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Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in

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 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical
Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga
University of Johannesburg
Emmanuel Ndhlovu
Freelance Researcher
Costa Hofisi
North-West University

Abstract Keywords: 4IR challenges, Fourth Industrial

The 4IR is the contemporary unfolding envi-
ronment in which evolving technologies and
developments such as the Internet of Things
(IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) are chang-
ing how private and public entity's function.
While the benefits of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (4IR) abound in literature, there
is scant evidence of risks and challenges
in such literature. Drawing on secondary
literature sources accessed in academic and
grey literature databases using 4IR, innova-
tion, and service delivery as key terms, the
paper assesses of the risks and challenges
of radical 4IR innovation in the context of
the public sector in South Africa. The paper
finds that innovation in the 4IR is associated
with several challenges which include a lack
of adequate resources, infrastructure and
gaps in technical skills. It is important to
ensure that these challenges are taken into
consideration to avoid the African continent
being left behind concerning the innovation
associated with the 4IR.
Revolution, Radical Innovation, Service
Delivery.
Introduction
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) lit-
erature has enormous gaps concerning
its assessment of the potential of 4IR in
improving the socio-economic and political
realities of humanity. While the benefits of
this revolution abound in literature, such
literature is silent about its risks and chal-
lenges. This paper closes this gap by offering
an assessment of the risks and challenges
of radical 4IR innovation in the context of
service delivery in South Africa, which is
the second-biggest economy on the African
continent and has considerable deployed
4IR solutions in various sectors (Gillwald,
Mothobi & Rademan, 2018). The paper
posits that while digital connectivity and
digital technologies have revolutionised how
businesses perform and compete globally in
recent decades, the radical adoption of such

