases and analyzing it. On the
other hand, you can use the World Wide Web to automate the whole process.
For example, you can set up a CGI script to conduct online surveys. Results of
such a survey can be automatically updated to a database. This database can
then be used to keep a pulse on various opinions and needs of customers.
7. Announcements
With the World Wide Web, you can distribute various announcements to
millions of users in a timely manner. Because there is virtually no time lag
from the time it takes to publish information to making the information
available to users, the Web is an ideal medium to publicize announcements.
As more people discover the virtues of the Web and get connected to the
Internet, the Web will become the medium of choice for many organizations
and individuals to publicize various announcements.
8. Provide Technical Support
You can also use Web site to provide technical support to users. Because Web
pages can be updated immediately with new information, various technical
support literature can be immediately modified in light of new findings and
developments. This can be accomplished without having to distribute changes
to all users affected by any changes using traditional mediums of information
distribution, which are often quite costly compared to the World Wide Web.
9. Create Online Discussion Forums
By using applications such as WebBoard, it's possible to set up online
discussion forums on the Web.
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10. Obtain Customer Feedback
The interactive nature of the World Wide Web is ideal for obtaining customer
feedback. You can easily set up a CGI script to obtain customer feedback
about a product or service. Because customer feedback submitted by
customers can be read immediately, it's possible to respond to various
customer concerns in a timely manner, increasing customer satisfaction and
quality of customer service.
11. Immediate Distribution of Information
When information is added to a Web site, it's immediately available for
browsing by millions of Internet users. The World Wide Web is an ideal
medium of information distribution because it takes away the time lag
associated with publishing content and actually making it available to users
12. Easy Integration with Internal Information Systems
Internet information systems deployed on the Internet can be easily integrated
with internal information systems managed with office productivity
applications such as Microsoft Office.
13. Powerful Content Publishing Tools
A new breed of Internet aware applications will start emerging in software
stores by the time you read this. These applications will enable users to
develop content for the World Wide Web by simply saving as an HTML file.
In addition to software developers making existing applications Internet
aware, various new, powerful, and easy-to use Internet content publishing
applications are also being developed. These applications will make the task
of publishing content on the Internet even easier. Most of these applications
are developed for Windows users.
14. Multimedia
The capability to incorporate multimedia into Web pages is a major advantage
of using World Wide Web to publish information. For example, many Web
sites use sounds and video clips to make the content easier and more
interesting to browse.
15. Formatting Capabilities
Content published on the World Wide Web can be richly formatted by using
various HTML tags and graphic formats. The capability to do this is a major
reason for the success of the World Wide Web. In addition to using HTML
tags and various multimedia formats in Web pages, various interactive
controls can also be added to a web page. This capability allows Web site
content developers to create "active" Web sites. For example, before a user
sends some information to a Web server for processing, a VBScript or
JavaScript subroutine can be used to verify information typed in by the user.
Various formatting capabilities, along with technologies such as Java and
VBScript, make the World Wide Web a richly interactive medium that you
can use to distribute information to millions of users.
Disadvantages
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If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may
risk a theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc.
Unscrupulous people can access this information through unsecured connections or by
planting software and then use your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this
may land you in serious trouble.
Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and
needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for
you as it makes your Internet slower and less reliable.
Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up
crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to
access and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff.
Such unrestricted access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can
even play a havoc in marital and social lives of adults.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people
are getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family.
Even children prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other
kids. This may hamper a healthy social development in children
To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
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ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used
ISPs include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same
basic package of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and
local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely
used are Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
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ELECTRONIC MAIL
Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files
between computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network
covers the whole world, email enables you to communicate world wide.
EMAIL
To set up email you need:
A computer
An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal
adaptor (ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
Email software
Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox
such as yourname@hostname.co.uk. You can also set up an email account with a
mailbox and passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local
rate), and in most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A
broadband connection is 'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people
pay by the minute nowadays and the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband
access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers
now offer an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.
