Embodying Compassion in Boodhist Art

Front Matter
The
Frances
Lehman
Loeb
Art Center
Embodying Compassion
in Buddhist Art:
Image, Pilgrimage, Practice
THE
FRANCES
LEHMAN
LOEB
ART
CENTER
Embodying Compassion 4

Embodying Compassion
in Buddhist Art:
Image, Pilgrimage, Practice
Karen Lucic
The Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center
5 Embodying Compassion Embodying Compassion 6

Front cover illustration: Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara (detail), Nepal,
The exhibition and publication of
Embodying Compassion in Buddhist
Lenders and Donors to the Exhibition
Transitional period, late 10th–early Art: Image, Pilgrimage, Practice are
11th century; gilt copper alloy with in- supported by E. Rhodes & Leona B. American Museum of Natural History, New York
lays of semiprecious stones; 26 3/4 x 11 Carpenter Foundation; The Henry
1/2 x 5 1/4 in.; Asia Society, New York, Luce Foundation; ASIANetwork Asia Society, New York
Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Luce Asian Arts Program; John
Collection, 1979.47. Stuart Gordon ’00; Elizabeth Kay and Jacques Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art
Raymond Bal; Ann Kinney ’53 and
Back cover illustration: Kannon
(Avalokiteshvara), (detail), Japanese,
Gilbert Kinney. It is organized by The The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center and
Edo period (1615–1868); hanging
scroll, ink and color on silk; image: 61
on view from April 23 to June 28, 2015. The Newark Museum
7/8 x 33 in., mount: 87 7/8 x 39 1/2 in.; © 2015 The Frances Lehman Loeb
Princeton University Art Museum
Gift of Daniele Selby ’13, Art Center, Vassar College All rights
The Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, reserved. The Rubin Museum of Art, New York
Vassar College, 2014.20.1.
No part of this publication may be
Frontispiece: Avalokiteshvara, One of reproduced or transmitted in any Daniele Selby ’13
the Eight Great Bodhisattvas (detail), form or by any means, electronic or
Eastern Tibet, 18th century; pigment mechanical, including photocopying,
on cloth with silk mount; 39 3/8 x 20 recording, or any information and
3/4 x 1/2 in.; The Rubin Museum of retrieval system, without written
Art, New York, C2008.9. permission from The Frances Lehman
Loeb Art Center.
The Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center
Vassar College 124 Raymond Avenue
Poughkeepsie, New York 12604
Library of Congress Control Number:
ISBN: 978-0-9820606-5-0
Editors: Joseph N. Newland and
Sheryl Conkelton
Design: Vassar College, Publications
Office
Printer: Brodock Press, Utica, New
York
Ebook edition by dharmaebooks.org

Contents Acknowledgments
10 Acknowledgments I express thanks to all those Daniele Selby ’13; Anne Silk
who have contributed to ’12; Samuel Speers; Tamar M.
12 Note to the Reader
Embodying Compassion in Thibodeau; Margaret Vetare;
14 Many Faces, Many Names: Buddhist Art, especially Michael Walsh.
Avalokiteshvara, those who have generously
supported this project at Thanks also to these individuals:
Bodhisattva of Compassion Helen Abbott; Alison
Vassar College. My students
119 Embodying Compassion in and co-curators in Art 386 Baldassano; Stephanie Barnes;
Buddhist Art: provided invaluable assistance: Kurt Behrendt; Michelle
Bennett; Marcus Bingenheimer;
Catalogue Entries Mengna Da ’15; Claire Fey
’16; Emma Jacobs ’15; Lily John Carpenter; Qing Chang;
119 Image Kaar ’16; Liqiao Li ’16; Benno Tenzin Chonyi; PC Chun;
Orlinsky ’15; Jiajing Sun ’15; and Sheryl Conkelton: Francesca
143 Pilgrimage Consagra; Karl Debreczeny;
Catherine Zhou ’15. In addition,
157 Practice I gratefully acknowledge: Lama Karma Drodhul; Lauran
Nicholas Adams; Liliana R. Hartley; Andrea Hagy; Mary
178 Glossary Aguis; Janet Allison; Francine Beth Heston; Leise Hook; Jean-
Brown; Bruce Bundock; Jon Luc Howell; David Kaczynski;
185 Sources Cited Patricia Karetzky; Laurel
Chenette; Eve D’Ambra;
Elizabeth Dunn; Julia Fishman; Kendall; Zoe Kwok; Denise
193 Photo Credits Patry Leidy; Cary Liu; Kristen
Carolyn Grant Endowment
Committee; Thomas Hill; Mable; Clare McGowan; Joseph
Karen Casey Hines; Rick N. Newland; Linda Patrik;
Jarow; Sarah Kozloff; Mary-Kay Katherine Anne Paul; Adriana
Lombino; members of the Art Proser; Karen St. Pierre; Joseph
Department; Grace Mooney Scheier-Dolberg; Michael
’15; Molly Nesbit; Katherine Sheehy; Katherine Skaggs; Susan
Neville ’14; Elizabeth Nogrady Thompson; Ganden Thurman;
’99; Kristine Olson ’11; Justin Meg Ventrudo; Sinead Vilbar;
Patch; H. Daniel Peck; Patricia Chengzhi Wang; Hwai-ling Yeh-
Phagan; Chip Porter; Joann Lewis; Chun-fang Yu; Keiichi
Potter; Research Committee; Yumen.

Note To The Reader
Special thanks to those who This exhibition project never In order to make this are used to gloss foreign
made extraordinary efforts on would have begun without the publication as accessible as terms: C=Chinese; J=Japanese;
behalf of this project: Baynard inspiration of Ven. Khenpo possible to all readers, foreign S=Sanskrit; T=Tibetan. The
Bailey; Bettina Chew; Bryce Karthar Rinpoche. Without terms are transcribed in the reader may refer to the glossary
Daniel ’17, Judith Dollenmayer; the unfaltering support Roman alphabet, without at the back of this publication
Sherry Fowler; Gary of my husband, Douglas diacritical marks or silent for a comprehensive list of
Hohenberger; Emma Jacobs; Winblad, it never would have letters, with the exception foreign terms and concepts
Karen Hwang; Amy Laughlin; been completed. Embodying of some transliterations that used in this catalogue. The
George Laws; Richard Lucic; Compassion in Buddhist Art is appear in bibliographic entries inside covers display maps and
Clive Mudando; James Mundy; dedicated to the memory of my and direct quotations. In those a timeline of relevant historical
Anthony Olawo; Gary Sheng; beloved brother, Roger Lucic, cases, the original author’s usage periods and style categories.
Andrew Watsky. and to the happiness of all has been preserved (with the
beings. exception of diacritics below the For more information on the
Generous support for Embodying objects in this exhibition, plus
baseline). Similarly, although
Compassion in Buddhist Art many interactive features, visit
this catalogue uses Pinyin
and its digital components the Embodying Compassion
conventions to render Chinese
is provided by: E. Rhodes & in Buddhist Art website
terms into English, it retains
Leona B. Carpenter Foundation; at: http://pages.vassar.edu/
Wade-Giles transliterations
The Henry Luce Foundation; embodyingcompassion/
that appear in quotations
ASIANetwork Luce Asian Arts
and names of publications. There the user can download
Program; John Stuart Gordon
Japanese words ending in –ji, a free smartphone application
’00; Elizabeth Kay and Raymond
-in, and –dera indicate names for remote use or while visiting
Bal; Ann Kinney ’53 and Gilbert
of religious complexes. Foreign the exhibition at The Frances
Kinney. Institutional support
terms—glossed when first Lehman Loeb Art Gallery from
from Vassar College includes:
used—are italicized for common April 23 to June 28, 2015.
Agnes Rindge Claflin Fund;
nouns and titles of scriptures,
Emily Floyd Fund Endowment;
except in the case of words that
Ford Scholars Program; Carolyn
have entered regular usage in
Grant Endowment; Office of
English, such as bodhisattva,
Religious and Spiritual Life;
mantra, mandala, yoga, etc.
Salmon Fund Endowment.
The following abbreviations

Many Faces, Many Names:
Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisattva of
Compassion
Introduction
I will describe him in outline for you—
Listen to his name, observe his body,
Bear him in mind, not passing the time vainly,
For he can wipe out the pains of existence.
Lotus Sutra1
The Exhibition yet until now, no American

For two thousand years, museum has staged a trans-
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara cultural exhibition solely
has embodied the quality devoted to Avalokiteshvara. 4
of compassion in Mahayana Embodying Compassion in
Buddhism. 2 Arising in tandem Buddhist Art: Image, Pilgrimage,
with Mahayana (Great Vehicle) Practice begins to fill this
precepts, bodhisattvas like gap by examining his many
Avalokiteshvara are great beings manifestations across Asia.
who continually manifest
Fundamentally multidiscipli-
the aspiration to achieve
nary and informed by both
enlightenment—or complete
Buddhist studies and art
liberation from suffering—and
historical methods, this
constantly endeavor for the
exhibition includes thirty
sake of all. Therefore, he (or
outstanding examples of
for some followers, she) is a
Indian, Nepalese, Tibetan,
supremely important figure in
Chinese, and Japanese art,
the Buddhist pantheon.3 And
from institutions such as The
Nyoirin Kannon (Chintamanichakra Metropolitan Museum of
Avalokiteshvara), (detail), Japan, Edo period, Art, Princeton University Art
ca. 1693; wood with gold paint, gold leaf,
Museum, The Rubin Museum
lacquer, and crystal inlays; 16 9/16 x 12 1/8 x
10 1/4 in.; The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Rogers Fund 1956, 56.39.

of Art, Asia Society, Jacques we cannot present the full that wish into action.8 This wisdom—the recognition
Marchais Museum, and The range of his manifestations.7 essay traces the many ways that that all appearances are
Newark Museum. Important Instead, Embodying Compassion artists and their patrons have interdependent. The bodhisattva
works from the permanent in Buddhist Art features highly sought to convey this quality thus instantiates the important
collection of The Frances selective examples drawn from in Avalokiteshvara’s myriad principle of nonduality, a
Lehman Loeb Art Center are collections in the northeastern forms, and how such altruistic central tenet in many Buddhist
also included. This assembly United States. Each work ideals infuse the veneration and schools. The exhibition presents
of paintings, sculptures, texts, displayed here contributes to an emulation of this bodhisattva. the artworks as concrete
and ritual objects provides a enriched understanding of this embodiments of this intangible
rare opportunity to see how bodhisattva’s multiple facets Despite Avalokiteshvara’s diverse
but potent unity; it aims to lead
Avalokiteshvara took on many and dimensions. manifestations, the exhibition
the visitor beyond the differing
different faces and names installation and wall labels
stylistic presentations to an
over time, becoming Guanyin Above all other considerations, weave together a coherent
understanding of the widely
in China, Kannon in Japan, the exhibition focuses on how narrative about his place in
shared beliefs that underlie
Karunamaya in Nepal, and Avalokiteshvara’s diverse artistic Buddhism throughout Asia.
Avalokiteshvara’s complex
Chenrezig in Tibet.5 Attendant manifestations exemplify In this essay, the discussion
iconography.
to the historical Buddha, limitless compassion. Of course, proceeds chronologically as it
focus of esoteric practices, compassion is a widely shared investigates Avalokiteshvara’s The works in this show arose
mythic progenitor of the religious and humanist value, development in those Asian from a complex matrix of
Tibetan people, he has played expressed in Neo-Confucian countries included in the religious, social and spiritual
myriad roles throughout the benevolence and Christian exhibition. But the works in the factors. Of course, their makers
history of Asian Buddhism. brotherly love, in the life work show are grouped thematically, and users did not intend these
Displaying a wide variety of of Mahatma Gandhi and rather than by country of origin, objects to be seen in museum
postures, gestures, attributes, Mother Theresa. In the context into three sections: “Image,” galleries, set off in isolation.
and attendant figures, his of Mahayana Buddhism, “Pilgrimage,” and “Practice.” Instead, most appeared on
multilayered iconography compassion has a very precise These categories provide insight home or temple altars, with a
suggests many meanings. In fact, meaning. Stemming from into how this bodhisattva rose dense array of related objects
Avalokiteshvara’s kaleidoscopic empathy and an understanding to prominence in India, how his surrounding them (fig. 1). Some
forms and many names serve of the universal desire for significance evolved over time hung on the walls of religious
as an index to his popularity. happiness, compassion is the and space, and how practitioners buildings; others were cradled
These variants evolved in the strong wish that all beings— evoke and make contact with in the hand or even worn by
context of widespread worship without exception—be free him. As we shall see, many of his practitioners. The kinds of
and ritual activities.6 Within from suffering. Furthermore, devotees hold Avalokiteshvara’s objects displayed here are still
the confines of this exhibition, Mahayana Buddhists make a extraordinary kindness to be made today and continue to
personal commitment to put inseparable from ultimate function as religious icons.

Yet the works in Embodying of wisdom and compassion. 22) record key aspects of the
Compassion come for the most Following the metaphor of Buddha’s teachings. The Heart
part from museum vaults, so Indra’s Net that originated in Sutra (S: Hridaya sutra) is a
by necessity, our exhibition the Huayan school of Chinese brief but crucially important
conforms to standard practices Buddhism, all phenomena in section of the Prajnaparamita
of conservation and display. the universe give rise to—and in (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutra, an
For the duration of this turn mutually arise from—all early compilation of Mahayana
exhibition, the objects stand other phenomena. In other scriptures. In this text, the
in hermetically sealed Plexiglas words, the universe is like a historical Buddha Shakyamuni
cases, removed from original boundless, interdependent, sits silently in meditation while
contexts. Nevertheless, this Fig. 1: Unidentified Chapel, Tibet, 1940s; cosmic web. In every node, a Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara
catalogue, the exhibition wall Jacques Marchals Museum of Tibetan Art, crystal jewel with an infinite concisely articulates a core
labels, and the Embodying 2012|2187 number of facets reflects every Mahayana Buddhist insight:
Compassion digital resources other faceted jewel. Everything that nothing exists of itself or by
famous mantra, om mani padme
aim to recreate as vividly as is defined by its connection itself. Forms (objects, sensations,
hum. Embodying Compassion
possible how these objects arose with other things, while still notions of personal identity,
presents works from several
from lived experience, and how maintaining its own identity.9 etc.) continually arise, but only
countries and multiple contexts
their makers evolved effective Indra’s Net is therefore a potent relationally, in dependence on a
as a collective case study in the
ways to embody the virtue of metaphor for the Buddhist vast web (like Indra’s) of causes
imaginative ways that spiritual
compassion in concrete material notion of interdependence. and conditions. Significantly,
values can take shape in artful
forms. Gazing at the node that in the Heart Sutra, it is
forms.
embodies Avalokiteshvara, Avalokiteshvara who conveys the
Avalokiteshvara’s distinctive we see Mahayana Buddhism truth of the Buddha’s realization
iconography encodes an Indra’s Net: Avalokiteshvara made manifest in concrete of shunyata, a Sanskrit term
intricate web of philosophical in the Buddhist World form, continually reflecting sometimes rendered in English
and spiritual beliefs. From his Avalokiteshvara is but one and refracting compassionate as “non-dualism.”10 Therefore,
origins in ancient India up until bodhisattva in a vast pantheon wisdom. the Heart Sutra effectively
the present moment, followers of deities who inhabit the demonstrates Avalokiteshvara’s
bring him to life daily through Mahayana Buddhist universe. Two important Indian wisdom aspect.
venerating icons, journeying to Yet, as just mentioned, sutras (ancient religious and
his sacred sites, and engaging in this figure has throughout philosophical texts) give In the Lotus Sutra (S: Saddhar-
associated spiritual practices. the centuries embodied a scriptural support to this claim. mapundarika Sutra), another
Today, many Buddhist foundational Mahayana Mahayana adherents believe important early Mahayana
practitioners around the world Buddhist belief: the utterly that the Heart Sutra (cat. text, the twenty-fifth chapter
visualize his form and chant his complete, indivisible union 21) and the Lotus Sutra (cat. recounts that Avalokiteshvara

adopts many forms—man, Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual heavy earrings), finely incised
woman, child, monk, efficacy may also derive from the garments, and regal yet relaxed
layperson—or performs various fact that he has inspired some bearing indicate princely
services—granting children, of the most compelling images status. At the same time, a band
dispelling bandits, quelling in the history of Buddhist art. secures the placement of his
storms, or eradicating wild Mahayana Buddhism is by nature right leg in proper meditation
beasts—in order to benefit profoundly visual—as well as posture, a sign that he is also
those who petition him.11 The visionary—and for centuries, a spiritual adept engaged in
Lotus Sutra therefore powerfully sculptors and painters have advanced meditative practices.
demonstrates his compassionate crafted works that embody His downcast gaze in fact
aspect. Avalokiteshvara’s Avalokiteshvara’s qualities in indicates that he is absorbed
protean abilities in the Lotus exquisite aesthetic forms. For in contemplation, while his
Sutra indicate a remarkable an informed audience, such outstretched palm (S: varada
fluidity not only in his physical works are not only beautiful, mudra) is an active gesture of
appearance and social status, but every detail of composition, beneficence directed toward
but also in his (or her) gender iconography, and ornament those in front of him. With
identity. Significantly, in East resonates with meaning. almost miraculous equipoise, he
Asia, Avalokiteshvara is as likely Fig. 2: Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, Western is simultaneously inwardly and
to be considered female as male. A small copper sculpture, Tibet, 15th–16th century; copper alloy; H.
outwardly directed; he embodies
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 7 1/2 in.; Asia Society, New York, Gift from
The Blanchette Hooker Rockefeller Fund, both otherworldly perfection
Together, these two scriptures dated 1543 and created by the and a willingness to be engaged
1994.4.
suggest the broad range of Nepalese artist Apha Jyoti for with those who venerate him.
Avalokiteshvara’s reach. a Tibetan patron (fig. 2), gives worldly existence, likened to
On many levels, the image
He is both a seer who concrete form to Mahayana a pond’s muddy bottom, from
suggests Avalokiteshvara’s
recognizes interdependence Buddhism’s ideals.12 The youthful, which the perfect and pure
ability to resolve seemingly
and a compassionate idealized figure sits on a double flower grows.14 In addition,
incompatible poles: prince and
refuge for suffering beings. lotus (S: padma) pedestal in a a small lotus ascends from
ascetic, human embodiment
Avalokiteshvara’s popularity position known as the relaxed the base to support the right
and spiritual transcendence. His
throughout Asia no doubt posture (S: lalitasana),13 the foot, indicating a readiness
smiling countenance reassures us
derives from the fact that he can right hand outstretched toward to rise from his balanced
of happiness; the boon he offers
take on so many physical forms the viewer, the left holding a equilibrium on the throne. His
us with his outstretched hand is
and adopt so many helpful roles lotus stalk that blooms beside elaborate coiffure resembles
liberation from suffering.
in order to satisfy both seekers his shoulder. Avalokiteshvara’s a royal crown; a tiny buddha
of ultimate truth as well as those lotus conveys the ability to sits above the forehead. The Clearly, a work like this is no
who want to alleviate their rise untouched by the muck of long earlobes (habituated to casual production. Its skillful
worldly travails.

fashioning and exquisite form Standing before it, the and sculptures depicting not illuminated the complexity of
arose from many factors, Buddhist believer encounters only the founder of the religion finding any fixed certainties in
but especially an attitude Avalokiteshvara himself, who but also other figures in the Buddhism. He recounted how,
that the sculpture is not activates and inspires her own pantheon played an important as a boy, he entered a monastic
just a representation, but a inherent capacity for wisdom role in Buddhism’s acceptance as community in China. His
revelation of the deity itself. and compassion. it spread across Asia. teacher’s first instruction was
This Tibetan/Nepalese work to find a pole and go to a nearby
suggests its Indian lineage From the Buddhist perspective, For their users, such icons have well, probing until he found the
(compare cat. 2) not only in its the maker of such objects, in potent spiritual and practical bottom. Trying ever longer poles,
composition but also in how the conjunction with the ritual efficacy; some devotees therefore he never succeeded, and when he
viewer is expected to perceive specialist who consecrates supplicate, adorn, wash, feed, returned to his teacher to report
it. Apprehending such a them,16 brings living presence and otherwise venerate them. his failure, his teacher observed:
sculpture in its original context to inanimate creations. As Commissioning such works gains “In the search for the Buddha,
involves the Indian practice of Buddhism developed, it came “merit,” a way of creating positive the well has no bottom.”
auspicious viewing (S: darshana). to place extraordinary emphasis momentum in the present
As Wingfield writes about such on images. Mahayana Buddhism life of the donor and ensuring Indeed, many Buddhist schools
spiritually charismatic objects, in particular exalts art, as did a fortunate rebirth in the refrain from speculating on
“darshan involves presenting other important religions in future. The enormous number the origins of phenomena
oneself to be seen by religious India, especially Brahmanism of sculptures and paintings and eschew philosophical
images as a form of religious and Jainism. Susan Huntington depicting Avalokiteshvara notions of fixed essences and
practice.... The experience of explains that “the emphasis on throughout Asia attests to how unchanging realities. Instead,
darshan is not one of seeing a darshana ... in the Indic culture often his followers fervently as we have seen, several strains
religious statue, but of being ... has lent the visual arts an turned to him throughout of Buddhism hold that nothing
seen by it, and as a result being importance never exceeded the centuries. In fact, this exists independently and
touched and affected by this elsewhere in the world.”17 multiplicity presents a daunting inherently, nor are there any
contact.”15 To approach an Behrendt elaborates on the role challenge to those looking permanent phenomena. So it
image in this way is to consider of art in Buddhist communities: for a comprehensive way to is not surprising that Buddhist
it as partaking of the deity’s “Seeing the perfected form of characterize his art historical studies as an academic field
substance. For the Buddhist the Buddha, it was believed, and religious significance. is filled with unresolved
faithful, a consecrated sculpture would be equivalent to debates. In fact, because of the
or painting of Avalokiteshvara apprehending the dharma The Well Has No Bottom religion’s many philosophical
does not merely symbolize [the Buddha’s teaching] itself and analytical schools and its
At a recent Buddhist Studies
or represent the bodhisattva. and hence would provide the complex social transformations
seminar,19 an elderly participant
Rather, it is an icon inseparable devotee with immediate access from one context to another, it is
offered a personal anecdote that
from what it embodies. to enlightenment.”18 Paintings even difficult to say definitively

what exactly Buddhism is. Like where and when the first images has also engendered competing doctrinal interpretation upon
Avalokiteshvara, Buddhism of bodhisattvas appeared, and interpretations. For example, the idea that the jewel is in the
has many faces, always shifting, the identity of early Buddhist scholars differ as to when he lotus; others claim that the lotus
adapting, and assimilating as it figural representations is shifting first appeared as an important is made of jewels; still others see
encounters foreign conditions. terrain. 24 Controversy also focus of worship in India. 27 mani padme as a compound word
Harrison writes, “Even to talk exists regarding the relationship Interpretations of his name that functions as another name
about Buddhism is to generalize, of Buddhist iconography to also vary. It is usually translated for Avalokiteshvara: the Jewel-
since there are so many different contemporaneous artistic from Sanskrit into English as Lotus One.30
varieties and styles of the religion developments in Brahmanism— the Lord Who Looks Down,
that pass under that name.”20 the religion that evolved from with the implication he is a The present essay clearly will not
ancient Vedic traditions in India. supreme being (S: ishvara) who put any of these debates to rest.
Specialists do tend to agree that Some Indologists assume that gazes down (S: avalokita) with In this ever-shifting context,
Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the Brahmanical traditions had compassion on all suffering the researcher’s pole inevitably
the “founder” of the religion, primacy, with Buddhist forms beings. Yet, Mallmann fails to reach the bottom of the
was born into the Shakya clan in and practices largely dependent recounts numerous widely well, and any attempt to explain
the Northern Indian kingdom on them. 25 Others, such as differing interpretations of Avalokiteshvara comprehensively
of Magadha—an area now Bhattacharyya and Behrendt, Avalokiteshvara’s name, and will no doubt fall short of the
governed by Nepal. According see influence occasionally other theories have emerged goal. And yet, this study will
to tradition, his life dates are going in the opposite direction, since her publication. 28 Slight attempt—as accurately and
approximately 566 to 485 BCE, from Buddhist to Brahmanical orthographic inconsistencies in sympathetically as possible—to
but recently, some scholars have depictions of gods. Still early Buddhist texts apparently chart the ways in which makers
contested this and think that he others identify a pan-Indian account for the fact that in East of images have sought to
actually lived many years later. 21 substratum from which both Asia the bodhisattva became the express Avalokiteshvara’s wise
Although we can reasonably Buddhist and Brahmanical Lord Who Perceives the Sounds and compassionate nature.
assume that Mahayana sutras beliefs and iconography of the World. 29 Furthermore, it will discuss, to
were circulating in the first emerged, in an atmosphere the extent I can determine them,
several centuries of the Common of mutual interaction and Similarly, various interpretations the actions, motivations, and
Era, its status as a religious exchange. 26 These are only a exist of Avalokiteshvara’s aspirations of those who revere
movement in India during this handful of the many unresolved renowned mantra, om mani Avalokiteshvara as a model of
time is controversial. 22 questions in the field of padme hum. The mantra refers to enlightened activity. The goal
Buddhist studies today. two of his important attributes, is to investigate how art meets
Similarly, art historians debate the jewel (S: mani) and the the spiritual aspirations of its
when, where, and why the Given his importance in the lotus or padma. Much ink makers and users—to see how
depiction of the Buddha in Buddhist world, it is not has been spilled in discussing belief finds expression in form.
bodily form began. 23 In addition, surprising that Avalokiteshvara these attributes. Some build a The bodhisattva’s story begins

in India, where both Buddhism provided a common heritage related traditions show the ignorance and afflictive
and Avalokiteshvara were born. for the important religions that cross-legged deities sitting in emotions tying all sentient
grew on its soil: Brahmanism yogic postures, such as the beings to endless wandering (S:
(19th-century British colonists lotus position (S: padmasana), samsara)—the cycle of rebirths in
Avalokiteshvara In named Brahmanism’s later and with similar costumes, the realms of worldly existence.
India offshoots “Hinduism”), Jainism ornaments, hand gestures (S:
According to Buddhist accounts,
(founded by a contemporary of mudras) and attributes (objects
The Bodhisattva Ideal Shakyamuni Buddha, Mahavira), that identify figures). Needless Siddhartha—through intensive
Avalokiteshvara as a and the focus of our concern, to say, the visual forms of these meditative concentration and
recognizable entity appeared Buddhism.33 distinct religious traditions also self-examination—recognized
several centuries after diverged in many important that suffering comes from
Buddhism emerged in India,31 As these three religions iconographic features. grasping at material things,
yet his significance rests in continued to develop throughout other beings, or a false sense
the foundational ideals of the first millennium of the To reconstruct Avalokiteshvara’s of the self as fixed, stable,
the religion. Both Buddhism Common Era, pan-Indian emergence from this Indic and concrete. Furthermore,
and this bodhisattva arose art came to share important milieu, we must briefly recount he realized that our thoughts
from a distinctively Indian iconographic features. These the Buddha’s life story and the fundamentally shape our
spiritual milieu. From the Indic early history of the religion experience of the world.
perspective, deluded ways of practiced in his name. His Therefore, the potential
thinking give rise to suffering; spiritual journey took him for liberation lives within
the individual has the capacity from a privileged life as Prince the individual seeker.
to overcome these delusions by Siddhartha Gautama to These realizations led to his
employing various mental and extreme renunciation. He left enlightenment; in fact, according
physical practices to achieve his palace to follow the austere to tradition, radiant light
yoga (literally yoking), or union, path of the spiritual seeker, accompanied the Buddha’s
with the mind’s awakened eventually meditating single- awakening as he sat under the
nature. Seals from the Harappan mindedly under the Bodhi Bodhi Tree.34
period Tree at Bodhgaya. His followers
believe that as a result of this Over the centuries, painters
(ca. 2100– ca.1750 BCE) of the and sculptors evolved various
Indus civilization show figures experience, he completely woke
up to the way things truly are means to depict the Buddha’s
apparently adopting yogic enlightenment; in time, the
postures (S: asanas), suggesting (fig. 3). “Buddha” in fact means
“awakened one” in Sanskrit, event took canonical form, as in
that these techniques might Fig. 3: Buddha Shakyamuni, India, Bihar, Pala fig. 3. In this work, the Buddha
be very ancient.32 Thus early period, late 9th–early 10th century; schist, and Buddhist tradition holds
that awakening freed him from sits under the Bodhi Tree, while
developments in the region 28 1/4 x 17 3/4 x 7 1/4 in.; Asia Society, New
York, Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd
Collection, 1979.37.

two attendants stand to the left offerings at the place where established how Shakyamuni
and right. He wears a monk’s Buddhism’s founder achieved in many previous lives followed
robes and sits in lotus posture, liberation (fig. 4).35 the path of the bodhisattva:
indicating his yogic attainments literally a being (S: sattva)
and the stability of his mind. After Shakyamuni’s death, who seeks enlightenment (S:
His right hand makes an earth- Buddhism evolved in myriad bodhi), and does so for the
touching gesture, which confirms ways; over time, it gave rise sake of all sentient beings.39
his profound realization. His to various schools as his Mahayana Buddhism—the Fig. 5: Green Tara, Leaf from a Dispersed
inwardly directed gaze denotes teachings spread. His early Second Turning of the Wheel Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Perfection
the unwavering quality of his followers established monastic of Dharma—expanded these of Wisdom) Manuscript, India, Bengal or
mind. The lotus seat reveals that communities and promoted altruistic impulses. To this Bangladesh, Pala period, early 12th century;
he has attained a state beyond the Buddha’s foundational end, aspirants generate the
opaque watercolor on palm leaf; page: 2 3/4 x
insights.36 These are principally 16 1/2 in.; The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
suffering. mind of enlightenment (S: Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 2001,
the Four Noble Truths, which bodhichitta) and take a vow to 2001.445e.
Upon his enlightenment, comprise what is known as the achieve awakening not only
Siddhartha Gautama became First Turning of the Wheel of for themselves but also to the-making—but figures like
Shakyamuni (Sage of the Dharma, the Buddha’s initial assist others. This aspiration is Avalokiteshvara have the status
Shakyas). Motivated by a teachings at Sarnath.37 a particularly potent form of of a “great being,” a mahasattva.
compassionate desire to help compassion (S: karuna), and the
A new strain—Mahayana One way to understand a
others liberate themselves as well, bodhisattva vow strengthens
Buddhism—arose with the mahasattva is as a distinctive
he taught Buddhist precepts (S: the goal to realize universal
Common Era;38 it promoted facet of the Buddha’s enlightened
dharma) for forty-five years to awakening. Needless to say,
the bodhisattva ideal. Earlier qualities. Superlative exemplars,
large numbers of monks, nuns, this vast goal exceeds ordinary
Buddhist texts had already mahasattva bodhisattvas
and laypeople. A pilgrimage human capacities; nevertheless, instantiate potentialities that
trail in the Buddhist homeland the bodhisattva ideal remains to all beings possess but only
preserves the sites of his birth, this day Mahayana Buddhism’s fully enlightened buddhas
death, important teachings, and foundational principle. completely realize. Therefore,
miraculous feats. Mahabodhi
Maitreya (Benevolent One)
Temple, which commemorates To embody these altruistic
embodies the Buddha’s loving-
his awakening in Bodhgaya, is the goals, Mahayana Buddhism
kindness; Manjushri (Gentle
paramount destination. Millions engendered an array of
Glory) conveys his supreme
of pilgrims come each year to bodhisattvas who assist
wisdom; and Avalokiteshvara,
circumambulate (meditatively suffering beings. All followers
his infinite compassion. As
traverse the perimeter of a sacred of Mahayana precepts are
Kamata and Shaw write,
site), prostrate, pray, and make bodhisattvas—buddhas-in-
Fig. 4: Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar,
India, 2013.