1002 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021

 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
technologies also presents risks and chal-
lenges, particularly for emerging economies
like South Africa.
The 4IR is the contemporary unfolding envi-
ronment in which evolving technologies and
developments such as the Internet of Things
(IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) are chang-
ing how private and public entity's function.
Across the world, businesses are facing new
risks, but also opportunities as a result of
the 4IR (Saiz-Rubio & Rovira-Más, 2020;
Mhlanga, 2020). Several scholars posit that
governments, therefore, need to be innova-
tive as part of an effort to adapt to the 4IR.
With the onset of digital technology in the
past two decades globally, countries have
been placed under immense pressure to
transform their departments into electronic
service providers. This has been in acknowl-
edgement of the benefits of the appropriate
adoption of 4IR technologies in businesses
(Ahmed, Markkula & Oivo, 2013; Baldwin,
Gauld, & Goldfinch, 2012. The main reason
for the adoption of 4IR technologies by gov-
ernments has been to maximise the capacity
of the various departments of the state to
be able to serve citizens, businesses, and
other stakeholders (Saiz-Rubio & Rovira-Más,
2020). In the past two decades, the digital
government has been one popular feature
of public sector reform globally (Sharmin,
Faith, Prieto Martín & Ramalingam, 2017;
Mhlanga & Dunga, 2020).
In South Africa, the commitment to real-
ise an E-government has seen substantial
amounts of resources being set aside for
the development of necessary systems and
infrastructure (Ntoyanto-Tyatyantsi & Amadi-
Echendu, 2021). 4IR technologies have been
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
widely applauded for their capacity to reduce
operational costs by businesses, strengthen
service delivery by government departments
(Ozdogan, Gacar & Aktas, 2017). In this
way, the 4IR continues to alter the long-
established methods of providing services
and producing goods. 4IR technologies such
as the IoT and AI facilitate users to request
adapted services and products. Thus, organi-
sations that are likely to thrive profitably
are those that transform their processes of
production or service delivery through mas-
sive adoptions of cyber-physical technologies
(Sharmin et al., 2017). For organisations
to transform themselves in this manner,
they would require, among other things, to
understand and adopt new business models,
and to equip their workers on how to use
4IR technologies. The bulk of South Africa's
population is youths, that is, those in the
15-34 age category. This population category
constitutes about 63.3% of the population
(StatsSA, 2020). This shows that the country
has a high chance of successfully learning
and adopting 4IR technologies.
For South Africa, which is viewed as Africa's
second-largest economy, the 4IR wields huge
promises of socio-economic development in
terms of improved access to technologies
and improved productivity as well as quality
of service delivery. However, the benefits of
the 4IR for South Africa are often accompa-
nied by deep-seated anxieties that the 4IR
might make the country's existing workforce
redundant while job seekers are rendered
irrelevant, and thus, reinforce the already
existing inequalities (Ntoyanto-Tyatyantsi
& Amadi-Echendu, 2021). The degree to
which South Africa could benefit from the
4IR would largely emerge from its capacity
to act promptly in terms of adopting policies,
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 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
rules, and regulations that equip its popula-
tion with the skills that are needed to play
a contributory active role in the access and
utilisation of 4IR technologies for the ben-
efit of the country and its people. However,
4IR has its risks and challenges and these
must be weighed against the opportunities
that the revolution presents. A number of
innovation-inspired measures have been
adopted in South Africa with an intention
to improve service delivery across depart-
ments (Danielle & Masilela, 2020; Mhlanga,
2021). This paper is an assessment of the
risks and challenges of radical 4IR adoption
in the service delivery sector in South Africa.
The assessment is based on secondary data
that includes government documents and
reports as well as some academic articles
obtained in grey literature. The literature
was identified using 4IR, innovation, and
service delivery as key terms.
The next section describes the 4IR, its emer-
gence and the various technologies it is
associated with. It then discusses the current
discourses, trends, and views by scholars
and research institutions about 4IR. This
is followed by a description of the various
areas in which 4IR technologies are being
used to expand the delivery of services in
the public sector of several countries across
the world. Thereafter, the results of the
study are presented. Lastly, conclusions and
recommendations are made.
The Fourth Industrial
Revolution
The term 'Industry 4.0' or 4IR was first coined
at the Hanover Fair in 2011 in Germany.
At that time, the government was develop-
ing a 'high-tech strategy' through which it
1004 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
sought to promote the "computerisation of
manufacturing processes and systems" that
would fast-track and distinguish the German
and European Union production industries
from other international markets (Sharmin
et al., 2017). Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más
(2020) describe the 4IR as the new level
of organisation and control over the entire
value chain of the lifecycle of products, it is
geared towards increasingly individualised
customer requirements". It is defined as a
system of connected devices such as sensors
and communication networks connected
through the internet to transmit data without
human intermediation (Khan, Ray, Sargani,
Ihtisham, Khayyam & Ismail, 2021). The
4IR technologies affect almost all features of