WEB MAIL
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need
any email software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the
connection types listed above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo.
They are given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server,
and they can then send and receive messages via a special web page.
A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of
storage.
The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in
the world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your
emails and then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail
as well as through the email software on their PC.
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Features of email
Automatic reply to messages
Auto forward and redirection of messages
Facility to send copies of a message to many people
Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
Notification if message cannot be delivered
Automatically date and time stamped
Signatures can be attached
Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on
the move.
Using email
Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and
hit 'send' to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages
from your email provider's server.
Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and
password.
-all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail,
and download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service
provider's computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
Email is evolving...
Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email
inbox while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones
enables users to send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a
static computer.
Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public
kiosk terminals and the latest generation of games console.
A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send
and receive email via laptop computers.
A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the
road
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Email benefits
Fast delivery of your message
Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in
the world as long as you have access to the internet.
Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free.
When going online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for
conventional email) need only last a few seconds.
Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Email concerns
It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in
place to avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate
company to scam the user into providing information such as personal
information and bank account numbers on a bogus website. The details will then
be used for identity theft.
No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
Spam! Or Junk mail
Many people spend hours a day in front of a computer without thinking about the
impact on their bodies. They physically stress their bodies daily without realizing
it by extending their wrists, slouching, sitting without foot support and straining to
look at poorly placed monitors.
These practices can lead to cumulative trauma disorders or repetitive stress
injuries, which create a life-long impact on health. Symptoms may include pain,
muscle fatigue, loss of sensation, tingling and reduced performance.
Ergonomics is a field of study that attempts to reduce strain, fatigue, and injuries
by improving product design and workspace arrangement. The goal is a
comfortable, relaxed posture.
Adapt Laptops:
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Laptop computers are not ergonomically designed for prolonged use. The monitor
and keyboard are so close together that they cannot both be in good positions at
the same time. For prolonged use, it's best to add a separate monitor and
keyboard. The laptop can be planced on books so the top of the screen is at eye
level, then use an external keyboard so that your elbows can rest at 90° by your
side.
Move!
Movement has many benefits: it relaxes tissues, lubricates joints and prevents
stiffness, improves circulation, reduces fatigue, and builds stamina. One study
showed that heavy computer users who successfully avoided computer-related
pain moved every 7 minutes.
At least every 10 minutes, take a short (10-20 second) break. Take your hands off
the keyboard and move!
Every 30-60 minutes, take a brief (2-5 minute) break to stretch and/or walk
around.
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Back
Shoulder Squeeze: Raise your arms in front of body, with elbows bent and thumbs
up. Pull elbows back, squeezing shoulder blades together. Hold for a few seconds
then release.
Stretch Up: Sit up straight and imagine a cable attached to the top of your head.
Gradually stretch to be as tall as possible, hold for a few seconds, then relax.
Arms
Arm Relaxation: Drop your arms and hands to your sides. Gently shake them for
a few seconds.
Arm Rotation: Raise your arms in front of your body. Rotate arms so palms face
up, then rotate so backs of hands face each other.
Hands/Wrists
Wrist Flex: With your elbows on desk, gently use left hand to bend right hand
back toward forearm. Hold for a few seconds, then relax. Repeat on other side.
Finger Fan: Spread your fingers as far apart as possible, hold, then clench fists,
then release.
Feet
Toe Curl: Flex toes up, then curl toes under. Release.
Foot Rotation: Circle foot slowly from the ankle, then reverse.
Eyes
Eye Rolls: Roll your eyes clockwise then counterclockwise briefly.
Palm Eyes: Without touching your eyes, cup hands lightly over eyes for 30
seconds to rest them from light.
Look Away: Exercise your eyes by periodically looking away from your
computer to focus on distant objects.
Keep fit:
Physical fitness can help you avoid and treat problems related to computer use.
Build your stamina with exercises for strength, flexibility, and cardiovascular
health.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
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7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed
to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures, which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order
to minimize virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not
criss cross the room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.