“Mahasattva Bodhisattvas Buddha”), Mahayana sutras Avalokiteshvara’s compassion his universal life; together they
inhabit the upper reaches of describe a multitude of celestial (Tara) and wisdom (Bhrikuti). symbolize the transcendental
the path to enlightenment, or transcendent buddhas, Tara (cat. 29) eventually became dimensions of the historical
including full awakening. The as they are often called in an extremely important Buddha in temporal and spatial
role of a Buddha is to manifest buddhological literature. deity in her own right; like terms.”44
enlightenment itself, while the Despite their otherworldly Avalokiteshvara, she dispenses
compassion and serves as a This text describes Amitabha’s
ministry of a Bodhisattva is designation, all these buddhas
meditational deity. 42 The Indian perfected world, called the
to personify a given virtue or started as ordinary beings and
Buddhist pantheon is a web of Land of Bliss (S: Sukhavati). The
enlightened quality and engage traversed the same arduous
such familial relationships. sutra mentions Avalokiteshvara
in a more specialized mission path of self-cultivation that
as an important disciple in
to liberate beings in a selected Shakyamuni undertook. In an
Amitabha (Infinite Light) is this buddha-field, although he
way and elected environments. Indian Buddhist conception
one of the most important appears only in passing. At one
Because the types and needs of parallel universes, each of
celestial buddhas. Alternatively point, the bodhisattva questions
of sentient beings are infinite, these beings presides over a
called Amitayus (Infinite Life), why Amitabha Buddha is
there is no end to the forms and world system, or buddha-field.
Amitabha has been extremely smiling and receives this reply:
ministrations that Bodhisattvas Through altruistic vows and
popular in East Asia since the “The miracle of my smile is due
might adopt in order to empty extraordinary deeds, they
sixth century (see fig. 20 and to the vow I made in former
the realms of Samsara.” 40 purify—or prepare—an ideal
cat. 28); Tibetans venerate him times—that living beings who
Although they concretize the environment for their followers’
as well (compare cat. 1), but his heard my name, no matter
Buddha’s specific qualities, spiritual development. 41
role in Buddhist India is obscure. how, should come to my field
bodhisattvas nevertheless differ Every buddha has a retinue
Red in color, he wears a monk’s without fail.” 45 In this sutra, both
from the Buddha in appearance of bodhisattvas like
saffron robes and usually sits Amitabha and Avalokiteshvara
and attributes. Dressed austerely Avalokiteshvara to help in this
with his hands in the gesture are loving, compassionate, and
as wandering ascetics, or more effort.
of meditation. Often he holds meritorious beings. They can
commonly, in the style of Indian
In turn, bodhisattvas gathered a renunciant’s begging bowl. A transfer the positive results of
royalty, bodhisattvas’ garments
their own celestial attendants. text concerning Amitabha, the their virtuous actions to others,
set them apart from the
Green Tara (fig. 5), along with Larger Sukhavativyuha Sutra bringing suffering beings into
Buddha’s monastic mien.
another female deity, Bhrikuti, (Land of Bliss Sutra), emerged their field of influence and
With the appearance of accompanies Avalokiteshvara in from the northwest borderlands thereby assisting them in their
Mahayana Buddhism, the many triadic and multifigural of India sometime before 200 spiritual evolution. 46 Harrison
number of “awakened ones” compositions that date from CE. 43 It suggests, as Fujita writes, believes that Mahayana
also increased exponentially. the Pala period (ca. 750–1200) that “Amitayus is the aspect of Buddhism’s initial message
In addition to Shakyamuni (cat. 2). These two figures the timeless life of Shakyamuni, was that “people should not
(often termed the “historical are female manifestations of and Amitabha is the aspect of worship bodhisattvas, they

Avalokiteshvara’s radiance youthful, idealized bodies and two attendant bodhisattvas.
in fact recalls descriptions of pleasing features.50 In 3rd–5th To the left, we recognize
Shakyamuni’s awakening, with century Gandhara (present-day Avalokiteshvara by his disklike
light miraculously emanating Pakistan), artists portrayed white lotus, while to the right,
throughout infinite space. 49 bodhisattvas as princes, with Maitreya holds his typical
No wonder then that the elaborate robes and heavy paintbrush-shaped blue lotus (S:
bodhisattva’s image is often jewelry. In other regions, such utpala).
adorned with gilding, emanating as Kashmir, early depictions of
halos, mandorlas (full-body bodhisattvas are more austere, In time, devotees began to
halos), and other photic displays. suggesting the role of spiritual worship bodhisattvas in their
The objects in Embodying seeker (fig. 6).51 own right, and sculptors and
Compassion demonstrate how painters—no doubt in response
painters and sculptors developed In artistic depictions, to their patrons—started to
such visual devices to convey bodhisattvas were initially depict them as independent
Fig. 6: The Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara Avalokiteshvara’s magnificence merely the Buddha’s attendants. entities. Indian Buddhists
(Lokanatha), India, Jammu and Kashmir,
and spiritual attainments. In early works, they often appear apparently first singled out
Kashmir region, ca. 4th–5th century; copper al- rather generically as members Maitreya for special veneration;
loy; 10 1/2 x 3 1/2 x 3 1/4 in.; Los Angeles County
In addition to light symbolism, of Shakyamuni’s retinue and are they believed this bodhisattva to
Museum of Art, Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck
Collection, Museum Associates Purchase, depictions of Avalokiteshvara indistinguishable by attributes, be Shakyamuni’s successor as the
M.69.15.2. and other bodhisattvas came ornaments, or garments. next buddha of this world. They
to display standardized Early Buddhist sculptures in
should become bodhisattvas iconographic features. Their fact pose a challenge to art
themselves,” 47 but such sutras bodies are perfect, and they historians seeking to identify
fostered a fervent devotional wear or carry objects that specific bodhisattvas—or
attitude within this school suggest enlightened qualities. even to establish a figure as
toward figures like Amitabha According to doctrine, the a bodhisattva. Not until the
and Avalokiteshvara. great bodhisattvas in the Gupta period (320–600) did
Buddhist pantheon transcend Indian painters and sculptors
The Larger Sukhavatvyuha Sutra
gender distinctions, but develop a codified iconography
associates both Amitabha and
nevertheless, they appear as for each important bodhisattva,
Avalokiteshvara with light;
recognizably male or female. making them easier to identify.
it calls the latter a superior
In general, bodhisattvas wear For example, the Buddha
mahasattva bodhisattva
light garments appropriate for Shakyamuni triad illustrated Fig. 7: Avalokiteshvara Padmapani, Pakistan,
who emits a halo that fills
the hot Indian climate, which here (fig. 3) includes standard Swat Valley, 7th century; bronze inlaid with
“the whole world system
reveal and complement their post-Gupta iconography for the silver and copper; 8 3/4 x 5 3/4 x 4 1/8 in.;
with eternal splendor.” 48 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harris
Brisbane Dick and Fletcher Funds, 1974,
1974.273.

also revered Maitreya as a model Furthermore, as a vessel for Bearer) (fig. 7), the bodhisattva characteristic spiritual qualities.
renunciant and spiritual adept, water, the kundika indicates grasps a lotus stalk, usually in As Susan Huntington writes,
and his iconography developed purity, and in fact, in the Indian his left hand, and the flower “The ornaments represent
in accord with these qualities. context, devotees regularly unfurls over his shoulder. As we the spiritual perfections of a
In early works, he often carries a bathe statues of buddhas and have seen, the lotus symbolizes Bodhisattva and the abundant
long-necked vessel with a spout bodhisattvas and offer them spiritual purity because it grows resources and liberative
(S: kundika), a type a water consecrated water (see cat. 23). In from the mud, yet blossoms techniques (upaya) that a
bottle used to rinse the mouth addition, the figure has a black unstained. But this attribute is Bodhisattva commands in order
and perform ritual ceremonies.52 antelope (S: krishnasara) skin shared within a larger Indian to liberate sentient beings.”59
This attribute identifies a figure draped over his left shoulder, iconographic context,57 and Some attributes derive from
as a spiritual aspirant, and in which associates him with several other bodhisattvas, Buddhist texts, which often
early depictions, Avalokiteshvara spiritual practice. Indian yogis including Tara, Maitreya and (but not always) provide the
sometimes carries this jar as often sit on such antelope skins Manjushri, typically hold basis for iconography.60 Many
well.53 to meditate, and this legendary lotuses. They carry different Mahayana sutras in fact specify
antelope species especially varieties of aquatic flowers, bodhisattva activities, demeanor
Based on this attribute, John embodies extreme gentleness however, and careful inspection and attributes. For example, in
Huntington identifies an and compassion.55 Because of the can usually distinguish the blue the Lotus Sutra, a bodhisattva
early Kashmiri sculpture of a jar, some scholars have identified utpala that these bodhisattvas gives Avalokiteshvara a necklace,
jar-holding bodhisattva (fig. 6) this image as Maitreya, but hold from Avalokiteshvara’s which he at first humbly refuses,
as the Protector of the World Huntington argues that the white lotus.58 Additional then divides and gives away as a
(Avalokiteshvara Lokanatha). antelope skin establishes it as iconographic features, such as religious offering. His attribute
Typical of early Buddhist art, depicting Avalokiteshvara, a miniature reliquary structure of prayer beads (S: mala), as
the bodhisattva raises his right who evokes, in his words, “a (S: stupa) on Maitreya’s crown, seen in cat. 23, may come from
hand in a gesture of reassurance figural type associated with or a manuscript resting on this event in the sutra.61 In
(S: abhaya mudra) and holds a ... asceticism in order to elicit Manjushri’s lotus, can assist such works, the mala signifies
small spouted jar in his left.54 Buddhist ideals of renunciation in sorting out questions of embodied spiritual practice.
Huntington associates the and spiritual purity, as well as identification. But without
figure’s kundika with ancient the sanctity and self-sacrificing a definitive inscription, a Later scriptures, such as the
Indian mendicants, who dimension of the Bodhisattva bodhisattva’s identity sometimes Sadhanamala Tantra (compiled
carried such water vessels ideal.”56 remains a mystery. in 1165) codified bodhisattva
as they wandered from one attributes, mudras, and postures,
holy site to another. The jar The lotus is a similarly tricky Of course, attributes and while the Manjushrimulakalpa
indicates a seeker who has attribute to pin down. In one ornaments are not merely Tantra (ca. late 6th–early
renounced worldly life in order of Avalokiteshvara’s earliest identifying features; they 7th century) and other texts
to gain spiritual liberation. forms, Padmapani (Lotus also reveal a bodhisattva’s provided precise iconometric

proportions for portraying stands in the classic Indian royal garb (cat. 2).65 These Avalokiteshvara in the
the Buddhist pantheon. From triple-bend (S: tribhanga) variations and permutations Mandala
such textual sources, and posture and wears only minimal demonstrate the fluidity of Up until the middle of the first
from borrowed or shared ornaments. He exemplifies the bodhisattva’s iconography millennium, Avalokiteshvara
iconographic traditions, came one pole of Avalokiteshvara’s throughout the many centuries consistently appeared in a
the Buddhist visual canon; at Indic iconography—that of the of his evolution in India. As a magnificent, idealized body,
the same time, regional and spiritual adept. Conversely, a particularly dazzling jewel in yet one in accord with human
individual variations persisted. contemporaneous cave mural at Indra’s net, his reflection seems norms. But sometime around
Avalokiteshvara’s Indian Ajanta shows Avalokiteshvara to refract infinitely into a wide the 6th century, an iconographic
iconography usually specifies crowned with an elaborately range of depictions. revolution occurred in Indian
that he holds a white lotus, bejeweled headdress, thereby art, and he—along with many
smiles benevolently, wears lavish displaying his princely status.64 To summarize, buddhas
other figures—began to acquire
ornaments and silk garments, By the Indian medieval period, wear monastic robes, while
additional arms, heads, and
and often displays the attributes Avalokiteshvara consistently bodhisattvas resemble royalty
eyes. These new forms are
of vase and antelope skin. appears in highly ornamented, or ascetics in dress and
associated with yet another
By the 5th century, another bearing.66 Yet all buddhas and
Buddhist school. Designated by
easily recognized iconographic bodhisattvas embody the same
several names—esoteric, tantric,
feature began to appear on the ideal of compassion, a key
or the Vajrayana (Diamond or
bodhisattva’s crown: a buddha attribute of the awakened mind.
Adamantine Vehicle)—this
seated in meditation posture.62 At the same time, each figure
tradition either evolved from,
in the Buddhist pantheon has
or became incorporated
A depiction of Avalokiteshvara different functions or “jobs” to
into, Mahayana Buddhism.67
from the Gupta period shows do, such as embodying different
Tantric texts describe rituals
such a buddha, probably aspects of dharma and assisting
and practices for rapid
Amitabha, in the bodhisattva’s devotees in achieving specific
spiritual development, such
upswept matted hair (S: goals. As an expression of
as visualizations, the creation
jatamukuta) (fig. 8).63 Although compassion, Avalokiteshvara has
of mandalas, the recitation
Avalokiteshvara’s hair looks no equal. One of his Sanskrit
of mantra and other sacred
like a crown, his long locks are epithets is Mahakarunika,
utterances (S: dharani),68 yogic
actually pulled up and secured Supreme Compassion, a
postures, symbolic gestures,
with a ring. This hairstyle quality that transforms the
and techniques for utilizing the
is another indication of a mere wish for others to be free
body’s energies.
wandering ascetic, therefore from suffering into a personal
Fig. 8: Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisattva of Compassion,
suggesting renunciation of India, Uttar Pradesh, Sarnath, Gupta dynasty,
commitment to do whatever it Scholars have struggled to
worldly desires. The figure ca. third quarter of the 5th century; sandstone; takes to achieve that end. characterize terms like “tantra”
H. 48 1/2 in.; Philadelphia Museum of Art, Stella
Kramrisch Collection, 1994, 1994-148-1.

fall within essential Mahayana Tantric scriptures systematized universe. These striking designs
precepts. Vajrayana practitioners the already existing concept of apparently derive from Indian
take the bodhisattva vow and buddha-fields (an awakened altars that served as gathering
strive to attain buddhahood for being’s transcendent realm) into places for the deities.
the benefit of all. complex arrangements of three,
or more commonly, five families. Only a few examples of Indic
By the medieval period, tantric Buddhist mandalas survive,
Each is headed by a Wisdom
practitioners performed such as the spectacular 11th-
or Victor (S: Jina) Buddha
ceremonies within the great century wall murals at Alchi,
with a directional orientation,
Indian Buddhist monastic Ladakh.74 These murals, perhaps
an extensive array of physical
communities, such as Nalanda executed by Kashmiri painters,
attributes, and different realms
and Vikramashila. This display the characteristic
of influence. An emblem, such
indicates that the Vajrayana intricacy of Indian mandalas.
Fig. 9: Mandala of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of as a jewel or lotus, characterizes
had moved out of a secretive Contained within a circular
Compassion, Tibet, 18th century; pigment on cloth; each family and gives it its
16 x 15 3/4 in.; The Rubin Museum of Art, New York, sphere, becoming established perimeter, a deity’s palace is
name. These symbols convey
C2006.66.224. at Buddhism’s most important rendered as a two-dimensional
each group’s characteristic
and “esoteric”; when trying centers of learning.70 architectural plan; inside the
qualities. From the beginning
to pin them down, we truly Concurrently, artists were palace precinct, an assembly
of the evolution of buddha-
gaze into a “bottomless well.” creating a distinctive tantric of tantric figures radiate from
families, Avalokiteshvara
Some feel that these techniques iconography—including the center, where the presiding
belonged to the Padma group,
and practices reflect secret mandalas, multilimbed and buddha or bodhisattva resides.
not surprisingly, since the
oral traditions that predate multiheaded figures, and fierce In Snellgrove’s words, this type
lotus, as we have already seen,
the earliest tantric Buddhist protective deities.71 In the of mandala is “an enclosure,
is one of Avalokiteshvara’s most
texts, which began to appear process, tantric art expanded not necessarily circular, which
important attributes.
around the 7th century.69 the functions—and amplified separates a sacred area from the
Members of Vajrayana Buddhist the impact—of images in In this system, Amitabha everyday profane world. Thus it
communities consider tantric Indian Buddhism and its later presides over Avalokiteshvara’s represents the special domain of
scriptures to be the historical offshoots, especially those that family. While maintaining an any particular divinity.”75
Buddha’s Third [and Ultimate] flourished in Tibet. As Brauen independent identity within
writes, “To impart the most Indian Buddhism, Amitabha A much later Tibetan work (fig.
Turning of the Wheel of 9) shows a resemblance to Indic
Dharma. Originally, tantric profound religious truths, entered the tantric buddha-
Tantric Buddhism employs family system by the early mandalas, not surprisingly,
teachers initiated only the most since practitioners in that
accomplished adepts into this pictorial representations with an 8th century.73 Such systems
intensity found in no other form manifest visually in mandalas, country have used Indian-
esoteric body of knowledge. inspired cosmological diagrams
Yet its distinctive practices still of Buddhism, and scarcely in any which are cosmic maps of the
other religion.”72

for centuries. Shadakshari At this point, a question may Avalokiteshvara’s Limitless prescribed benefits. As tantric
Lokeshvara, Six-Syllable Lord of arise: who exactly are these Gaze and Infinite Reach Buddhism developed in India, its
the World, occupies the center tantric deities contained As the Vajrayana developed in adepts recorded and practiced
of the mandala. He appears as within the mandala? For the India, a complex iconography many different sadhanas. The
the four-armed tantric form trained tantric practitioner, evolved with numerous deities Sadhanamala Tantra contains
of Avalokiteshvara associated such Buddhist deities are not manifesting in a wide array 312 Vajrayana practices, and
with the renowned six-syllable in fact concrete, independent of forms. Perhaps the most thirty-eight are devoted to
mantra om mani padme hum.76 entities. Rather, they arise from recognizable—and most Avalokiteshvara. According to
His presence signals one of the the enlightened potentialities misunderstood—are the Bhattacharyya, these encompass
mandala’s many applications: of one’s own mind. When fearsome tantric deities with fifteen distinct forms.81 In these
deity practice. This requires practiced successfully, tantric bared fangs, horrific weapons, texts, Avalokiteshvara’s complex
imagining oneself as an altruistic techniques activate these and bone ornaments, sometimes iconography includes multiple
being, such as Avalokiteshvara, enlightened impulses. As locked in sexual embrace with arms, eyes, and heads. In his
whose perfected realm takes Brauen writes, “The mandala a consort. Avalokiteshvara additional hands, he carries a
the form of a mandala. The as a mirror of the cosmos—not in fact has several fierce variety of attributes. Sadhanas
Sadhanamala Tantra—a key just the outer cosmos but also manifestations, such as devoted to him give explicit
text in the Tibetan Buddhist the microcosm, the person—is Mahakala (Great Black One) instructions on visualizing
canon77 —gives the practitioner based on the assumption of and Hayagriva (Horse-Necked his many forms, aiding the
explicit directions for this close relations between world, One).80 At first glance, it is practitioner in managing such
kind of visualization: “The mandala and person.”79 hard to detect Avalokiteshvara’s complexity.82
worshipper should think himself compassion in such fierce
Tantric practice is demanding, Interestingly, multiarmed
as [Shadakśari] Lokeśvara who is figures. But the bodhisattva’s
but its adherents consider it a deities, mantras, and mudras
decked in all sorts of ornaments, wrathful forms complement
quick path, ideally leading to appeared in Buddhist sutras
white in colour, and four-armed, his gentler manifestations;
full realization in one lifetime. hundreds of years before the
carrying the lotus in the left Mahakala in particular
Motivated by the Mahayana
hand and the rosary in the right. possesses the dramatic but
notion of compassion, every
The other two hands are joined sometimes requisite means to
practice, visualization, and
in forming the mudra of clasped eradicate deeply entrenched
mantra recitation is dedicated
hand[s] against the chest.”78 Thus self-destructive tendencies.
to the benefit of other suffering
the mandala—in conjunction
beings. Not surprisingly, Each tantric deity, whether
with visualization practice—
then, Avalokiteshvara became Shadakshari Lokeshvara or
both vivifies its particular deity Fig. 10: Shadakshari Lokeshvara, Folio from a Manuscript
a supremely important Mahakala, relates to a textual
and also places him or her within of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Perfection of
meditational deity in the tantric tradition and has his own Wisdom), India, West Bengal or Bangladesh, Pala period,
a specific sacred context.
system. set of spiritual disciplines (S: early 12th century; opaque watercolor on palm leaf;
page: 2 3/4 x 16 7/16 in., image: 2 1/2 x 1 15/16 in; The
sadhanas) designed to activate Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Lila Acheson
Wallace Gift, 2001, 2001.445a.

“official” 7th-century emergence other bodhisattvas developed contemplating this embodiment headed forms. According to
of tantric texts.83 For example, in India at least by the early of compassion and realization.88 Susan Huntington, only one
the Karandavyuha (Jewel-Casket 7th century.86 This iconography example remains in India: a
Array) Sutra from the late 4th spread widely throughout the As mentioned earlier, this form relief sculpture depicting the
or early 5th century includes Buddhist world and found its of Avalokiteshvara personifies Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara
descriptions of Avalokiteshvara way as far as Southeast Asia the famous om mani padme (S: Ekadashamukha) at Kanheri,
as having an inconceivably vast only a few decades later.87 hum mantra, certainly one of Maharashtra, which she dates
body and up to 100,000 arms. the most important sacred to the late 5th or early 6th
As in the Lotus Sutra, he has the As we have seen in the Tibetan utterances in the Buddhist century.89
ability to take any form in order mandala (fig. 9), one of world. Shadakshari’s mala is a
to benefit beings, but in this Avalokiteshvara’s four-armed particularly salient attribute, Caves in far western Tibet,
text, his manifestations are even forms has played a particularly since for centuries, practitioners such as Dungkar, preserve
more extraordinary.84 It appears vibrant and long-lived role have used such strings of beads Indic-inspired paintings of the
that, over the centuries, tantric in tantric Buddhist practice. while saying the six-syllable bodhisattva’s eleven-headed
Buddhism gradually subsumed In this Indian depiction, mantra, moving one bead for form that date from the mid-
and expanded supernormal Shadakshari Lokeshvara (fig. every repetition (compare a 10th–early 12th century. These
elements from earlier Mahayana 10) also appears as a white, later Tibetan example in cat. murals closely follow Kashmiri
literature. youthful figure sitting in lotus 27.) The jewel is wish-fulfilling precedents in the lithe, expertly
position with an ascetic’s in a specific way: that all modeled bodies (fig. 11). 90 The
We can trace a similar evolution matted locks. The bodhisattva’s beings be free from suffering, ten additional heads look in
in tantric iconography. Although two front hands are in the Mahayana aspiration that every direction for those who
the earliest multilimbed and salutation or supplication (S: one maintains while doing the need help; Amitabha rests
multiheaded figures in India anjali mudra); he also holds practice. on top. Following the Indian
may not have been tied to a wish-fulfilling jewel (S: manner, the muralist arranged
complex tantric practices, chintamani) between his cupped Diverse manifestations of the heads in an extremely
these forms do indicate, among palms. His uplifted left hand Avalokiteshvara proliferated in vertical format consisting of
other things, that the deities holds a white lotus, whereas India as the first millennium five tiers. The shape recalls
have supramundane status and the right grasps prayer beads. progressed, indicating his Avalokiteshvara’s characteristic
possess extraordinary powers. As in all of Avalokiteshvara’s growing importance as a focus upswept matted hair. In East
In Brahmanical imagery, four- peaceful manifestations, his of veneration. Each distinct Asia, the multiple faces encircle
armed figures emerged in India smiling countenance radiates textual and visual form suggests the head like a diadem (compare
at the beginning of the Common benevolence, and he sits on a the kaleidoscopic ways in cat. 13). Although this form
Era and increased during the lotus throne, with his adoring which Avalokiteshvara can has variants—sometimes ten,
Gupta period.85 Four-armed attendants flanking him. They benefit beings. In addition sometimes twelve heads—eleven
forms of Avalokiteshvara and model the proper attitude for to having multiple arms, the is the most common number.
bodhisattva manifested many-

with all the other types iconographic interpretations. within himself to the entire
examined so far—originated The question also arises as universe.95 This iconography
there. However, we can only to why such a proliferation reemerges in the Brahmanical
glean evidence of what the of limbs, eyes, heads, and epic Mahabharata, completed ca.
Indian form may have looked attributes appeared in 400 CE. In the famous chapter
like from examples that Avalokiteshvara’s later known as the Bhagavad Gita,
appeared in other countries. tantric forms. Scholars have Krishna—Vishnu’s most revered
Chinese versions date as proposed several reasons for avatar—appears in his Universal
early as the 7th century,92 the development of what Form (S: Vishvarupa) to Prince
and this manifestation of Srinivasan calls the “multiplicity Arjuna on the battlefield.
Avalokiteshvara continues convention” in Indian Krishna’s body grows to fill
to be very popular in East depictions of deities. Doniger the entire sky and displays an
Fig. 11: Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara, Western Tibet, Asia. Tibetan examples of thinks that deities with many overwhelming array of heads
Dungkar, mid-10th–12th century; wall painting. the thousand-armed form arms and heads “signify the and hands, showing Arjuna the
also abound (see fig. 12 and multiplicities of powers and infinite structure of the cosmos
Scholars posit numerous theories
cat. 6). Sculptors sometimes possibilities of divine action.”94 and its incomprehensible forces
about what they symbolize,
render each of the thousand In other words, since beings of creation and destruction. This
ranging from the stages that
arms individually; alternately, absorb knowledge through the terrifies the prince, who begs
each bodhisattva traverses on
they fuse the arms into a sense organs (eyes, in particular) the god to return to his more
the path to full enlightenment
single mandorla.93 Usually and express agency through accessible humanlike form.
to the ten directions of the
the hands have eyes inscribed bodily actions (especially with
universe.91 Scholars such as Mallmann,
on the palm, which explains hands), the multiplication of
the often-used nomenclature Studholme, and Chandra feel
Avalokiteshvara’s most arms and heads enhances the
“thousand-eyed.” This signifies that the Vedic Purusha in fact
spectacular form is deity’s efficacy. But Srinivasan
greatly expanded sight as well gave rise to the thousand-armed
the Thousand-armed does not think that multiplicity
as enhanced capacity for action. form of Avalokiteshvara. There
Lord of the World (S: is so much about endowing
An astonishing array of eyes may be valid iconographical
Sahasrabhujalokeshvara). As a deity with increased power
and hands surrounding the and philosophical comparisons
mentioned, the Karandavyuha but instead evokes an image of
standing bodhisattva suggests to make with these scriptural
Sutra describes Avalokiteshvara a cosmic creator, which goes
a limitless gaze and infinite traditions, but, as Studholme
with a thousand or more arms; back to the mythic figure of
reach, encompassing the entire points out, the Thousand-armed
however, no archeological Purusha in the ancient Sanskrit
universe. Avalokiteshvara, while visually
evidence for this form survives scripture, the Rig Veda. In
impressive, consistently appears
in India. Nevertheless, most that text, a thousand-headed,
Such visually arresting forms as benign and compassionate in
scholars surmise that it—along thousand-eyed, and thousand-
invite many doctrinal and Buddhist texts, never a source
footed male gives birth from

of terror, as Krishna was for Indian subcontinent at the art that stimulated regional thereby transcending sensory
Arjuna.96 To most Buddhist time of Xuanzang’s visit. By developments throughout Asia. boundaries.99 Guan can also
adherents, the Thousand-armed the Pala period, Buddhism But in the late 12th century, refer to “meditative discernment
Avalokiteshvara’s origins are mostly survived only in the iconoclastic Muslim invaders ... the ‘seeing’ of the true nature
probably less significant than northeastern territories of sacked Nalanda, one of Indian of existence.”100 The Chinese
what his many hands suggest: his present-day Bengal and its Buddhism’s principal artistic bestowed many other names on
apparently boundless ability to original heartland, Bihar. Yet and scholarly centers. By the Avalokiteshvara that highlight
serve their needs. One thousand within this smaller arena, it 13th century, they completely both his kindness and wisdom,
is a mere physical suggestion reached an apogee in the 8th expelled Buddhism from the such as Great Compassion (C:
of limitless compassion, an to 12th centuries, with huge region where it originated. Dabei) and Master Perceiver (C:
unparalleled ability to benefit monastic communities attracting During this period, many Guanzizai). In China, he was
beings. pilgrims like Xuanzang Buddhists fled to neighboring reconceived in fundamental
from many lands. This area countries where the religion still ways, embraced by both elite
In the 7th century, the renowned remained viable.98 The refugees
produced highly accomplished and folk cultures, given a
Chinese scholar and pilgrim of course did not leave without female identity, and took on
Xuanzang (600/602–664) visited Avalokiteshvara, one of their new forms in a long process of
Mahabodhi Temple. Perhaps main sources of refuge, and sinification.101
he, like many of his 6th-century we too shall presently follow
predecessors, recalled the his tracks north to Nepal and Buddhism itself underwent
Buddha’s dire predictions about Tibet. But first we will move profound transformations as
a future degenerate age. In east, where he had already come the religion moved east and
Bodhgaya, Xuanzang heard a to be known as Guanyin. reached the geographical regions
local legend about two statues ruled by the Han dynasty (206
of Avalokiteshvara in the temple BCE–220 CE) at least as early as
precinct near the Bodhi Tree. Avalokiteshvara in the first century of the Common
It was foretold that when these the East Era. Its entrance into China was
two sculptures sank out of sight, a protracted development that
Buddhist dharma would come to China involved intermediaries from
an end. When Xuanzang came On reaching China, many different regions. Once in
upon the southernmost statue Avalokiteshvara became China—as in India—Buddhism
of Avalokiteshvara, he found Fig. 12: Eleven-Headed Arya Avalokiteshvara, the One Who Perceives the both accommodated and
Western Tibet, early 14th century; copper al-
that it had already sunk up to its loy with silver and copper colored inlay, coral,
Sounds of the World, Guanyin transformed existing religious
chest.97 turquoise, lapis lazuli, and multiple layers of or Guanshiyin. His Chinese and iconographic traditions.102
applied cold gold; 20 1/2 x 13 x 4 1/2 in., base: 3 name suggests the ability But there, Buddhism was a
Indeed, Buddhist influence to actually “see” sounds,
5/8 x 7 13/16 x 5 5/8 in.; Philadelphia Museum foreign transplant with no
was contracting on the of Art, 125th Anniversary Acquisition,
Purchased with the Stella Kramrisch Fund,
2001, 2001-90-1.

Confucian philosopher Mencius century redaction by Kumarajiva
(ca. 372–289 BCE)—believed (344–409/414) became the most
in humanity’s basic goodness. widely known and influential
Mencius felt that this innate in China. The Lotus Sutra (C:
quality could be cultivated Miaofa lianhua jing) is one of
through a spiritual force called the most popular Buddhist
“utmost sincerity” (C: zhicheng) texts in East Asia; millions
to achieve self-transformation there still read and chant it
and realization,103 a process daily. The twenty-fifth chapter,
reminiscent of following the called “The Universal Gateway
Buddhist dharma. Another of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of
feature that China and India the World’s Sounds,” became a
shared was a long history of revered section of this text; an
written language and a reverence excerpted, stand-alone scripture
for ancient texts. In addition, Fig. 14: Figure of Padmapani, Lotus-bearing called the Guanyin Sutra (C:
Fig. 13: Painting of Avalokiteshvara, China, both were sophisticated, Manifestation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin, Guanshiyin jing) (compare cat.
Gansu, Dunhuang, Qian Fo Dong, Five multiethnic societies that China, Northern Wei dynasty, 471; gilded and 22) attests to its popularity.105
Dynasties, ca. 926–75; ink and colors on silk; based their identities in their engraved cast bronze; H. 9 13/16 in.; British From the 4th to 14th centuries,
33 15/16 x 21 5/16 in. (painted area); British Museum, donated by P.T. Brooke Sewell, esq.,
respective cultural patrimonies. Dunhuang was an important
Museum, collected by Sir Marc Aurel Stein, 1958, 1958,0428.1.
Buddhist center on the Silk
1919, 1919,0101,0.28. Nevertheless, the introduction With the support of a literate Road, and in the early 20th
of Buddhism into China was elite, and intermittent imperial century almost two hundred
indigenous roots, in a region initially diffuse and rather
that fundamentally differed in patronage, ambitious Chinese copies of the Guanyin Sutra were
haphazard, without imperial translation projects of imported found there; also discovered
terms of climate, geography, or elite patronage. Eventually
ethnicity, and social norms. texts encouraged the diffusion were illustrated manuscripts and
some of China’s rulers lavishly of Buddhism. The Chinese paintings on silk scrolls related
Yet, as Yu points out, this supported it, while other
transplant nonetheless grew in Buddhist canon is enormous, to Avalokiteshvara. Famous
imperial leaders vigorously and translations began as cave paintings depicting scenes
fertile ground. As in the Indian suppressed the religion. Given
Buddhist tradition, the Chinese early as the 2nd century. The from the Guanyin Sutra survive
these factors, it is remarkable Mahayana vehicle dominated at Dunhuang as well, notably a
had no creator god, viewed that this foreign faith eventually
the universe as continually from the beginning, and the Tang period (618–907) mural in
joined indigenous Daoism and Chinese may have first learned Cave 45 at Mogao.106
transforming, saw humans and Confucianism to become a third
nature as interdependent, and— about Avalokiteshvara through
major Chinese religion.104 As we have seen, the Universal
if they followed the influential a 3rd-century translation of the
Gateway chapter describes the
Lotus Sutra, although the 5th-
many ways that Avalokiteshvara

saves beings from peril when Guanyin actually appears to threat. Inscribed by the donor icons attracted followers, and
death seems certain or grants be a very demanding spiritual (the smaller man to the bottom the dependence on paintings
boons that seem otherwise practice. right), the work is dedicated and sculptures to spread its
unobtainable. Invoking his to his deceased parents, the fundamental ideals was so novel
name with sincerity brings The Universal Gateway chapter larger kneeling figures.110 The that Buddhism came to be
Guanyin to the rescue, and is especially vivid and conducive mother piously joins her hands known as a “religion of images.”111
numerous “miracle tales” to pictorial representation, in a gesture of veneration, As Naquin and Yu write, “Some
testify to the efficacy of this as seen in a banner found while the father offers incense. images were understood to have
practice.107 Scholars often at Dunhuang (fig. 13). The Through donating this banner, been miraculously produced,
characterize this approach to painting depicts four-armed the son not only gained merit, self-manifested, or created by
venerating Avalokiteshvara Avalokiteshvara sitting on a but also displayed filial piety, the deity; others were capable of
as an easy path, in that the lotus throne, dressed in Indic an important Confucian miracles. Shrines built to house
devotee “needed no special garments and ornaments, an virtue established long before them became temples and, if
gifts or vision to invoke him; ambrosial vessel in the lower Buddhism came to China. miracles occurred, pilgrimage
one did not have to be a monk, left hand while the lower Such works demonstrate the sites.”112 As in India, the Chinese
a male, or a literate person to right displays the gesture of popularity of both the Lotus ritually consecrated images
receive his help,” according to fearlessness. Underscoring Sutra and Avalokiteshvara in of buddhas and bodhisattvas,
Campany. Yet this same author his cosmic status, the two China, and they also reveal viewing them as embodiments
also describes how the believer’s upper hands hold the sun and the embodied practices of living deities. Sharf contends
calls for intercession are more moon. Appearing in a male associated with the scripture. that icons played an elevated
effective when accompanied by body, the bodhisattva sports a As the millennium progressed, and sophisticated role in the
elaborate embodied actions: moustache. Representations of Avalokiteshvara’s Chinese evolution of the religion:
making or commissioning perils recounted in the Lotus followers increasingly came to “Indeed, one common goal of
images, presenting offerings Sutra appear on both borders. rely on him as a protector and Buddhist ascetic and meditative
(such as perfumed water, burnt For example, to the right of guide. discipline in China was to ‘see
incense, flowers, light, and Avalokiteshvara is a vignette the Buddha’ (jianfo), and the
food), and prostrating before the that corresponds to the lines: According to Sen, Buddhist wide variety of Buddhist icons
bodhisattva while continuously “Suppose someone should images from the west arrived found throughout the continent
reciting his name. All this conceive a wish to harm you, even before missionaries and rendered service to this goal.”113
must be done with “extreme should push you into a great pit translators; therefore, art
concentration of mind, utmost of fire. Think on the power of enhanced the acceptance of As we have seen in fig. 13,
sincerity of will, and sustained that Perceiver of Sounds and this exotic foreign religion, as worshippers offered flowers,
or repeated exertion of body and the pit of fire will change into did the creation of Buddhist food, money, and other valuables
indeed of one’s total being.”108 a pond!”109 The vignette shows pilgrimage centers within to icons of Avalokiteshvara.
Seen in this light, invoking both the peril of the fire and China. Imported Buddhist Incense was perhaps the most
the pond that will relieve its

important offering, since pre- of iconography. Bodhisattva in cat. 23, the body is not full in the round. Standing over
Buddhist Chinese rites included Padmapani in figure 14 and fleshy, little of the chest is three feet tall, this appealing
burning aromatic substances in exemplifies the Northern Wei revealed and the drapery does work probably once resided in
homage to departed ancestors. style. Approximately ten inches not cling to the limbs and torso. a temple. The columnar body
Therefore, when Indian high, it served no doubt as an This is a rather otherworldly stands, fully modeled and
Buddhist missionaries brought object of personal devotion or depiction compared with the naturalistic, on a lotus pedestal.
incense to China, the converts as an icon in a small temple. embodied naturalism of the The characteristically Chinese
easily adapted the practice. The figure stands on a lotus South Asian example, especially oval face has recognizably East
A 10th-century text explains pedestal with characteristic in the flamelike lotus bud Asian features, and in contrast
“that incense serves as an envoy Indic attributes: lotus bud over and pointed mandorla behind to the minimally rendered
for [conveying] the sincerity his right shoulder, bodhisattva the figure. The animated and jewelry in fig. 14, the ornaments
of one’s faith to the Buddha.”114 ornaments, and upswept hair. calligraphic scarves defy gravity here include a magnificent
Incense fragrance is said to have His garments mimic Indian and take on a life of their own. array of necklaces and an
transformative power, purifying styles of male dress, and the The Indian Avalokiteshvara is extremely elaborate headdress.
both the sacred space and the facial features are South Asian. becoming the Chinese Guanyin. A heavy ankle-length robe
pilgrim’s body. In temples However, in contrast to Indian replaces the shorter Indian
and sacred sites, devotees still visual conventions, such as As the first millennium skirt. Unsurprisingly—given
offer incense to Guanyin, one progressed, a complex interplay the traditional Chinese concern
of the most important acts of developed between Indian for longevity—Guanyin holds
veneration performed during styles and Chinese adaptations; the vessel of immortality. In
pilgrimage. the results were a continually addition to ambrosial elixir,
evolving, sophisticated synthesis. the vase now contains the
Once Buddhist works began International Buddhist bodhisattva’s other traditional
to be produced on Chinese styles, particularly the serene, attribute, the lotus. During the
soil, indigenous aesthetic naturalistic Gupta mode (fig. Tang period, the vase became an
transformations began. Gilt 8), spread from India and enduring symbol of Guanyin.116
bronzes are the earliest Buddhist influenced art across East
images to survive, appearing Asia. During the Sui dynasty The Tang dynasty brought
in northern China around 300 (581–618), artists rendered about further transformations
CE. During the Northern Wei Guanyin’s form with convincing in Guanyin’s image, as seen in
dynasty (386–535), which unified realism, in part because of cat. 7. Identified by the seated
North China and fostered Fig. 15: Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), this influence from India.115 Amitabha (C: Amituo; J: Amida)
Buddhism’s development, China, probably Sui dynasty, late 6th–early 7th Fig. 15 is an elaborate, three- in the headdress and the vase
imported Gandharan art from century; limestone with traces of pigment; H. dimensional stone depiction in the left hand, this depiction
India provided models for 39 2/3 in.; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, H. of the bodhisattva, carved references Indian prototypes
attributes and other aspects O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H.
O. Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.32a,b.