human existence, producing both desirable
and sometimes undesirable results.
The 4IR represents a switch from mass
manufacturing to mass customisation, which
is more efficient, flexible, and cost-effective
(Ndung'u & Signé, 2020). This is made pos-
sible by 3D printing (additive manufacturing),
new materials development, and the smarter
customisation techniques associated with the
digitalisation of manufacturing. This entire
revolution has been accompanied by mass
personalisation, which is made possible by
social technologies, improved data process-
ing aptitudes, and the improved assimilation
of customer inclinations into purchasing,
production and logistics (Danielle & Masilela,
2020). At the same time, the increasing use
of artificial intelligence can supplement or
replace human thinking, based on the accrual,
management, and processing of mass data,
using advanced technologies, such as sen-
sors and robots (Davis, 2016). Behind these
trends are enormous developments in intel-
ligence (computing power, big data, image
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
and speech recognition), connectivity (sensor
technology, the IoT and mobile devices),
integration of diverse platforms, and flex-
ible automation. Technological domains that
were once separate are now all becoming
inter-reliant, requiring reliable connectivity
and energy, integrated supply chain man-
agement, and direct engagements with end
consumers (Acemoglu & Restrepo, 2019;
Robb & Paelo, 2020).
Technological developments associated with
the 4IR include electric vehicles, drones, addi-
tive manufacturing, autonomous vehicles
and equipment, and sensors which operate
in real-time through connected informa-
tion and communication technology (ICT)
networks (Ndung'u & Signé, 2020; Ozdogan
et al., 2017). These represent great efficien-
cies in cost and time. There are, however,
increasing anxieties that 4IR technologies
could rapidly result in more pronounced
and significant inequalities between and
within societies and countries, especially in
countries such as South Africa where huge
inequalities already existed due to the coun-
try's history of apartheid which practised
separate development between Blacks and
Whites (Ndhlovu, 2021).
The scale and magnitude of the 4IR have con-
scientised the public sector that traditional
methods of service delivery will not continue
to be adequate, fecund, realistic, and sustain-
able throughout the unfolding revolution
(Danielle & Masilela, 2020). 4IR technologi-
cal developments have enabled governments
globally to develop and implement portray
strong leadership skills needed for serving
their populations. Schwab (2016) posits that
the 4IR is the beginning of technologies that
infuse the digital, biological, and physical,
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
and disrupt the industries around the world.
For Signé (2022), 4IR technologies have the
capacity to improve the speed, effectiveness,
and sustainability of the goods production
and the provision of services in both public
and private departments, including those in
South Africa.
Schwab (2016) identifies three different
aspects of the 4IR, namely, velocity, scope
and systems impact. According to Schwab,
velocity denotes the rapidity at which 4IR
technologies are evolving and spreading;
scope refers to the range of divisions, busi-
nesses, and professions that are being
impacted by these technologies. For instance,
3D printing, which is also known as additive
manufacturing, could become a production
method for a range of products, both light
and heavy. Lastly, systems impact denotes
the scale and profundity of changes already
taking place and that are anticipated or
projected to continue in entire systems of
production, organisation, and governance.
According to Ndung'u and Signé (2020),
this blend of velocity, scope, and impact is
anticipated to revolutionarise many aspects
and patterns of how human exist and operate.
In order for institutions to be informed,
participative, and responsive to the radical
changes prompted by the 4IR, it is vital to
invest and strengthen internal infrastruc-
tural resources and to re-develop sectorial
proficiencies so as to ensure the regular
generation of trustworthy, accurate, well-
timed, and precise data and information
outputs. According to Danielle and Masilela
(2020), ensuring that data and information
assets are readily accessible and available is
important for quick and informed decision
making. It could also enable institutions to
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 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
be more hands-on instead of being reactive
in terms of efforts to solve service delivery
issues. This could also help in establishing
sustainable and inventive service delivery
solutions (Mzekandaba, 2020). To achieve
efficient and sustainable service delivery,
governments need to strongly invest in
Research, Development and Innovation activ-
ities, programmes, and projects that can be
used as the basis for strategic public service
delivery policies, frameworks, and models.
Discourses, Trends, and Views on
4IR
The literature on 4IR is increasing (Xing,
Marwala & Marwala, 2018; Olojede, Agbola,
Samuel, 2019; Robb & Paelo, 2020; Schwab,
2016; Signé, 2022). The 4IR is "a fusion of
disruptive technologies that are blurring the
lines between the physical, digital, and bio-
logical spheres" (Nalubega & Uwizeyimana,
2019:3). These combinations of radical tech-
nologies are the transformative, scientific
and technological advances presented in
numerous fields such as advanced robotics,
AI, drones, the IoT, wearables, additive manu-
facturing or three-dimensional (3D) printing,
driverless cars, blockchain technologies,
bioscience technologies, augmented real-
ity (AR) and virtual reality (VR), which are
reshaping the way people live, work and
relate to one another (Mehmood, 2021). The
4IR has the potential to usher in an age of
increased production which is based on the
forecasts (Jarbandhan, 2017:61).
Nalubega and Uwizeyimana (2019) aver
that in the 4IR dispensation, technology
should not be viewed as a mere innovation,