1. BACK PROBLEMS
Many computer users suffer serious back problems. This is probably due to a poor
posture or an awkward position while sitting at a computer.
Solutions
A fully adjustable chair should avoid poor posture.
Footrests can reduce these problems.
Screens should tilt and turn to a position that avoids awkward movements.
2. EYE-STRAIN
One health issue that can occur after using computers for a long time is eye-strain
(tiredness of the eyes).
This is caused by looking at a monitor which is a constant distance away. The muscles
that focus your eyes do not move, and so get tired and painful. Eye-strain can also cause
headaches.
Solutions
Look away from the monitor at regular intervals – re-focus on distant or close objects
to exercise the muscles in the eye.
Take regular breaks.
Use an anti-glare filter in front of the monitor to cut down on screen reflections that can
also tire the eyes.
3. BACK AND NECK ACHE
Many people suffer from back and neck pain after working at a computer for a long
time. This is usually due to them having a bad sitting posture.
Solutions
Use an adjustable, ergonomic chair, and take the time to set it up properly.
The computer keyboard and monitor should be at the correct height for the seated
person (keyboard lower than the elbow, top of monitor at eye level).
Take regular breaks: get up, walk around, stretch your muscles
4. INJURY (RSI) IN WRISTS AND HANDS
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Any repetitive movement (same movement over and over again) can result in a health
problem called repetitive strain injury (RSI).
In particular, typing and using a mouse for long periods are common causes of RSI in
the wrist (it is often called carpal-tunnel syndrome).
Solutions
Use a wrist-rest to support the wrists while typing and when using the mouse.
Take regular breaks from typing or using the mouse.
5. OZONE IRRITATION
Health experts have suggested that ozone emitted from laser printers can lead to
breathing problems.
Solution
It is recommended that laser printers should be situated at least one metre away from
where people are sitting and there should be good ventilation in the area.
6. MUSCULOSKELETAL PROBLEMS:
Muscle soreness and muscle fatigue are the most common complaints of regular
computer users. Back pain, chest pain, pain or numbness in arms, shoulder and feet top
the list. These types of problems mainly occur because your posture while using the
computer is not correct. Either you are sitting on an uncomfortable chair or your
workstation is not supportive of correct posture.
Solution
Adjust your chair and desk such that your screen is either at your eye level or lower. Sit
with your back straight and legs perpendicular to the floor with feet resting flat on the
floor. Your elbows should rest at the sides.
Take mini breaks from work and stretch a bit or go for a short walk.
7. HEADACHE
Because of increased muscle tension or pain in the neck at the base of the skull, headache
is common problem with computer use. Many a times, prolonged use can affect eye
power which needs vision correction. This can also result in headache.
Solution
Get your eye power tested if headache is a common problem with computer use. Keep
your neck straight when in front of the computer. Constantly looking down or stretching
the neck sideways can also cause pain. Take breaks in between and circle your neck a bit
to release the strain.
8. OBESITY
Studies have shown that prolonged use of computers, especially in children, is the major
contributing factor of sedentary lifestyle and childhood obesity.
Solution
Set limits for your children if they insist to playing computer games non-stop.
Encourage your children to play outdoor games or to take up a hobby. Involve them in
extra-curricular activities
Adults who work for 7-8 hours should avoid spending time on computer after reaching
home. Your body and mind both need to relax. Join a gym or go for evening jog and stay
physically active.
9. STRESS DISORDERS
Technology has a huge impact on our behavior and emotions. Prolonged computer use
along with other factors like poor health, work pressure and job environment can make
you susceptible to stress. Moreover, the longer you uphold the stress, the more
susceptible you become to other health issues mentioned above. It can also lead to loss of
concentration, dizziness and weariness.
Solution
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Be proactive and take necessary measures to beat stress before it affects your health.