in the triple-bend posture, the which Guanyin plays a major Successful practitioners
typical bodhisattva ornaments, role: Pure Land, esoteric, and will see Amituo at the
and the fully revealed chest. But Chan. Given space limitations, moment of death and be
this Chinese sculpture is more this discussion necessarily will reborn in his Pure Land (S:
buoyant and weightless than be brief, with only as much Sukhavati; C: Jile Jingtu J:
related examples from South information as required to Gokuraku). Once there, they
Asia. Intriguingly, the vase has highlight Guanyin’s place in can rapidly progress to full
no spout, only an elongated those traditions. buddhahood.119
neck. Instead of holding a
Pure Land Buddhism came to Pure Land Buddhism arose
spouted kundika, this figure
prominence in China during against the backdrop of
in fact carries a Chinese vessel
the early 6th century and war, social turmoil, and
called—significantly—a Guanyin
spread to Korea and Japan environmental disasters
vase (C: ping). Also distinctively
shortly thereafter; its devotional in 6th-century China.
East Asian is the extremely
focus is Amitabha. In art, In addition, fears about
long willow branch held in the
Avalokiteshvara and another the Buddhist doctrine’s
right hand, used by Guanyin to Fig. 16: Taima Mandala, Japan, Edo period, 1750;
bodhisattva associated with degeneration (C: mofa; J:
sprinkle supplicants with water hanging scroll, ink, color, and gold on silk; 41 13/16
power, Mahasthamaprapta (C: x 37 1/16 in.; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, mappo) convinced many
or amrita, called “sweet dew” in
Dashizhi; J: Daiseishi), often Charles Stewart Smith Collection, Gift of Mrs. Chinese that they were living
Chinese texts. Associated with
join Amitabha in the iconic Charles Stewart Smith, Charles Stewart Smith Jr., in a period of irreversible
healing, the willow often appears and Howard Caswell Smith, in memory of Charles
Pure Land Triad.118 These three spiritual decline. One of
as Guanyin’s attribute from the Stewart Smith, 1914, 14.76.54.
figures also appear together in the great patriarchs of this
Tang period on.117
Tibetan art (see cat. 1; compare referred to as the Visualization tradition, Daochuo (562–645),
As Buddhism matured in China, fig. 16). As already mentioned, Sutra, this scripture is probably lamented, “As for me, I live
numerous strains developed that Amitabha first appeared as a an indigenous Chinese in a world aflame, and bear
departed from Indian traditions; celestial buddha in Sanskrit composition. The designation a sense of dread within.”120
novel forms of Guanyin emerged scriptures, such as the Larger Pure Land (C: Jingtu; J: Jodo) is Claiming that the “path of
in tandem with them. Although Sukhavativyuha Sutra, which also thought to be of Chinese the sages,” which involves
Chinese Buddhism generally entered China perhaps as early origin, and the chanting of renunciation and strenuous
lacks strict sectarian divisions, it as the 2nd century. In addition, Amituo’s name, namo Amituo fo concentration practices, was
does have distinct doctrines and another Pure Land scripture, (Praise of Amitabha Buddha), too arduous for Buddhists in
spiritual practices. The following Amitayurdhyana Sutra (Sutra on most likely evolved there as well. the present degenerate age,
discussion focuses on selected the Visualization of Amitayus), A devotee chants Amituo’s name Daochu advocated putting one’s
Chinese Buddhist iconographic played an important role in East in a practice called Mindfulness entire faith the saving power of
and scriptural traditions in Asian iconography. Sometimes of the Buddha (C: nianfo). Amituo, who offered relief from

suffering through a devotional will be reborn in Amitabha’s Pure Land beliefs ceased to Kannon in the 19th-century
path.121 Many followed the Pure Pure Land. Those at the lowest be an independent strand of Japanese scroll, cat. 19).126
Land approach to salvation, level cannot immediately benefit Buddhism in China, but its
and the practice of Mindful but must spend eons in tightly practices continued in other As esoteric Buddhism developed
Chanting spread throughout the sealed lotuses because of their traditions.124 in China, many indigenous texts
East Asian Buddhist world. accumulated negative karma. were written to accompany
When they finally emerge into Esoteric Buddhism assigned associated rituals and meditative
Avalokiteshvara had specific Sukhavati, Avalokiteshvara Avalokiteshvara an even practices, including several
roles to play in Pure Land and Mahasthamaprapta are the greater role than the one focusing on Guanyin. These
Buddhism: as an impressive icon first to teach them dharma so he plays in the Pure Land provided an impetus for image-
in Amitabha’s triad, as a focus that they can accelerate their tradition. In fact, according making. The Thousand-armed
of meditative practice, as the evolution to buddhahood.123 to Sorensen, “Avalokiteśvara Avalokiteshvara plays a role
leader of the Welcoming Descent stands out among the numerous in one of the most important
(the cohort of bodhisattvas In part because of his association bodhisattvas inhabiting the esoteric practices in China,
who accompany Amitabha with Amitabha, Guanyin Esoteric Buddhist pantheon the Great Compassion Dharani
in a descent from Sukhavati worship greatly increased in in East Asia as the single most (Dabei Zhou), also known as
to gather up dying devotees, China beginning in the 6th important divinity, eclipsing Qianshou (Thousand-armed)
leading them back to the Pure century. Programs of Buddhist even Vairocana in popularity Zhou. Recounting events set
Land), as a teacher of dharma, iconography at the Longmen and influence.”125 The Thousand- in the bodhisattva’s paradise,
and as the next buddha to caves, begun during the armed (C: Dabei; J: Senju) Potalaka, a related sutra known
preside over the Land of Bliss.122 Northern Wei dynasty and Avalokiteshvara, personification as Qianshou jing details how
Avalokiteshvara appears in some continuing into the Tang period, of Great Compassion, entered Avalokiteshvara made ten vows
of these guises in the famous chart how both Amitabha and the pantheon of esoteric deities to benefit all sentient beings,
Taima Mandala, originally a Avalokiteshvara’s popularity at the end of the 7th century, and as a result, was endowed
Chinese creation (see fig. 16 for a expanded in tandem. In the quickly gaining popularity with a thousand arms and a
Japanese copy). In this canonical earliest period, Shakyamuni and as the centuries passed. thousand eyes in order to bring
work, Avalokiteshvara appears in Maitreya dominated as subjects Portrayed in China—as in about this goal. In this scripture,
the central triad to Amitabha’s at Longmen, but by the 7th and other Asian countries—as an Avalokiteshvara reveals his
left; he also manifests in early 8th century, the number of active figure with the ability sacred verbal formula and
other places throughout the Amitabha and Avalokiteshvara to see throughout the universe, instructs practitioners how
depiction. On the lower register depictions far surpassed those Dabei is able to undertake any to visualize him. This esoteric
of the Outer Courts, we see of other figures, a shift that action to benefit beings. This practice includes not only the
Avalokiteshvara participating in Chen credits to the spread manifestation remains popular recitation of the dharani but
the Welcoming Descent for some of Pure Land Buddhism in throughout East Asia today also involves instructions on
of the nine levels of beings who China. By the early 9th century, (see the many images of Senju performing mudras and making

proper images of Dabei. It Much favored by Chan painters settings, especially near grottoes ornaments are minimal. A vase
remains popular in China, often during the Southern Song and caves. Yu writes that containing a willow branch
chanted at daily services in Chan dynasty (1127–1279), the Water- although the reflection of the often sits nearby. The White-
monasteries and—because the Moon form probably emerged moon in water was a familiar robed Guanyin’s austerity
sutra offers power over death— during the earlier Tang era. Buddhist metaphor “for the nicely complements Chan
at funeral ceremonies.127 A 10th-century indigenous transitory and insubstantial asceticism, making the subject
text called the “Moonlight in nature of things in the world, appropriate for the monk/
Chan Buddhism adopted Water Guanyin Bodhisattva there is no scriptural basis for painter Muqi Fachang (active
other manifestations of Sutra Spoken by the Buddha” linking Kuan-yin with these mid-13th century), who created
Avalokiteshvara, especially was found at Dunhuang, as metaphors. It is here that we can a well-known early White-robed
the Water-Moon (C: Shuiyue; were depictions that show see the bold creativity of Chinese Guanyin. The painting came
J: Suigetsu) and White-robed the figure sitting in a relaxed artists, for they took these to Japan by the 14th century,
(S: Pandaravasini; C: Baiyi; J: posture at the water’s edge, often Buddhist ideas and expressed and eventually was housed at
Byakue) forms of Guanyin (cat. in a rocky setting identified them through the traditional Daitokuji in Kyoto.132
8). The Chan tradition, better as Potalaka, with a vase and medium of Chinese painting.”130
known by its Japanese name willow (compare cat. 16). A large Chan monks and artists were not
Zen, “claimed to represent a full-moon nimbus envelops Chan artists and patrons the only ones to appreciate the
special, unbroken transmission the bodhisattva; Guanyin also revered the White-robed White-robed Guanyin. The form
of the Buddha’s dharma,” meditates on the moon’s Guanyin (cat. 8).131 This form enjoyed widespread popularity
according to Lippit. “Whereas reflection. Although Guanyin’s shares important iconographic in China, which continues into
most other Buddhist sects pose descends from Indian features with the Water-Moon the modern era.133 Ubiquitous
attempt to access the dharma precedents, the fully developed Guanyin—relaxed posture porcelain images of the White-
through sutras ... Chan/Zen landscape setting is distinctive (often with chin resting on robed Guanyin demonstrate the
adherents emphasize more and unprecedented, according right hand), idyllic landscape bodhisattva’s enduring appeal.
instinctive or somatic forms of to Yu. This iconography, setting, contemplative gaze—and They also display decidedly
practice, such as meditation, establishing Guanyin as an sometimes it is difficult to delicate, feminine characteristics
one-on-one encounters and accomplished contemplative, distinguish the two from each (fig. 17), indicating a shift in
training sessions with religious provides an alternative to his other. But the White-robed gender. Such figurines were
masters, or the study of kōan role as savior.129 form usually lacks the full-body produced at Dehua, Fujian
[a paradoxical statement or nimbus, and the garments are Province, in southeastern China
question].... It was through these Metaphors of water and typically less elaborate and beginning in the Ming period
daily activities that Chan/Zen moon entranced Tang poets, colorful. Instead, voluminous (1368–1644); the artists there
Buddhists eventually achieved and Chinese painters had white drapery envelopes the invented a new kind of porcelain
awakening (C: wu; J: satori), one long depicted reclusive and bodhisattva—often forming (so-called blanc de chine) with a
of the main goals of religious contemplative sages in landscape a hood over the head—and translucent, jadelike appearance,
practice.”128

exceptionally well suited to qualifications—was an idea of Mahayana nondualism,
making delicate forms. In the unfamiliar to the Chinese.” In Avalokiteshvara always seems to
late Ming, the region specialized addition, before Guanyin, the evade fixed categorizations.
in Buddhist and Daoist deities. Chinese lacked a long-standing
Merchants imported White- tradition of goddess worship. As mentioned above,
robed Guanyin figurines to Over time, a transformed the settings—as well the
Europe, where—removed from foreign bodhisattva filled this bodhisattva’s shifting gender
a Buddhist context—they gap; this gender flexibility identity—are an important
served as decorations.134 In underscores the way Sino- aspect of Avalokiteshvara’s
contrast, these porcelain statues Japanese Buddhism evolved to Chinese iconography. The last
were religious icons in Ming accommodate its followers in chapter of Avatamsaka (Flower
China, placed on home altars East Asia.136 Garland) Sutra, translated into
and venerated as objects of Chinese in the 8th century,
personal devotion. Fig. 17 shows Guanyin’s gender is known as the Gandavyuha
Guanyin holding a sutra scroll, Fig. 17: White-robed Guanyin, China, Fujian, transformation was complicated, (Entering the Dharma World).
an attribute that emphasizes Dehua, Qing dynasty, 17th century; porcelain however, because—as Yu This text describes a young
the wise bodhisattva’s ability to with ivory-white glaze; 9 1/2 x 5 7/8 in.; Yale observes—orthodox Chinese pilgrim named Sudhana (C:
University Art Gallery, Gift of Dr. Yale Buddhist clerics continued to Shancai; J: Zenzai Doji) in search
bestow dharma. Kneeland, Jr., B.A. 1922, 1956.42.12.
conceive of the bodhisattva as
By the Ming period, many to answer the prayers of eager masculine. As a result, Chinese
Chinese, including members of parents. Although millions have temples consistently house male
literati circles and their wives, studied and recited the Lotus images of Guanyin. Even in late
prayed to a feminine Guanyin Sutra throughout the Buddhist imperial works, Guanyin often
for heirs, giving rise to yet world, only in East Asia did the has a moustache.137 Indeed, many
another related manifestation, bodhisattva become female. of the Chinese and Japanese
Avalokiteshvara, the Bestower images in this exhibition seem
of Children (C: Songzi Guanyin) Perhaps an explanation for androgynous or gender neutral
(cat. 11). According to Yu, the this lies in Yu’s assertion that rather than unambiguously
bodhisattva’s unsurpassed a feminized Guanyin filled feminine (see cats. 8, 9, 12, 13).138
popularity in China was in part a particular void in Chinese From one perspective, however,
“due to a group of indigenous spiritual as well as worldly life. uncertainty about Guanyin’s
scriptures which promote her “Kuan-yin—a compassionate gender is appropriate because
as a goddess capable of granting universal savior who responds to protean transformations
children.”135 The Lotus Sutra also anyone’s cry for help regardless characterize his/her identity. Fig. 18: Guanyin of the Southern Sea, China,
recounts the bodhisattva’s power of class, gender, or even moral In addition, as an instantiation Liao (907–1125) or Jin dynasty (1115–1234); wood
with polychromy; 95 x 65 in.; The Nelson-
Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri,
Purchase, William Rockwell Nelson Trust, 34-10.

of realization; Avalokiteshvara Traders and Buddhist monks to transcendent states. So
is the 28th sage he encounters customarily invoked the how could artists and their
on his quest. The youth finds bodhisattva before starting a audiences reconcile the opulent
the bodhisattva on Mount trip. In a gradual process that materiality of devotional images
Potalaka, his special paradise. began in the 10th century and with the Buddhist view of life’s
Avalokiteshvara’s island is: reached its height in the 18th, insubstantiality? According
“a pure abode of the valiant, Avalokiteshvara’s island became to Berger, they conceived of
made of jewels, covered with a destination for all kinds of sensuous beauty as skillful
trees, scattered with flowers, pilgrims who came there for means—an aesthetic snare to
complete with gardens, ponds, a visionary experience of the capture devotees. Once viewers
and streams. On the mountain bodhisattva, especially at the and supplicants were roped in,
the steady, wise Avalokiteshvara Cave of Tidal Sound, where the Avalokiteshvara could then lead
dwells for the benefit of the deity was said to appear in a them out of samsara.141
world.”139 In works such as cat. blaze of golden light.140
Guanyin of the Southern Sea Fig. 19: Sho Kannon, Japan, late Heian period,
16, Sudhana’s presence in the 12th century; wood with traces of gilding and
The desire to experience is a magnificent response to
picture—as well as the rocky color; 17 3/4 x 6 x 5 3/4 in.; The Metropolitan
buddhas and bodhisattvas such complex demands (fig.
cliffs and ocean waves—marks Museum of Art, Dr. and Mrs. Roger G. Gerry
as literally present before the 18). Descending from the Collection, Bequest of Dr. and Mrs. Roger G.
the setting as the bodhisattva’s
devotee encouraged the faithful Water-Moon Guanyin, the work Gerry, 2000, 2002.447.2.
divine realm.
to undertake such arduous belongs to a group of wooden
Originally thought to be off pilgrimages. It also transformed sculptural forms that became us with its sheer beauty, opulent
the coast of Southern India, Chinese Buddhist art. Lively popular after the Tang dynasty. decoration, and rich surfaces.143
Potalaka was replicated in sculptures from the 10th Slim, elegant, with refined
Both palpably real and accessible
many regions throughout the through 12th centuries seem to facial features, extraordinary
to supplicants, the bodhisattva
Buddhist world: Lhasa in Tibet, bring the viewer face-to-face ornaments, and sumptuous
lowers his foot, indicating a
Nachi in Japan, and a small with the deity’s actual physical garments, Guanyin nevertheless
readiness to rise and meet the
island in the South China Sea. presence. This demand for appears masculine in this
viewer at any time. Yet the
Known as Mount Putuo—or embodied divine forms was depiction, with a flat, exposed
sculpture also shows Guanyin
Putuoshan—the island became a great challenge to Chinese breast.142 Seated on a rocky
as a model adept; the inward-
a pilgrimage site sacred to artists. On the one hand, they pedestal that evokes Potalaka,
turning gaze indicates his
Guanyin (cat. 17). Located on had to portray celestial beings Guanyin adopts the pose of royal
meditative absorption and
an important naval route, this as vividly and magnificently as ease (S: rajalilasana), right arm
inner tranquility.144 As in the
spot enhanced Avalokiteshvara’s possible. On the other hand, poised on the raised knee while
Tibetan work discussed at the
reputation as the protector of they had to suggest that the the lower foot rests on a lotus
beginning of this essay (fig. 2),
travelers, especially for those Buddhist icons offered access pedestal. The work seems to woo
the bodhisattva’s form effectively
who undertook ocean journeys.

embodies the two qualities century.146 According to a legend According to the legendary in temple settings, largely for
of realization: outwardly in the later text, Chronicles of account found in the Chronicles sonorous effect rather than
flowing compassion based on Japan (ca. 720), a royal envoy of Japan, the country lacked a semantic meaning. As Foard
inwardly established wisdom. from the Kingdom of Paekche written language before the explains: “Through the chanting
Despite the significant regional introduced Buddhism to envoy from Paekche carried of sutras in front of images,
transformations Avalokiteshvara Japan in 538 (or 552), and a few Buddhist scriptures to Japan.149 Japanese Buddhist rituals
underwent in the journey from decades later, members of the Japanese scribes and scholars connect words and images to
India to China, the bodhisattva’s royal family enthusiastically adopted Chinese ideographs evoke the presence of Buddhas
deepest significance remains embraced it. From that point when they began to reproduce and bodhisattvas.… When
intact in this compelling on, Buddhism’s spread was scriptures themselves, such Japanese Buddhists chant the
sculpture. Such beautiful swift, although not uncontested, as the rare and beautiful sutras before an image, then,
Chinese works transmitted mostly instigated by those at 8th-century Sumidera Heart this is not prayer, but an act
Avalokiteshvara’s profound the top of the Japanese social Sutra in this exhibition (cat. that complements the image in
meanings throughout East Asia. order. Enjoying imperial 21). Transcribers rendered evoking divine presence.”150
patronage in the 7th and 8th such canonical works in the
centuries, Buddhism became elegant clerical script that the In addition to scriptures, the
Japan 6th-century Korean envoy
a state religion, a remarkable Chinese developed for copying
As in other countries, the purportedly brought Buddhist
development compared to its sutras. Commissioning and
Japanese Avalokiteshvara has works of art as gifts to the
rather gradual and haphazard executing such texts constituted
multiple forms and names. Japanese ruling family. As
introduction into China. Early meritorious acts of devotion.
Kanzeon, like Guanshiyin, described in the Chronicles of
on, the Japanese imperial As in the Buddhist homeland,
observes (J: kan) the world (J: ze) Japan, these sculptures amazed
court built elaborate temple the scriptures themselves
for the sound (J: on) of suffering. the emperor. At that time, the
complexes and sponsored were sacred objects worthy of
The Japanese commonly shorten Japanese did not make images
Buddhist rituals for the veneration. Taking them to
Avalokiteshvara’s name to of their indigenous deities, so
benefit of the state and the be the words of Shakyamuni
Kannon.145 Indic and Sinicized the three-dimensional gilt-
well-being of the population.147 (in the case of the Heart
forms of Avalokiteshvara bronze Buddhist icons may
According to Foard, one of the Sutra, transmitted through
made their way to the Japanese well have been extraordinarily
most spectacular is the Water Avalokiteshvara), Japanese
archipelago in a mediated impressive.151 Soon native and
Drawing Ritual (J: Omizutori), worshippers treated them with
fashion; the first contact with immigrant sculptors were
which has been conducted in the same reverence accorded
the bodhisattva came through producing Buddhist works on
Nara since 753. It lasts for several to Buddhist relics and icons
Korea. The Chinese officially Japanese soil. Sharf describes
nights, when by the light of elsewhere. In addition, Buddhist
transmitted Buddhism to the “the cardinal role allotted to
enormous torches, officiants adherents regularly intoned the
Korean peninsula in the 4th the veneration of images” in
draw water from a well and offer Heart Sutra and other scriptures
century, but the religion was not Japanese Buddhism. “Virtually
it to Kannon.148
sanctioned there until the 6th

all services are performed in Heian period (794–1185), features that characterize
front of an image—known in for example, a 12th-century Avalokiteshvara’s original Indic
Japanese as the honzon … or depiction of Sho Kannon (S: manifestations and shows
‘principal deity’—that serves as Arya Avalokiteshvara) in fig. how far the bodhisattva has
the recipient of offerings and as 19. This work is an example of traveled from the plains of
a source of the rite’s efficacy.”152 a frequently represented form, Bihar. Compared with sinuous,
Sacred or Noble Kannon. Only naturalistic depictions from
Several icons in 7th-century traces remain of the gilding India (such as fig. 8), and
Horyuji, the oldest surviving and multicolored pigments that Himalayan works that closely
Japanese Buddhist temple originally adorned this carved followed Indic conventions (for Fig. 21: Hall of Thirty-Three Bays, Sanjusangendo,
complex, are early evidence of wooden figure with its simple, example, fig. 2), this Japanese Kyoto, Japan, begun 1164; Japanese Temples and
Avalokiteshvara’s veneration direct bearing. On the one hand, Avalokiteshvara clearly evolved Their Treasures, 1915.
in Japan. The Kudara Kannon the work’s appearance departs from a different aesthetic nature, thereby establishing
and Yumedono Kannon at dramatically from the stylistic milieu. Nevertheless, the figure’s continuity with the Indic deity.
Horyuji date from the Asuka gestures and attributes suggest
period (538/552–645). Carved a family resemblance to the Other presentations of Kannon
from wood, both are tall original Avalokiteshvara. For utilize context and repetition
with elongated proportions. example, the sculpture once to suggest an infinite spiritual
Their attributes, ornaments, likely carried the bodhisattva’s arena in which the deity’s
and pointed lotus-petal halos common attribute, the lotus, influence extends without limit.
relate to 5th-century Chinese in the upraised left hand, while As Fowler observes, “Repetition
Northern Wei styles, as in fig. the lowered right makes the is a fundamental expression in
14, and also to Korean models characteristic Indian varada Buddhist piety, whether through
(the name “Kudara” in fact refers mudra of generosity. This chanting, ritual, or image
to the Kingdom of Paekche). elongated arm is an ingenious making. The idea of grouping
Sculptors used wood for these and expressive gesture that multiple images of the same
painted and gilded works, a underscores Kannon’s legendary deity is very familiar in Japanese
material that would come to willingness to help those in religion.”155 The Lotus Sutra gives
dominate Japanese icons in distress. (Compare cat. 22 thirty-three manifestations
the 9th century.153 Many later for a related presentation of of Avalokiteshavara, and this
Japanese works also followed the the bodhisattva’s elongated number serves an important
slim, columnar shape of these arm.) Even in its weathered numerological function in
Fig. 20: One Hundred Images of Amida Buddha, Japanese Buddhism, for example,
two Horyuji Kannon images.154 condition, this depiction of
Japan, Heian period, 12th century; print, ink
stamps on paper; sheet: 18 x 13 1/2 in.; The Sho Kannon effectively conveys in the number of stations in
Such features can also be various Kannon pilgrimage
found in sculptures of the
Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, Vassar Avalokiteshvara’s compassionate
College, Purchase Fund, 2009.3.

circuits. Such impulses also most often dedicated to Certainly the choice of Kannon to promulgate its practices.
take other forms, sometimes in Amida and Kannon. Begun for Sanjusangendo could not As we have seen in Indian
monumental arrangements and in 1164 at Rengeoin in Kyoto, have been random; in the face Vajrayana, esoteric Buddhism
sometimes in small, intimate Sanjusangendo displays the of overwhelming natural and involved specialized expressions,
presentations. A Japanese print, sculptures on a densely packed, human-made disasters, it must like mantra, mandala, and
One Hundred Images of Amida 350-foot long tiered platform; have seemed that the Japanese visualizations. Kukai brought
Buddha (fig. 20), displays serial they surround an eleven-foot people needed the deity’s back mandalas that exemplify
printed images of the buddha tall statue of the same deity redemptive compassion more one of Japanese Buddhism’s most
most closely associated with seated in the center of the hall.158 than ever. intriguing expressions of esoteric
Avalokiteshvara. The repeated As in the small Amida print, iconography: the Mandala of the
imagery, which alludes to the Japanese responses to mappo Two Worlds. These consist of
multiplication amplifies and
popular thousand-buddha may have also encouraged the paired Diamond and Womb
extends spiritual power; each of
iconography developed in developments in the country’s Worlds, and Kannon plays an
Senju’s many arms is repeated
China,156 transforms the sheet various Buddhist schools. important role in the latter.160
one thousand times, suggesting
into a miniature buddha-field. By the 9th century, the Pure
his cosmic reach into infinity.
The print might have been Land, esoteric, and Chan According to adherents, esoteric
rolled up and inserted into a Such extravagant displays of traditions had all found a techniques offer relief from the
hollowed-out Japanese icon; Avalokiteshvara and other home in Northeast Asia, and travails of a degenerate age, even
such repetitive imagery served as deities at the end of Heian Kannon worship infused each total freedom from the samsaric
consecratory material thought to and into the Kamakura period of these—as well as many other world of endless rebirths. As in
enhance the spiritual potency of (1185–1333) arose when the manifestations of Buddhist India, esoteric Buddhism greatly
the icon.157 Chinese concept of a degenerate beliefs. The religious reformer expanded the Japanese pantheon
age (J: mappo) took on intense Kukai (774–835) brought of deities and increased their
Thousand-armed urgency for Japanese Buddhists. Shingon (C: Zhenyan)—or True supernormal powers. Sho and
Avalokiteshvara is similarly Many felt that Buddhism was Word—Buddhism to Japan, an Senju Kannon, along with
replicated at Sanjusangendo, declining into its last stage; important esoteric tradition. Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara
the Hall of Thirty-three Bays creating awe-inspiring arrays Unable to find essential texts in (S: Ekadashamukha; J:
(fig. 21), but on a monumental of deities was one response Japan, Kukai made a pilgrimage Juichimen), are Japanese
scale; in that famous image to a sense of crisis. Because to Tang China, where he studied adaptations of Indian tantric
hall, a thousand and one life- commissioning Buddhist art was under Huiguo (746–805) in the deities.161 In the Late Heian
sized images of Senju Kannon a way to accrue spiritual merit, lineage of Amoghavajra (705– period, the Fujiwara aristocratic
instantiate this bodhisattva’s donors may have wished not only 774). The latter had brought clan especially favored these
boundless presence. In the late to preserve the nation but also esoteric Buddhism from India to forms of Kannon.162 These
Heian period, many multiple- to circumvent an unfortunate China, which Kukai mastered; three expressions of the deity
image halls were established, rebirth for themselves.159 he returned to his native Japan also belong to what was once

a common image set in Japan from Sho Kannon, reminding
known as the Six Kannon. This us that Japanese sculptors
configuration first appeared in made astonishingly beautiful
Chinese texts in the 6th century works like this for spiritual
and flourished in Japan from contemplation and practice.
the 10th to the 18th century. We might easily overlook their
The Shingon school of esoteric original function when viewing
Buddhism venerated the Six Fig. 23: Phoenix Hall, Byodoin, Uji, Kyoto them within the bare white walls
Kannon, and the Daihoonji Prefecture, Japan, 1053. of a museum.
treasure hall in Kyoto preserves
a rare intact example of this gesture (S: vitarka mudra). The Pure Land Buddhism, perhaps
iconography, which also includes Fig. 22: Sho Kannon, the Bodhisattva of style of this sculpture follows even more than esotericism,
Bato (S: Hayagriva; Horse- Compassion, Saichi (dates unknown), Japan, medieval Chinese precedents was a response to the sense of
headed Avalokiteshvara); Juntei Kamakura period, dated 1269; gilt bronze, in the extremely tall topknot, crisis in the late Heian period.
(S: Cundi; Buddha-Mother); and cast from piece molds; overall (height of rounded body, and exquisite Although Japanese Zen is more
figure): 19 13/16 in., overall (height to hairline): craftsmanship. In the figure’s famous in the West, Pure Land
Nyoirin (S: Chintamanichakra 15 1/16 in.; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,
Avalokiteshvara; Jewel-holding clothing, naturalistic forms, Buddhism dominated medieval
William Sturgis Bigelow Collection, 11.11447.
Wheel-turning Lord of the and self-contained serenity, the Japan and remains to this day
World) (cat. 12).163 power to beings in each of work also reveals the influence one of the strongest strains of
samsara’s six realms.165 of international Buddhist styles the religion in that country.
In the Six Kannon set, each of that had circulated in East Asia Amitabha (J: Amida) worship in
the manifestations ministers to A gilt-bronze statue of Sho for many centuries. fact succeeded in transforming
a different category of suffering Kannon shows the importance Buddhism from an elite to
beings in samsara. Sho offers of Sanskrit syllables in esoteric Clues to Sho Kannon’s esoteric popular religion in Japan.167
succor to beings in hell,164 art (fig. 22). A product of the significance reside in the
Senju rescues hungry ghosts, revival of cast metal sculpture exquisite reticulated mandorla Honen (1133–1212) and his
Juichimen saves the jealous in the Kamakura period, it is behind the figure. This full-body, disciple Shinran (1173–1263)
demigods, Bato looks after dated 1270 and inscribed with pierced halo contains suspended were founders of the most
animals, Juntei cares for humans, the artist’s name, Saichi. This discs—as if floating in midair— popular branches of Pure
and Nyoirin liberates the gods. sculpture depicts Sho Kannon with the repeated Sanskrit letter Land Buddhism in Japan (J:
These six manifestations also seated in lotus posture, absorbed “sa.” This “seed syllable” (S: bija; J: Jodoshu and Jodoshinshu); they
correlate with Avalokiteshvara’s in meditation. The bodhisattva shittan) contains the entirety of prescribed invoking Amida’s
six-syllable Sanskrit mantra, om firmly holds a lotus in the left Sho Kannon’s identity, according name (C: nianfo; J: nenbutsu) as
mani padme hum. Each syllable, hand, while raising the right to Shingon precepts.166 The the primary—indeed the only
when uttered, sends liberating in a variation of the teaching sacred syllables seem to radiate effective—Buddhist practice in

degenerate times. As mentioned devotees who aspire to rebirth in pedestal to a worthy deceased Korea and Japan than in China;
above, nenbutsu offered salvation this buddha’s Land of Bliss. (fig. 24).170 Kannon became so Korean painters produced
in Amida’s Pure Land. This important as a Raigo figure especially beautiful examples,
belief took concrete form at the Such imagery appeared in that the bodhisattva sometimes such as the 14th-century work
Phoenix Hall, Byodoin, in the a variety of settings. Seckel appears alone, as in the scroll in fig. 25. An Edo-period scroll
city of Uji, Kyoto Prefecture. describes how a Raigo picture in cat. 13. This iconography depicting Kannon in this
Built in 1053 as a re-creation or screen “was placed near demonstrates a faith that exhibition (cat. 16) reveals that
of Amida’s Western Paradise, the death-bed of a believer, death is not a dolorous end, such elegant Korean paintings
Byodoin houses the sculptor so that he could turn to it in but a glorious beginning, and provided long-lasting, influential
Jocho’s monumental sculpture faith during his last moments. that Kannon is a guide for the models for Japanese painters.
of Amida sitting in meditation Long threads were [sometimes] faithful to the Pure Land.
attached to the hands of the The White-robed Kannon,
posture on a high platform; the
Buddha figure and were held by As in the Chinese Chan however, was the form of
visitor can see his serene head
the dying individual. This put tradition, Avalokiteshvara also the bodhisattva most closely
from the outside through a
him in direct magical contact plays a part in Japanese Zen, associated with the Zen
round window (fig. 23). Paintings
with the saving power of the which firmly established itself in tradition. According to some
and sculptures that depict the
Buddha.” Ritualized descents Japan during the 13th and 14th scholars, Japanese works of
Welcoming Descent (J: Raigo)
were also staged and are still centuries. Hundreds of works
decorate the Phoenix Hall.
performed today in Japan. associated with this school, both
Although Chinese artists “Masked priests and laymen ... imported Chinese paintings as
conceived of the Welcoming acted as Bodhisattvas, while well as those executed in Japan,
Descent theme—evident in Amitabha ... was represented survive from this period, many
the lower register of the Taima by a cult image carried in the of them depicting Kannon.171
Mandala (fig. 16)—independent procession.”169
As in China, the Japanese
depictions of the Raigo
In this tradition, Kannon is the adopted the Water-Moon form
represent an important Japanese
lead bodhisattva who offers of Avalokiteshvara as a symbol
contribution to Pure Land
the expired devotee a lotus of meditative absorption. As
imagery. According to ten
pedestal to escort him or her early as the 9th century, this
Grotenhuis, the Raigo is one
to Sukhavati. Kannon, along manifestation of Guanyin
of the most popular themes
with the bodhisattva Daiseishi attracted the interest of Japanese
in Japanese Buddhist art.168
(S: Mahastamaprapta), appears monks traveling in China, and
Amida’s retinue consists of a Fig. 24: Kannon Holding a Lotus Seat, Japan,
as attendant to Amida in they brought back examples
joyous multitude of bodhisattvas Edo period, traditionally attributed to the
sculptural triads, graciously to their country.172 The Water-
playing music and dancing 13th century but probably 17th century; wood
bowing to present the lotus Moon form persisted longer in with gilt lacquer; object: H. 11 1/4 in., base: 1
as they come to greet dying
15/16 x 4 15/16 x 4 15/16 in.; Yale University Art
Gallery, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. William B. Jaffe,
1968.104.3.