but rather as a tool by which to deliver
innovations using several driving forces.
1006 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
The radical transformation ushered in by
the 4IR has been estimated to significantly
impact the traditional operations of busi-
nesses (Robertson, 2018; Xu & Tang, 2020).
There are mixed views about the varieties
of trends and the impact of 4IR for service
delivery channels. The widest concern is
that 4IR could replace the human workforce
with machines, thus leading to technologi-
cal unemployment. Where this obtains,
the result will be more inequality in the
short term, irrespective of the long-term
beneficial effects (Cortis, Smyth, Valentine,
Breckenridge & Cullen, 2021). This view is
supported by the McKinsey Global Institute
(2017:3) which argues that "… automation
is not a new phenomenon, and fears about
its transformation of the workplace and
effects on employment date back centuries,
even before the first Industrial Revolution
in the 18th and 19th centuries." Some schol-
ars have concluded that the technological
revolution will destroy jobs, but not work
(Jarbandhan 2017; Robertson, 2018).
Notwithstanding the negative concerns, tech-
nological experts such as Xing et al. (2018)
are of the view that the new technologies,
regardless of their nature, always require
human beings to coordinate them, implement
tasks, and also for their own performance
maintenance. Therefore, it is not entirely
true that technology will operate on its own
leaving people's livelihoods destroyed. The
World Economic Forum (2017) posits that
the 4IR will considerably impact on the job
market, intensify labour productivity and
expand skills gaps. Signé (2022) also avers
that while a wide variety of jobs are going
to be created, more than 5 million jobs have
already been lost as a result of radical labour
market changes globally by 2020.
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
4IR technologies have also been widely
and generously adopted by governments
across the world to improve service delivery.
The next sections explore some of the suc-
cesses and failures of such a radical move
by national governments.
Innovation and Service Delivery
4IR have also been found imperative in
improving service delivery. These technolo-
gies are viewed as able to assist in service
delivery planning and management, transport
and urban management, and improvement
of education and health services.
Services Delivery Planning and
Management of Cities
4IR technologies are being extensively
deployed in the planning and management
of cities in recent decades. With the urban
population on the increase in cities across
the world and with close to 75% of the
world population projected to migrate into
urban areas by 2050 (Danielle & Masilela,
2020), government departments are now
looking for innovative and sustainable ways
of delivering and making use of a range of
immediate information systems so as to be
more innovative and relevant, and actionable
ways to serve all urban, but also rural popu-
lations. One of the countries that are often
used as an example by scholars is Singapore
(Alahakoon & Jehan, 2020; Ozdogan, Gacar
& Aktas, 2017). This country has a dedicated
government technology agency GovTech,
that is responsible for digital transforma-
tion within the public sector. GovTech is
taking advantage of the advent of the IoT,
augmented reality, and smart sensors. It
makes use of the best info-communications
technologies to improve how the government
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
delivers services to the citizens. Through the
use of 4IR technologies, GovTech can inte-
grate the digital and physical worlds with an
effort to effectively adopt these technologies
to better save the citizens as well as serve
businesses (Nalubega & Uwizeyimana, 2019;
Signé, 2022).
According to Nalubega and Uwizeyimana
(2019) and Danielle and Masilela (2020),
GovTech supports the Smart Nation vision
of Singapore in three priority areas. Firstly,
it assists to improve the management of
city services by providing countrywide
infrastructure and technologies to facili-
tate modernisation in various spheres such
as mobility and healthcare (Nalubega &
Uwizeyimana, 2019). GovTech also aids to
drive the digital transformation of the public
sector to supply better and more satisfactory
services to citizens (Signé, 2022). Secondly,
GovTech is helping to catalyse greater citizen
participation, establishing open-source plat-
forms, providing more open data to enable
the creation of ecosystems and communi-
ties of self-starters, civic innovators, and
for citizens who want to invent valuable
applications for their communities (Nalubega
& Uwizeyimana, 2019). Thirdly, GovTech
developed the Beeline digital mobility plat-
form with the Land Transport Authority,
using data analytics to crowd-source com-
muters' demand for transportation routes,
and match them with private bus operators to
decide which routes would be commercially
sustainable to service. Beeline has gener-
ated numerous downloads with more than
45 000 app downloads during the first few
months of its launch (Yesmin, Paul & Uddin,
2019). The application improved the com-
muting experience of residents in Singapore
(Xing, Marwala & Marwala, 2018).
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 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
Transport and Urban Management
Technology is also transforming public trans-
portation management across the world.
For example, several Indonesian cities are
now actively making use of technology to
improve how they provide services to the
people. In this country, the Jakarta Transport
Authority worked together with a number of
application providers, such as Trafi, Waze,
and Google Maps to find alternative traffic
schemes. The collaboration, in due course,
resulted in initiatives that the reduced
travel times of Transjakarta buses by 20%
and increased ridership by 30% (Danielle
& Masilela, 2020). The Jakarta Smart City
Unit has also developed some applications
for public crime reporting, school place-