SPREADSHEET TERMINOLOGY
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by Microsoft for
computers using the Microsoft Windows operating system and for Apple Macintosh
computers. It features an intuitive interface and capable calculation and graphing tools
which, along with aggressive marketing, have made Excel one of the most popular
microcomputer applications to date. ...
Sums the numbers in the specified range and then divides the sum
AVERAGE function:
by the number of non-zero cells in the range.
The lettered gray area at the top of each column that identifies the
Column heading:
letter of the column, such as column B.
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A note that explains, identifies, or comments on the information in
Comment:
a specific cell or range of cells.
Allows you to apply formatting that appears only when the value
Conditional formatting:
in a cell meets conditions that you specify.
Dummy data: Used in place of actual data to verify formulas in the template.
Exploded Pie chart: A Pie chart with one or more slices offset.
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Used if you know the result you want a formula to produce by
Goal seeking:
determining the value of a cell on which the formula depends.
NOW function: Used to enter the system date in a cell in the worksheet.
Unprotected cells: Cells whose values you can change at any time.
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and you can switch among them easily by clicking their tabs with
the mouse.
A line, usually vertical, along the left side of a chart. The y-axis
Y-axis:
shows the values for the data series.
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ABBREVIATIONS
Here is a list of all common IT acronyms which is very useful nowadays for most
computer users as well as students!
A
ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port
ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit
AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
APC - American Power Conversion
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ARC net - Attached Resource Computer Network
B
BIOS - Basic Input Output System
BCD - Binary Coded Decimal
BIOS - Basic Input/Output System
BIS - Business Information System
BIT - Binary Digit
BLOG - Web Log
BSYNC - Binary Synchronous Communications (protocol)
BNC - Barrel Nut Connector
C
C - C Programming Language
CAD - Computer Aided Design
CAL - Computer Aided Learning
CASE - Computer Aided Software Engineering
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
CD-R - Compact Disk - Recordable
CD-ROM - Compact Disk - Read Only Memory
CD-RW - Compact Disk - Rewritable
COBOL - Common Business-oriented Language (See HLL)
CODEC - Coder/Decoder + Compression/Decompression
COE- Common Operating Environment
CPU - Central Processing Unit
CRC - Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRT - Cathode Ray Tube
CSMA/CA- Carrier Sense Multiple Access/with Collision Avoidance
CSMA/CD -Carrier Sense Multiple Access/with Collision Detection
CD - Compact Disk
CDR - Compact Disk Recorder
CDRW - Compact Disk Re-Writer
CD-ROM - Compact Disk - Read Only Memory
CMOS - Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
CPU - Central Processing Unit
CTX - CTX Technology Corporation (Commited to Excellence)
D
DDR - Double Data Rate
DDR-SDRAM - Double Data Rate - Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
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DIMM - Dual Inline Memory Module
DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory
DPI - Dots Per Inch
DSS - Decision Support System
DTE - Data Terminal Equipment + Dumb Terminal Emulator
DVD - Digital Video Disk
DVD-A - Digital Video Disk-Audio
DVD-AR - Digital Video Disk-Audio Recording
DVD-R - Digital Video Disk-Recordable
DVD-RAM - Digital Versatile Disc-RAM
DVD-ROM - Digital Versatile Disc-ROM
DVD-SR - Digital Video Disk-Stream Recording
DVD-VR - Digital Video Disk-Video Recording
DVR - Digital Video/Voice Recorder
DVD - Digital Versatile Disc
DVD-RAM - Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory
E
ECC - Error Correction Code
EDO - Extended Data Out
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EBCDIC - Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code [IBM]
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EFTS - Electronic Funds Transfer System
E-MAIL - Electronic Mail
EPROM - Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory +
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
F
FC-PGA - Flip Chip Pin Grid Array
FDC - Floppy Disk Controller