this type were ubiquitous, Kannon’s contemplation while settings. Called Fudarakusan culminates the older and much
often hanging in Zen monastic sitting on Potakala’s rocky cliffs. in Japan, Kannon’s legendary shorter Kumano pilgrimage
dormitories.173 With Chinese The White-robed Kannon of the island became associated with route that combines indigenous
works like Muqi’s famous Muromachi period (1336–1573) several important pilgrimage and Buddhist worship. At
White-robed Guanyin in Kyoto, attributed to Shugen (fl. destinations on the archipelago. Nachi, temple names, such as
artists of the Zen school had 1469–1521) demonstrates the One of the most famous is the Fudarakusanji, explicitly evoke
excellent continental models evocative use of negative space in Nachi Shrine in Wakayama the place where the pilgrim
for firsthand study. They such imagery (cat. 10). Prefecture on the southern tip of Zenzai Doji (S: Sudhana) of the
adopted the Chinese approach Kii Peninsula (cat. 18). Although Gandaravyuha Sutra encounters
to rendering Avalokiteshvara in Despite the appearance of
many features of the site evoke the wise bodhisattva.
monochrome ink painting rather spontaneity, artists like
Kannon’s paradise, Nachi is not Seigantoji—officially the
than using opaque colored Shugen were actually following
Potalaka per se but the eastern first station of the Saigoku
pigments; they applied the ink a well-developed Chinese
gateway to a mythical island that pilgrimage—houses an icon of
fluidly with a flexible brush. This tradition, which is evident
lies beyond its shores; literary Nyoirin Kannon (compare cat.
endows many Japanese paintings by comparing cats. 8 and 10.
sources describe boats leaving 12). But the site’s most dramatic
of the White-robed Kannon And not all presentations
for Fudarakusan at the hour of feature is part of the natural
with a sense of spontaneity and of this iconography were so
death.175 setting: the almost 450 feet tall
calligraphic flourish. Gestural spare and abbreviated; cat. 9
Nachi Falls, sacred in and of
application of ink was by no shows a much more elaborated Nachi also drew pilgrims with itself. For hundreds of years,
means limited to the Chan/Zen and fully realized figure and “this-worldly” aspirations, visitors have perceived deities
school, however. As Shimizu setting, executed in disciplined, especially women who sought in the falls—both indigenous
points out, “The rise of ink finely rendered brushstrokes. Kannon’s help in marriage and and Buddhist (specifically the
painting of Kuan-yin ... was Despite differences in style childbearing. Some pilgrimage Thousand-armed Kannon).
greatly influenced by the art of and composition, however, sites in Japan in fact would Increasingly popular from the
ink landscape painting in China, the characteristic features of forbid women from entering Edo period (1615–1868) onward,
which, by Mu-ch’i’s time, had the white-robed form remain the sacred precincts. Nachi the Saigoku pilgrimage still
undergone nearly 300 years of the same: Guanyin/Kannon Pilgrimage Mandala (cat. 18) inspires thousands of Japanese—
vigorous development.”174 in a paradisial environment— shows many women, however, and now foreign—pilgrims to
Potalaka—engaged in deep revealing that it was unusually follow the route that Kannon’s
Japanese works often boldly contemplation, the model sage female-friendly in the 16th–17th devotees have traversed for
incorporate these preexisting absorbed in meditation. century.176 centuries.177
Chinese traditions. Artists
sometimes leave large areas of In Japan, as in China, Nachi is the first stop on the Moerman sums up the
the scroll unpainted, as if to Buddhists reproduced the thirty-three station Western importance of this pilgrimage
portray the expansive quality of bodhisattva’s special realm of Provinces pilgrimage route (J: destination: “As a primary site
Potalaka in numerous local Saigoku junrei) (cat. 19). It also

cultural center.”178 By locating quality Buddhist sculptures
and venerating Kannon in and paintings in the Himalayan
awe-inspiring landscape settings region.
already sanctified by indigenous
Several foundational
religious traditions, the
legends assert long-standing
Japanese people truly made the
Nepalese connections to
bodhisattva their own.
Fig. 26: Throwing Saffron-infused Water on
Indian Buddhism. Although
Svayambhu Stupa, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2006. Shakyamuni’s birthplace in
Lumbini was not considered
Avalokiteshvara in has for centuries produced part of Nepal during his lifetime,
the North exquisitely beautiful paintings his predecessor buddhas were
and sculptures, notably those thought to have visited the site
Nepal in cast metal (cat. 3). Nepalese of Svayambhu in the Kathmandu
During the 12th and 13th artists, especially those from the Valley. As a result, it is said that
Fig. 25: Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara, Korea, centuries, many Buddhist native Newar population, were a monumental stupa (reliquary
Goryeo dynasty, first half of the 14th century; refugees fled their devastated
hanging scroll, ink and color on silk; image: in high demand from at least mound) miraculously arose.
45 1/16 x 21 7/8 in., mount: 79 3/8 x 28 in.; The
communities in Northern the 7th century and traveled Stupas not only mark a site
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Charles Stewart India and settled in Nepal. But widely to execute commissions of a buddha’s relics but also
Smith Collection, Gift of Mrs. Charles Stewart Buddhism had flourished there throughout the greater symbolize his enlightened mind;
Smith, Charles Stewart Smith Jr., and Howard long before the Indian Buddhist Himalayan region. The impact the name Svayambhu in fact
Caswell Smith, in memory of Charles Stewart diaspora.179 An interface region
Smith, 1914, 14.76.6.
of Nepalese artistry, as we have conjures the “self-existent, self-
between the Indic subcontinent seen in fig. 2, was crucially created” primordial buddha.182
for the historical interaction of and the Tibetan plateau, Nepal important in Tibet, and many Svayambhu Stupa remains a
Buddhist and local traditions, occupied only the small region traders from Nepal established significant pilgrimage site,
for redefining the place of of the Kathmandu Valley up permanent establishments in not only for the Nepalese and
death and its conquest, for until the eighteenth century. the capital Lhasa.180 Nepalese Tibetans, but also for Buddhists
expressing the relationship Yet its artists have exercised artists also traveled far beyond from around the world. Fig.
between religious and political an influence far greater than the Himalayan region. The 26 shows a dramatic form of
authority, and for articulating its physical size would lead us renowned Anige (ca. 1245–1306) veneration at Svayambhu; the
the religious position of women, to expect. Protected by rugged produced works for Kublai worshipper applies saffron-
[this location] represented a mountains, but located at an Khan, the founder of the Yuan infused water to create honorific
landscape that, although at important intermediary point dynasty (1279–1368) in China.181 golden garlands on the stupa’s
the geographic margins of between the centers of Indian To this day, Nepalese artists dome.183 Such bodily engagement
society, was very much at its Buddhism and Tibet, Nepal make some of the highest with the architecture represents

a potent form of ritual and Kashmir influenced the painters Indian subjects, styles, and shading or shadows; deities
devotional practice. and sculptors in Nepal. Not techniques strongly impacted wearing sumptuous garments
surprisingly, given his popularity Nepalese paintings, such as and ornate jewelry; and bold
Nepal has long been a multi- in these nearby regions, the depiction of Amoghaphasa patches of color that form a
ethnic and religiously diverse Avalokiteshvara has been a in fig. 27. This type of work is rhythmic and harmonious—yet
country. Buddhism and favorite Nepalese subject from called a paubha and descends vivid—composition.187 In both
Brahmanism have coexisted the time of the Licchavi rulers from Indian paintings on cloth sculpture and painting, Nepalese
there for over two thousand (ca. 300–879), particularly in his (S: pata). According to Pal, “A artistic traditions are lavishly
years. Judging by the vast form as Padmapani Lokeshvara great variety of tantric images ... ornamental.
quantity of surviving Buddhist (cat. 3). Another important [have] been preserved in Nepali
manuscripts, the religion emanation in Nepal is the multi- art. The paubhas are certainly The Nepalese paubha in fig. 27
reached its zenith during armed Amoghapasha Lokeshvara the only surviving examples exemplifies these characteristics.
the Transitional Period (ca. (Lord of the Unfailing Noose) of a type of religious art that It shows the multi-armed tantric
879–1200). This period coincides (fig. 27). Amoghapasha’s was once much more prevalent Amoghapasha framed by a
with the flourishing of Pala iconography includes the same in India than the present decorative arch. The flat, densely
art in neighboring Bihar and figures who attend Khasarpana evidence indicates. Although packed composition includes a
Bengal, and Nepalese monks Lokeshvara (cat. 2)—Tara, there is much textual evidence dazzling array of finely painted
and scholars traveled to—and Bhrikuti, Sudhanakumara, and that ... Buddhists in India figures in small niches. As we
maintained close ties with—the Hayagriva. In this Nepalese employed paintings on cloth ... have seen in Pala sculpture
renowned Buddhist monasteries painting, however, he holds only in Nepal and Tibet have
there. However, a hereditary many attributes in addition examples of sufficient antiquity
caste of married priests presides to the familiar lotus: prayer survived to demonstrate
in Nepal rather than the beads, vase, manuscript, and what the Indian paintings
celibate clergy who governed trident. He also carries the rope must have looked like.”186
Buddhist monasteries in India. (S: pasha) that gives this form These Himalayan painting
Nepalese Buddhist priests of Avalokiteshvara his name. traditions, despite stylistic
officiate at rights of passage and Compassionately “lassoing” his differences from one period
important life events and also followers, who are wandering or context to another, exhibit
provide religious instruction helplessly in samsara, he leads certain features in common: an
and initiations into Vajrayana them to enlightenment. The emphasis on symbolic rather
meditations and techniques.184 Ashtamivrata is a popular form than naturalistic form; thrones
In addition to religious of Amoghapasha worship in and shrines that enhance the
traditions, artistic developments Nepal, which involves venerating majesty of the depicted deities;
Fig. 27: The Savior Amoghapasha
from Bengal, Bihar, and images of this deity.185 flat picture planes and crisply Avalokiteshvara, Nepal, Malla dynasty, late
outlined figures with little 13th–early 14th century; colors on cloth; 26 5/8
x 22 1/4 in.; Philadelphia Museum of Art, Gift of
Stella Kramrisch, 1977, 1977-253-1.

(cat. 2), small subsidiary figures counterparts, however, Newar in India and elsewhere, these Fig. 28: Bodhisattva
iconographic variants clearly Lokeshvara, Nepal,
accompany the hierarchically artists encrusted their sculptures
9th century;
scaled main deity. Similar to with semiprecious stones. In signal Avalokiteshvara’s ability copper alloy;
Indian manuscript painting addition, the “Nepali penchant to embody both wisdom and 9 5/16 x 2 in.;
(figs. 5, 10; cat. 20), the work for slender proportions, compassion. The Walters
has a vibrant and exquisitely restrained sensuousness in Art Museum,
Nepalese features in both works Baltimore,
detailed style, with a limited modeling, clean silhouettes,
include the thick, low-slung Promised gift of
but intensely saturated palette. and youthful faces with gentle John and Berthe
diagonal sash, the elongated
The painter applied rich reds expressions” subtly distinguishes Ford, F.165.
“sacred thread”—or consecrated
and golds, juxtaposed against this art from Indian models,
cord—that loops over it, and the
a deep blue background. according to Pal.188
prominent cascade of drapery
Amoghaphasa’s elegant, swaying
Highpoints of Nepalese folds that end in sharp points After the
stance and the slender, elongated
Buddhist art are standing between the legs. Both sculptures destruction
body suggest a distinctively
bodhisattvas with long, languid have lost the ubiquitous lotus of important
Nepalese inflection, as does the
bodies that exude preternatural stalk that would have risen from monasteries
scattering of flowers against
poise and balance. These the lowered hand to blossom and artistic
in the background. With his
works share Indian features in over the left shoulder. The earlier centers in Bihar
multiple arms, he is clearly
attributes, dress, and the triple- 9th-century sculpture has a and Bengal,
an esoteric manifestation of
bend pose. Not surprisingly, rather stiff bearing, but cat. 3 Nepalese artists
Avalokiteshvara who commands
Newar sculptors often portrayed expresses a perfect equipoise could no longer
the center of his mandala. All
Avalokiteshvara—especially in the bodhisattva’s image, turn to India for inspiration.
the other actors in his symbolic
in his manifestation as with his full and fleshly figure, Instead, the country’s main
universe emanate from his
Padmapani—and commonly convincingly three-dimensional artistic currents increasingly
dominant presence.
employed two main drapery, and animated stance. circulated within the Himalayan
Like Newar painters, sculptors iconographic traditions In addition, the lavish inlay region, especially in a symbiotic
looked to India, absorbing many involving the placement of the of gems (one of the earliest relationship with its neighbor
Gupta conventions (compare bodhisattva’s right hand. It examples of this kind of surface Tibet. As previously mentioned,
fig. 8) and Pala styles (cat. 2), either extends in varada mudra, treatment in Himalayan art) the two countries had closely
as well as Kashmiri influences. for example in fig. 28, which and the chased flower designs interacted from the time
They favored copper alloy as as we have seen, symbolically on the lower garment establish Buddhism first came to the
a material, which gives their bestows blessings, or rises in this as a masterpiece of Nepalese Himalayan region. Newari
works a soft reddish patina, vitarka mudra (cat. 3), which sculpture, a fully realized work artists went to Tibet as early
and they expertly fire gilded establishes the figure as a that expresses Avalokiteshvara’s as the 7th century to execute
their icons. Unlike their Indian teacher of dharma.189 Here, as inner and outer perfection.190 commissions, bringing Nepalese

traditions to that country. Yet a widely scattered population with an ogress (identified as the
from ca. 1100 to ca. 1300, Tibet who has long inhabited the deity Tara). From this union
often imported both religious “roof of the world.” Legends, came the Tibetans.194 Despite
and artistic ideas directly from pilgrimage sites, revered Buddhism’s lack of a creator god,
India. After its Indian sources images, carved stones, prayer in this legend, Avalokiteshvara
disappeared, however, it again wheels, and recitation practices generates the Tibetan people,
turned to nearby Nepal for all underscore his role as a a potent illustration of his
living models of Buddhist art supremely important focus of overwhelming importance to
and practices. Newari painting veneration (fig. 29). Important them.
styles influenced Tibetan visual Tibetan religious leaders, such Fig. 29: Mani Stone and Prayer Wheels,
traditions for many centuries as the Dalai Lamas and the Other Tibetan legends abound
Tibet, 2006.
(compare cats. 6 and 24 with fig. successive heads of the Karma concerning Avalokiteshvara.
27). But eventually, Tibet came Kagyu lineage, the Gyalwang the one who ‘continually looks According to the text just
into its own as a fountainhead of Karmapas, are considered his upon all beings with the eye of mentioned, Amitabha Buddha
Buddhism for its neighbors, and emanations (fig. 30).192 compassion.’”193 His very name gave birth to Avalokiteshvara
Nepalese pilgrims then often assures his followers that he will in a burst of light. Therefore,
traveled north instead of south Tibetans invoke Avalokiteshvara never turn his gaze away from their relationship resembles that
to visit important monasteries as Supreme Compassion their sufferings; therefore, they of father and son. This same
and other sites. When they (T: Thukje Chenpo, S: can supplicate him at any time tradition credits Avalokiteshvara
returned, they carried Tibetan- Mahakarunika), or Chenrezig. and in any situation. Tibetans with engendering other
style works along with them, The latter preserves the Indic have been doing so for 1400 bodhisattva offspring. As
which in turn influenced notion of one who primarily years. recounted by Bokar Rinpoche,
Nepalese artists.191 Among the sees, rather than hears, the when Avalokiteshvara
sufferings of the world. The According to a Tibetan legend “later looked at beings with
many deep affinities the two recorded in the Mani Kabum,
Himalayan cultures shared was word Chenrezig in fact suggests compassion, he saw that ... their
intensified temporal duration Shakyamuni Buddha himself sufferings were innumerable ...
a deep and abiding reverence for gave Avalokiteshvara the task
Avalokiteshvara. in his act of compassionate and a tear dropped from each of
seeing. According to the Tibetan of teaching dharma in that his eyes.” From the bodhisattva’s
teacher Bokar Rinpoche, “his country. But since no humans tears, two female deities were
Tibet name expresses his nature; lived in the “snowy domain to born: Green Tara from the right
No country has a greater alliance each syllable that composes the north” during Shakyamuni’s eye (fig. 5); White Tara from the
with Avalokiteshvara than Tibet; it in Tibetan has a meaning: time, Avalokiteshvara had to left (cat. 29).195
the bodhisattva informs the chen means eye; re gives the first generate people to train in
very identity of Tibetan people, idea of continuity; zig means Buddhist doctrine. In the form Tibetan tradition holds that
serving as a “patron saint” for to look. Therefore Chenrezig is of a divine monkey, he mated Buddhism came to the country

as early as the 4th century and such as Kapstein, assert that of Avalokiteśvara directed
gained greater prominence the bodhisattva did not have Tibetans to find the bodhisattva
during the imperial era of much impact in Tibet until of Supreme Compassion within
King Songtsen Gampo (ca. the 11th century.197 Legendary themselves and in all others
617–49). He apparently began accounts, such as those recorded as well.... Avalokiteśvara ... is
patronizing the religion as the in the Mani Kabum, hold that regarded as the basis for love,
result of his marriages to two Songtsen Gampo adopted kindness, and nurturing among
Buddhist princesses, one from Avalokiteshvara as a tutelary all creatures, but at the same
China, Wencheng (d. 680), and deity and was even considered time he is none other than the
the other, Bhrikuti, from Nepal. an emanation of the bodhisattva creative power of mind, whose
These strategic marital alliances himself. Antagonistic forces infinite potentialities for self-
resulted in the establishment of suppressed Buddhism for several actualization constitute the very
important Buddhist religious centuries, but during its second basis for creation itself.”199 Again,
buildings, such as the Great transmission, Atisha (982–1054), as we have seen in other parts
Temple of Lhasa (T: Jokhang). an important Indian teacher of the Asian Buddhist world,
Because of the predominant who came to Tibet in 1042, Tibetans view Avalokiteshvara
role of scripture in the Buddhist promulgated the veneration of as exemplifying the core values
faith, Songtsen Gampo also Fig. 30: The Ninth Karmapa, Wangchuk Dorje Avalokiteshvara. He especially of Mahayana Buddhism.
is said to have commissioned (1555–1603), Tibet, encouraged the practice of the
a system of writing based on four-armed Avalokiteshvara and In keeping with
Indian models. Previously, the As with Avalokiteshvara’s the repetition of om mani padme Avalokiteshvara’s elevated
Tibetans, like the Japanese, did appearance in India, scholars hum (see cats. 5 and 24–27). position, many of his early
not have a written language. As debate the issue of when the Perfectly expressing Mahayana depictions in Tibet have
with their Chinese counterparts, bodhisattva gained importance Buddhism’s emphasis on legendary status. Among the
Tibetan scholars avidly collected in Tibet. Snellgrove posits that compassion—and the tantric use most renowned are in the
Indian Buddhist teachings and in that country, as elsewhere in of visualization and mantra— capital, Lhasa: the Eleven-
translated them into their own Asia, “his missionary value was this is still the most commonly
language before and after the certainly considerable.” He notes performed spiritual practice in
dharma’s disappearance from that the Karandavyuha Sutra that country today.198 It persists,
India. By the 11th century, entered the Tibetan canon at no doubt, because Tibetans view
tantric Buddhism had become a an early date and feels that this Avalokiteshvara as an especially
predominant mode of religious encouraged Avalokiteshvara’s potent embodiment of wisdom
practice in Tibet, a situation veneration during the imperial and compassion. According
that persists to this day.196 period (ca. 620–842); others, to Kapstein, “Atiśa’s teaching
Fig. 31: Pilgrims Prostrating at the

Jokhang, Lhasa, Tibet, 2006.

headed Mahakarunika in the emanations: King Songtsen the Kathmandu valley. Phagpa
Jokhang, and Phagpa Lokeshvara Gampo and the 5th Dalai Lama, Lokeshvara found his way to the
(Noble Lord of the World) in the Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso Potala, where the approximately
Potala Palace. The most sacred (1617–82). The Potala’s genesis three-foot tall sculpture now
site in Lhasa—and an intense goes back to the king’s imperial wears heavy brocades and ornate
focus of Tibetan pilgrimage— reign, although the 5th Dalai jewelry. Tibetans consider this
the Jokhang (fig. 31) houses an Lama’s 17th-century expansion icon one of the most sacred in
Fig. 32: Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, 1940s;
immensely important object, a largely defines its current the Potala, indeed in all of Lhasa.
Jacques Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art,
statue of Shakyamuni Buddha 2012i2212. form. From Ngawang Lobsang This august lineage accounts for
called Jowo, purportedly Gyatso’s time until the Chinese the small ivory statue’s unusual
inserted into the reconstructed
brought as part of Wencheng’s government’s annexation of iconography in cat. 14. 202
image. 201
dowry. In the north wing Tibet in the 1950s, it was the
near Jowo is the Chapel of successive Dalai Lamas’ center In addition to these legendary
Across the city, the Potala
Mahakarunika, covered by of religious and administrative objects associated with
Palace towers over Lhasa (fig.
one of the temple’s four golden authority; many chapels and Songtsen Gampo’s royal
32). Its name links the building
roofs. Inside, a large statue of sacred precincts exist within its patronage, countless lay and
with the bodhisattva’s sacred
Mahakarunika with eleven massive domain. monastic Tibetan Buddhists
abode on the island of Mount
brightly painted heads and a have commissioned images
Potalaka. As with Mount Putuo
mandorla of a thousand arms The Phagpa Lokeshvara chapel of Avalokiteshvara in many
in China and Fudarakusanji in
is said to have self-manifested is in the oldest and most iconographic forms throughout
Japan, this name transfers the
during the lifetime of Songtsen revered section of the Potala the centuries. Those who
spiritual potency of a faraway,
Gampo (see cat. 15). 200 According Palace, thought to date back produce such works—generally
mythic pilgrimage spot to a
to a miracle tale, Songtsen to Songtsen Gampo’s time. not monks but pious laymen—
locally accessible site. Such
Gampo and his two foreign This chapel contains a carved usually learn their trade as
transformations not only make
queens, on approaching the red sandalwood image of a hereditary occupation.
pilgrimage more convenient
image, were transformed into Arya (Noble) Avalokiteshvara, However, a few great Tibetan
but also transmit the authority
light and absorbed into it. believed to be one of four religious leaders, such as the
of a legendary place to another
Although the icon was destroyed discovered in Nepal during the Tenth Karmapa Choying Dorje
significant location. Here,
during the Cultural Revolution, 7th century, when a sandalwood (1604–74) and the Eighth
the bodhisattva’s connection
Tibetans still venerate the tree split open and four Situ Panchen Chokyi Jungne
to this important building is
modern replica now in the “brother” statues of the deity (1700–74), were extraordinary
especially apt, because the Potala
Jokhang because a nun secretly miraculously appeared. Two artists. Significantly, Choying
once housed two of Tibet’s
preserved a fragment of the of them stayed in Nepal and Dorje specialized in depictions
most important rulers, both
original statue, which was later are among the most important of Avalokiteshvara. Situ
thought to be Avalokiteshvara’s
icons of Avalokiteshvara in Panchen commissioned a set of

the Eight Great Bodhisattvas; Patrons commission paintings diagrams specific to each
this iconography inspired the and sculptures depicting deity, derived from medieval
painting in cat. 4. 203 Avalokiteshvara to accrue merit, Indian texts. Traditionally,
inspire religious activities, and pigments are almost entirely
Tibetan makers render clarify tantric visualizations. of mineral extraction; black
Avalokiteshvara’s image in Tibetan teachers (T: lamas) comes from carbonized wood
diverse formats and many media. also use such art to educate or graphite. Not completed
They execute elaborate paintings audiences about the buddhas until the “opening of the
(T: thangkas) in mineral and bodhisattvas. 205 eyes,” the thangka undergoes a
pigments on cloth supports. consecration ritual in which the
Mounted on silk brocades, these Thangkas are painted on cotton, painter’s final strokes fill in the
works hang in homes or temples linen, or hemp, often giving pupils of the deity, while ritual
(cats. 4, 6, and 24). Sculptors the work a rough texture. specialists recite invocations
also etch designs on living rock After preparing the support, and prayers. This activates the
at sacred sites (fig. 29). David the painter sketches a detailed icon’s blessings, and the thangka
and Janice Jackson describe the drawing based on canonical becomes a proper object of
impetus for creating such works: contemplation and veneration. 206
Fig. 34: Thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara,
Main Temple, Pelkhor Chode Monastery,
Painting (along with sculpture) Gyantse, Tibet, 2013.
was crucial to the religious life of As we have seen, Tibetan
Tibet because it was a medium painters first turned for in rows above and below
through which the highest ideals of inspiration to India and (compare cat. 2). White in
Buddhism were evoked and brought Nepal—and to a lesser color, adorned with typical
alive. A sacred painting was for the extent, neighboring Buddhist bodhisattva ornaments and
Tibetan a ”physical support”—in lands to the north and east. attributes, Avalokiteshvara here
other words an embodiment—of Scholars believe that early prominently displays his Indian
enlightenment.... [But] the sacred Tibetan thangkas, such as heritage in a Tibetan context.
image was not meant to be the the magnificent Shadakshari Later, when Nepalese painting
object of simple idolatry. For Lokeshvara in the Walters Art exerted a greater influence on
knowledgeable Buddhists the image Museum (fig. 33), show Indic— Tibetan styles, smaller figures
of an Enlightened One embodied the and specifically Pala—influences in niches replaced the more
realization of potentialities that lay in the monumental central monumental Indian forms
latent in every sentient creature. figure and the two symmetrical (compare fig. 27 with cats. 6 and
The ultimate responsibility for attendants flanking him, with 24).
Fig. 33: Shadakshari Triad and Other Deities,
gaining that realization rested on smaller buddhas, bodhisattvas,
Tibet, early 12th century; pigment on cotton;
the shoulders of each individual.204 34 x 29 3/8 in.; The Walters Art Museum, and other subsidiary figures
Baltimore, Promised gift of John and Berthe
Ford, F.120.

A stylistic revolution began universe—the Pure Land of the appearance. But renewing the Supreme Compassion; the array
in Tibetan painting during Buddhist vision—of which we paint surface gives artists and of arms, golden countenance,
the 15th century. The Yongle become a welcome and intimate donors an opportunity to make and composed, serene gaze
emperor (1360–1424) of part.”208 Of course, these changes a devotional offering. Before all suggest overwhelming, but
Ming China—a practitioner were not monolithic; as Tibetan consecration, a lama typically benign, power.
and patron of Tibetan painting evolved, distinctive fills the hollow statues with
Buddhism—commissioned regional styles developed, rolled mantras, gems, sacred ash, The predominant form of
many masterpieces of Chinese especially in areas far from and other sanctified materials Avalokiteshvara in Tibet is
Buddhist art, which he gave as centralized authority in Lhasa. 209 to increase the icon’s efficacy. 211 the four-armed Shadakshari
gifts to his Tibetan teachers. 207 Smaller sacred figures appear Lokeshvara (cats. 5, 24, and
The superb quality of these Tibetan sculpture’s stylistic on home altars (cats. 28–30); 30). As we have seen, this form
Chinese works astonished and iconographic development dense arrays of buddhas and personifies the bodhisattva’s
the recipients and the artists follows a similar trajectory to bodhisattvas in all sizes and six-syllable mantra, om mani
they patronized, and within that of painting: initial reliance diverse media are assembled in padme hum (often referred to
a few generations, Tibetan on Indic models and then later, grand temple settings (fig. 1). as the mani mantra). Although
makers absorbed many Chinese more diverse syntheses. 210 Tibet many scholars have tried to parse
influences, which transformed sculptors use many materials: Some of these works are truly the meaning of this utterance,
their paintings. Instead of Indic cast metals, carved wood and monumental, usually painted, Tibetans generally are more
reds and oranges, a blue and ivory, or molded clay. Lost wax gilded, and adorned with rich interested in what it does rather
green palette derived from the casting predominates for works fabrics. Temple icons serve as than what it means. 213 They
Chinese landscape painting executed in metal, a technique intense foci for worship and have established a functional
tradition began to predominate. used for the Tibetan sculptures offerings, which consist of silk correspondence between the
In these later Tibetan works, in this exhibition. Since the scarfs, lamps, flowers, bowls of six syllables and purification
such as cat. 4, painters 16th century, sculptors often water, and of course, money. of the six realms of samsara.
rendered Avalokiteshvara more ornament their statues in a In a 15th-century temple at Seated in a temple or in front
naturalistically and placed process called “cold gold.” In Pelkhor Chode monastery of a home shrine, practitioners
him within an idealized yet contrast to “fire gilding,” they in Gyantse,212 the visitor chant a Tibetan liturgy while
believable setting. As Rhie apply gold pigment to the encounters powerful icons, visualizing as clearly as possible
writes, “The resulting compatibly figures’ faces without the use of such as a huge Thousand-armed the distinct iconographic
integrated deity and landscape heat. In addition, they typically Avalokiteshvara, accompanied features of Avalokiteshvara’s
readily draw the viewer into paint the deities’ hair blue or by his wrathful counterpart, the posture, clothing, ornaments,
their world, into a sublime red. The resulting surfaces are fierce protector Mahakala (fig. and attributes. At a key point
and uplifting unity with what fragile and require periodic 34). Towering over the visitor, in the practice, they recite om
seems to be the perfected repainting; this sometimes this cast metal Mahakarunika mani padme hum. Using prayer
obscures the work’s original evokes the bodhisattva as beads (cat. 27), adepts keep track

of their mantra accumulations, of consummate spirituality Tibetans still often use their
which for especially ambitious and the creative ground of the prayer beads during daily
aspirants, can number into universe, might be found within activities.
the millions. During mantra each and every individual and
recitation, the meditator ideally is none other than the mind The prayer wheel is an ingenious
maintains the bodhisattva itself.” 216 device that intensifies the
aspiration to purify all beings impact of reciting the mani
without exception in each Such compassion practices can mantra. These instruments range
realm: those of hell beings, also occur outside the context from single large wheels housed
hungry ghosts, animals, humans, of formal seated meditation, in in special buildings, to medium-
demigods, and gods. 214 the midst of an active life. While sized cylinders installed in rows
engaging in daily tasks, many along the sides of a temple and
Tibetans imagine these six Tibetans use their prayer beads turned while circumambulating
realms of samsara as a Wheel with one hand (while as modern, its perimeter (fig. 29), to small
of Life, or Wheel of Becoming globalized citizens, they may hand-held devices used while
(fig. 35). Such compositions be holding a cell phone in the walking or engaging in other
typically appear as large murals other!). They recite Chenrezig’s activities (fig. 41, cat. 26). Made
outside the entrance to a mantra throughout the day, of metal, wood, or hide, and
Tibetan temple. There the fierce, Fig. 35: The Wheel of Becoming, Tibet, 19 th
and—expert at multitasking— decorated with the mani mantra
three-eyed God of Death holds century; pigment on cloth; 31 1/4 x 22 3/4; The still manage to move a bead and other significant symbols,
the Wheel of Life and confronts Rubin Museum of Art, New York, C2004.21.1. with each repetition. Mantra these objects play a unique role
the viewer with a key fact of recitation accompanies for Avalokiteshvara’s Tibetan
cyclic existence: that unvirtuous to liberate that particular class pilgrimage, circumambulation, followers.
actions condemn beings to of beings. In the Shadakshari and prostration (fig. 31) while the
transmigrate endlessly from one Lokeshvara practice, each of the practitioner imagines moving One of Buddhism’s powerful
rebirth to the next. Depending six syllables of the mani mantra through a landscape transformed metaphors is the idea of
on their past actions (S: karma), corresponds to one of these into Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual turning the wheel of dharma,
they are born into one of the domains. It is therefore a special domain. As people living in as Shakyamuni did when he
six realms, each with its own sonic vehicle for liberating the 21st century, Tibetans no delivered his teaching on the
characteristic torments, such as all beings—including the doubt increasingly feel the Four Noble Truths at Sarnath.
broiling fires or unquenchable practitioner—wherever they are effects of modernization, which The prayer wheel allows
thirst. 215 But the situation is not on samsara’s wheel. As Kapstein often brings materialism and the practitioner to engage
hopeless, because in each realm, writes, such a practice “affirms secularization in its wake. Yet, physically in this turning, with
a buddha appears whose special that, in the final analysis, a visitor to this country cannot the ultimate aim of gaining a
mission is to teach the methods Avalokiteśvara, the embodiment help but notice that even urban buddha’s realization. The prayer

wheel has a legendary lineage Theoretically, this multiplies the order to realize more efficiently
in the annals of Buddhism, benefits exponentially. As stated the ultimate goal of the practice:
which date its appearance to in a Tibetan text, The Benefits to recognize one’s inherent
the time of the Indian scholar, of the Mani Wheel, “Turning it potential for buddhahood, and
philosopher, and yogi Nagarjuna one hundred thousand times, to use that recognition to help
(ca. 2nd century). 217 There is one is reborn in the retinue of others attain the same state.
also historical evidence that the Avalokiteshvara.” 220 The use of As Ladner explains: “What
prayer wheel may have evolved prayer wheels in the veneration is important to understand
from revolving bookcases in of Avalokiteshvara underscores here is that a mantra is not
medieval Indian or Chinese the crucial role that objects play like a prayer to a divine being.
monastic centers. These storage on the bodhisattva path to full Rather, the mantra—whether
units housed the Prajnaparamita awakening. recited, written, or spun—is Fig. 37: Padmapani in Niche, Mahabodhi
(cat. 20) and other sutras; the deity, is enlightenment, Temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar, India, 2013.
ritually turning them was a form Although some outsiders immediately manifest. As the
have looked askance at the renowned Tibetan teacher thousands of exiled Tibetans
of worship and veneration. 218
technological enhancement Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche says, have carried Avalokiteshvara’s
Not only do these devices of mantra accumulation,221 ‘there is no difference between traditions to new lands, first
involve bodily engagement with Tibetans themselves welcome the deity himself and the to India, and then throughout
the mental and verbal process such skillful innovations in mantra which is his essence.’” 222 the world. This is certainly
of mantra recitation, but from Reciting Avalokiteshvara’s true in the most significant
practitioner’s point of view, they mantra therefore actualizes the Tibetan expatriate community,
magnify the mantra’s effects. bodhisattva’s qualities, inherent Dharamsala, India, the seat of
This is because around the in every being. the Tibetan government in exile
central shaft—or “life-tree”—of and home to the Dalai Lama’s
the wheel, are many iterations To this end, Tibetans endow Namgyal Monastery. Pilgrims
of the mani mantra inscribed their landscapes with reminders and local residents, who believe
on tightly wound rolls of paper. of Avalokiteshvara’s mantra, that the spiritual leader of
Each wheel therefore can contain and in the process, sanctify the Tibetan people embodies
thousands of mantras; today, their environment. Especially Avalokiteshvara himself,
technological miniaturization near temples or sacred sites, circumambulate this complex
expands that number into they construct walls of mani in a prescribed route lined with
the millions. 219 Every time stones, bringing the mantra mani stones, prayer wheels, and
the practitioner spins the into view for themselves and prayer flags. Wherever there
wheel, he generates the total everyone passing by (fig. 29). are Tibetans, so too Chenrezig
number of mantras it contains. In diaspora, hundreds of appears (fig. 36).
Fig. 36: Chenrezig, Norbulingka, Sidhbari,
India, 2007.