ment, and traffic reporting, and a Citizen
Relation Management platform to improve
response times.
In 2013, in the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, the government introduced a
robot in the human form of, for instance, a
police officer, to control traffic in the city
(Al Jazeera, 2014). Huge, solar-powered
robots were installed to regulate traffic in
the City of Kinshasa (Idowu 2018). The
project was introduced and developed by
Women's Technology Cooperative to deal
with the heavy traffic challenges in DRC
cities as well as deal with the problem of
drivers who defied traffic rules. The robots
are also fitted with green and red lights that
regulate the flow of traffic at intersections,
and have surveillance cameras that capture
and send real-time images of those who defy
road rules to police stations (Nalubega &
Uwizeyimana, 2019).
In the United Kingdom, new technolo-
gies such as contactless payments were
1008 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
introduced in the public transport sector to
improve the services offered by the sector.
This has saved time for commuters as they
do not have to queue for tickets (Xu & Tang,
2020). All these are testimonies of how
technology transformed the public trans-
port sector.
4IR Innovation and the Education
Services
With the arrival of 4IR technological solu-
tions, the education sector has also seen
huge transformations. Massive open online
courses where study material is provided
online have been introduced and are gain-
ing popularity in recent years, particularly
following the COVID-19 pandemic and the
various gathering and movement restric-
tions imposed by governments across the
world (Xing & Marwala, 2017). In the cur-
rent COVID-19 pandemic period, several
universities and schools have also moved
to provide education services online. This
has enabled learners to continue access-
ing study material and receiving feedback
from instructors and educators in the face
of national lockdowns that swept across
the world as countries tried to put in place
some measures to reduce the spread of the
virus. In South Africa, the national lockdown
forced universities and other institutions
of higher learning to widely adopt remote
learning using IoT and other 4IR technolo-
gies. The Department of Basic Education
also joined by publishing study material for
learners on its website. In Cape Town, several
organisations collaborated to provide free
online learning sessions for school pupils
during the lockdown. The initiative was
funded by organisations such as Worksheet
Cloud, and My School My Village My Planet
(International Labour Organisation, 2020).
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
4IR Innovation and the Provision of
Healthcare Services
4IR technologies are also increasingly being
used to transform the health sector, espe-
cially the provision of health services. In its
pursuit of an ambition to be Asia's health-
care hub, Thailand is vigorously adopting
4IR technologies in its health sector. In
2016, the Ministry for Digital Economy
and Society was developed for the purpose.
The government also went on to develop
a National Digital Economy Masterplan
with a four-phase 20-year schedule. The
first master plan (2017-2022) comprises a
digital ID system, with intentions to launch
government Big Data with a Data Analytics
Centre, which "will create preparedness
for utilizing artificial intelligence" (Xing et
al., 2018). This development is meant to
incorporate the Thai Public Health System
and Personal Health Records to allow both
professionals and patients to access data
to monitor progress, search for advice and
arrange appointments with doctors online
(Yesmin et al., 2019). The Personal Health
Records system provides smart health ID
numbers to access healthcare services.
Surabaya, a port city on the Indonesian
island of Java, also developed an e-Health
service system that enables people to book
appointments in health centres or in hospi-
tal that are owned by the state without the
need to appear in person to schedule such
appointments. With the unfolding COVID-
19 pandemic, South Africa introduced a
Bluetooth contact tracing app – COVID Alert
SA – to inform people whether they have
been exposed to someone with the virus.
In Rwanda, the Zipline introduced in 2016
was the first of its kind in the world to use
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
drones to deliver blood to health centres
(Nalubega & Uwizeyimana, 2019). In some
areas of Rwanda where, it used to take an
average of four hours to deliver life-saving
blood and other medical supplies, the delivery
period was reduced to a mere 15 minutes by
this initiative (Nsengimana, 2018). The drone,
which is a combination of robotics and AI,
has revolutionised Rwanda's medical supply
chain and saved the lives of many people.
In Tanzania, together with Zipline, in 2017, the
government launched the use of drone-delivery
services to provide emergency on-demand
access to critical and life-saving medicines
(Banker, 2017). Through the country's Ministry
of Health and its national medical stores depart-
ment, Zipline makes uses of drones to deliver
on-demand blood transfusion supplies and
medication (Nalubega & Uwizeyimana, 2019).
During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in Senegal,
to trace the movement of patients, "Orange
Telecom handed over anonymized voice and
text data from 150,000 mobile phones to
Flowminder" (Wall, 2014:1). The data was
used to visualise the characteristic popula-
tion movements of the Ebola patients in the
region (Wall, 2014) and enabled authorities
to make decisions in terms of which areas
were the best locations to establish treatment
centres and to restrict movement to contain
the spread of the disease (Wall, 2014).
Methods and Data
The current research is qualitative and con-
ceptual in nature. When a study is conceptual,
its methods permit the development of con-
textual and conceptual analysis. Due to this,
unobtrusive research methods were consid-
ered most appropriate. When unobtrusive
1009
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi

methods are used problems related to including South Africa's. It is critical to

researchers' presence are normally avoided
because these methods are normally referred
to as non-reactive methods. Unobtrusive
research strategies entail observing social
behaviour without interfering with it to
reduce or remove prejudice and encourage
conceptual and contextual understanding
(Babbie, 2001; Bryman, 2012). In addi-
tion, unobtrusive procedures may help to
solve the methodological flaws of interviews,
such as the use of questionnaires, which
tend to produce attitudes in part because
respondents frequently strive to maintain
their dignity in the eyes of the interviewer
(Babbie, 2001; Bryman, 2012).
Results and Discussion:
Risks and Challenges of
Innovation in the 4IR
assess opportunities and challenges pre-
sented by the innovation associated with
this revolution. This section of the paper will
highlight some of the challenges and risks
associated with the innovations of the 4IR.
Some of these to be discussed include lack
of adequate resources, infrastructure and
gaps in technical skills, lack of an innova-
tion culture and issues around resistance
to change, data sensitivity and security and
even red tape, and large, slow and complex
organisations. Figure 1 below outlines some
of the challenges that will be discussed in
the following section.
These challenges include lack of adequate
resources, poor infrastructure, gaps in tech-
nical skills, scarcity of jobs, and issues around
resistance to change.

Innovation in the 4IR provides people with
the power to use technology and enjoy
autonomy. However, these developments
may be seen as challenging the power of
governments and institutions, even though
the 4IR is promised to turn around the
fortunes of many economics of the globe,
Lack of Adequate Resources, Infrastructure
and Gaps in Technical Skills
Innovation associated with the 4IR requires
adequate skills, infrastructure, and even
financial resources. In many countries, espe-
cially in emerging economies, there are wide
technical skills gaps. The innovations require

FIGURE 1: Risks and Challenges of Innovation in the 4IR

Lack of adequate resources

Poor infrastructure
Risks and challenges of
innovaion in the 4IR
Gaps in technical skills