FDD - Floppy Disk Drive
FPS - Frame Per Second
FPU - Floating Point Unit
FTP - File Transfer Protocol [Internet]
FDDI - Fiber Digital Device Interface +
Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FDISK - Fixed Disk
FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access
FDX - Full Duplex
FEC - Forward Error Correction
FM - Frequency Modulation
FORTRAN - Formula Translator (Programming Language)(See HLL)
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
FSB - Front Side Bus
G
GB - Gigabytes
GBps - Gigabytes per second or Gigabits per second
GDI - Graphical Device Interface
GHZ - Gigahertz
GIGO - Garbage In, Garbage Out
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GIS - Geographic Information System
GSM - Global System for Mobile-Communications (network)
GUI - Graphical User Interface
GHz - Gigahertz
H
HDD - Hard Disk Drive
HDD- Hard Disk Drive
HDLC - High-Level Data Link Control
HLL - HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE
HDTV - High Definition Television
HTML - HyperText Markup Language
HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol
Hz - Hertz
HP - Hewlett-Packard
HSF - Heatsink-Fan
I
IBM - International Business Machines Corporation
IC - Integrated Circuit
IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics
IP - Internet Protocol
IQL - Interactive Query Language
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
IT - Information Technology
LAN - Local Area Network
LCD - Liquid Crystal Display
LED - Light Emitting Diode
LPT - Line Printer Terminal
LPT1 - FirstParallelPrinterPort
LPT2 - SecondParallelPrinterPort
LPT3 - ThirdParallelPrinterPort
IRQ - Interrupt Request
ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
ISO - International Standards Organization
J
K
Kbps - Kilobits Per Second
KBps - KiloBytes per second
L
LG - LG Electronics
LAN - Local Area Network
LCD - Liquid Crystal Display
LDT - Lightning Data Transport
LED - Light Emitting Diode
M
MAC - Media Access Control
MB - MotherBoard or Megabyte
MBps - Megabytes Per Second
Mbps - Megabits Per Second or Megabits Per Second
MHz - MegaHertz
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MIPS - Million Instructions Per Second
MMX - Multi-Media Extensions
MBps- Megabytes Per Second
Mbps- Megabits Per Second
MBR- Master Boot Record
MHz- Megahertz
MICR- Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
MIDI- Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MIS- Management Information System
MODEM- Modulator/Demodulator
MP3- MPEG Audio Layer 3
MSAV- Microsoft Anti Virus [Microsoft]
MS-DOS -Microsoft - Disk Operating System [Microsoft]
N
NAS - Network Attached Storage
NAT - Network Address Translation
NIC - Network Interface Card
O
OC - Overclock (Over Clock)
OCZ - OCZ Technology
OEM - Original Equipment Manufacturer
P
PC - Personal Computer
PCB - Printed Circuit Board
PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
PDA - Personal Digital Assistant
PCMCIA - Peripheral Component Micro channel Interconnect Architecture
PGA - Professional Graphics Array
PLD - Programmable Logic Device
PM - Private Message / Private Messaging
PnP - Plug 'n Play
POST - Power On Self Test
PPPoA - Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM
PPPoE - Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet
PDF Package Definition File + Portable Document Format +
Portable Document File + Processor Defined Function +
Program Development Facility
PDF Printer Description (file name extension)[Borland, Lotus]
P2P Peer To Peer + People To People
PSU - Power Supply Unit
R
RAID - Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
RAM - Random Access Memory
RAMDAC - Random Access Memory Digital Analog Convertor
RDRAM - Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
ROM - Read Only Memory
RPM - Revolutions Per Minute
S
SCSI - Small Computer System Interface
SDRAM - Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
SODIMM - Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module
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SRAM - Static Random Access Memory
Extensions
SVGA - Super Video Graphics Array
T
TB - Terabytes
TBps - Terabytes per second
Tbps - Terabits per second
U
UART - Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
USB - Universal Serial Bus
UTP - Unshieled Twisted Pair
V
VCD - Video CD
VPN - Virtual Private Network
W
WAN - Wide Area Network
WTB - Want to Buy
WYSIWYG - What You See Is What You Get
X
XGA - Extended Graphics Array
XMS - Extended Memory Specification
XT - Extended Technology
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