Avalokiteshvara Mahayana Buddhism goes, so about temple etiquette,
goes Avalokiteshvara. Many how to bow properly and
Today who have left East Asia to offer incense to the many
Three things in human life are settle elsewhere continue to reincarnated depictions
important. venerate the bodhisattva in their of Avalokiteshvara on the
The first is to be kind. immigrant communities. Back island.
The second is to be kind. in China, Guanyin’s miracles
And the third is to be kind. continue. Yu tells a moving Similarly in Japan, the
—Henry James 223 story about her grandmother’s Saigoku pilgrimage draws
strong faith in the bodhisattva. increasing numbers. 225
My religion is kindness. Different forms of Kannon
—Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Daily, she would offer incense
to a white porcelain statue of have arisen to serve Fig. 38: Chenrezig “Sand” Mandala,
Lama modern needs, such as Bokefuji
Songzi (Child-bearing) Guanyin, Houses of Commons, London, 2008.
The values of compassion and while chanting the Great Kannon, who prevents dementia
in the elderly, and Dobutsu Numerous temples line its street,
kindness do not belong to Compassion Dharani. Once, a
Kannon, the protector of pets. 226 and millions of devotees visit
Mahayana Buddhism alone; vision of Guanyin came to Yu’s
The bodhisattva even entered each year. Avalokiteshvara’s
the quote above from Henry grandmother, warning her not
the Japanese commercial sphere presence manifests there as well,
James—an Anglo-American to take a boat about to depart on
in the 1930s when the Canon in statuary (figs. 37, 39) and
novelist with no Buddhist the Yangtze River. Yu’s skeptical
Corporation announced a new in the numerous mani stones
affiliations—demonstrates mother reluctantly obeyed
product called Kwanon, Japan’s distributed throughout the
that fact. Throughout the the grandmother’s command
first 35mm camera. An image of temple precinct.
two thousand years of its not to board, letting the vessel
history, Mahayana Buddhism leave without the family. The the Thousand-armed Kannon
At the end of the 19th century—
has taken root in soil already boat sank shortly after leaving originally served as the company
and increasingly throughout the
prepared by indigenous port. 224 Guanyin’s sacred site, logo. 227
20th—Avalokiteshvara’s values
cultures and traditions. Today, Mount Putuo, lost all of its Efforts to reestablish Buddhism and practices made inroads into
the bodhisattva path extends temples and shrines during the in India began in 1950s; today, Western culture. The Japanese
far beyond Asia; its reach is Cultural Revolution. Today, pilgrimage sites sacred to scholar and Zen practitioner D.
truly global in our own time. reconstructed buildings contain Shakyamuni brim with activity, T. Suzuki moved to New York
Buddhism’s wise compassion newly made icons that draw especially at Mahabodhi temple City in 1951 and taught seminars
now resonates with well- millions of pilgrims to the island in Bodhgaya. From a sleepy at Columbia University;
established altruistic impulses each year. On the ferry from backwater in the mid-20th through Suzuki’s teachings
around the world. Shanghai to Putuoshan, a video century, Bodhgaya has become a and writings, Zen Buddhism
instructs 21st-century visitors hub of international Buddhism. influenced many poets, artists,
As we have seen, where

and musicians in America my heart lay at the heart of all Buddhist rituals associated with The Buddha is now familiar to
and Europe. Novelist, nature Creation.” Matthiesen credits Avalokiteshvara, previously most Westerners; his teachings
writer, and Zen practitioner the realization that arose from little known outside of Asia. have permeated Occidental
Peter Matthiessen (1927–2014) intoning the Kannon Sutra with One example is the kinetic art culture. Yet, leaving aside a
published The Snow Leopard in establishing an inner calmness. of the Tibetan “sand” mandala, relatively small number of
1978, a compelling account of his This peace sustained him which trained lamas make with Western Buddhist practitioners
journey to the Himalayas after throughout the process of his powdered mineral substances. 229 and scholars, most people
his wife’s death. Avalokiteshvara wife’s death. 228 Public demonstrations have outside of Asia still do not
pervades this deeply personal gained worldwide attention and recognize Avalokiteshvara’s
book; each section begins with In the 21st century, Westerners often accompany auspicious many names, manifold forms,
one of the Sanskrit characters are most likely to learn of events, such as a special teaching and what this bodhisattva
that make up the mantra om Mahayana Buddhist principles by the Dalai Lama. A Chenrezig means to his followers. May this
mani padme hum. In the course of compassion through the Dalai mandala was created at the publication—and the exhibition
of his arduous trek through Lama’s teachings and life story, British House of Commons that accompanies it—expand
the forbidding Nepalese range, especially since 1989, when he during one of the Tibetan awareness of this important
Matthiessen recalled his time at won the Nobel Peace Prize. leader’s visits to England in 2008 figure and illuminate all that his
a weekend Zen retreat when he Today, he and other important (fig. 38). With meticulous care, image embodies.
first realized that his wife would lamas, such as the head of the the mandala makers build up
never recover from cancer. The Karma Kagyu branch of Tibetan symbols of the deity and his
program involved chanting the Buddhism, the Gyalwang domain, only to brush them
Kannon Sutra, which the group Karmapa, give public talks away upon completion. This is
repeated many times in Japanese, on environmentalism, animal a potent demonstration of the
ending in a mighty shout. “And welfare, and human rights, Buddhist insight that all things,
on that morning, in the near as well as the fine points of however sacred and sublime, are
darkness—the altar candle Buddhist doctrine. Part of their impermanent. At the same time,
was the only light in the long international appeal no doubt Tibetan Buddhists believe that
room—in the dead hush, like the stems from this emphasis on Avalokiteshvara’s compassion
hush in these snow mountains, compassion in action. They profoundly benefits those
the silence swelled with the voice humane ideals that are fortunate enough to watch as
intake of my breath into a held dear in both the East and the mandala is being made, and
Presence of vast benevolence of the West, invoking compassion the scattered materials extend
which I was a part.... Wounds, as a way to address the world’s those blessings throughout the
ragged edges, hollow places were current problems. But they universe.
all gone, all had been healed; also have introduced the wider
world to powerful Tibetan

Notes to Essay
1 Burton Watson, trans., The Lotus Sutra See “Sources Cited” for a plethora of
(New York: Columbia University other publications.
Press, 1993), 303. 5 It goes without saying that the
2 See below for a discussion of boundaries of these national entities
Mahayana Buddhism’s genesis in India and what defined them as countries
and its later history and significance as fluctuated substantially over the
it spread throughout Asia. course of their histories. Referring to
their premodern status as “nations”
3 One of the most interesting of this
admittedly involves imprecision and
bodhisattva’s qualities is gender
generalization but—given the broad
fluidity. To avoid unwieldy phrasing,
historical range of this exhibi-
this essay will refer to the bodhisattva
tion—seems, to the present author,
as male unless one of the forms he/
unavoidable.
she takes is unambiguously feminine,
at least as determined by the present 6 Susan L. Huntington and John C.
author. As will be discussed below, Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi
gender indeterminacy is completely Tree: The Art of Pala India (8th–12th
appropriate to this protean figure. Centuries) and Its International Legacy
(Dayton: Dayton Art Institute; Seattle:
4 Of course, given Avalokiteshvara’s
University of Washington Press, 1990),
importance, many scholars have
106.
published important and illuminat-
ing studies on this bodhisattva. 7 Based on murals adorning the walls
The most comprehensive review of of a temple in Kathmandu, Benoytosh
Indian scriptures and images Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist
remains Marie-Thérèse de Mallmann, Iconography (Calcutta: Firma K. L.
Introduction à l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara Mukhopadhyay, 1968), 6, states that
(Paris: Civilisations du Sud, 1948). Avalokiteshvara’s distinct icono-
Chun-fang Yu, Kuan-yin: The Chinese graphic forms number at least 108.
Transformation of Avalokiteśvara 8 In the words of the Tenzin Gyatso,
(New York: Columbia University the 14th Dalai Lama, “According
Press, 2001), is an in-depth discussion to Buddhism, compassion is an
of Guanyin’s history and develop- aspiration, a state of mind, wanting
ment, with special attention to the others to be free from suffering. …
feminization of this bodhisattva. Genuine compassion must have both
There have also been lavish exhibitions wisdom and lovingkindness. That is to
abroad, such as Yu-min Lee, Visions say, one must understand the nature
of Compassion: Images of Kuan-yin in of suffering from which we wish to
Chinese Art (Taipei: National Palace free others (this is wisdom), and one
Museum, 2000) and Katharina must experience deep intimacy and
Epprecht, ed., Kannon: Divine empathy with other sentient beings
Compassion, Early Buddhist Art from (this is lovingkindness).” Essence of
Japan (Zurich: Museum Rietberg, the Heart Sutra, trans. Geshe Thupten
2007). But these books and exhibition Jinpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications,
catalogues have featured artworks 2002), 49.
from only a single national tradition.
Embodying Compassion 99

9 Kenneth Chen, Buddhism in China: A 14 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Gazetteers for the Study of Chinese from Mathura,” Artibus Asiae 47
Historical Survey (Princeton: Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v. “padma,” Buddhist History” (lecture, Columbia (1986): 107–42; Denise Patry Leidy,
University Press, 1964), 318–19; Robert 606-07. University, New York, December 13, The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction
E. Buswell, Jr., and Donald S. Lopez, 2013). to Its History and Meaning (Boston:
15 Christopher Wingfield, “Touching
Jr., eds., The Princeton Dictionary Shambhala, 2008), 35; and Schopen,
the Buddha: Encounters with a 20 Paul Harrison, “Searching for the
of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton “The Inscription on the Kuśan Image
Charismatic Object,” in Museum Origins of the Mahāyāna,” The Eastern
University Press, 2014), q.v. “Indrajala,” of Amitābha and the Character of the
Materialities: Objects, Engagements, Buddhist 28 (1995): 53.
372. Indra, a god from the ancient Early Mahāyāna in India,” in Figments
Interpretations, ed. Sandra H. Dudley
Indian Vedic scriptures, was incorpo- 21 One discussion of this issue is in and Fragments, 263.
(New York: Routledge, 2010), 65.
rated into the Buddhist pantheon and is Charles S. Prebish, “Cooking the
Thanks to Francesca Consagra for this 25 Studholme claims that many of
believed to reign in an exalted heavenly Books: The Implications of the New
reference. See also Donald S. Lopez, Avalokiteshvara’s characteristic
realm. Dating of the Buddha for the History
Jr., Prisoners of Shangri-la: Tibetan features derive from one of the three
of Early Indian Buddhism,” Journal of
10 Watson, Lotus Sutra, xv. Shunyata is a Buddhism and the West (Chicago: major Brahmanical gods, Shiva;
Buddhist Ethics 15 (2008): 1–21.
difficult word to translate and is often University of Chicago Press, 1998), further, he believes Avalokiteshvara’s
misunderstood. In fact, even within 152–53. Of course, this does not 22 Gregory Schopen argues that six-syllable mantra is an adaptation
Buddhism, there are many competing deny that Buddhists have complex Mahayana Buddhism was marginal in of a Shaivite sacred utterance, namo
interpretations, but in general, it is a systems of meaning associated with an India until the fifth century. He bases shivaya. Alexander Studholme, The
term that points to the nature of things artwork’s iconography. his position on the apparent lack of Origins of Om Manipadme Hūm: A
as interdependent and nondual. art and donative inscriptions that Study of the Kārandavyūha Sūtra
16 In Tibetan culture, for example, the
could be associated with Mahayana (Albany: State University of New York
11 Recent scholarship traces the origins ritual specialist fills the sculptures
beliefs before that period. Schopen, Press, 2002), 4–5. My thanks to Kurt
of this sutra to Central Asia instead of with rolls of mantras wrapped around
“The Mahāyāna and the Middle Behrendt for this reference.
India, and its dating is controversial. a wooden dowel, called the “life stick”
Period in Indian Buddhism: Through
Depending on the redaction, “Universal or “life tree,” that runs from crown 26 Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist
a Chinese Looking Glass,” in Figments
Gateway” is either the twenty-fourth to base. Incense and other sacred Iconography, 1; Behrendt, Tibet
and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism
or twenty-fifth chapter, and may have substances are added as well. The and India, 28–29; Huntington and
in India (Honolulu: University of
been a later addition to the original sculpture is sealed at the bottom, Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi Tree,
Hawai’i Press, 2005), 3–24. In contrast
compilation of the Lotus Sutra. See Yu, marked with a double thunderbolt 83.
to this epigraphic approach, Nandana
Kuan-yin, 8, n7. (S: vajra). Paintings are consecrated
Chutiwongs finds abundant examples 27 Mallmann puts the date in the 5th
with mantras inscribed on the back.
12 The inscription names the artist and of bodhisattva iconography—specifi- century; Chutiwongs argues that he
Consecration ceremonies cause the
the Tibetan lama honored by the com- cally, depictions of Avalokiteshvara— was worshipped in Northern India
deity to enter into and animate the
mission. Inscription trans. Amy Heller, in the earliest years of the Mahayana. no later than the 2nd century. As
image. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la,
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1994.004, Chutiwongs, “The Iconography of summarized in Yu, Kuan-yin, 7.
151-52; David P. Jackson and Janice
Asia Society Museum: The Collection in Avalokiteśvara in Mainland South East
A. Jackson, Tibetan Thangka Painting: 28 Mallmann, l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara,
Context, http://asiasocietymuseum.org/ Asia” (PhD diss., Rijksuniversiteit,
Methods and Materials (London: 59–82; Lokesh Chandra, The
region_object.asp?RegionID=2&Countr Leiden, 1984), 16–31.
Serindia Publications, 1984), 143. Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara (New
yID=6&ChapterID=14&ObjectID=499,
23 Huntington, Art of Ancient India, Delhi: IGNCA/Abhinav, 1988), 18–23;
accessed March 11, 2013. 17 Susan L. Huntington, with contribu-
123–24, argues for an early emergence Studholme, Origins of Om Manipadme
tions by John C. Huntington, The Art
13 The names of postures can vary, of such imagery. She cites an extensive Hūm, 52–58.
of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain
according to context. Art historians literature that debates the topic, 129,
(Boston: Weatherhill, 2001), xxvii. 29 In this debate, much depends on
often refer to this position as royal ease n4.
how one interprets the fine points of
(S: rajalilasana)—compare cat. 12—but 18 Kurt Behrendt, Tibet and
24 For example, ambiguity exists regard- Sanskrit grammar.
this essay follows John C. Huntington India: Buddhist Traditions and
ing the identity of many of the earliest
and Dina Bangdel, The Circle of Bliss: Transformations (New York: 30 Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la,
Buddhist sculptures from Gandhara
Buddhist Meditational Art (Columbus, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014), 114–34; Studholme, Origins of Om
and Mathura. See, for example,
Ohio: Columbus Museum of Art; 11. Manipadme Hūm, 116; Matthew T.
Prudence R. Myer, “Bodhisattvas
Chicago: Serindia Publications, 2003), Kapstein, Tibetan Buddhism: A Very
19 Marcus Bingenheimer, “A Landscape and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images
511, which names the posture lalitasana.
of Texts—On the Use of Temple

Short Introduction (New York: Oxford or “Lesser Vehicle,” in Sanskrit, are Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist 44 “It should be added, however, that
University Press, 2014), 58. now without a universally accepted Iconography, 11, finds evidence for [Amitabha] thus seen as an integral
name. Several terms have emerged Avalokiteshvara’s postponement of religious expression of the historical
31 Most scholars feel the Avalokiteshvara
to replace Hinayana because of its enlightenment in the Kavandavyuha Buddha is different from regarding
appeared, along with other important
pejorative connotations. Recently, Sutra. Buswell and Lopez, Princeton [him] as identical with the concept
bodhisattvas, at the beginning of the
scholars have referred to this early Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v. “bodhisat- of Buddhahood developed among
Common Era, but Bhattacharyya
vehicle as comprising “the mainstream tva,” 134, contradict this view, claiming the followers of early and sectar-
dates the “concept” of Avalokiteshvara
Buddhist schools.” Another popular that “the bodhisattva postpones ian Buddhism. For them there was
to the 3rd century BCE. The Indian
term is “Theravada” (“Way of the nothing, instead striving to achieve only one buddha, the historical
Buddhist Iconography, 143. By the time
Elders” in Pali—an ancient Indian buddhahood as quickly as possible.” Shakyamuni, present here and now.”
the Karandavyuha Sutra—a text totally
language that preserves many of the Fujita, “Pure Land Buddhism in India,”
devoted to Avalokiteshvara—was 40 Mayumi Kamata and Miranda E.
earliest Buddhist texts); this commonly 14–15.
translated into Chinese, it appears Shaw, “A New Identity: The Vow of a
describes the school of Buddhism long
that this bodhisattva was an Being Destined for Enlightenment,” 45 Translation from Sanskrit, Gomez,
practiced in Sri Lanka and Southeast
important and independent focus of in Huntington and Bangdel, Circle of Land of Bliss, 95.
Asia. But Theravada represents only
veneration. David Snellgrove, Indo- Bliss, 176.
one of the eighteen or more schools 46 According to Gomez, the emergence of
Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists
that existed during Buddhism’s early 41 Luis O. Gomez, The Land of Bliss: The a notion of buddhas and bodhisattvas
and Their Tibetan Successors (Bangkok:
years. Another often used alternative Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless as savior figures is one in which the
Orchid Press, 2004), 60, dates this
for Hinayana is “Nikaya,” (“group” Light (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i “general presuppositions of Buddhism
sutra to the 3rd century. Studholme,
or “collection” in Sanskrit and Pali), Press, 1996), 8-11. are redefined to include the possibility
Origins of Om Manipadme Hūm, 17,
which can refer to the early Buddhist of spiritual progress by reliance on the
reckons the date as late as the 4th or 42 Huntington and Huntington, Leaves
sects. For clarification of this spiritual power of the buddhas who
5th century. From the evidence of from the Bodhi Tree, 276; Behrendt,
problematic terminology, see relevant have already attained perfection and
inscriptions, Schopen assigns the rise Tibet and India, 34-36.
entries in Buswell and Lopez, Princeton have created a place where one can at-
of Avalokiteshvara’s popularity to no 43 Fujita Kotatsu, “Pure Land Buddhism
Dictionary of Buddhism. tain perfection with their assistance.”
earlier than the beginning of the 5th in India,” trans. Taitetsu Unno, in Gomez, Land of Bliss, 13.
century. “Inscription on the Kuśan 37 Briefly, they are the truth of suffering; The Pure Land Tradition: History and
Image,” 264. the truth of its origination; the truth 47 Harrison, “Searching for the Origins,”
Development, ed. James Foard, Michael
of its cessation; and the truth of the 61.
32 See Huntington, Art of Ancient India, Solomon, and Richard K. Payne
path to its cessation. (Berkeley: Berkeley Buddhist Studies 48 Gomez, Land of Bliss, 97.
20, fig. 2.12, for an illustration.
38 Although Harrison states, “I doubt Series, 1996), 9-10; Gomez, Land of
33 Huntington, Art of Ancient India, 37. 49 Fujita, “Pure Land Buddhism in India,”
that I or anyone else can say anything Bliss, xii. Western scholars in earlier
14.
34 Matthew T. Kapstein, ed., The Presence definite about the origins of the periods theorized that Amitabha’s
of Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Mahayana,” he does note that one worship originated in Persia and sub- 50 Exceptions are the bodhisat-
Experience (Chicago: University of of the earliest Mahayana texts, the sequently traveled along the Silk Road tvas dressed in heavy robes from the
Chicago Press, 2004), ix. Prajnaparamita Sutra, was translated to India; today, many find it plausible Gandhara region; see, for example,
into Chinese about 150 CE, giving that he evolved from indigenous Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya, ca. 3rd
35 See Janice Leoshko, Bodhgaya: The
strong evidence that such ideas were Indian conceptions. Gomez, Land of century, The Metropolitan Museum
Site of Enlightenment (Bombay:
circulating in India before that time. Bliss, 35–36. Another recent view is of Art, 1991.75. Alexander the Great’s
Marg Publications, 1988) and Kurt
“Searching for the Origins,” 55. But that a synthesis of Indian, Persian and forces conquered this region in
Behrendt, “Traces of Buddhist
Schopen asserts that “the history of Hellenistic beliefs in the first century 327 BCE, and Grecian-influenced
Pilgrimage in Ancient India,” in
Mahayana literature and the history CE gave rise to Amitabha. Venerable sculpture was produced there well
Pilgrimage: Sacred Landscapes and Self-
of the religious movement that bears Yifa and P.M. Romaskiewicz, “Sutra into the Common Era. However,
Organized Complexity, ed. John McKim
the same name are not necessarily the Introduction,” Amitabha Sutra: considerable debate swirls around the
Malville and Baidyanath Saraswati
same thing.” “Inscription on the Kuśan Translated from the Chinese Version identification of these figures. Kurt A.
(New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National
Image,” 269. of Kumarajiva (Rosemead, Calif.: Behrendt, The Art of Gandhara in the
Centre for the Arts, 2009), 142–62.
Buddha’s Light Publishing and Center Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York:
36 These early schools, dubbed by later 39 Some define a bodhisattva as one Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007),
for Sutra Translation and Research at
(sectarian) Mahayanists as “Hinayana,” who postpones full liberation 55, n13.
University of the West, 2007), 31–33.
until everyone reaches the same state.

51 If Harrison is right about the origins of skin draped over his shoulder, further mudra. Mallmann thinks that by 68 A dharani is a mnemonic device, or
the Mahayana, this may in fact capture complicating the task of identification. the 9th century, textual sources verbal formula, that encapsulates
something of the movement’s early See Leidy, Art of Buddhism, 286, fig. consistently identify the buddha on the meaning of an entire scripture.
aspirations to emulate Shakyamuni’s 14.6; Pratapaditya Pal, Himalayas: Avalokiteshvara’s crown as Amitabha. Practitioners repeat it in the same
renunciation and asceticism as the best An Aesthetic Adventure (Chicago: Art L’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara, 309. fashion as a mantra.
path to enlightenment. “Searching for Institute of Chicago, 2003), 26; and
64 For an illustration, see Leidy, Art of 69 The tantric Buddhist and Brahmanical
the Origins,” 63–69. Mallmann, l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara, 219.
Buddhism, 62, fig. 3.5. texts that began to appear in the 7th
52 Some scholars call this form a 57 The Brahmanical creator god Brahma, century codified the largely unre-
65 According to Ronald M. Davidson,
kamandalu or amrita kalasha; the latter for example, carries the lotus, as does corded practices of “yoga, medicine,
Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social
contains the celestial ambrosia of im- Surya, the sun god. folk magic, and local goddess cults,”
History of the Tantric Movement (New
mortality known as amrita. In contrast according to Richard H. Davis.
58 Avalokiteshvara’s padma is usually seen York: Columbia University Press,
to the kundika, these types of ritual “The word tantra does not admit
frontally, appearing as a disk-shaped 2002), 113–14, Buddhism in the medi-
vessels lack a spout. See Huntington to a single unequivocal definition,”
form, while the utpala typically eval era came to reflect the increasing
and Bangdel, “Crystal Kundika,” in but derives from the vocabulary of
appears in profile, sometimes as a feudalization of Indian society. A
Circle of Bliss, 344–45. weaving threads on a loom; it also
cluster of small flowers. Chutiwongs “sacralization of the sociopolitical
recalls things threaded together, like
53 Mallmann, l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara, posits that the Padmapani form environment” elevated regional rulers
palm leaf manuscripts (see cat. 20).
119. See also Yu, Kuan-yin, 7, n6, for a evolved from the Buddha’s flower- to the status of a universal monarch.
Davis, “Introduction,” in Religions of
detailed discussion of these and related carrying attendants in the art of the This may have stimulated bodhisattva
India in Practice, ed. Donald S. Lopez,
attributes, based on Chutiwongs’s early Kushan period (ca. 2nd century iconography to become more regal and
Jr. (Princeton: Princeton University
research. Dorothy C. Wong, BCE–3rd century CE). “Iconography of ornate.
Press, 1995), 41.
“Guanyin Images in Medieval China, Avalokiteśvara,” 28–30.
66 Curiously, crowned and bejeweled
5th–8th Centuries,” in Bodhisattva 70 Behrendt, Tibet and India, 21–24.
59 Huntington and Huntington, Leaves buddhas also emerged during the
Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) and Modern
from the Bodhi Tree, 106. Pala period in India, a puzzling 71 Cathleen A. Cummings dates the
Society: Proceedings of the Fifth
development that has elicited several beginning of such developments to the
Chung-Hwa International Conference 60 As Wong notes in the context of
explanations. See a recent discussion 6th century in the caves of the Western
on Buddhism, ed. William Magee and Chinese art, “one ... needs to address
of this phenomenon in Behrendt, Tibet Deccan. Cummings, “Tantra in India,”
Yi-hsun Huang (Taipei: Dharma the role played by the bodhisattva
and India, 18–20. in Huntington and Bangdel, Circle of
Drum Publishing, 2007), 262–63, in the broader developments of the
Bliss, 27.
discusses the similarity between these Buddhist doctrine rather than 67 Davidson, Indian Esoteric Buddhism,
two bodhisattvas in early Chinese art merely as a direct representation of a 117-18; Alex Wayman, The Buddhist 72 Martin Brauen, The Mandala: Sacred
and concludes that Avalokiteshvara’s particular Buddhist text.” “Guanyin Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Circle in Tibetan Buddhism, trans.
iconography is modeled on that of Images in Medieval China,” 258. Esotericism (New York: Kegan Paul, Martin Willson (Boston: Shambhala,
Maitreya. 1995), 3. Not surprisingly, much 1997), 9.
61 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton
controversy swirls around these
54 Chutiwongs, “Iconography of Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v. 73 Fujita, “Pure Land Buddhism in India,”
designations; even the use of
Avalokiteśvara,” 26. “Avalokiteśvara,” 82–83. 36.
capitalization is debated. See Charles
55 Mallmann l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara, 219. 62 However, Maitreya and other D. Orzech, Richard K. Payne, and 74 Huntington, Art of Ancient India, 379.
bodhisattvas sometimes appear with Henrik H. Sorensen, “Introduction: See plate 15 for illustration.
56 Huntington, q.v. “Avalokiteshvara
buddhas in their crowns. And the Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras
(Lokanatha),” in Huntington and 75 Snellgrove, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, 198.
buddha can be standing, especially in in East Asia, Some Methodological
Bangdel, Circle of Bliss, 180. Jars and See also Brauen, Mandala, 64.
Pure Land imagery (see below). Considerations,” in Esoteric Buddhism
antelope skins remain difficult to as- 76 “A mantra ... both evokes and
63 Although Mallmann claims that we and the Tantras in East Asia, ed.
sign to specific bodhisattvas, however, vivifies the divinity being propitiated.”
cannot be sure such early depic- Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H.
during the early years of Buddhist art. Huntington, Art of Ancient India, 394.
tions do in fact portray Amitabha, Sorensen and Richard K. Payne
For example, Maitreya—because of
the figure displays this buddha’s (Boston: Brill, 2011), 3–18, for a recent 77 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton
his association with asceticism—not
characteristic posture and meditative discussion of these issues. My thanks Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v.
only habitually carried a jar but also
to Patricia Karetzky for this source. “Sadhanamala,” 732.
sometimes appeared with an antelope

78 Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Meaning and Form of Multiplicity in form as “eleven-faced” instead of as the most important agent for
Iconography, 125–26. Indian Art (New York: Brill, 1997), 3. “eleven-headed.” bringing the many Brahmanical
The caves at Udayagiri, ca. 401, contain forms of Lokeshvara/Lokanatha into
79 Brauen, Mandala, 21. 90 Thomas J. Pritzker, “A Preliminary
multilimbed Brahmanical deities, such the Buddhist pantheon. Chandra,
Report on Early Cave Paintings of
80 For an example of one of as a four-armed form of Vishnu and a Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, 11,
Western Tibet,” Orientations 27 (June
Avalokiteshvara’s emanations as a twelve-armed Durga. See Huntington, 31–33, 48–49. Mallmann, l’Étude
1996): 26–47.
fierce protector, see Mahakala, India, Art of Ancient India, 190–91. d’Avalokiteśvara, 82, discusses
Pala period, 11th–12th century, 91 Tove E. Neville, “11-Headed Brahmanical influence in relation to
86 A 7th-century statue of the four-
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Avalokiteśvara, Kuan-yin, Kwan Avalokiteshvara’s general significance
armed Avalokiteshvara from the Swat
1996.465. Eum and Kannon: Its Origin and as universal savior.
Valley of present-day Pakistan is in
Iconography in India, South-East
81 Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist the collection of The Metropolitan 97 Huntington and Huntington, Leaves
Asia, Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea and
Iconography, 2, 124–25. But the Museum of Art, 2012.247. from the Bodhi Tree, 115.
Japan” (master’s thesis, University of
Sadhanamala Tantra by no means
87 John Guy, Lost Kingdoms: Hindu- Hawaii, 1980), 8–13, 58, 62. 98 Huntington, Ancient Indian Art,
encompasses all of Avalokiteshvara’s
Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast 387–89.
iconographic manifestations. 92 Studholme, Origins of Om Manipadme
Asia (New York: Metropolitan
Hūm, 41; Chandra, Thousand-armed 99 Patricia Berger, “Later Buddhist Arts,”
82 However, sometimes the textual de- Museum of Art, 2014), 228–30. See in
Avalokiteśvara, 48. In the scholarly Part 1, Docent Lecture Series, Asian
scriptions that have survived diverge particular cat. 134, 229–30. The four-
literature, this form is sometimes Art Museum, San Francisco, March
from the existing visual evidence. armed form persisted in that region
named “thousand-handed” instead of 19,1999, iTunes University.
Since invaders destroyed most of for several centuries, as evidenced by
“thousand-armed.”
the original Sanskrit texts during Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 8th-early 100 Paul Copp, “Visualization and
the expulsion of Buddhism from 9th century, from Southern Thailand 93 The sculpture in fig. 12 is in fact Contemplation,” in Orzech, et al.,
India, along with the vast major- or Sumatra, The Metropolitan incomplete. It once had a separately Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in
ity of Buddhist artworks, scholars Museum of Art, 1982.64. In the second cast mandorla, no doubt bringing East Asia, 142.
must piece together evidence from millennium, Mahayana Buddhism the total number of arms to 1000.
101 Miyeko Murase, “Kuan-Yin as Savior
translated texts that have survived gradually fell out of favor in this Eleven-headed Arya Avalokiteshvara,
of Men: Illustration of the Twenty-
in China, Tibet, and other Buddhist region, overtaken by the Theravada Western Tibet, early 14th century,
Fifth Chapter of the Lotus Sūtra in
countries; the record is therefore far school, which traces its roots back 2001-90-1, Philadelphia Museum
Chinese Painting,” Artibus Asiae 33
from complete. Buddhism was also to early Buddhism. Consequently, of Art, http://www.philamuseum.
(1971): 40–41; Yu, Kuan-yin, 39. Yu has
persecuted in China and Tibet during bodhisattva imagery diminished in the org/collections/permanent/105992.
undertaken the most thoroughgoing
the 9th century; consequently, many region. Chutiwongs, “Iconography of html?mulR=971065256|1, accessed June
study of Avalokiteshvara’s sinicization.
early texts and artifacts were lost there Avalokiteśvara,” 489–90. 13, 2014.
as well. 102 Erik Zurcher, “Perspectives in the
88 This exquisitely preserved manuscript 94 Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, The
Study of Chinese Buddhism,” Journal
83 Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya, History illumination, like those seen in cat. Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology
of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1982):
of the Tantric Religion: An Historical, 20, adorns a copy of the Perfection (Berkeley: University of California
173.
Ritualistic, and Philosophical Study of Wisdom Sutra in Eight Thousand Press, 1976), 376; quoted in Srinivasan,
(New Delhi: Manohar, 1999), 212. Lines. For an iconographically similar Many Heads, Arms and Eyes, 11. 103 Yu, Kuan-yin, 153–56.
84 The Karandavyuha Sutra also has sculpture, see Shadakshari Lokeshvara, 95 Srinivasan, Many Heads, Arms and 104 Susan Naquin and Chun-Fang Yu, eds.,
elements of mantra and mandala, India, Pala period, 12th century, Eyes, 5. “Introduction: Pilgrimage in China,”
and, as such, is a “proto-tantric” text. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China
1982.457. 96 Studholme, Origins of Om Manipadme
Studholme, Origins of Om Manipadme (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University
Hūm, 38–41, 100. See also Mallmann,
Hūm, 40–41, 44; Buswell and Lopez, 89 See Huntington, Art of Ancient of California Press, 1992), 10.
l’Étude d’Avalokiteśvara, 105. Chandra
Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v. India, 265, fig. 12.27, for illustration. 105 Zurcher, “Perspectives in the Study
also identifies Brahma (who has
“Karandavyuha,” 418. Contrary to Huntington, Chutiwongs of Chinese Buddhism,” 162; Schopen,
multiple heads) and Shiva/Rudra (who
85 Doris Meth Srinivasan dates the emer- feels that other Indian depictions of takes a thousand-eyed form) as pro- “The Mahāyāna and the Middle
gence of four-armed figures to the 2nd the Ekadashamukha form survive. genitors of Sahasrabhujalokeshvara. Period,” 5; Watson, Lotus Sutra, ix,
century BCE in Mathura. Srinivasan, “Iconography of Avalokiteśvara,” In fact, he sees Avalokiteshvara xxiv; Murase, “Kuan-yin as Savior of
Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, 49. Some scholars refer to this Men,” 39–41; Yu, Kuan-yin, 75, 91.

106 A replica of this cave was recently 115 Denise Patry Leidy and Donna 118 According to Yu, the one of the “a visual presentation of doctrinal
installed at China Institute, New Strahan, Wisdom Embodied: Chinese earliest of these was made in China or literary themes.” Ten Grotenhuis,
York; see Fan Jinshi and Willow Buddhist and Daoist Sculpture in the around 420. Kuan-yin, 35. “Visions of a Transcendent Realm:
Weilan Hai, eds., Dunhuang: Buddhist Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York: Pure Land Images in the Cleveland
119 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton
Art at the Gateway of the Silk Road Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2010), Museum of Art,” The Bulletin of the
Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v. “ jingtu
(New York: Dunhuang Academy 75. Cleveland Museum of Art 78 (November
bian,” “ jingtu sansheng,” and “Pure
and China Institute Gallery, 2013), 1991): 274. See also Elizabeth ten
116 Wong, “Guanyin Images in Medieval Land,” 390–91, 683.
95–99; see also Fan Jinshi, The Caves Grotenhuis, Japanese Mandalas:
China,” 262, following Tucci, notes the
of Dunhuang (Hong Kong: Dunhuang 120 Quoted in David W. Chappell, Representations of Sacred Geography
eventual fusion of vase and lotus sym-
Academy, 2010), 226–37. “The Formation of the Pure Land (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i
bolism. In Tucci’s words, “It is quite
Movement in China: Tao-ch’o and Press, 1999), 13–23.
107 For examples, see Robert Ford understandable that little by little
Shan-tao,” in Foard, et al., Pure Land
Campany, “The Earliest Tales of the the kamandalu became a lotus; the 124 Wong, “Guanyin Images in Medieval
Tradition, 146.
Bodhisattva Guanshiyin,” in Religions symbolism of the two is the same; the China,” 271; Chen, Buddhism in China,
of China in Practice, ed. Donald S. vase, in the liturgy of India, from the 121 Stanley Weinstein, Buddhism under 172; Weinstein, Buddhism under the
Lopez, Jr. (Princeton: Princeton times of the rituals expounded in the the T’ang (New York: Cambridge T’ang, 72; ten Grotenius, “Visions of a
University Press, 1996), 82–96; Yu, Brahmanas up to the ghatasdthapana of University Press, 1987), 66; Zurcher, Transcendent Realm,” 292.
Kuan-yin, 24, 151–94. the puja as it is practised even to-day, “Perspectives in the Study of Chinese
125 Henrik H. Sorensen, “Central
is the symbol of the magic universe Buddhism,” 170.
108 Campany, “Bodhisattva Guanshiyin,” Divinities in the Esoteric Buddhist
where the priest operates ...; the lotus 122 Wong, “Guanyin Images in Medieval
84. Pantheon in China,” in Orzech,
is equally the universe though its China,” 257. In the Visualization et al., Esoteric Buddhism and the
109 Watson, Lotus Sutra, 303–4. symbolism is twofold, cosmic and Sutra, the meditator imagines Tantras in East Asia, 94. Vairochana
110 Painting of Avalokiteshvara, spiritual.” Giuseppe Tucci, “Buddhist Avalokiteshvara as hundreds of (Resplendent One) is often the central
1919,0101,0.28, British Museum, http:// Notes, I: Apropos Avalokiteśvara,” thousands of miles high, his head buddha in esoteric iconography.
www.britishmuseum.org/research/ Mélanges chinois et bouddhique 9 (1948): radiating “eighty-four thousand rays
178. 126 Berger, “Later Buddhist Art in China.”
collection_online/collection_ob- each one emanating a bodhisattva,
Even though support for esoteric
ject_details.aspx?objectId=6573&par 117 Tantric sutras mention the willow the tip of each finger has eighty-four
Buddhism reached its peak in China
tId=1&searchText=1919,0101,0.28&pa branch as a cure for disease. Annette thousand pictures, each of which has
during the 8th and first half of the
ge=1, accessed July 25, 2014. L. Juliano, Buddhist Sculpture From eighty-four thousand colors, each
9th century, Leidy speculates that
China: Selections from the Xi’an Beilin of which has eighty-four thousand
111 Tansen Sen, “The Spread of Buddhism its roots in that country go back to
Museum, Fifth through Ninth Centuries rays.” Quoted in John C. Huntington,
to China: A Re-examination of the 5th century. She also feels that its
(New York: China Institute Gallery, “Rebirth in Amitābha’s Sukhāvatī,” in
the Buddhist Interactions between influence—contrary to some scholarly
2007), 87, n6; Neville, “11-Headed Foard, et al., Pure Land Tradition, 78.
Ancient India and China,” China assessments—continued in China well
Report 48 (2012): 12, 16-17; Robert H. Avalokiteśvara,” 172. See also entry for 123 Based on a Chinese tapestry that came beyond the time of its transmission
Sharf, “Prolegomenon to the Study cat. 7 in this publication. Interestingly, to Japan in the 8th or 9th century, to Japan in the 8th century. Leidy in
of Japanese Buddhist Icons,” in Living when thrown over the shoulder, the this subject became popular in the Denise Patry Leidy and Robert A. F.
Images: Japanese Buddhist Icons in willow branch recalls the fly whisks 13th century, and numerous Japanese Thurman, Mandala: The Architecture of
Context, ed. Robert H. Sharf and that attendant figures hold in early paintings, prints, and textile versions Enlightenment (New York: Asia Society
Elizabeth Horton Sharf (Stanford, Indian art to keep their lords free of exist. The Chinese tapestry has hung Galleries; Boston: Shambhala, 1997),
Calif.: Stanford University Press, pests. See, for example, Naga Attendant for centuries at the Taimadera in 24.
2001), 3. Holding a Fly Whisk, India, 3rd century, Nara Prefecture; pictures based
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 127 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton
on it are therefore also known as
112 Naquin and Yu, “Introduction,” 16. 33.25. This similarity is noted in “Chih- Dictionary of Buddhism, q.v.
Taima Mandalas. Although this type
113 Robert H. Sharf, “The Scripture on the p’ing: Water-moon Kuan-yin,” Kaikodo “qianshou jing,” 689. Yu, Kuan-yin,
of image is traditionally called a
Production of Buddha Images,” in Lopez, Journal 1 (Spring 1996): 174. For an 59–72, describes this and related
mandala, Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis
Religions of China in Practice, 261. example of a 6th-century Chinese sutras in great detail. See also Chapter
feels that so-called Taima Mandalas
Guanyin ping, see The Metropolitan 7, 263–91, for a discussion of a related
114 Albert Welter, “Buddhist Ritual and more properly belong to the genre of
Museum of Art, 2002.290. practice, the “Great Compassion
the State,” in Lopez, Religions of China the Pure Land transformation tableau,
Repentance.”
in Practice, 390–93.