Scarcity of jobs and issues around resistance to change

Source: Authors' Analysis

1010 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021

 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
the right workforce that can assist in imple-
menting the new technology and be able to
maintain the operations. Kamaruzaman et al.
(2019) indicate that the changes caused by
the 4IR demand new skills that will create the
need for engineering graduates to be exposed
to and be prepared for the skills of the 4IR.
This was also in line with the arguments by
Mtshali and Ramaligela (2020) who opined
that the changes that happened because
of the 4IR put pressure on civil technology
teachers to ensure that learners can transfer
the skills they acquire in the classroom to
the world of work because the revolution
demands a great deal. Mtshali and Ramaligela
(2020) argue further that although civil
technology teachers know the seriousness
of the needs of the 4IR era, they are facing
a plethora of challenges in developing the
skills required by learners in the 4IR. The
other challenge that was highlighted was that
there is also a general lack of awareness of
the value of the skills and civil technology
in the 4IR. In another study, Rotatori, Lee &
Sleeva (2021) indicated that more emphasis
should be placed on reskilling and lifelong
learning since the demand for skills in the
4IR outpaces supply. According to Rotatori
et al. (2021), there must be a shift towards
emphasising the importance of knowledge-
based work and non-routine cognitive skills
like problem-solving, imagination, creativity,
communication, and collaboration. The seri-
ous aspect is that education should be treated
as a continuous process that comprises issues
of training and retraining that goes on in the
labour market. Innovation in 4IR relies on
the supply of appropriate skills to promote
long-term growth and development.
According to the World Economic Forum
Global Competitiveness Report of 2018,
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
readiness for the future and agility are the
key aspects of changing the world during
the transformations and innovations of the
4IR. One other feature that was highlighted
was the ability of stakeholders, individuals,
governments and businesses to adapt and
be agile for economies to be successful. In
this report, it was shown that Singapore was
the nation that was the most future-ready
followed by Luxembourg and the United
States. The United Arab Emirates and four
other Gulf nations also appeared in the
top 10 together with Malaysia. Countries
like Malaysia, Brazil, Greece and Venezuela
were the countries at the bottom and were
perceived as the least future-ready (World
Economic Forum, 2018). Most of the African
nations did not feature in the top ten when
it comes to being future-ready. In the global
competitiveness report of 2018, the World
Economic Forum highlighted that the skillset
of the population is one of the criteria for
adaptability and innovation to yield positive
results. It was highlighted that the right
skills can make workers become involved
in the economic transformation rather than
become victims of it (World Economic Forum,
2018; Xavier, 2019). The information pre-
sented by the World Economic Forum Global
Competitiveness Report of 2018 showed
that the workforce of Sweden was the most
technology savvy, while vocational training
in Switzerland is the most advanced in the
world. It was reported that "Switzerland is
also the most effective with active labour
market policies encouraging reskilling and
retraining, while American companies are
the readiest to embrace risk or disruptive
business ideas". Countries like South Africa
and most other African countries are not
even mentioned in the top ten because much
still needs to be done for the innovations
1011
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
and the transformation associated with the
4IR to have an impact.
Infrastructure Challenges
Apart from the issues of skills gaps, the other
huge challenge is the issue of infrastructure,
for innovation to be effective, the required
infrastructure should be in place. The global
manufacturing index of 2016 placed only
three African nations in the top 40, South
Africa, Nigeria and Egypt. Despite being in
the top 40, these nations were ranked in
the middle and lower tier (Onobrakpeya
et al., 2018; Kamaruzaman et al., 2019).
One of the pathways for Africa normally
cited by many scholars is the concept of
technology leapfrog. However, there are
many outstanding questions, one of them
being how African nations will be able to
sustain the leapfrog position and proceed
with development. Innovation implies that
parts of the production process will be
performed by machines, which means that a
highly educated workforce will be required.
Infrastructure for research and design and
for the design and development of manu-
facturing machines will also be required.
The question is whether Africa is ready.
Knowledge for understanding the advances
in technology in the areas of nanomaterials,
robotics, blockchain and even 3D printing
will require a deep understanding of sci-
ence and engineering. Platforms for youth
to be able to gain this knowledge should
be created and African nations should take
advantage of the growing youth population
and come up with strategies to use this
resource efficiently. According to the World
Economic Forum (2018), technology-based
leapfrogging remains elusive, especially in
Africa. It was reported that despite the 4.5
billion smartphones that are being used
1012 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021
today, almost half of humanity has never
used the internet. This problem is more
common in developing countries and regions
like Africa despite the promises that informa-
tion communication technology will bring
such as advances in the developments of
the 4IR such as productivity, spearheading
innovation, and business dynamism.
However, it will be unfair and misguided to
believe that technology alone will help to
solve the problems around service delivery,
health, education, governance, and even
transport infrastructure. The reason is that
in many African nations the problem around
slow growth and poor service delivery is part
of old developmental issues like the quality of
infrastructure, weak institutions and even the
shortage of skills as articulated before. For
innovation and technology-based leapfrog-
ging to provide new paths to development
in low-income countries in the 4IR, these
aspects of quality infrastructure should not
be ignored at all. Teece (1996) argued that
the development of technology in Africa is
regarded as a "path dependence". The reason
that many African nations were consumers of
final goods and services in the first industrial
revolution, the second industrial revolution
and the third industrial revolution has a lot
of negative implications for the technologi-
cal infrastructure and the 4IR infrastructure.
This alone makes it very difficult for African
nations to embrace innovation and the 4IR
because of limitations in infrastructure. Due
to these problems, investment in the 4IR tech-
nologies will not yield the intended results
and this is worsened by a lack of financial
muscle on the part of most of the African
nations. Kamaruzaman et al. (2019) suggest
that it is important that African nations begin
to embrace innovation and the 4IR in the
 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi

current state where infrastructure is low and
then begin to come up with initiatives for
infrastructure development while receiving
the benefits of the starting the process.
Scarcity of Jobs and Issues Around
Resistance to Change
Africa has the comparative advantage of
labour. Concerning fast-paced innovation
and digital transformation African human
labour could be rendered obsolete. Table 1
below shows the unemployment rates of
selected African nations as of 2020.
Information in Table 1 shows that most
African countries are struggling with unem-
ployment. Countries like South Africa, Angola,
Namibia, Nigeria and Mozambique are bat-
tling with high levels of unemployment.
South Africa had an unemployment rate of
34.4 in 2020 and a rate of 34.9 in 2021. In
Angola, unemployment was 31.6 in 2020 and
34.1 in 2021. Other countries battling high
unemployment were Namibia with 34% in
2017 and 33.4 in 2018. Nigeria had a rate
of 27.1% in 2019 and 33.3% in 2020. The
unemployment rate in Mozambique was
24.37 in 2016 and 25.04 in 2017. What this
information shows us is that unemployment
is a problem in Africa.
Innovation that comes with the 4IR will
render human labour in Africa redundant,
worsening the already dire situation. So,
when unemployment continues to soar in
Africa, the result will be problems with the
state of security within nations and even
across African states. For instance, in the
South, problems are beginning to show up
between the locals and the foreign nationals
with nationals accusing the foreign nation-
als of taking their jobs. It is very important
to reach a balance between innovation and
the trade-offs associated with it to encour-
age social cohesion. In some sectors and
instances, it may be appropriate to stra-
tegically delay the adoption of technology
related to the 4IR to make sure that social
cohesion remains in African nations, but
the actions require a lot of consideration so
as to ensure that the skills of public sector
workers skills are being prepared for the 4IR
innovation. If there is no serious research
and investigation into the implications of
innovation in Africa, resistance to change
will derail every progress and initiative. In
a study by Herbig and Dunphy (1998), it
was found that cultures or communities that
value innovation, creativity and technical
ability are most likely to be successful in
the adoption of innovations.

Table 1: Unemployment Rates of Selected African Nations

Country Unemployment Rate % Unemployment Rate %
South Africa 34.9-2021 34.4-2020
Angola 34.1-2021 31.6-2020
Namibia 33.4-2018 34-2017
Nigeria 33.3-2020 27.1-2019
Mozambique 25.04-2017 24.37-2016
Source: Authors' Analysis of Trading Economics data

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021 1013

 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi
Conclusion and Policy
Recommendation
The 4IR is the current unfolding environ-
ment in which evolving technologies and
trends such as the IoT and artificial intel-
ligence (AI) are changing how private and
public entities function. Across the world,
businesses are facing new risks, but also
opportunities as a result of the 4IR. While
the benefits of this revolution abound in
literature, such literature is silent regarding
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David Mhlanga is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Johannesburg in South Africa.
David conducts research in the fields of development economics, education economics, Economics of
Artificial Intelligence, Health Economics, and Industry 4.0: Analysis of household financial inclusion
(FinTech), Food Security, Poverty Theories, Industry 4.0- Artificial Intelligence in Finance, Agriculture,
Health, AI and Poverty, Sustainability, and others are among the current projects.
Emmanuel Ndhlovu is a freelance researcher. He holds a PhD in Development Studies from the
University of South Africa. He researches land and agrarian change in Africa, climate change,
peasant livelihoods, food security, migration, and the political economy of development issues.

1016 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021

 Assessment of the 4IR Challenges of Radical Innovation in Service Delivery in Africa
David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu and Costa Hofisi

Costa Hofisi is a Professor and Research Director in the Faculty of Humanities at North-West
University. His research interests are public sector innovation, public policy, monitoring and
evaluation and research methodology.

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 56 • Number 4.1 • December 2021 1017

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