128 Yukio Lippit, “Awakenings: The well into the Qing period (1644–1912). Dietrich Seckel writes, “A Bodhisattva Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013)
Development of the Zen Figural James Cahill writes that later Chan is suspended between male and and Washizuka Hiromitsu, Park
Pantheon,” in Gregory Levine and painters created “simple votive images female in a way which affirms as well Youngbok, and Kang Woo-bang, eds.,
Yukio Lippit, Awakenings: Zen Figure of Kuan-yin ... painted in multiples as negates (in that characteristically Transmitting the Forms of Divinity:
Painting in Medieval Japan (New York: as a devotional act, to be given to Buddhist sense) both natures, and yet Early Buddhist Art from Korea and
Japan Society, 2007), 35. As noted believers by the monk-artist, perhaps manages at the same time to neither Japan (New York: Japan Society, 2003).
above, some strains of the Chan tradi- in return for temple offerings.” He affirm nor negate them.” Seckel,
147 Michael Cunningham, “The Path
tion eventually became more eclectic documents a case in which one artist Buddhist Art of East Asia, trans. Ulrich
of Kannon’s Compassion and
and institutional, absorbing esoteric painted five thousand pictures of Mammitzsch (Bellingham, Wash.:
Appearance in Early Japan,” in
practices such as Dabei Zhou and the Guanyin as a long-life offering. Cahill, Western Washington University,
Epprecht, Kannon: Divine Compassion,
Pure Land nianfo. “Continuations of Ch’an Ink Painting 1989), 28.
24–25; Jonathan W. Best, “The
into Ming-Ch’ing and the Prevalence
129 Yu, Kuan-yin, 235–39. For a representa- 139 Thomas Cleary, trans., The Flower Transmission and Transformation
of Type Images,” Archives of Asian Art
tive Chinese example of this iconog- Ornament Scripture: A Translation of Early Buddhist Culture in Korea
50 (1997/1998): 19-20.
raphy, see the hanging scroll in the of the Avatamsaka Sutra (Boston: and Japan,” in Washizuka, et al.,
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Water 133 Some scholars trace the bodhisattva’s Shambhala, 1993), 1274–75. Transmitting the Forms of Divinity,
and Moon Guanyin, late 13th-early 14th white hood to women’s clothing worn 25–28.
140 Neville, “11-Headed Avalokiteśvara,”
century, 49–60. Yoshiaki Shimizu during the Southern Song period
43; Chun-fang Yu, “P’u-t’o Shan: 148 James H. Foard, “Ritual in the
and Carolyn Wheelwright, eds., (1127–1279), which may suggest not
Pilgrimage and the Creation of the Buddhist Temples of Japan,” in Object
Japanese Ink Paintings From American only the bodhisattva’s feminization
Chinese Potalaka,” in Naquin and as Insight: Japanese Buddhist Art &
Collections: The Muromachi Period but also his/her accessibility to all. Yu,
Yu, Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China, Ritual, ed. Anne Nishimura Morse
(Princeton: Princeton University Kuan-yin, 251–53.
190–245. and Samuel Crowell Morse (Katonah,
Art Museum, 1976), 48, identify the
134 Julie Emerson, Jennifer Chen, and N.Y.: Katonah Museum of Art, 1995),
Potalaka Avalokiteshvara, developed 141 Berger, “Later Buddhist Arts in
Mimi Gardner Gates, Porcelain Stories: 13. My thanks to Sherry Fowler for this
in China during the Tang period, as China.”
From China to Europe (Seattle: Seattle source.
the prototype for this imagery. 142 There were longstanding Confucian
Art Museum, 2000), 154.
149 Best, “Transmission and
130 Yu, Kuan-yin, 238. strictures against nudity in
135 Y u does not feel that the feminization Transformation,” 25–26.
Chinese art, especially for female
131 Wen C. Fong dates the emergence of of Guanyin resulted primarily from
subjects. According to Karetzky, a 150 Foard, “Ritual in the Buddhist
this form of Guanyin to the 1080s, the introduction of tantric texts into
woman’s breast would never have been Temples of Japan,” 12.
when the artist Li Gonglin (ca. China, as some other scholars, such
uncovered in Chinese art. Guanyin, 22.
1041–1106) “transformed the Indian as Chen, have argued. See Chen’s 151 Best, “Transmission and
icon into the Chinese image.” Fong, Buddhism in China, 341–42. Yu finds 143 The empty circular indentation in Transformation,” 25–26.
Beyond Representation: Chinese Painting little evidence that the Indian tantric the forehead is the characteristic
152 Sharf, “Prolegomenon,” 3.
and Calligraphy, 8th–14th Century deity Pandaravasini, a form of White auspicious mark (S: urna) of buddhas
(New York: Metropolitan Museum Tara, was the model for the White- and bodhisattvas. It probably once 153 This is true in both in sculpture and
of Art, 1992), 362; Helmut Brinker robed and Child-giving Guanyin. held a crystal (compare cat. 12). architecture. The Horyuji complex has
and Hiroshi Kanazawa cite textual Kuan-yin, 248–51, 257. some of the oldest wooden buildings
144 Berger, “Later Buddhist Art in China.”
evidence of an 8th-century depiction in the world, and wood as a material
136 Yu, Kuan-yin, 5. 145 Epprecht, “Perceiver of the accounts for ninety percent of early
of the white-robed form by Xin Cheng.
Brinker and Kanazawa, Zen: Masters 137 Yu, Kuan-yin, 6. World’s Sounds,” in Kannon: Divine Japanese sculptures. In the 7th and
of Meditation in Images and Writings, Compassion, 13–14. 8th centuries, camphor was the wood
138 According to Patricia Eichenbaum
trans. Andreas Leisinger (Zurich: of choice. Indian scriptures prescribe
Karetzky, Guanyin (New York: Oxford 146 Unfortunately, the limited scope of
Artibus Asiae, 1996), 136. sandalwood for Buddhist sculptures,
University Press, 2004), 21, “applying a this exhibition makes it impossible to
but this species does not grow in
132 Brinker and Kanazawa, Zen, 136. sexual identity to a Buddhist deity is consider Korean examples in depth.
Japan, so fragrant camphor was the
For a reproduction, see Leidy, somewhat misdirected, for such divine For useful sources, see Soyoung
closest indigenous approximation.
Art of Buddhism, 201, fig. 9.9. This beings transcend gender distinctions Lee and Denise Patry Leidy, Silla:
In the late 8th century, cypress and
iconographic tradition continued and sexual passion.” In a similar vein, Korea’s Golden Kingdom (New York:
nutmeg were used as substitutes.

Washizuka, “Techniques of Early Museum of Art, 1990), 17–20; John moustache in cat. 12 complicates 170 Those with extremely negative karma,
Buddhist Sculpture in Japan,” in M. Rosenfield, “Standing Images of an interpretation of this form as although admitted into the Pure Land
Washizuka, et al., Transmitting the Shō Kannon,” in Christine Starkman, invariably feminine, however. because of Amida’s grace, are not of-
Forms of Divinity, 136–37. Miyeko Murase, and John M. fered this honorific mode of transport.
164 Buddhist hells (there are many of
Rosenfield, Unrivalled Splendor: The
154 The Yumedono Kannon was a “secret” them) are states of mind endured by 171 Lippit, “Awakenings,” 35.
Kimiko and John Powers Collection of
icon, kept in a closed tabernacle at those who have committed heinous
Japanese Art (Houston: Museum of 172 Yu, Kuan-yin, 241.
Horyuji until the 19th century. The actions, and who experience the
Fine Arts, 2012), 42. 173 The paintings “were designed to
statue’s hands hold a jewel at waist realms as truly existing, horrific
level, a gesture that apparently origi- 160 He appears in the circle of buddhas places. Unlike the Christian concept be hung in the dormitories where
nated in Korean Buddhist art. Chari and bodhisattvas surrounding of hell, those in Buddhist hells stay lived the novices newly accepted
Pradel, “Early Buddhist Sculpture Dainichi (S: Vairochana) in the there only as long as their bad karma for Buddhist training. These young
in Japan,” Docent Series Lecture, Court (or Hall) of the Central Dais requires, which for most individuals, is people were still laymen and thus
Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, of Eight Petals, and also on the left a very long time. wore not the black robes of ordained
October 15, 2013, iTunes University. side in the center of the Court of priest but the white robes of initiates,
165 Fowler examines this image set at
The Kudara Kannon holds a vase in the Kannon. Ten Grotenhuis, Japanese a similarity of dress that must have
Daihoonji comprehensively in “Travels
left hand, with the right outstretched Mandalas, 3, 60–62. Sharf claims encouraged them to identify with the
of the Daihōonji,” 178–214. See
in a variation of the varada mudra, and that the configuration of these two image before them. Such paintings ...
Fowler’s article for illustrations of the
in the same manner as the Buddha mandalas evolved in China rather than thus functioned as visual exemplars,
works.
in the famous Horyuji Shaka Triad. India. “Visualization and Mandala enjoining the adepts to achieve
Tanabe Suburosuke, “From the Stone in Shingon Buddhism,” in Sharf 166 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Selected comparable serenity and purity within
Buddhas of Longxingsi to Buddhist and Sharf, Living Images, 197. For an Masterpieces of Asian Art (Boston: themselves.” “Isshi: Byaku-e White-
Images of Three Kingdoms Korea and example, see Mandala of the Womb Museum of Fine Arts, 1992), 24. In Robed Kannon,” Kaikodo Journal 15
Asuka-Hakuho Japan,” 47–48, 51–52; World (Taizōkai Mandara), 13th-14th mandalas and other visual forms, (Spring to May 2000): 132, 279.
and Kim Lena, “Early Korean Buddhist century, 21.240.2, Brooklyn Museum of shittan syllables often stand in for
174 Yoshiaki Shimizu, “Zen Art?,” in Zen
Sculptures and Related Japanese Art. the deities. Fabio Rambelli, “Secrecy
in China, Japan, East Asian Art, ed.
Examples,” 77, both in Washizuka, et in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism,” in
161 The Juichimen form was introduced H. Brinker, R. P. Kramers, and C.
al., Transmitting the Forms of Divinity. The Culture of Secrecy in Japanese
into Japan very early. Standing Ouwehand (New York: Peter Lang,
See fig. 4, in Tanabe, for a reproduc- Religion, ed. Bernhard Scheid and
Juichimen Kannon (Eleven-headed 1982), 86. Thanks to Andrew Watsky
tion of the Kudara Kannon. Mark Teeuwen (New York: Routledge,
Avalokiteshvara), 7th century, Tokyo for this source.
2006), 122. My thanks to Sherry
155 Sherry Fowler,“ Travels of the National Museum, was unearthed in 175 Joji Okazaki, Pure Land Buddhist
Fowler for the reference.
Daihōonji Six Kannon Sculptures,” Ars a sutra mound at Nachi. Amitabha Painting, trans. Elizabeth ten
Orientalis 36 (2009): 185. rests on the crown; the figure holds a 167 Pure Land Buddhism was introduced
Grotenhuis (New York: Kodansha
water vase and is made of gilt bronze. to Japan in the mid–6th century.
156 As Leidy writes, the thousand-buddha International, 1977), 76-77, 80–82.
See cat. 34, in Washizuka, et al., But this branch did not become an
motif found in early Chinese Buddhist 176 The temple of Myoshinji drew many
Transmitting the Forms of Divinity, independent force until the 10th
art, as in Cave 16 at Yungang, symbol- female pilgrims and nuns. According
258–59. century. Ten Grotenhuis, “Visions of a
izes “the existence of innumerable to D. Max Moerman, no other
Transcendent Realm,” 288; Chappell,
buddhas inhabiting myriad universes.” 162 Ford and Imprey, Japanese Art, 20. temple-shrine complex in pre-modern
“Formation of the Pure Land
Mandala, 22. Japan had a higher percentage of
163 Sherry Fowler, “Nyoirin Kannon: Movement,”139; Kyotaro Nishikawa
157 My thanks to Andrew Watsky for this Stylistic Evolution of Sculptural and Emily J. Sano, The Great Age female pilgrims. Moerman, Localizing
information. Images,” Orientations 20 (1989): of Japanese Buddhist Sculpture: AD Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the
58–59. Some scholars claim that the 600–1300 (Fort Worth: Kimbell Art Religious Landscape of Premodern
158 Morse and Morse, Object as Insight, 99.
latter two forms are examples of the Museum, 1982), 35. Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
159 Barbara Brennan Ford and Oliver R. feminization of the bodhisattva, University Press, 2005), 181–85. My
168 Ten Grotenhuis, “Visions of a
Impey, Japanese Art from the Gerry which occurred between the 9th to the thanks to Andrew Watsky for this
Transcendent Realm,” 288.
Collection in The Metropolitan Museum 15th centuries. Cunningham, “Path of reference.
of Art (New York: Metropolitan Kannon’s Compassion,” 30. Nyoirin’s 169 Seckel, Buddhist Art of East Asia, 122.

177 Michael R. Cunningham, Buddhist Sahayogi Prakashan for Research familiarity with the Bodhisattva, the which I approached the original statue
Treasures from Nara (Cleveland: Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, cult of Avalokiteśvara ... is a product inside the Great Temple. I looked at
Cleveland Museum of Art, 1998), 145; Tribhuvan University, 1980), 413; of ... the ‘later spread of the doctrine’ the image, which was almost winking
Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis, “Saikoku Pratapaditya Pal, “The Iconography of beginning in the 11th century.” to indicate that I should draw near.
Pilgrimage: Japanese Devotees Search Amogaphaśa Lokeśvara,” pt. 1: Oriental With deep emotion and faith, and a
198 Notably the practice formulated by
for Kannon,” in Virginia C. Raguin, Art 7 (Winter 1966): 234–39; pt. 2: close feeling of empathy, I approached
the 14th-15th century adept Thangtong
Dina Bangdel, and F. E. Peters, eds., Oriental Art 8 (Spring 1967): 20–28; and embraced that image, as you
Gyalpo, “Sadhana of Chenrezik: For
Pilgrimage and Faith: Buddhism, Bangdel, “Pilgrimage in Nepal,” 82. would a person. Then, immediately it
the Benefit of All Beings as Vast as the
Christianity, and Islam (Chicago: started reciting a verse. … The main
186 Pal, Art of Nepal, 38. Skies,” in Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche,
Serindia Publications, 2010), 126-39. point of the verse is the admonishment
Chenrezik: For the Benefit of All Beings
187 Pal, Art of Nepal, 188. to maintain one’s courage, resolve or
178 Moerman, Localizing Paradise, 4. (Woodstock, N.Y.: KTD Publications,
188 Pal, Himalayas, 23. determination. Shortly thereafter,
2014), 1–15.
179 Bangdel, “Tantra in Nepal,” in the image of Mahākārunikā was
Huntington and Bangdel, Circle of 189 Pal, Art of Nepal, 31; Huntington and 199 Kapstein, Tibetan Buddhism, 58–60. destroyed, so I had the thought that
Bliss, 29. Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi this dream may indeed have been
200 According to a 14th-century Tibetan
Tree, 273. relevant!” “Personal Reminiscences of
180 Ulrich von Schroeder catalogues text, The Clear Mirror of the Royal
numerous Nepalese as well as Indian 190 Huntington and Huntington, Leaves Geneologies, as cited by Ian Alsop: the Great Temple by His Holiness the
statues in Lhasa’s Potala Palace from the Bodhi Tree, 274. “From the hair between the emperor’s Dalai Lama, ” in Gyurme Dorje, et al.,
collection. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet, eyebrows there emanated a mendicant Jokhang, 31.
191 Pal, Art of Nepal, 38; Mary Shepherd
vols. 1–2 (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Slusser, “A Document on Himalayan on whose head the Buddha Amitabha 202 Gyurme Dorje, Tibet Handbook, 115;
Publications, 2001). Painting,” in Art and Culture of Nepal, dwelt. The mendicant, who was sent Snellgrove, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism,
397. to fetch the tutelary deity, found 417–18; Alsop, “Phagpa Lokeśvara,”
181 Huntington and Huntington, Leaves
it in the form of an eleven-headed 51–61.
from the Bodhi Tree, 253–54, 256; 192 Kapstein, Tibetan Buddhism, 58. Avalokiteśvara which he brought back
Bangdel, “Tantra in Nepal,” 31–32. 203 Jackson and Jackson, Tibetan Thangka
193 Bokar Rinpoche, Chenrezig, Lord of to Tibet and presented to the king
182 Bangdel, “Tantra in Nepal,” 30–31; Painting, 12. For an exhaustive
Love: Principles and Methods of Deity who was very pleased.” Alsop,“Phagpa
Bangdel, “Pilgrimage Traditions in investigation of these figures, see
Meditation, trans. Christiane Buchet Lokeśvara of the Potala,” Orientations
Nepal,” in Raguin, et al., Pilgrimage Karl Debreczeny, The Black Hat
(San Francisco: ClearPoint Press, 1991), 21 (1990): 58. A more complete account
and Faith, 63-64; Mary Shepherd Eccentric: Artistic Visions of the Tenth
15. of this miraculous manifestation is in
Slusser, “Serpents, Sages, and Karmpa (New York: Rubin Museum
Gyurme Dorje, Tashi Tsering, Heather
Sorcerers in Cleveland,” in Art and 194 Matthew T. Kapstein, “Remarks on of Art, 2012) and David P. Jackson,
Stoddard, and André Alexander,
Culture of Nepal: Selected Papers the Mani bKa’-‘bum and the Cult of Patron and Painter: Situ Panchen
Jokhang: Tibet’s Most Sacred Buddhist
(Kathmandu: Mandala Publications, Avalokiteśvara in Tibet,” in Tibetan and the Revival of the Encampment
Temple (London: Edition Hansjorg
2005), 263–64. Buddhism: Realism and Revelation, ed. Style (New York: Rubin Museum
Mayer, 2010), 68–69.
Steven D. Goodman and Ronald M. of Art, 2009). In the latter source,
183 Saffron mixed with water is Davidson (Albany: State University 201 Gyurme Dorje, Tibet Handbook (Bath: see especially Karl Debreczeny,
considered to be amrita and is used for of New York Press, 1992), 85–86; Footprint Handbooks, 2009), 89–90; “Bodhisattvas South of the Clouds:
ritual purposes in Buddhist rites. Kapstein, Tibetan Buddhism, 59. Gyurme Dorje, et al., Jokhang, 68–69. Situ Panchen’s Activities and Artistic
184 Pratapaditya Pal, Art of Nepal: A The 14th Dalai Lama gives evidence Inspiration in Yunnan,” 223–225. Two
195 From the Mani Kabum, as cited by
Catalogue of the Los Angeles County of the Tibetan reverence for this icon. rare and unusual 17th-century works
Bokar Rinpoche, Chenrezig, 30-32.
Museum of Art Collection (Los Angeles: “Another impressive image [in the attributed to Karmapa Choying Dorje
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 196 Snellgrove, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Jokhang] was that of Mahākārunikā are in the Cleveland Museum of Art,
1985), 16, 18–19; Bangdel, “Tantra in 386–87; Kapstein, Tibetan Buddhism, ..., with one thousand arms and one Avalokiteshvara, 1968.280, and The
Nepal,” 29-30. 12–13, 31–32. thousand eyes. After I reached India, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Seated
just before the Cultural Revolution Avalokiteshvara, The Bodhisattva of
185 John K. Locke, Karunamaya: The Cult 197 Snellgrove, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism,
and shortly before this renowned Infinite Compassion, 1972.123.
of Avalokitesvara—Matsyendranath 369, 454–55. Kapstein, “Remarks
Mahākārunikā image was destroyed,
in the Valley of Nepal (Kathmandu: on the Mani bKa’-‘bum,” 85, argues
one night I had a very clear dream in
that while “ancient Tibet had some

204 Jackson and Jackson, Tibetan Thangka 214 Bokar Rinpoche, Chenrezig, 80–81. 227 “Canon Logo,” http://www.canon.com/ 228 Peter Matthiessen, The Snow Leopard
Painting, 9, 11. Although the Jacksons corporate/logo.html, accessed August (New York: Penguin, 2008; first
215 In fig. 35, the realms (clockwise from
describe the Tibetan attitude toward 29, 2014, reproduces the original logo. published 1978), 101. My thanks to Eve
top right) are: human, hungry ghost,
thangka painting as belonging to a According to the Canon website, D’Ambra for encouraging me to read
hell, animal, and the segment at
bygone era, the whole passage could be “This title reflected the benevolence this book.
upper left combines both the god and
rendered in the present tense. demigod realms. of Kwanon, the Buddhist Goddess of 229 Mandala makers do not actually use
Mercy, and embodied the Company’s sand, but crushed minerals that have
205 Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la, 150. 216 Kapstein, “Remarks on the Mani vision of creating the best cameras in been colored with vibrant dyes. They
206 Gilles Béguin, “Techniques of Tibetan bKa’-‘bum,” 93. the world. The logo included the word have a wide array of mandala designs
Painting and Sculpture,” in Marylin 217 Lorne Ladner, ed., Wheel of Great with an image of ‘Kwanon with 1,000 that correspond to many different
M. Rhie and Robert A. F. Thurman, Compassion: The Practice of the Prayer Arms’ and flames.” Thanks to Karen Tibetan Buddhist deities in addition
Wisdom and Compassion: The Sacred Wheel in Tibetan Buddhism (Boston: St. Pierre for this information. to Avalokiteshvara.
Art of Tibet (San Francisco: Asian Art Wisdom Publications, 2000), 15–21,
Museum; New York: Tibet House; 24–26.
New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1991),
385-86. 218 Schopen, “A Note on the ‘Technology
of Prayer’ and a Reference to a
207 Marylin M. Rhie, “Tibetan Buddhist ‘Revolving Bookcase’ in an Eleventh-
Art: Aesthetics, Chronology, and Century Indian Inscription,” in
Styles,” in Rhie and Thurman, Wisdom Figments and Fragments, 345–49.
and Compassion, 54; Denise Patry On page 348, the author implies
Leidy, “Buddhist Art,” in James C. that these devices would more
Y. Watt and Denise Patry Leidy, accurately be called “recitation”—not
Defining Yongle: Imperial Art in Early prayer—wheels. But practitioners not
Fifteenth-Century China (New York: only recite mantras when using them
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005), but also adopt a prayerful attitude
61–73; 88–90. while aspiring to generate benefit for
208 Rhie, “Tibetan Buddhist Art,” 65. all beings. In that light, the traditional
name seems appropriate.
209 Jackson, Patron and Painter, xi; David
P. Jackson, The Nepalese Legacy in 219 Ladner, Wheel of Great Compassion,
Tibetan Painting (New York: Rubin 31–32, 87–93.
Museum of Art, 2010), xix–xxiii. 220 Quoted in Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-
210 See Behrendt, Tibet and India, for fine la, 130.
Indian-inspired examples of early 221 Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la, 115.
Tibetan sculpture.
222 Ladner, Wheel of Great Compassion, 9.
211 Von Schroeder, Buddhist Sculptures in
Tibet, vol. 1, 17; Béguin, “Techniques of 223 Words to his nephew, Billy James, in
Tibetan Painting and Sculpture,” 388. 1902 (quoted in Leon Edel, Henry James,
The Master: 1901–1916 (New York: J. B.
212 This is a rare and important Tibetan Lippincott, 1972), 124.
site, one of the few temple complexes
to survive largely undamaged from the 224 Yu, Kuan-yin, ix-x.
Cultural Revolution. 225 Epprecht, “Perceiver of the World’s
213 The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, Sounds,” 14-15.
however, has equated mani with 226 See “A to Z Photo Dictionary: Japanese
compassion and padme with wisdom; Buddhist Statuary,” http://www.
hum symbolizes the union of the two. onmarkproductions.com/html/kan-
Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la, 130–31. non.shtml#, accessed May 10, 2014.

Embodying Compassion in Buddhist Art:
Catalogue Entries
All dimensions are height x width x depth.
The reader may consult the glossary on page 73 for definitions of foreign terms.
See the time line on the inside covers for dates of historical periods
and style categories referenced in this publication.
Image
The objects in this section of the
exhibition represent some of the
many forms Avalokiteshvara has
taken throughout the centuries.
The bodhisattva’s iconography
initially emerged in India
about two thousand years ago.
At first playing a subsidiary
role as Buddha’s attendant
(cat. 1, fig. 39), Avalokiteshvara
later became an independent
focus of veneration,
providing opportunities for
“auspicious viewing.” His
diverse manifestations display
graceful sitting and standing
postures, significant gestures,
recognizable attributes, and an
idealized body; these features
are both iconic (that is, a direct
manifestation of his presence)
and at the same time, symbolic.
Each visual aspect points to a
Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara (detail), China Fig. 39. Shakyamuni Buddha, with

or Tibet, 18th–19th century; gilded metal Avalokiteshvara (left) and Maitreya (right) as
with inlays; 10 1/4 x 7 1/4 in.; Jacques Marchais attendants, Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya,
Museum of Tibetan Art, 85.04.0682. Bihar, India, 2013.

Buddhist ideal, especially the 1. Amitabha Buddha, Central bodhisattva sits
inseparability of compassion Tibet, 19th century; pigment in a sinuous,
and wisdom. An outstretched on cloth; 38 1/2 x 25 1/2 in.; The relaxed posture
hand (cat. 13) or an upraised Rubin Museum of Art, New with an antelope
teaching gesture (cat. 3) express York, F1997.6.3. skin draped over
these values; the lotus conveys his shoulder.
his purity (cat. 4), while the Amitabha, the Buddha of He also exhibits
willow symbolizes his healing Infinite Light, fills the space more general
abilities (cat. 7). In esoteric in this painting with a serene bodhisattva
forms, he has multiple heads and yet commanding presence. attributes:
limbs to signify increased power He is exemplar to all around the headdress,
(cat. 6). Avalokiteshvara’s most him, who are beings (S: sattva) clothes, and
easily identifiable attribute is intending to achieve the same ornaments
a small buddha on his crown, enlightened state (S: bodhi). of a medieval
which represents his spiritual Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara Indian prince.
progenitor Amitabha (cat. 2). appears here as part of In contrast, the
Amitabha’s retinue. Although presentation
The sculptures, East Asian seated immediately to the of Amitabha
hanging scrolls, and Tibetan Buddha’s right, Avalokiteshvara reveals his status
paintings (T: thangkas) in is much smaller; he is just one as a renunciant:
this section all demonstrate of a group known as the “Eight sitting in
these key visual attributes and Great Bodhisattvas.”1 Yet he also crossed-legged
meanings. The works show enjoys a special relationship to yogic posture,
how Avalokiteshvara’s original Amitabha, who is his spiritual his hands in
Indian iconography transforms mentor and the head of his meditation
and takes on new, efficacious family. gesture, he wears
associations as it spreads the robes of a
north and east through Asia. In depicting Avalokiteshvara’s
posture and attributes, the fully ordained
Especially significant is the monk. Sanskrit
shift from a princely figure in Tibetan painter closely
followed Indian precedents; texts such as the
the Indian context to a more Sukhavativyuha
maternal, nurturing presence Chinese traditions informed
Sutra describe how Amitabha— Land of Bliss that is the setting
as Avalokiteshvara became his rendering of the idealized
through his exemplary of this painting. Avalokiteshvara
established in China and Japan landscape. White in color
Mahayana vows to benefit all manifests there as well, radiating
(compare cats. 2 and 11). and holding a lotus (both
beings—created Sukhavati, the beneficial light throughout the
features suggesting purity), the
universe. 2

2. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara known as Wisdom Buddhas
in the Form of Khasarpana float above. Surrounded by
Lokeshvara, India, Bihar or his canonical retinue—which
Bengal, Pala period, distinguishes this form from
late 11th–early 12th century; the closely related Padmapani
schist; 37 1/2 x 18 1/2 x 6 3/4 in.; (fig. 7)—compassionate Tara
Asia Society, New York, Mr. and to his right makes the gesture
Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd of reassurance and holds a blue
Collection, 1979.40. lotus. On Khasarpana’s left, the
wise Bhrikuti, with a miniature
According to Indian liturgical reliquary in her matted crown of
descriptions, this youthful form hair, joins her hands in adoring
of Avalokiteshvara resides in supplication (S: anjali mudra).
the womb of Mount Potalaka, Together these female deities
the bodhisattva’s sacred island. personify the indivisibility
Khasarpana Lokeshvara is of Avalokiteshvara’s core
the “Sky-gliding Lord of the qualities: compassion and
World.” Typical of the Indian wisdom. Khasarpana displays
Pala style, this stele displays his unbiased care for all beings
richly decorated surfaces and through his outstretched
elaborate features, such as the right hand; drops of nectar
double lotuses, complex jewelry, feed Suchimukha, a hungry
stylized matted hair, and ghost who kneels below. Such
floating ribbons.3 In its original beings habitually languish in
context, the work would have agony, unable to satisfy their
been painted and installed in a unquenchable desires. But the
niche on the side of a temple (see all-powerful, compassionate
fig. 37). Those circumambulating Khasarpana is able to nurture
the perimeter of such buildings this needle-nosed, supplicating
would look up reverently at spirit with life-giving elixir (S:
Khasarpana from below. amrita).4
A beneficent but imposing
bodhisattva sits with right leg
pendant, while awakened beings

3. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, dharmachakra) on the palm.
Nepal, Transitional period, The other hand once delicately
late 10th-early 11th century; grasped the stem of a lotus
gilt copper alloy with inlays of (now lost) that rose from the
semiprecious stones; 26 3/4 x scroll at his heel, with the
11 1/2 x 5 1/4 in.; Asia Society, flower blossoming above his left
New York, Mr. and Mrs. John shoulder. One of the earliest
D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection, extant South Asian works to
1979.47. feature inset semiprecious
stones, this sculpture retains
With consummate skill, some of these gems in the figure’s
the Nepalese metalworker lush ornaments.5 In its original
who created this standing context, the fire gilding on this
Padmapani (Lotus Bearer) cast-metal sculpture would
adapted Indic models for one have gleamed on the altar of a
of Avalokiteshvara’s earliest candlelit temple, suggesting a
and most characteristic forms. kind of divine radiance.
Smilingly gently with a sweet
expression, Avalokiteshvara’s
face effectively conveys the
essence of the bodhisattva’s
compassionate, beneficent
nature. His ornate three-lobed
crown contains a seated
Amitabha, an icon that denotes
Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual
heritage. Elegant and lithe, this
naturalistic—yet at the same
time idealized—figure stands
in the typical South Asian
triple-bend posture (see fig. 8).
His raised right hand makes
the teaching gesture (S: vitarka
mudra) and reveals the wheel
of the Buddha’s precepts (S:

Avalokiteshvara appears here in a psychological depth in the
ways that both conform to—and relationship between Amitabha
radically depart from—well- and his heart son, quite different
established pictorial traditions. from Avalokiteshvara’s subsidiary
His Indian-derived iconography role in cat. 1, as merely one of the
includes bodhisattva apparel, Eight Great Bodhisattvas.
upswept hair, antelope-skin
attribute, and glowing halo The painting demonstrates how
surrounding his head. These forms of Avalokiteshvara were
features are presented, however, transmitted across cultures
in a blue-green landscape setting and over time. It derives from
totally unknown in Indian art. a Tibetan prototype that was
The Tibetan painter borrowed part of a set of Eight Great
this approach from the Chinese Bodhisattvas executed in the
painting style, employed since 16th century; two centuries
the Tang dynasty to render later, the important Tibetan
awe-inspiring mountainous lineage holder Situ Panchen
landscapes. Yet the work is also Chokyi Jungne commissioned
idiosyncratic. The mountains copies of this set for Palpung
serve as a simple seat for the monastery near Derge; through
bodhisattva, and the flowers Situ Panchen’s influence, the
behind him are surreally over iconography traveled as far as
scaled. the southwestern frontiers of
China, and a close version of
In Avalokiteshvara’s relaxed this composition survives as a
posture, left leg crossed over wall painting in the Jade Peak
the pendant right, the painting Temple (C: Yufengsi), in Lijiang,
evokes elements of both the Yunnan.6 Such replicas were
Indian pensive bodhisattva type valued for conveying the spiritual
and the Chinese Water-Moon qualities of revered prototypes.
Guanyin. Yet departing from all
known iconographic precedents,
Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual
4. Avalokiteshvara, One of the cloth with silk mount; 39 3/8 x 20
progenitor, Amitabha, does not
Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Eastern 3/4 x 1/2 in.; The Rubin Museum
appear as a small
Tibet, 18th century; pigment on of Art, New York, C2008.9.

5. Four-Armed
Avalokiteshvara, China or
Tibet, 18th–19th century;
gilded metal with inlays;
10 1/4 x 7 1/4 in.; Jacques
Marchais Museum of
Tibetan Art, 85.04.0682.
The “Six-Syllable Lord of
the World” (S: Shadakshari
Lokeshvara) is a four-armed
esoteric—or tantric—form
of Avalokiteshvara. The
figure sits with legs
crossed (S: padmasana) on
a double-lotus throne—
indicating both yogic
attainment and divinity. A
small head of his spiritual
progenitor Amitabha—one
of Avalokiteshvara’s
most characteristic
attributes—rises above the
bodhisattva’s five-lobed
crown, and the skin of the
gentle krishnasara antelope connection to the Sanskrit
drapes over his left shoulder. mantra om mani padme hum (or
Fire gilding adorns this cast- mani mantra), which Tibetans
metal sculpture; the technique consider especially efficacious. 6. The All-seeing Lord Avalokiteshvara, Tibet, 14th–15th century; ground
of inlaid semiprecious stones Throughout contemporary mineral pigment on cotton; 29 1⁄4 x 25 1⁄4 x 1 1⁄4 in.; The Rubin Museum
derives from Nepal, as seen in Tibet, and within Tibetan of Art, New York, C2006.66.190.
cat. 3. refugee communities in India,
Avalokiteshvara is still depicted In the presence of Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara made a vow: “As long
This form of Avalokiteshvara much as he appears in Indian as there is even one being who has not attained awakening, I will
no doubt endures because iconography created more than strive for the benefit of all. And if I break this promise, may my head
of Shadakshari Lokeshvara’s ten centuries ago (compare figs. and body split into a thousand pieces.” The bodhisattva pursued this
10 and 36).

aspiration for eons but one day realized that—despite his heroic 7. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara
efforts—innumerable beings still remained in samsara. Despairing, he (Guanyin), China, Tang
burst into a thousand pieces. Amitabha reconstructed Avalokiteshvara, dynasty, late 7th–8th
giving him eleven faces and a thousand hands in order to increase his century; gilt leaded bronze,
ability to relieve suffering.7 piece-mold cast; H. 9 1/6 in.;
The Metropolitan Museum
Taken from one of the many legends recorded in the Mani Kabum, of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1933,
this Tibetan story provides an explanation for the multiple heads 33.91.
and arms in this form of Avalokiteshvara. The Thousand-armed Lord
of the World (S: Sahasrabhujalokeshvara) stands with ten heads in At a bit over nine inches tall,
addition to his smiling frontal face, his thousand arms forming a divine this gilt bronze Guanyin
nimbus. “All-seeing” because an eye appears on every palm, he gazes probably once stood on a
simultaneously in every direction. Rendered in an early Nepalese- home altar, the object of
inspired style, the striking central figure occupies a brilliant red, individual worship. Elevated
vibrant space, against a grid of small niches. above the ground on a double
lotus pedestal, the figure
Flanking Thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara are his attendants, derives the from Indian
the yellow “jewel-holding” Manidhara and white four-armed traditions in certain respects.
Shadakshari Mahavidya.8 Indian teachers, Tibetan lamas, the Eight Amitabha (C: Amituo), the
Great Bodhisattvas, various celestial buddhas, wrathful deities, and Buddha of Infinite Light, sits
protectors fill the niches. This arrangement conforms to the hierarchy on the bodhisattva’s crown;
of enlightened beings in Tibetan Buddhism. The main meditational an ambrosial vase appears in
deity looms large in the center, with the all-important lineage gurus his left hand. Yet the Chinese
occupying the highest position of respect.9 bodhisattva also departs
A medieval Indian nun, Bhikshuni Shri Lakshmi (T: Ani Palmo), from South Asian precedents
venerated this form of Avalokiteshvara and appears in the line in style and attributes.
of lineage gurus at top, second from the left, beside Shadakshari Although Indian artists
Lokeshvara (see fig. 10 and cat. 24). She promulgated a purification and depicted Avalokiteshvara
fasting ritual associated with this deity that Tibetans still practice in flowing garments, their
today. The invocation for this practice reads: depictions were more full
bodied and firmly situated
May the starving spirits be satiated, on the earth (see cat. 2). In
bathed, and always cooled by the streams contrast, Guanyin’s thin,
of milk flowing from the hands of animated scarves lend the
Arya-Avalokiteshvara.10 sculpture a weightless,

diaphanous quality. They fall in 8. White-robed Guanyin, brushstrokes, and splattered
calligraphic curves around the inscribed by Quanshi Zongle ink used to suggest Guanyin’s
bodhisattva’s sinuous, elongated (1318–1391), China, Ming dematerialized setting. Lacking
body, forming a complex dynasty, late 14th century; the usual attributes, such as
arrangement of void spaces. hanging scroll, ink on paper; a nimbus or willow branch,
image: 36 x 12 7/8 in., mount: 70 the bodhisattva resembles a
The willow branch held
x 17 5/8 in.; The Metropolitan scholarly gentleman rather
near the bodhisattva’s
Museum of Art, Edward Elliott than a Buddhist deity. The
shoulder represents the most
Family Collection, The Dillon contemplative Guanyin reposes
important Chinese innovation
Fund Gift, 1982, 1982.3.3. in quiet reverie.13
in this work. Although
Sanskrit texts mention the This monochrome ink Quanshi Zongle, who held
willow in association with depiction of White-robed an important administrative
Avalokiteshvara’s healing (S: Pandaravasini; C: Baiyi) position in the Chan
powers,11 the plant apparently Guanyin departs from earlier, institutional hierarchy, added
never appeared in Indian more ornamental and iconic the poem at upper left. Contrary
iconography. Chinese artists traditions. The thoroughly to the norms of Chinese writing,
were the first to feature the sinicized presentation the inscription reads from
willow as one of Guanyin’s nevertheless retains traces left to right. It begins with the
important attributes.12 And of Avalokiteshvara’s original sentence: “Like a speck of dust,
perhaps since Chinese Buddhists Indic symbolism. The artist ephemeral is the body, so is the
had little contact with Indian positions Guanyin resting doctrine ephemeral, like a speck
wandering ascetics, they often with head on hand, seated of dust.” The poem concludes
transformed Avalokiteshvara’s on a rocky promontory that with the insight that only
squat, spouted vessel (S: evokes Avalokiteshvara’s island when all beings have reached
kundika) (see fig. 6) into the Potalaka (which at this point, realization will Guanyin’s
elegant, slim-necked Guanyin many Chinese believed to be “all-compassionate heart rest.”14
vase seen here. located in their own country). Complementing the subtle
The figure gazes into an empty visual aspects of this painting,
expanse; only a ghostly moon the inscription makes clear
painted in reserve appears at how profoundly the Chinese
top left. The artist followed Avalokiteshvara exemplifies the
Chinese landscape conventions bodhisattva ideal.15
in the radically asymmetrical
composition, free gestural

9. White-robed Kannon elbow is a small vase containing
(Pandaravasini Avalokiteshvara), a willow branch.16 To the lower
Japan, Muromachi period, late left, Zenzai Doji (S: Sudhana)
14th century; hanging scroll, reverently bows. According
ink on silk; image: 37 15/16 x 19 to the Avatamsaka Sutra, this
3/8 in., mount: 73 1/4 x 23 15/16 youth sought the bodhisattva in
in.; Princeton University Art his quest for enlightenment.
Museum, Gift of Duane Wilder,
Class of 1951, y1992-6. The work brings together many
closely related iconographic
As with Baiyi Guanyin in cat. traditions. It contains elements
8, this depiction of White- of the Potalaka, Water-Moon,
robed (J: Byakue) Kannon is a Waterfall Gazing, and
model for the contemplative White-robed Kannon. This
life. Both works reflect the proliferation of overlapping
Chan/Zen penchant for forms poses challenges in
rendering the bodhisattva in assigning nomenclature.
monochrome ink, but this But such multiplicity is
painting’s style is much less thoroughly in keeping with the
gestural and abbreviated than bodhisattva’s many guises in the
that of the previous work. The Lotus Sutra; in that canonical
androgynous figure appears scripture, he displays a protean
in the bodhisattva’s paradise, ability to adopt any form in
known as Fudarakusan in order to benefit beings. In this
Japan, with finely painted manifestation, the bodhisattva
details that convey Kannon’s transmits wisdom to the
complex iconography and pilgrim, thereby assisting in
scriptural associations. Kannon the youth’s search for ultimate
reclines in a cross-legged truth.
position, resting head on hand
and dreamily gazing toward
a waterfall in the distance. A
transparent halo surrounds the
bodhisattva’s body, indicating
divine status. Near the right

10. White-robed Kannon, attributed to
Shugen (fl. 1469–1521), Japan, Muromachi
period; hanging scroll, ink on paper; 32
1⁄4 x 14 5/16 in.; The Frances Lehman Loeb
Art Center, Vassar College, Purchase, gift
of Mr. and Mrs. Leo Steinberg (Dorothy
Seiberling, class of 1943); Elizabeth
Woodcock, class of 1925; Bertha Mather
McPherson, class of 1928 and Philip
Johnson, by exchange, 2014.29.
This Japanese depiction closely
corresponds to the work in cat. 8—not
surprisingly, since White-robed Kannon
descends from Chinese sources developed
during the Tang period.17 Shimizu tells
us that “Zen traveled eastward in the late
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and
Japan was the soil on which it thrived.
Early Japanese paintings related to Zen
Buddhist themes reveal a wholesale
transplanting of both the genre and form
of works originating from China, mainly
because so many Japanese monks were
trained at Chinese monasteries, and a
group of Chinese masters trained monks
in Japan. Zen Buddhism ... provided Japan
with a source of extraordinary creative
energy that is unparalleled.”18
Following austere Chinese models, this work presents Byakue Kannon 11. Songzi Guanyin, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara as the Bestower of
without attributes, except for the enveloping white robe that forms a Children, China, late Ming or Qing dynasty, 17th–18th century;
hood over the bodhisattva’s head. Loose gestural brushstrokes barely sandalwood with traces of pigment and gilding, single-woodblock
define the figure against the blank background beyond Fudarakusan’s construction; 5 3/8 x 2 3/4 x 2 1/2 in.; The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
cliffs. The simple composition centers on the contemplative gesture of Rogers Fund, 1951, 51.15.
hand to chin, as Kannon serenely gazes into unarticulated space.

The Lotus Sutra recounts that Avalokiteshvara bestows children of 12. Nyoirin Kannon
either sex, depending on the mother’s wishes: (Chintamanichakra
Avalokiteshvara), Japan,
If a woman wishes to give birth to a male child, she should offer Edo period, ca. 1693;
obeisance and alms to Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds and wood with gold paint,
then she will bear a son blessed with merit, virtue and wisdom. And if gold leaf, lacquer, and
she wishes to bear a daughter, she will bear one with all the marks of crystal inlays; 16 9/16 x
comeliness, one who in the past planted the roots of virtue and is loved 12 1/8 x 10 1/4 in.; The
and respected by many persons.19 Metropolitan Museum
Despite this, the Chinese most often supplicated the Child-giving (C: of Art, Rogers Fund
Songzi) Guanyin for male heirs, the only gender qualified for the most 1956, 56.39.
prestigious profession of government service. Derived from the White- Nyoirin is an esoteric
robed form, Songzi Guanyin developed during the Ming dynasty. manifestation of
Missionaries and foreign visitors nicknamed this form of Guanyin Kannon, whose name
the “Goddess of Mercy.” European depictions of Mary and the Christ refers to the wish-
Child circulating in China during late Imperial period may have in part fulfilling jewel and the
inspired the iconography of this work. Yet unlike Mary, Guanyin never wheel of the Buddhist
bears children herself, only bestows them on others. 20 doctrine. This Japanese
Small in size, the sculpture was probably a precious object of personal form of Avalokiteshvara
devotion. Playing the role of fertility goddess, this Chinese form of often has six arms, two
Avalokiteshvara appears unambiguously feminine. Songzi wears of which typically hold
voluminous robes and cradles a child in her right arm; her left is now these objects. But this
missing. She tenderly supports her tiny charge, as if to respond to her two-armed Nyoirin
worshippers’ ardent desire for offspring. does not carry the attributes associated with his name. 21 However,
jewels and a wheel do adorn the figure’s necklace in this example.
According to Fowler, the jewel represents the promise of achieving
worldly goals like material success and good health. But these attributes
can also indicate larger aspirations, such as complete liberation from
the cycles of rebirth known as samsara.22
Carved of wood, and then lacquered and gilded, this beguiling
figure sits in a posture of royal ease amidst a golden pool of drapery
folds, while resting the left hand on a small pedestal meant to
suggest Fudarakusan. The other hand touches the cheek, in a
gesture of reflection. In materials, technique (such as lacquer), and

ornamentation, it is a 13. Descent of Eleven-headed manifestation sometimes seen in
thoroughly East Asian Kannon (Avalokiteshvara), Japan, Pure Land imagery.
creation. Yet the figure’s Kamakura period, 14th century;
posture and attributes Floating down from Gokuraku
hanging scroll, ink, color, gold,
suggest its Indian on a pedestal of clouds, a
and cut gold on silk; image: 33
ancestry, transmuted lotus supporting each foot,
15/16 x 15 1/4 in., mount: 64 1/4
through China. 23 Nyoirin Kannon emanates golden
x 19 1/2 in.; The Metropolitan
Kannon also manifests light rays while holding a vase
Museum of Art, Purchase,
Avalokiteshvara’s typical that contains a lotus. The
Charles Wrightsman Gift,
qualities of salvation bodhisattva’s right hand makes
Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, Dodge,
and mercy. A famous a compassionate gesture (S:
Pfeiffer and Rogers Funds, and
legend recounts that this varada mudra) derived from
funds from various donors, 1972,
form of the bodhisattva Indian iconographic traditions.
1972.181.
appeared in response to However, Juichimen here
Kukai’s prayers, as the In Pure Land iconography, actually has twelve faces, unlike
Shingon monk was in Kannon is the most important the usual Indic form, in which
danger of drowning. This attendant to the Buddha Amida all of the heads add up to eleven
deity quite frequently (S: Amitabha). He leads the (compare fig. 11). Directly above
is the principal object Welcoming Descent (J: Raigo) of the main face, six smaller ones
of worship in esoteric bodhisattvas who come to greet form a circle like a diadem;
Buddhist temples, for dying devotees and offers them four more are arranged above
example, at Nachi (see a lotus throne (fig. 24), which those, and a haloed Amida tops
cat. 18). An inscription symbolizes their transfer from them all. In addition, an icon
on the bottom of this the mundane world to Amida’s of this same buddha stands
sculpture reveals that pure realm of Gokuraku (S: on Kannon’s crown. Gorgeous
several women donated Sukhavati). In paintings, Kannon jewels and sumptuous fabrics
it to a Japanese temple in usually appears within the adorn the androgynous deity,26
1693. 24 bodhisattva entourage, but some contributing to a radiant vision
depictions, such as an important of the bodhisattva that reflects
Kamakura period scroll in the splendor of Amida’s Pure
Todaiji, Nara, show Kannon Land.
alone. This example resembles
the Todaiji work in presenting
a single Eleven-headed (J:
Juichimen) Kannon,25 an esoteric

Pilgrimage
According to Naquin and Yu, pilgrimage gives “individuals a direct
experience of the transcendent and an opportunity to show devotion
and seek blessings.”27 In medieval India, Avalokiteshvara’s legendary
island Potalaka represented the ultimate destination for seekers of
the bodhisattva, and as his worship spread throughout Asia, each
country established its own locations for face-to-face encounters
with the deity. The scrolls and sculptures seen here relate to several
of Avalokiteshvara’s most important pilgrimage sites: the Potala
Palace and Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Tibet (cats. 14, 15); the Saigoku
pilgrimage route in Japan (cats. 18, 19); and Guanyin’s most important
center of worship in China, Mount Putuo Island (cat. 17, fig. 40). Such
places have seen a resurgence of Buddhist pilgrimage in recent decades,
especially at Mount Putuo and Lhasa.
By the Edo period (1615–1868), the Saigoku pilgrimage was replicated
many times at different locations in Japan. Several mountains were
designated Japanese versions of Potalaka, including Mount Myoho
Fig. 40. A View of Mount Putuo of the Southern Sea, China, late 19 th century; cloth,
paper, pigment, wood, metal, string; image: 21 5/8 x 39 15/16 in., scroll: 27 15/16 x 44 1/16
in.; Courtesy of the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History,
70/11655.

at Nachi. 28 A 15th-century 14. Phagpa Lokeshvara, Nepal, was removed for re-gilding, the
inscription encouraged Japanese 16th–17th century; ivory; H. 5 researcher Ian Alsop discovered
pilgrims to visit such places: “If 1/2 in.; The Newark Museum, the work’s simple, archaic
you once travel there, you will Purchase 1973 Wallace M. composition, reproduced here
be protected from all afflicting Scudder Bequest Fund, 73.130. in this ivory replica. The figure
boils and painful disasters. has a three-lobed, mitre-like
The ten evils and five sins will The Tibetan epithet crown, the hair is bunched in
vanish when you once set foot phagpa means noble, so this a large bun on each side of the
on that holy site. And peace, unusual manifestation of head, and from the ears dangle
in this world and the next, is Avalokiteshvara is the Noble bell-like earrings. It wears a
guaranteed to whomever makes Lord of the World. Despite simple loincloth and low-slung
pilgrimage there.”29 Countless its small size, this sculpture sash across the hips (a sign of
pilgrims over many centuries evokes one of the holiest Nepalese workmanship). Both
have traveled to Avalokiteshvara’s objects of worship in Tibet; arms hang down his sides; the
sacred sites seeking such worldly the original resides in its right hand—now lost—would
and spiritual benefits. own chapel in the Potala have displayed an open palm—
Palace, where—according to the gesture of generosity. A
tradition—it may have served small square recess in the back
as King Songtsen Gampo’s probably once held consecratory
personal icon. The Potala material.
Phagpa Lokeshvara has been
frequently and faithfully Ivory icons are rare in the
copied in wood, metal, and in Himalayas, and the work—
this case, ivory.30 although small—would have
been expensive. No doubt its
Over the centuries, many original owner acquired it as
pious worshippers have visited an auspicious or protective
the Potala to venerate Phagpa object. It may have also been the
Lokeshvara. Some donate focus of practice and personal
funds to refresh the statue’s devotion. Perhaps it was even a
gilding; photographs reveal pious memento of a pilgrimage of Mahayana Buddhism in the
thick, bumpy layers of paint to the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Himalayas, and because of its
on the face, giving evidence According to Alsop, the prestige and importance, many
of frequent re-applications. original Phagpa Lokeshvara is a small replicas such as this one
On a rare occasion when precious relic of the early years were produced.31
Phagpa Lokeshvara’s clothing

15. Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara, eleven-headed form. According
Tibet or China, 17th–18th to legend, the Tibetan king
century; gilded bronze; 15 15/16 Songtsen Gampo miraculously
x 9 1/2 in.; Jacques Marchais manifested a life-sized clay
Museum of Tibetan Art, statue of Eleven-headed and
85.04.0160. Ten-armed Avalokiteshvara.
Filled with consecrated items,32
Like Phagpa Lokeshvara (cat. 14), including a smaller sandalwood
this modestly scaled sculpture statue of Avalokiteshvara from
reproduces a monumental India, the sculpture initially
sacred image in the Tibetan served as Songtsen Gampo’s
capital, Lhasa. The standing main meditational deity in his
Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara Potala residence; later, the king
displays the typically Indic moved it to the Northern Inner
array of heads that gives this Sanctum of the Jokhang Temple
form its name. They tower in Lhasa. At some point over
above the main face like a lofty its history in the Jokhang, the
crown. Various attributes statue acquired one thousand
reflect Avalokiteshvara’s wide- arms, with an eye in the
ranging powers: Amitabha icon, palm of each hand. Known as
dharma wheel, lotus, jewel, Mahakarunika, it has been the
bow and arrow, and vase. (The most sacred of all images there,
customary prayer beads are with the exception of Jowo
missing.) Directly addressing Shakyamuni. Tibetan pilgrims
the worshipper before him, venerate it in the Jokhang’s
Avalokiteshvara makes the Supreme Compassion Chapel.33
typical gesture of generosity with For the original owner of this
the lower right hand, while the replica, probably familiar with
central ones come together in the its reference to the sacred image
respectful anjali mudra. in Lhasa, this statue of Eleven-
Departing from canonical headed Avalokiteshvara may
iconography, the figure has ten well have been an artifact of an
arms instead of the usual eight, imagined pilgrimage, not one
indicating a special variant of the actually undertaken.

16. Kannon (Avalokiteshvara), Indian traditions, especially the
Japan, Edo period (1615–1868); relaxed posture, Amitabha in
hanging scroll, ink and color the elaborate headdress, and the
on silk; image: 61 7/8 x 33 in., South Asian-derived ornaments
mount: 87 7/8 x 39 1/2 in.; The and flowing garments. But
Frances Lehman Loeb Art certain features are distinctively
Center, Vassar College, Gift of East Asian: the cliffs that
Daniele Selby ’13, 2014.20.1. resemble Chinese scholar’s rocks;
the feminization of the figure;
A 7th-century Chinese pilgrim and the sinicized attribute of
to India described how avidly a vase with willow branch.35
followers of Avalokiteshvara Pan-Asian iconographic and
pursued him: “Those who stylistic currents coexist in this
strongly desire to see this painting, and together, they
Bodhisattva do not regard create a visionary presentation
their lives, but crossing the of Kannon looming over the
water ... climb the mountain diminutive pilgrim who stands
forgetful of its difficulties and in awe at the bodhisattva’s feet.
dangers.”34 Such is one context According to Shinno Toshikazu,
for understanding this depiction pilgrimage is “one of the great
of Kannon on Fudarakusan, pillars” of Japanese religion,36 and
the Japanese name for the the desire for direct contact with
bodhisattva’s paradise. Given Kannon’s presence has motivated
its monumental size, the work many a journey.
probably once hung in a temple
or a large private residence.
Many features identify the
setting as Kannon’s island realm,
including the steep, craggy cliffs
overhanging turbulent waves,
and the presence of Zenzai
Doji—the boy pilgrim known
as Sudhana in Sanskrit—in
the lower left corner. Several
iconographic elements evoke

17. The Complete Map of the in search of direct encounters
Imperially Established South Sea with the bodhisattva.38
Mount Putuo Area, China, Qing
This hand-painted early-
period, early 20th century;
twentieth-century map outlines
hand-colored woodblock print;
the prescribed route for
43 5/16 x 24 7/8 in.; Courtesy of
pilgrims, helpfully indicating
the Division of Anthropology,
the customary paths with
American Museum of Natural
curving orange lines. It also
History, ASIA/0578.
labels the important stops on the
The Chinese consider mountains pilgrim’s quest. Eye catching yet
to be abodes of the deities, surprisingly abstract, the map
and going on pilgrimage is probably served as a souvenir for
literally “paying one’s respect the returning visitor rather than
to a mountain.” 37 This colorful an actual guide for navigating
map depicts Mount Putuo (C: the island’s pilgrimage sites.39
Putuoshan), one of China’s Four
Vulnerable to bandits and
Sacred Mountains and Guanyin’s
marauding military brigades,
special domain. A Chinese
the buildings on Putuoshan
surrogate for Avalokiteshvara’s
have been destroyed many times
legendary Indian island,
over the course of the island’s
Putuoshan is a small, hilly
history, most recently during
landmass off the coast of
the Cultural Revolution. In
Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. At
the 21st century, reconstructed
Putuoshan, Guanyin is said to
monastery complexes and
appear miraculously in a blaze
manicured grounds once
of golden light at the Cave of
again attract large numbers of
Tidal Sound (this location is
pilgrims, and a modern sixty-
marked on the map in the lower
five foot statue of Guanyin
left corner). Over time, pilgrims
now dramatically reasserts the
experienced Guanyin’s presence
bodhisattva’s presence on the
at different spots on the island.
island. 40
For hundreds of years, their
testimonials have encouraged
others to journey to Putuoshan

circuit during the early modern didactic purpose, reflecting
period (see cat. 19). The Nachi the perspective of ordinary
Pilgrimage Mandala depicts pilgrims—here a man and
this important site, the first woman appearing over ten times
stop on the Saigoku circuit. as they travel through the sacred
Many pilgrimage mandalas (J: precinct. 42
sankei mandara) such as this one
survive from the 17th century, Dressed in white pilgrims’ garb
depicting at least a dozen and carrying staffs, the couple
sites. About twenty-five Nachi enters at lower right near the red
mandara remain, by far the most gate that marks the spot where
frequently represented subject. 41 passengers seeking Kannon’s
paradise depart in boats for
Although it portrays a sacred Fudarakusan. The pilgrims wind
realm, this type of “mandala” their way along the narrow
departs iconographically from paths between many temples
the Indian esoteric tradition; it and other significant landmarks,
is a pictorial map in contrast to a a journey that culminates
two-dimensional diagram of the on Mount Myoho at top left.
cosmos, as seen in cat. 25. The During their journey, the couple
picture’s flattened composition will certainly pay homage to
and boldly outlined features Nyoirin, the Saigoku pilgrimage
contrast sharply with the icon at Nyoirindo (now called
refined Japanese ink paintings Seigantoji), and ask for Kannon’s
represented in this exhibition blessings. 43
18. Nachi Pilgrimage Mandala, Japan, Edo period, 16th–early 17th (cats. 9 and 10), reflecting
century; hanging scroll, ink, colors, and gold leaf on paper; 59 x 59 1/2 the practical intentions of
in.; The Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, Vassar College, Pratt Fund mandara painters and their
and Betsy Mudge Wilson, Class of 1956, Memorial Fund, Purchase, patrons. Itinerant priests and
2004.10. nuns used such large pictures
to illustrate lectures, as they
Already established as a place for the worship of local gods (J: kami), toured the country promoting
Nachi became part of the Kumano pilgrimage during the 11th century the practice of pilgrimage to lay
in Japan. Faith in Kannon and in Pure Land salvation motivated believers. The clear, well-defined
pilgrims to journey to Nachi, which was incorporated into the Saigoku features advance the mandara’s

19. Saigoku Pilgrimage the principal image of Kannon, us—“how could we imagine he
Scroll, Japan, Meiji often kept secret and revealed would pass away from a sudden
period, late 19th to visitors only once a year, illness?” Taro had the scroll
century; ink stamps on once every thirty-three years, or mounted in 1897, perhaps as a
paper mounted on silk; never. Hidden in closed shrines, memorial during the traditional
mounted prints: 36 x 14 such images—most frequently forty-nine day mourning period
5/8 in., mount: 58 1/2 x 22 in the form of the Thousand- following the death of his
3/4 in.; Private Collection. armed, Nyoirin (see cat. 12), father. The accumulated array
or Eleven-headed Kannon (see of Kannon images, many in the
Since the Heian cat. 13)44 —are no less spiritually thousand-armed form, gives an
period (794–1185), potent for their inaccessibility. impression of the bodhisattva’s
Kannon’s followers have In fact, their status as secret limitless presence. 46
undertaken the Western icons intensifies their mystique.
Provinces pilgrimage (J: As a substitute for direct access
Saigoku junrei) in hopes to Kannon’s visible form, each
of miracles, penance, or temple offers small prints
adventure. Some traverse (J: ofuda) of their icons, and
it on behalf of departed pilgrims often collect these
loved ones or to improve images, occasionally affixing
their own karma. At first, them to scrolls that encompass
only religious ascetics and all of Saigoku’s thirty-three
aristocrats undertook the stops. As such, these works
arduous 620-mile circuit, represent the entire pilgrimage
but by the Edo period in miniature. 45
(1615–1868), the Saigoku
junrei had become a An inscription on the back of
popular endeavor, with this scroll tells its history and
Nachi as its first stop attests to the filial piety of Taro,
(cat. 18). At each of its son of the pilgrim who collected
thirty-three stations (the all the examples of ofuda seen
number corresponding here while traversing the
to Avalokiteshvara’s Saigoku junrei. The father had
manifestations in the intended to assemble the icons
Lotus Sutra), a pilgrimage into a scroll format, but—as
temple’s main hall houses the inscription poignantly tells

Practice
This section highlights representative objects in relation to daily
spiritual activities, such as spinning prayer wheels (cat. 26, fig. 41),
reciting, copying, or venerating sutras (cats. 20-22), paying homage to
statues and paintings (cats. 23, 28-30), reciting mantras (cat. 27), and
engaging in elaborate Vajrayana techniques of visualizing the deity
(cat. 24). Both art and practice aim to purify devotees of impediments
blocking their potential for unbiased wisdom and compassion so that
they themselves can emulate Avalokiteshvara. Although each country
represented in this exhibition, and every Mahayana subdivision
within these countries, has different traditions and forms of practice,
the common goal is to seek liberation and assist others in achieving
ultimate freedom. The prayer wheel, beads, mandala, devotional
icons, thangka, and calligraphic texts in this section establish
Avalokiteshvara’s key role in assisting devotees to attain Mahayana
Buddhism’s most sacred goals.
Fig. 41: Elderly Tibetan Woman with Prayer Wheel and Recitation Beads, Lhasa Barkhor,
Tibet, 2006.

beautifully adorned texts helped auspiciousness and efficacy.
establish the Pala painting
style in the Himalayan region. Padmapani appears on the
Written in lantsa (or kutila) third leaf, the bodhisattva’s
script, this manuscript is one white form outlined in black
of the most revered sutras in against a bright red background.
Mahayana Buddhism, the His presence does not directly
Perfection of Wisdom Sutra correlate with the contents
in Eight Thousand Lines. 47 of this page of the text, but
To commission or execute elsewhere, the Prajnaparamita
such a lavish manuscript was Sutra praises Avalokiteshvara
believed to garner enormous as Lokanatha, “Lord of the
merit for the patron as well as Universe, he who protects the
the artist. Monasteries such world.” His appearance here may
as Nalanda and Vikramashila represent his role as protector. 49
once contained huge numbers
of such works, preserved
between wooden covers and
stored on library shelves.
Material evidence, such as the
residue of offerings, indicates
that Prajnaparamita texts
were treated as icons to be
venerated. 48
The long, narrow pages conform
20. Five Leaves from an Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Manuscript, to the natural size of a palm leaf.
India, Bihar, Nalanda monastery, Pala period, late 11th century; Two holes in each leaf indicate
ink and opaque watercolor on palm leaf; each approx. 2 7/8 x 22 3/8 where threads passed through
in.; Asia Society, New York, Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd the stack to form a “book.” Eight
Acquisitions Fund, 1987.1. major life scenes of the Buddha
bracket the central depictions of
These five palm leaves are among a handful of surviving illustrated bodhisattvas with their retinues.
medieval manuscripts, all that remains of a once flourishing Indian These “ornaments” were believed
Buddhist painting tradition. Carried to Nepal and Tibet, such to increase the manuscript’s

21. Sumidera Heart Sutra
(Sumidera shingyo), Japan, Nara
period, 710–794; handscroll,
ink on paper; 9 x 16 11/16 in.;
Princeton University Art
Museum, Museum purchase,
Fowler McCormick, Class of
1921, Fund, 2012-99.
This scripture is the “heart”—or
distilled essence—of the
lengthy Prajnaparamita Sutra,
an early Mahayana text. The
Heart Sutra unmasks the
mind’s tendency to imagine
things as solid, concrete,
and independent of the
conditions from which they
arise. As an alternative, it
offers an awakened, nondual
perspective on perceptions
and experience—in other
words, the perspective of a
buddha. Mahayana Buddhists
believe that a bird cannot fly
without two wings; so too
wisdom cannot thrive without northeast corner (J: sumidera) left, and from top to bottom. A sophisticated philosophical
compassion. Appropriately, it of ancient Nara in Japan. An abbreviated title appears treatise, the Heart Sutra is also
is Avalokiteshvara who speaks The temple’s location gives in the upper right corner. chanted to ensure stability,
the Heart Sutra’s message. the Sumidera Heart Sutra its Most columns have seventeen peace, and the prevention of
name. This form of Japanese characters, standard for sutra natural disasters.52 Copying it by
According to tradition, the calligraphy—“standard transcriptions in China and hand is a meritorious ritual act;
great teacher Kukai is said script”—(J: kaisho) is based on Japan during this period. One this particularly embodied form
to have ritually copied this Tang Chinese prototypes.50 column of eighteen characters of Buddhist practice occurs at
text in a temple located in the The text reads from right to gives the sutra’s Sanskrit many Japanese temples.
mantra.51

This text entitled the Illustrated century Chinese illustrated
Miracles of Kannon derives from manuscripts.55 Here a grimacing
the Universal Gateway chapter villain with a threatening spear
of the Lotus Sutra. The chapter has forced the white-robed
focuses solely on Avalokiteshvara man off the cliff. Sharp spikes
and is often excerpted as a below indicate the falling man’s
stand-alone scripture called the certain death, but the calm,
Guanyin Sutra, or in Japanese, seated bodhisattva comes to the
Kannonkyo. It begins with a rescue. “The long arm of Kuan-
dialogue between Shakyamuni yin stretches across the sky and
and a bodhisattva named reaches the man in trouble,” in
Inexhaustible Intent who wants Murase’s words.56 The elongated
to know why Avalokiteshvara is arm is a delightful visual
called “Perceiver of the World’s invention, and the picture quite
Sounds.” The Buddha recounts vividly brings to life a passage
Avalokiteshvara’s thirty-three from the Lotus Sutra: “Suppose
forms and the many deeds he you are pursued by evil men who
performs for his followers.53 wish to throw you down from
a diamond mountain. Think on
Because East Asian Buddhists the power of the Perceiver of
revere this text, many versions Sounds and they cannot harm a
of the Guanyin Sutra exist, hair of you!”57
some lavishly hand painted, and
others, inexpensively printed.
During the Ming and Qing
periods, the sutra appeared most
often in folding book form. The
earliest Japanese versions of the
Kannonkyo are handscrolls,54
but this later deluxe edition
22. Page from the Illustrated Miracles of Kannon, Gold-Inscribed Kannon adopts the Chinese book format.
Chapter of the Lotus Sutra, Japan, Edo period (1615–1868); silk, ink, and It includes more than twenty
gold; 14 1/2 x 13 1/2 in.; The Newark Museum, Purchase 1909 George T. scenes in two volumes. The
Rockwell Collection, 9.2314. scene depicted in this example
can be found in early-15th-

23. Avalokiteshvara, India, Pala
period, 9th century; copper alloy; 4
1/2 x 3 x 2 1/8 in.; long-term loan from
the Nyingjei Lam Collection to The
Rubin Museum of Art, New York,
L2005.9.4.
This is the only metal sculpture
in this exhibition to retain its
full-body halo, which symbolizes
Avalokiteshvara’s radiating spiritual
energy. At first glance, the sculpture
seems to depict Padmapani, one of
Avalokiteshvara’s earliest and most
widespread manifestations in India
(compare fig. 7). His left hand holds
the eponymous padma or lotus, while
the right makes the characteristic
gesture of generosity, and an image
of Amitabha appears on the crown. Yet closer inspection reveals two
additional arms, one holding prayer beads, the other grasping what
appears to be a three-stalked staff (S: tridanda), a wandering ascetic’s
attribute that sometimes appears with multi-armed Indian statues of
Avalokiteshvara.58 The sculpture’s multiple limbs suggest an early tantric
form.
Like the Tang Chinese work in cat. 7, this small cast-metal sculpture no 24. The All-seeing Lord with Four Arms, Avalokiteshvara Chaturbhuja,
doubt served as a personal icon, easily carried on pilgrimage or placed on Tibet, 14th–15th century; pigment on cloth; 22 1/4 x 18 1/2 in.; The
a home altar as a focus for practice. Because of the wear on the sculpture, Rubin Museum of Art, New York, C2002.8.1.
its owners most likely frequently lustrated it, ritually bathing the object Practitioners visualize this four-armed (S: chaturbhuja) form of
with unguents like butter and fragrant liquids. Yijing, a 7th-century Avalokiteshvara when reciting the mantra om mani padme hum.
Chinese pilgrim to North India, wrote of such embodied devotional As Studholme observes, the Tibetan use of this mantra “is a basic,
activities when he lived at the renowned monastic community of foundational practice taught to children and beginners. Yet it is also a
Nalanda. He advised practitioners to offer flowers and incense and bathe practice that not even the most advanced practitioner would ever wish
the sculptures with water, also cleaning them with a perfumed paste to leave behind. Its recitation is one of the central pillars of the Tibetan
made of ground sandalwood. Yijing counseled his readers to treat sacred religious system.” 60
images as if the worshipper were actually in the Buddha’s presence.59

Shadakshari 25. Avalokiteshvara Mandala, in the work is purely decorative;
Lokeshvara India, Dharamsala, September every item brims with meaning
(Six-Syllable Lord 1991; painting on cloth; image: and associations. A series of
of the World) sits 22 3/4 x 22 3/4 in., framed: 29 3/4 concentric circles, made up of
in the center of x 29 1/2 in.; Jacques Marchais flames, thunderbolts (S: vajra),
this religious icon Museum of Tibetan Art, and multicolored lotus petals
(T: thangka), with 92.11.1025. defines the outer boundaries
elongated torso the deity’s sacred realm; within,
and slender waist. Tibetan mandalas appear in a field contains auspicious
This early Tibetan numerous forms and serve many symbols and meditating adepts.
painting has purposes. They play a part in Brightly colored superimposed
Nepalese-inspired tantric initiations and are aids squares indicate the floor plan
stylistic features, to meditation and visualization, of Chenrezig’s palace, with
such as the functioning as a repository ornamental gateways opening in
intensely red color of significant symbols and each of the cardinal directions.
scheme juxtaposed elemental relationships that An eight-petaled lotus appears
against a dark blue can be memorized and brought in the palace, with the deity
field scattered to mind during practice. An occupying the center. He does
with flowers. anonymous expatriate artist not manifest here in bodily
Avalokiteshvara’s in Dharamsala executed this form, as in fig. 9, but as a
serene, composed reincarnates life after life to example, commissioned to honor pinkish-white lotus that signifies
visage conveys encouragement guide his followers.61 Painted red the Dalai Lama during his visit both Chenrezig and the head of
to those who aspire to emulate and standing in the right border in 1991 to the Jacques Marchais the Padma family, Amitabha.
his compassionate equanimity. is Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual Museum of Tibetan Art on Symbols of the other Wisdom
In his right hand, he holds a tiny mentor, Buddha Amitabha. Staten Island. Since the Tibetan Buddhas stand symmetrically
string of prayer beads (S: mala), Below, several seated lay devotees people consider their spiritual on four of the petals radiating
an indication of mantra practice. make abundant offerings to leader to be an emanation of from the center. In using such a
To the left of Avalokiteshvara’s their meditational deity.62 They Avalokiteshvara (T: Chenrezig), mandala, the practitioner would
head, a small figure wearing a pay homage to a bodhisattva the Museum requested a internally generate an entire
ceremonial black hat represents who—as John Huntington Chenrezig mandala for this perfected cosmos, identifying
the Karma Kagyu lineage, one of notes—“represents the paradigm occasion.64 with the central deity. All
the four great schools of Tibetan of the perfected practitioner.” 63 meditative activities aim to
The painter followed traditional
Buddhism. This is the Gyalwang Tibetan iconography in this emulate Chenrezig’s wisdom and
Karmapa, who willingly modern rendering. No element compassion.

26. Prayer Wheel, Tibet, 27. Mother of Pearl
19th century; metal, wood, Prayer Beads, Tibet,
bone, paper; 11 x 2 3⁄4 in.; early 19th century;
The Newark Museum, Gift mother of pearl, coral,
of Mary Pyne Cutting, ivory, silver alloy,
1982, 82.82, photo: Robert copper alloy; 21 3/4 x 2
Goodbody, Courtesy of 1/8 x 1/2 in.; The Rubin
The Newark Museum. Museum of Art, New
York, Gift of Anne
Popular in Tibet for Breckenridge Dorsey,
at least five centuries, C2012.49.
the prayer wheel comes
in different sizes and Employed throughout
functions in many contexts. Usually a metal cylinder, the wheel Asia, Buddhist prayer
rotates on an axle, around which are wound strips of paper inscribed beads (S: mala) serve to
with mantras (most commonly om mani padme hum). Attached to count the repetitions
the drum is a weight at the end of a chain (missing in this example), of a sacred utterance,
which maintains the wheel’s motion when in use. Practitioners spin similar to the way
it clockwise, believing that this multiplies many thousands-fold the Christians use rosaries.
effects of activating the sacred syllables.65 They come in various
forms: wrist malas have separately attached counter
The decoration on this hand prayer wheel includes Avalokiteshvara’s twenty-one or twenty-seven beads, appearing here on two
mantra om mani padme hum in large letters circling the barrel. Written beads; most longer versions, like beautiful red silk cords with
in lantsa—an Indian-derived script often used to write mantras and this example, are composed of tassels. The silver bell and
scriptures—the syllables are punctuated with icons of the five Wisdom 108 primary beads, an auspicious thunderbolt ornaments on the
Buddhas. A bone collar reduces the friction of the rotating metal number in ancient Indian and counters symbolize wisdom and
against the wooden handle. At the top of the barrel, a band of skulls Tibetan traditions. A larger compassion. When not in use,
reminds the user of impermanence. This memento mori spurs the “guru bead” helps practitioners malas are worn like a necklace or
Buddhist practitioner to engage in vigorous practice. note when they have completed wrapped around the left wrist.67
Numerous complex practices involve prayer wheels, including many a full cycle of mantra recitation,
Malas come in a variety of
that require the visualization of light. One instructional text states: as do the spacer beads, made of
materials that correspond to
“Light beams from the great Dharma wheel take the delusions [and] coral in this Tibetan example.
different practices. For the six-
sufferings ... of all sentient beings in the six realms and cause these to As hundreds and thousands
syllable mantra om mani padme
be collected and absorbed into the six-syllable wheel. All the disturbing of repetitions accumulate,
hum, the practitioner usually
thoughts, karmas, seeds, and imprints are burnt, destroyed, and the practitioner moves
purified.”66

chooses a white or crystal mala,
like the one Avalokiteshvara
holds in cat. 24. Purportedly
once owned by a princess in
Eastern Tibet, this mala is made
of especially fine and hard-to-
obtain materials.68
Buddhist prayer beads are
more than just counting
devices. Often blessed by the
practitioner’s teacher, the
implement is thought to embody
the beneficial power of mantra
recitation and the lineage that
promulgates the practice. While
wishing to free all beings from
suffering, the meditator recites
the mani mantra, moving
one bead for every repetition
28. Amitayus, China, Qing 29. White Tara, Sino-Tibetan, 30. Six-Syllable Lord of the World
of the six syllables. In the
dynasty, 18th century; gilt 19th century; bronze with cold (Shadakshari Lokeshvara), Tibet,
Tibetan system, each syllable
bronze; H. 7 1/8 in.; The Frances gold and inlays; H. 7 in.; The 18th century; gilt bronze; H.
corresponds to the six realms of
Lehman Loeb Art Center, Frances Lehman Loeb Art 5 3/4 in.; The Frances Lehman
samsara. A skilled practitioner
Vassar College, Gift of Daniele Center, Vassar College, Gift of Loeb Art Center, Vassar
imagines Avalokiteshvara’s
Selby ’13, 2014.31.4. Daniele Selby ’13, 2014.31.1. College, Gift of Daniele Selby ’13,
transformative effects in each of
2014.31.3.
these realms as she repeats the
mantra.69

Amitayus (cat. 28), the Buddha of Infinite Life, is an alternative Notes to Catalogue
form of Amitabha (see cat. 1), but unlike the latter—who wears
monkish robes—he is adorned with celestial jewels and a five-lobed Entries
crown. In his lavish adornments, he resembles a bodhisattva, and
as his name indicates, Amitayus serves as a focus of longevity 1 In art, these figures often flank either 8 Manidhara (Manidharin) is thought
practices. So too does the female bodhisattva shown here sitting Shakyamuni or Amitabha and include to be male, Shadakshari Mahavidya,
such well-known bodhisattvas as female. The iconography for these two
on a high throne, White Tara (cat. 29). She is distinguished from Manjushri, Maitreya, and Vajrapani, attendant figures is not fixed, and artists
her related manifestation Green Tara (fig. 5) by her seated crossed- as well as more obscure ones, such as sometimes render them in different
Sarvanivaranavishkambin. colors with varying numbers of arms.
legged posture in padmasana. Similar to many esoteric forms
2 Jeff Watt, Amitabha Buddha, no. 85, Compare Avalokiteshvara, no. 73807,
of Avalokiteshvara, she has additional eyes: in her case, on the Himalayan Art Resources (hereafter HAR, http://www.himalayanart.org/im-
palms, forehead, and soles of the feet. This increases her efficacy HAR), http://www.himalayanart.org/ age.cfm?iCode=73807&submit2=Search,
accessed March 29, 2013.
in assisting devotees. The statue evinces the typical Tibetan image.cfm?iCode=85&submit2=Search,
accessed June 24, 2013. 9 Jeff Watt, Avalokiteshvara, no. 211, HAR,
technique of applying paint, or “cold gold,” to deities’ faces. Finally, http://www.himalayanart.org/image.
3 Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist
Avalokiteshvara (T: Chenrezig) (cat. 30) completes the familial triad. Iconography, 129; Huntington and cfm?iCode=211&submit2=Search,
According to Tibetan tradition, Chenrezig emerged in a ray of light Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi Tree, accessed June 24, 2013.
emanating from his spiritual father, Amitabha/Amitayus, while 159–61. 10 From the Eleven-headed, Thousand-
armed Avalokiteshvara practice.
White Tara in turn was born from the bodhisattva’s compassionate 4 Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara in the Form
Wayman, Buddhist Tantras, 79. See
of Khasarpana Lokeshvara, 1979.40, Asia
tears. Society Museum: The Collection in also Barbara Lipton and Nima Dorjee
Context, http://www.asiasocietymu- Ragnubs, Treasures of Tibetan Art:
seum.org/search_object.asp?keywords Collections of the Jacques Marchais
=khasarpana&ObjectID=544, accessed Museum of Tibetan Art (Staten Island,
March 11, 2013. N.Y.: Jacques Marchais Museum, 1996),
149.
5 Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1979.47,
Asia Society Museum: The Collection 11 The Dharani Sutra of Invoking
in Context, http://www.asiasocietymu- Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva to Dissipate
seum.org/search_object.asp?keywords Poison and Harm, translated during
=bodhisattva+avalokiteshvara&Object the Eastern Qin dynasty (317–420),
ID=551, accessed March 21, 2013. recounts that Shakymuni told those
suffering from horrible diseases to offer
6 Junghee Lee, “The Origins and Avalokiteshvara willow branches and
Development of the Pensive Bodhisattva pure water. Yu, Kuan-yin, 49, 78–83.
Images of Asia,” Artibus Asiae 53 (1993): Mark MacWilliams, “Living Icons:
311–57; Debreczeny, “Bodhisattvas Reizō Myths of the Saikoku Pilgrimage,”
South of the Clouds,” 222–51; Jeff Watt, Monumenta Nipponica 59 (Spring 2004):
Avalokiteshvara, no. 65829, HAR, 56, n73, notes that the willow plant con-
http://www.himalayanart.org/image. tains an analgesic, now commonly used
cfm?iCode=65829&submit2=Search, in aspirin, so the symbolism probably
accessed June 24, 2013. has a basis in ancient medical practice.
7 Bokar Rinpoche, Chenrezig, 32–33.

12 Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), century, 1998.1, Asia Society Museum: 24 MacWilliams, “Living Icons,” 60, 62. My diaphanous textiles and compressed
late 6th century, 12.161, The The Collection in Context, http://www. thanks to Sinead Vilbar for information torso.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, http:// asiasocietymuseum.org/search_object. about this work and its inscription.
36 Quoted in Ian Reader and Paul L.
www.metmuseum.org/collection/the- asp?keywords=byakue+kannon&Obje
25 Compare fig. 158, in Okazaki, Pure Swanson, “Editors’ Introduction:
collection-online/search/54208?rpp=30 ctID=504, accessed May 8, 2013. Note
Land Buddhist Painting, 157. Another Pilgrimage in the Japanese Religious
&pg=1&ft=12.161&pos=1, accessed May 1, that a spouted Indian kundika holds the
contemporaneous example is in the Tradition,” Japanese Journal of Religious
2014. willow rather than a Chinese Guanyin
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 11.4046. Studies 24 (Fall 1997): 225.
ping.
13 Shimizu compares the White-robed
26 Careful inspection reveals a tiny 37 Naquin and Yu, “Introduction,” 11.
Guanyin/Kannon to a Daoist recluse 17 Shimizu and Wheelwright, Japanese Ink
moustache and goatee on the bodhisat-
or Confucian scholar. “White-Robed Paintings, 48–49. Elsewhere, Shimizu 38 Daisy Yiyou Wang, “The Complete Map of
tva’s face.
Kannon,” late 14th-15th century, Asia states that in “the twelfth century, the Imperially Established South Sea Mount
Society, 1998.1, cat. 42, in Levine and an iconographic sketch (dated 1088) 27 Naquin and Yu, “Introduction,” 3. Putuo Area,” cat. 38, in Proser, Pilgrimage
Lippit, Awakenings, 186. This, of course, of Guanyin on Putuoluo was copied and Buddhist Art, 94; Yu, “P’u-t’o Shan,”
28 Ten Grotenhuis, “Saikoku Pilgrimage,”
contrasts with Yu’s reading of this form by the Japanese and included in the 190–245.
130; ten Grotenhuis, Japanese Mandalas,
as feminine. voluminous collection of drawings ... 161. 39 Wang, “Complete Map,” 94.
kept at the monastery Ninnaji in Kyoto.”
14 White-robed Guanyin, 1982.3.3, The 29 Quoted in D. Max Moerman, “Picture 40 Louise Tythacott, The Lives of Chinese
“Guanyin of Putuoluo,” 174.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, http:// Scroll of the Origins of the Kumano Objects: Buddhism, Imperialism, and
www.metmuseum.org/collection/the- 18 Shimizu, “Zen Art?”, 95. Deities,” in Pilgrimage and Buddhist Art, Display (New York: Berghahn Books,
collection-online/search/36140, accessed ed. Adriana Proser (New York: Asia 2011), 38. This author states that as of
19 Watson, Lotus Sutra, 300.
October 11, 2013. The tradition of Chan Society Museum, 2010), 142. 2007, there were over three million
masters inscribing figural subjects 20 Robin Burlingham, “Guanyin Bestowing
visitors a year to Putuoshan, with
began in the 12th century, so their a Son,” cat. 46, in Latter Days of the Law: 30 Pratapaditya Pal, Tibet: Tradition and
thirty-three temples open to the public.
identities can sometimes be traced; in Images of Chinese Buddhism, 850–1850, ed. Change (Albuquerque: Albuquerque
contrast, most Chinese monk-painters Marsha Weidner (Lawrence: Spencer Museum, 1997), 93. 41 Ian Reader, “Buddhist Pilgrimages in
were anonymous. Lippit, “Awakenings,” Museum of Art, University of Kansas; Japan,” in Proser, Pilgrimage and Buddhist
31 Alsop, “Phagpa Lokeśvara of the Potala,”
39. Although the orientation of the Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, Art, 30–33; ten Grotenhuis, Japanese
51–61; von Schroeder, Buddhist Sculpture
poem is unusual, since Chinese texts 1994), 358–59; Yu, Kuan-yin, 257–59. Mandalas, 10.
in Tibet, vol. 2, 820–23; Valrae Reynolds,
normally read from right to left, other 21 Iconographic drawings frequently Amy Heller, and Janet Gyatso, Catalogue 42 Ten Grotenhuis, Japanese Mandalas, 3,
examples exist. See Yoshiaki Shimizu, depict the Nyoirin manifestation with of The Newark Museum Tibetan Collection, 175–77.
“Guanyin of Putuoluo,” early 14th two arms; sculptures usually depict the vol. 3 (Newark, N.J.: Newark Museum,
43 Ten Grotenhuis, Japanese Mandalas, 164,
century, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, six-armed form, although there can also 1986), 89. For pictures of the Potala
172–82; Moerman, Localizing Paradise,
10.82, cat. 39, in Levine and Lippit, be four, eight, ten and twelve-armed statue as it is usually displayed and
27, 48–52. See cat. 19 in this exhibition,
Awakenings, 174; and “Byakue Kannon,” versions of the deity. Fowler, “Nyoirin in the process of being repainted, see
which has an ofuda in the top center
14th century, private collection, cat. 24, Kannon,” 59. Since the 9th century, illustrations in von Schroeder, Buddhist
row that represents the Nyoirin icon at
in Epprecht, Kannon: Divine Compassion, Nyoirin Kannon has been revered for Sculpture in Tibet, 195A-D.
Nachi.
160-63. Poem translated by Fong, Beyond averting national calamities. Washizuka 32 Cat. 15 also has a sealed consecration
Representation, 362. Hiromitsu and Roger Goepper, 44 MacWilliams, “Living Icons,” 54.
chamber, located in its back.
15 The mounting indicates that this scroll Enlightenment Embodied: The Art of the 45 Ten Grotenhuis, “Saikoku Pilgrimage,”
Japanese Buddhist Sculptor (7th–14th 33 Gyurme Dorje, et al., Jokhang, 68–69;
was once in a Japanese collection. 128; Reader, “Buddhist Pilgrimage in
Centuries) (New York: Japan Society, Lipton and Nima Dorjee Ragnubs,
Thanks to Joseph Scheier-Dolberg for Japan,” 30–33.
1997), 24. Treasures of Tibetan Art, 150–51.
graciously sharing many useful insights
46 Many thanks to Sherry Fowler for the
into the meaning of this work and its 22 Fowler, “Nyoirin Kannon,” 59. 34 Quoted in ten Grotenhuis, Japanese
translation and interpretation of this
context. Mandalas, 160.
23 Lee, “Origins and Development of the inscription.
16 The hairstyle seems based on contem- Pensive Bodhisattva,” 352. 35 This painting especially resembles
47 The bottom leaf gives the history of
porary Japanese women’s coiffure. Korean depictions of the Water-Moon
manuscript. It was probably made at
Compare Byakue Kannon, late 14th-15th Kannon (compare fig. 25) in the
Nalanda monastery and later owned

by the renowned Kashmiri pundit virtually identical versions of the 64 Brauen, Mandala, 11; Lipton and Nima
Shakya Shri (1127–1225), who preached Guanyin Sutra, dated 1432, preserved Dorjee Ragnubs, Treasures of Tibetan
a commentary on the Prajnaparamita at the Taipei National Museum and at Art, 153.
Sutra in Tibet. Subsequently, Buton the Harvard Art Museums, 1926.46.
65 Katherine Anne Paul, “Prayer Wheel,”
(1290–1364), the first compiler of the These texts, however, illustrate the
in Proser, Pilgrimage and Buddhist Art,
Tibetan Buddhist canon, had it in his Pit of Fire episode in the Lotus Sutra,
118; Newark Museum, Catalogue of the
possession. “Five of the Leaves from instead of the Diamond Mountain scene
Tibetan Collection and Other Lamaist
an Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita represented here. Thanks to Mengna Da
Articles in The Newark Museum, vol. 2
Manuscript,” 1987.1, Asia Society for discovering these examples.
(Newark, N.J.: Newark Museum, 1950),
Museum: The Collection in Context,
56 Murase, “Kuan-yin as Savior of Men,” 5.
http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/
70–71. Compare fig. 16 in Murase’s
search_object.asp?keywords=prajnapara 66 Losang Palden Tenpay Nyima Chogle
article to this work; see also Miyeko
mita&ObjectID=479, accessed October Namgyal Pel Zangpo, the Fourth
Murase, “Illustrated Scroll of Chapter 25
4, 2014; Huntington and Huntington, Panchen Lama (1781–1852), quoted in
of the Lotus Sutra,” in Epprecht, Kannon:
Leaves from the Bodhi Tree, 185–89; Ladner, Wheel of Great Compassion, 46.
Divine Compassion, 114–23.
Reynolds, et al., Catalogue of The Newark 67 Newark Museum, Catalogue of the
Museum Tibetan Collection, vol. 3, 57 Watson, Lotus Sutra, 304.
Tibetan Collection, 9–10.
136–37. 58 Chutiwongs, “Iconography of
68 Lipton and Nima Dorjee Ragnubs,
48 Schopen, “The Mahāyāna and the Avalokiteśvara,” 147–48. However, this
Treasures of Tibetan Art, 149; Wall label,
Middle Period,” 6. form is not included in Bhattacharyya,
C2012.49, The Rubin Museum of Art.
The Indian Buddhist Iconography.
49 Guy, Lost Kingdoms, 260; Huntington 69 Bokar Rinpoche, Chenrezig, 81.
and Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi 59 Behrendt, Tibet and India, 17–18.
Tree, 188–89. 60 Studholme, Origins of Om Manipadme
50 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Selected Hūm, 2.
Masterpieces of Asian Art, 109. 61 According to Lipton and Nima Dorjee
51 Sumidera Heart Sutra, object file, Ragnubs, the Karmapas, who head
2012-99, Princeton University Museum Tibet’s oldest reincarnation lineage,
of Art; “Calligraphy Stories,” Kyoto are manifestations of Shadakshari
National Museum, http://www. Lokeshvara. The present head of the
kyohaku.go.jp/eng/dictio/shoseki/ lineage is Ogyen Trinley Dorje, the
hannya.html, accessed March 3, 2014. seventeenth in this line. These authors
My thanks to Sherry Fowler for this are not certain whether the reincar-
reference. nated line of Dalai Lamas, lineage
holders of the Gelugpa school, are also
52 Morse and Morse, Object as Insight, 104.
manifestations of this or another form
53 Watson, Lotus Sutra, 298-306. of Avalokiteshvara. Treasures of Tibetan
Art, 146.
54 See Universal Gateway, Chapter 25 of the
Lotus Sutra, 13th century, 53.7.3, The 62 Jeff Watt, Avalokiteshvara, no.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, http:// 65080, HAR, http://www.
www.metmuseum.org/collection/ himalayanart.org/image.
the-collection-online/search/44849?rp cfm?iCode=65080&submit2=Search,
p=30&pg=1&ft=53.7.3&pos=2, accessed accessed April 29, 2013.
August 10, 2014.
63 Huntington, “Amogapasha Lokeshvara,”
55 Beautiful hand-painted depictions Circle of Bliss, 186.
of Guanyin’s long arm appear in two

Glossary of Foreign Names and Terms Shakyamuni’s teachings aims to free
beings from suffering and to lead them
Dalai Lama (T): title of the spiritual leaders
of Tibet since the 17th century. Each
C=Chinese; J=Japanese; S=Sanskrit; T=Tibetan to awakening. In Mahayana Buddhism, reincarnated holder of this title is
Terms that have become loan-words in English are attributed to their original language. numerous celestial buddhas and considered one of Avalokiteshvara’s
bodhisattvas assist in this goal. emanations.
Abhaya mudra (S): gesture of reassurance. Avatamsaka Sutra (S): Flower Garland Sutra. Byakue Kannon (J): White-robed Daochuo (562–645): a patriarch of Pure
One of the most influential sutras in Avalokiteshvara. Land Buddhism in China.
Amida (J): Japanese name for Amitabha.
Focus of worship in East Asian Pure East Asian Mahayana Buddhism. The Chan (C): Buddhist school that emphasizes Dharani (S): mnemonic device, or verbal
Land Buddhism. last chapter, Gandavyuha (Entering the meditation, one-on-one encounters formula, that encapsulates the meaning
Dharma World), recounts the story of with teachers, and in some subdivisions, of an entire scripture.
Amitabha (S): Buddha of Infinite Light, the young pilgrim Sudhana and his the study of paradoxical statements Dharma (S): law. In Buddhism, the
from whom Avalokiteshvara emanates. encounter with Avalokiteshvara on or questions, and the belief in sudden, principles and teachings of Shakyamuni.
Amitayus (S): Buddha of Infinite Life. Potalaka. spontaneous awakening. Known as Zen
Alternate name and form of Amitabha. in Japan. Dharmachakra (S): wheel of the Buddha’s
Baiyi Guanyin (C): White-robed
teachings.
Amitayurdhyana Sutra (S): Sutra on the Avalokiteshvara. Indigenous Chinese Chaturbhuja (S): four-armed.
Visualization of Amitayus. Probably form, derived from the Water-Moon Darshana (S): auspicious viewing.
Chenrezig (T): One Who Continually
an indigenous Chinese scripture, also Guanyin, but wears a more austere Dashizhi (C): attendant bodhisattva, along
Looks Upon All Beings with the Eye
known as the Visualization Sutra. white garment. Favorite subject of with Guanyin, to Amituo. Known as
of Compassion. Tibetan name for
Amituo (C): Chinese name for Amitabha. Chan/Zen artists. Mahastamaprata in Sanskrit.
Avalokiteshvara. Chenrezig is thought
Focus of worship in East Asian Pure Bato Kannon (J): Hayagriva in Sanskrit. to be the creator and protector of the Ekadashamukha (S): eleven-
Land Buddhism. Japanese horse-headed form of Tibetan people. headed. Common esoteric form of
Amoghapasha Lokeshvara (S): Lord of the Avalokiteshvara. Avalokiteshvara.
Chintamani (S): wish-fulfilling jewel. One
Unfailing Noose. Esoteric form of Bhagavad Gita (S): key chapter of the of Avalokiteshvara’s characteristic Fudarakusan (J): Japanese localization of
Avalokiteshvara, popular in Nepal. Brahmanical epic, Mahabharata. attributes. the Indian Potalaka, Avalokiteshvara’s
Amrita (S): elixir of immortality. Bhrikuti (S): female attendant to Chokyi Jungne (1700–1774): Eighth head of sacred island. There are several
Avalokiteshvara, associated with the Tai Situ reincarnate lineage, who Fudarakusan sites in Japan, including
Amrita kalasha (S): vessel that holds the
wisdom. was also an accomplished Tibetan artist Mount Myoho at Nachi.
elixir of immortality.
Bodhichitta (S): mind of enlightenment. and patron. Gokuraku (J): Japanese name for Sukhavati,
Anige (1243–1306): renowned Nepalese artist
Choying Dorje (1604–1674): Tenth Gyalwang Amida’s Pure Land.
who produced works for Kublai Khan Bodhisattva (S): being (sattva) who seeks
and other patrons in China. enlightenment (bodhi). Mahayana Karmapa, who was an extraordinary Guanyin (C): Chinese name for
bodhisattvas aspire to achieve awaken- Tibetan painter and sculptor. Avalokiteshvara. A shortened form of
Anjali mudra (S): gesture of prayer, respect,
ing for the sake of all sentient beings. Dabei (C): Great Compassion. Often Guanshiyin, which translates as Lord
or salutation. Formed with palms
Great bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara refers to the thousand-armed form of Who Perceives the Sounds of the World.
pressed together at the heart.
have already achieved a high degree—if Avalokiteshvara. Often manifests as a female bodhisattva.
Arya (S): noble or sacred.
not complete—awakening. Guanyin ping (C): long-necked vase filled
Asana (S): special postures of buddhas and Dabei Zhou (C): Great Compassion Dharani.
Brahmanism (S): polytheistic Indian religion Also known as Qianshou (Thousand- with the elixir of immortality, carried
bodhisattvas. by Guanyin.
based on ancient Vedic scriptures. armed) Zhou. A popular esoteric
Atisha (982–1054): important Indian Hinduism, so named by British colonial- recitation practice in China. Guanyin (Guanshiyin) jing (C): “The Universal
teacher who came to Tibet and ists, evolved from Brahmanism. Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver
promulgated practices associated with Dainichi (J): central esoteric deity. Known as
Buddha (S): Awakened One. Often used Vairochana in Sanskrit. of the World’s Sounds.” Chapter of the
Avalokiteshvara. Lotus Sutra devoted to Avalokiteshvara,
to refer to the “historical Buddha,”
Avalokiteshvara (S): Lord (ishvara) Who Daiseishi (J): bodhisattva who—along with sometimes excerpted as a stand-alone
Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian
Looks Down (avalokita). Mahayana Kannon—usually flanks Amida in Pure text in China.
prince, probably born sometime in
Buddhist bodhisattva of compassion. Land triads. Also called Seishi. Known
the 5th century BCE. He achieved Guanzizai (C): Master Perceiver. One of
Known as Guanyin in China, Kannon as Mahastamaprata in Sanskrit.
enlightenment and became known as Avalokiteshvara’s Chinese names.
in Japan, Karunamaya in Nepal, and Shakyamuni. The religion based on
Chenrezig in Tibet.

Hayagriva (S): “horse-neck” form of Kami (J): local gods of indigenous Japanese Kumano (J): region in the southern part Maitreya (S): Benevolent One. Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara. Known as Bato nature worship. of Kii Peninsula in Japan. Kumano of loving-kindness who is predicted to
Kannon in Japan. Kannon (J): Japanese name for beliefs pay homage to local gods who are succeed Shakyamuni as the next buddha
Honen (1133–1212): a founder of Jodoshu, a Avalokiteshvara. A shortened form of enshrined at Nachi. in this world system.
school of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan. Kanzeon, which translates as Lord Who Kumarajiva (344–409/414): influential Mala (S): prayer beads.
Indra (S): a god of the ancient Indian Vedic Perceives the Sounds of the World. translator of the Lotus Sutra and many Mandala (S): a geometric, cosmological
scriptures. “Indra’s Net” is a metaphor Often manifests as a female bodhisattva. other texts into Chinese. diagram used in rituals and meditation.
that originated in the Huayan school Kannonkyo (J): “The Universal Gateway of Kundika (S): long-necked spouted water The most common type represents a
of Chinese Buddhism, in which all the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s bottle used in ritual activities. deity in his or her palace.
phenomena in the universe give rise to— Sounds.” Chapter of the Lotus Sutra Lalitasana (S): relaxed posture. Mani (S): jewel.
and in turn mutually arise from—all devoted to Avalokiteshvara, sometimes
other phenomena. excerpted as a stand-alone text in Japan. Lama (T): Tibetan spiritual teacher. Mani mantra (S): sacred utterance associated
Lantsa: an Indian-derived script often with Avalokiteshvara that consists of six
Jainism: Indian religion founded by Karandavyuha (S): Jewel-Casket Array Sutra. Sanskrit syllables: om mani padme hum.
Mahavira and a lineage of other teachers Important early sutra devoted to used to write Buddhist mantras and
or “liberators.” Arose contemporane- Avalokiteshvara. scriptures. Also known as kutila. Manjushri (S): Gentle Glory. Bodhisattva of
ously with Buddhism and shares some of Lokanatha (S): Protector of the World. wisdom.
Karma (S): action. A person’s accumulated
its features. karma determines rebirth in a specific Lokeshvara (S): Lord of the World. Common Manjushrimulakalpa Tantra (S): early and
Jatamukuta (S): crownlike matted hair. Sign realm of samsara. epithet of Avalokiteshvara. important tantra that includes—among
of a spiritual ascetic. many other things—instructions on
Karmapa (T): title of the head of the Karma Mahabharata (S): Brahmanical epic drawing images of deities and mandalas.
Jianfo (C): To See the Buddha. Kagyu lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. containing a famous chapter known as
Each reincarnated holder of this title the Bhagavad Gita. Mantra (S): sacred utterance used in
Jile jingtu (C): Amituo’s Pure Land. Known Buddhist practice.
as Sukhavati in Sanskrit. is considered one of Avalokiteshvara’s Mahabodhi (S): Great Awakening. Name
emanations. of a commemorative temple on the Mappo (J): age of the decline and disappear-
Jina Buddha (S): Victor Buddha. Also known ance of the Buddha’s dharma.
as Wisdom Buddha. These buddhas Karuna (S): compassion. site of the Buddha’s enlightenment in
head their respective families in an Karunamaya (S): Nepalese name for Bodhgaya, India. Mencius (ca. 372–289 BCE): influential
all-encompassing esoteric system. Avalokiteshvara. Mahakala (S): Great Black One. Wrathful Chinese philosopher.
Amitabha is one of Five Wisdom Khasarpana (S): Sky-gliding. Khasarpana form of Avalokiteshvara. Miaofa lianhua jing (C): Lotus Sutra.
Buddhas, and Avalokiteshvara is a Lokeshvara is an esoteric form of Mahakarunika (S): Great Compassion. Mofa (C): age of the decline and disappear-
member of his retinue. Avalokiteshvara, popular during the ance of the Buddha’s dharma.
Mahasattva (S): Great Being. An advanced
Jingtu (C): Pure Land Buddhist beliefs and Pala period in India. bodhisattva such as Avalokiteshvara. Mudra (S): gesture, usually made with the
practices in China. Krishna (S): avatar of the Bramanical god hands and fingers, which symbolizes an
Mahasthamaprapta (S): One Who Has
Jodoshu (J): one school of Pure Land Vishnu. Appears in Vishvarupa form to Obtained Great Power. Along with enlightened quality.
Buddhist beliefs and practices in Japan. Prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita. Avalokiteshvara, usually flanks Muqi Fachang (active mid-13th century):
Jokhang (T): Great Temple of Lhasa. Houses Krishnasara (S): legendary black antelope Amitabha in Pure Land triads. Chinese painter who created an early
a legendary statue of the Eleven-headed symbolizing gentleness and compassion. Mahayana (S): Great Vehicle. Arising in and much revered image of the White-
Avalokiteshvara. In depictions of Avalokiteshvara, he the first millennium, this movement robed Guanyin.
Juichimen Kannon (J): Eleven-headed often wears a krishnasara skin over his evolved—and also departed—from the Myoho (J): Infinite light. Mountain at
Avalokiteshvara. shoulder. earliest Buddhist schools. Its philosophy Nachi—associated with Amitabha—that
Juntei (J): Buddha-Mother. One of the Six Kublai Khan (1243–1368): founder of the and practices place special emphasis represents Potalaka.
Kannon set in Japan. Known as Cundi Yuan dynasty in China and patron of on bodhisattvas and their mission. It Nachi (J): pilgrimage site sacred to both
in Sanskrit. Buddhist art. also includes a vast number of celestial Kannon and indigenous Japanese dei-
Kukai (774 to 835): monk and a proponent of buddhas who preside over innumerable ties. It is the first station on the Saigoku
Kaisho (J): standard script. Form of Japanese Pure Lands.
calligraphy based on Tang Chinese esoteric Buddhism in Japan. He studied Pilgrimage circuit.
prototypes. in China under Huiguo (746–805) in the
lineage of Amoghavajra (705–774).

Nagarjuna (ca. 2nd century): Indian scholar, Pata (S): painting on cloth. Known as pauba Samsara (S): Wandering. Continuous cycle Shuiyue Guanyin (C): Water-Moon form of
philosopher, and yogi. According to in Nepal. of birth, life and death that sentient Avalokiteshvara. Indigenous Chinese
legendary accounts, he discovered the Phagpa Lokeshvara (T; S): Noble Lord beings endure until achieving enlighten- manifestation, who sits a relaxed
prayer wheel. of the World. Venerated icon of ment. Buddhist texts describe six realms posture, often in a rocky setting suggest-
Nalanda (S): one of the great monastic Avalokiteshvara in the Potala Palace. that constitute samsara: god, demigod, ing Potalaka. A large full-moon nimbus
centers of learning in Buddhist India, Many replicas of this statue were made. human, animal, hungry ghost, and hell. envelops the bodhisattva. Known as
located in present-day Bihar. Sankei mandara (J): pilgrimage mandala. Suigetsu in Japan.
Potala (S): palace of early Tibetan king
Namo Amituo fo (C): Praise of Amitabha Songtsen Gampo and the Dalai Lamas. Sanskrit: scholarly language of ancient and Shunyata (S): nature of things as interdepen-
Buddha. The name refers to Avalokiteshvara’s medieval Indian scriptures. dent and nondual.
Nenbutsu (J): Praise of Amitabha Buddha. sacred island. Satori (J): awakening, Buddhist Songtsen Gampo (ca. 617–49): first Tibetan
Potalaka (S): legendary mountain island enlightenment. king to patronize Buddhism, perhaps
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682): Fifth due to his marriages to the Chinese
Dalai Lama, who massively expanded where Avalokiteshvara dwells. Seigantoji (J): temple at Nachi where the princess Wencheng (d. 680) and
the Potala Palace and established Prajnaparamita Sutra (S): Perfection of principal icon of Nyoirin Kannon is Bhrikuti from Nepal. Believed to be an
the authority of the Dalai Lamas as Wisdom Sutra. One of the earliest currently housed. Previously, it was in emanation of Avalokiteshvara, and his
spiritual and administrative leaders of and most important compilations of a building called Nyoirindo, which is wives are considered manifestations of
the Tibetan people. scriptures in Mahayana Buddhism. depicted in the Nachi mandala. Tara.
Nianfo (C): Mindfulness of the Buddha. Contains the Heart Sutra. Senju Kannon (J): Thousand-armed Songzi Guanyin (C): feminine form of
Nyoirin Kannon (J): Jewel-holding Purusha (S): thousand-armed mythic figure Avalokiteshvara. Avalokiteshvara who bestows children
Wheel-turning Lord of the World. in the ancient Sanskrit scripture Rig Shadakshari Lokeshvara (S): Six-Syllable on supplicants.
Chintamanichakra Avalokiteshvara in Veda. Lord of the World. This form of Stupa (S): reliquary structure.
Sanskrit. Putuoshan (C): hilly island in the South Avalokiteshvara is visualized when
China Sea near Ningbo, Zhejiang repeating the mani mantra. Suchimukha (S): hungry ghost who is fed
Ofuda (J): amulet or stamp issued by a nectar from Khasarpana Lokeshvara’s
temple or shrine, representing an icon province, that represents Potalaka. Shakyamuni (S): Sage of the Shakyas. Name hand. His name means “needle-necked.”
from the site. Raigo (J): Pure Land tradition of Welcoming that Siddhartha Gautama acquired once
Descent, in which Amida, Kannon, and he achieved enlightenment and became Sudhana (S): youth seeking enlightenment
Om mani padme hum (S): six-syllable in the Avatamsaka Sutra. Also called
mantra associated with Shadakshari other bodhisattvas come down from a buddha.
Gokuraku to greet dying devotees. Sudhanakumara. Known as Shancai in
Lokeshvara. Mani means jewel and Shingon (J): True Word. Esoteric school of Chinese and Zenzai Doji in Japanese.
padme refers to lotus, both attributes of Rajalilasana (S): royal ease. Seated position Buddhism in Japan. Known as Zhenyan
Avalokiteshvara. in which one arm rests on a raised knee in China. Sukhavati (S): Land of Bliss. Amitabha’s
while the other leg is either horizontal Pure Land where his followers can
Omizutori (J): Water Drawing Ritual. Shinran (1173–1263): a founder of quickly progress toward enlightenment.
Conducted in Nara since 753. At the or pendant. Jodoshinshu, a school of Pure Land
conclusion, the water is offered to Sadhana (S): spiritual discipline. Buddhism in Japan. Sukhavativyuha Sutra (S): Land of Bliss
Kannon. Sutra. An essential text of Pure Land
Sadhanamala Tantra (S): compilation of Shinto (J): refers to the veneration of kami, Buddhism, it describes Amitabha, his
Padma (S): lotus. One of Avalokiteshvara’s Vajrayana sadhanas that describes the local gods in Japan. vows, and Sukhavati. There are “larger”
primary attributes. attributes, mudras, and asanas. Shittan (J): Seed syllable. Bija in Sanskrit. and “smaller” versions of this text, with
Padmapani (S): Lotus Bearer. One of Saddharmapundarika Sutra (S): Lotus Sutra. Shiva (S): one of three major gods in significant differences in content.
Avalokiteshvara’s common early forms. Sahasrabhujalokeshvara (S): Thousand- Brahmanism and its later offshoot Sumidera (J): temple located in the
Padmasana (S): yogic cross-legged armed Lord of the World. Common Hinduism. northeast corner (J: sumi) of ancient
position associated with meditative esoteric form of Avalokiteshvara. Sho Kannon (J): Noble or Sacred Nara. The temple’s location gives the
concentration. Saigoku pilgrimage (junrei) (J): one of the Avalokiteshvara. Sumidera Heart Sutra its name.
Pandaravasini (S): white-robed. Female most popular pilgrimage circuits in Shri Lakshmi (T: Ani Palmo): bhikshuni, or Sutra (S): Indian scriptures. Buddhist sutras
esoteric deity. Japan. It is dedicated to Kannon and Indian Buddhist nun, who promulgated are believed to record Shakyamuni’s
Pasha (S): rope. consists of thirty-three sites in the a Thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara teachings.
Western Provinces. practice that is still performed by
Tibetans.

Tantra (S): teachings and practices found in
esoteric texts that began to appear in
Varada mudra (S): gift-giving gesture that
bestows compassion. Performed with
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Other Sites Photo Credits
A to Z Photo Dictionary: Japanese Buddhist
Statuary, Cat. 2, figs. 2, 3: Lynton Gardiner, Fig. 6: Digital Image © 2015, Museum
http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/ Courtesy of Asia Society, New York. Associates/LACMA. Licensed by Art
kannon.shtml. Resource, NY.
Cats. 3, 20: Susumu Wakisaka,
Canon Corporation, Canon Logo, Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Tokyo, Figs. 8, 12, 27: www.philamuseum.org.
http://www.canon.com/corporate/logo.html.
Courtesy of Asia Society, New York. Fig. 11: Filippo Zonta, 2013.
Himalayan Art Resources,
http://www.himalayanart.org/search.
Cats. 5, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19, 25, 28, 29, 30; Figs. 13, 14: Digital images © Trustees
fig. 20: Chip Porter. of the British Museum. All rights
Cats. 7, 8, 11, 13, figs. 5, 7, 10, 15, 16, 19, reserved.
25: www.metmuseum.org. Fig. 18: Jamison Miller, Courtesy of
Cat. 9: Bruce M. White, Courtesy of The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,
Princeton University Art Museum/ Kansas City, Missouri.
Art Resource, NY. Figs. 21, 23: Wikimedia Commons.
Cat. 12: Digital image © The Fig. 22: Photograph © 2015, Museum of
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Source: Fine Arts, Boston.
Art Resource, NY.
Fig. 26: B.J. Graf, Flickr Commons.
Cats. 14, 26: Robert Goodbody,
Courtesy of The Newark Museum. Fig. 29: Dennis Jarvis, Wikimedia
Commons.
Cat. 17, fig. 40: Courtesy of the
Division of Anthropology, American Figs. 31, 41: Luca Galuzzi, www.
Museum of Natural History galuzzi.it.
Cat. 21: Princeton University Art Fig. 38: Colonel Warden, Wikimedia
Museum/Art Resource, NY. Commons.
Figs. 4, 34, 36, 37, 39: Karen Lucic.

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Front Matter

Embodying Compassion 4

The Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center

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The Exhibition yet until now, no American

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Fig. 31: Pilgrims Prostrating at the

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Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara (detail), China Fig. 39. Shakyamuni Buddha, with