CHEMISTRY

CATALYST – a catalyst or an enzyme is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by decreasing the
activation energy that is required; it is not used up in the process.
ELECTROLYTE – liquid or gel which contains ions and can be decomposed by electrolysis (the process of separating liquid
into its different chemical parts by passing an electric current through it).
OXIDANT – causes a gain of electrons and is reduced in a chemical reaction.
REDUCTANT – causes a loss of electrons and is oxidized in a chemical reaction.
 To be reduced: to gain electrons
 To be oxidized: to lose electrons
INDICATOR – substance that undergoes a distinct observable change when conditions in its solution change.

PERIODIC TABLE
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev – a Russian Chemist who developed the Periodic Table of Elements.
Glenn Seaborg – discovered the Transuranium elements; he redesigned the Periodic Table placing the Lanthanide and
Actinide series of elements under the rest of the table.

The Periodic Table arranges the elements from left to right in order of increasing atomic number. The vertical columns
are called Groups (have the same number of valence electrons and, therefore, related chemical properties) while the
horizontal rows are called Periods (have the same number of principal energy levels). The Periodic Law states that: The
properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.
 IA: Alkali Metals (+1 charge)
 IIA: Alkali Earth Metals (+2 charge)
 IIIA: Semi-metal and Basic Metals (+3 charge)
 IVA: Non-metal, Semi-metal, Basic Metals (+/-4 charge)
 VA: Non-metal, Semi metal, Basic Metals (+3 charge)
 VIA: Chalcogens (-2 charge)
 VIIA: Halogens (-1 charge)
 VIIIA: Noble gases or inert elements (0 charge)

PERIODIC TABLE PATTERNS

1. Effective charge, ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity
 From left to right it increases
 From bottom to top it increases
2. Atomic radius, metallic properties
 From left to right it decreases
 From bottom to top it decreases

GROUP 2 ELEMENTS: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

a. NOT TRUE: Be is most active metal among them
b. Ra has the lowest ionization potential
c. Ca is bigger than Mg
d. They have relatively low electronegativities

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The solubility of KClO3 at 60°C is 25 g per 100 g of water. If at 60°C, 15g of the salt is dissolved in 50 g of water, then the
solution must be SUPERSATURATED.

UNSATURATED – chemical solution in which the solute concentration is lower than its equilibrium solubility.
SATURATED – point of maximum concentration, in which no more solute may be dissolved in a solvent.
SUPERSATURATED – liquid that has a substance added until no more of the substance can be absorbed by the liquid.
DILUTED – a solution containing a relatively small amount of solute as compared with the amount of solvent.

Problem 06. A volume of 1.1 liters of O2 was collected inside a balloon at 295 K and 13.6 psi. The next day, the
surrounding conditions were observed to be 32°C and 0.98 atm. What is the volume of the gas inside the balloon?
(1 atm = 14.7 psi)

GASES are either mixtures of multiple gaseous substances or a pure gas such as O2. The molecules of a gas are free to
move in random directions. The gas molecules collide with each other and the walls of the container they are in. This
generates pressure. The temperature of the gas affects the pressure of the gas.

To determine the volume of the gas when its temperature and pressure change we need the combined gas law, which is
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Let's convert the initial pressure (P1) from psi to atm.

13.6psi × 1atm / 14.7psi = 0.925atm

Now we'll convert final temperature (T2) from °C to K.

K = °C + 273
K = 32 + 273 = 305

Let's organize the data:

P1 = 0.925 atm
V1 = 1.1 L
T1 = 295 K
P2 = 0.98 atm
V2 = unknown
T2 = 305 K

The last stage is to plug in these values to the combined gas law and solve for V2

(0.925) (1.1) / 295 = (0.98) (V2) / 305

V2 = (305) (0.925) (1.1) / (295) (0.98)

V2 = 1.07 liters

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COMPARING MOLARITIES
1. NORMALITY: molarity x total positive oxidation number
2. MOLARITY: normality / total positive oxidation number
 6N H3PO4 = 6/3 = 2M
 4N Ca(OH)2 = 4/2 = 2M
 8N HC2H3O2 = 8/1 = 8M
 2N NH4OH= 2/1 = 2M

TO UNDERSTAND CLEARLY
Suppose we have 98 g H2SO4 (molar mass: 98 g / mol) in 1 L solution.

Number of moles: 98 g / 98 g / mol = 1 mol

M = number of mole / liter = 1 / 1 = 1 M (mol / L)

N = number of equivalent / liter

Number of equivalent = mass / equivalent mass
Equivalent mass = molar mass / number of H+ ion = 98 / 2 = 49 g / equivalent
Number of equivalent = 98 g / 49 g / equivalent = 2 equivalent
N = 2 / 1 = 2 N (equivalent / L)

The same solution, but the concentration is 1M in terms of molarity, but 2N in terms of normality.

The relation: N = M x n

Now we can answer the question:

A. 6N H3PO4 Phosphoric acid contains 3 H+ ion in its solution, therefore n = 3
M=N/n=6/3=2

B. 4N Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide is a base having 2 OH- ion, n = 2

M=N/n=4/2=2

C. 8N HC2H3O2 Acetic acid is a monoprotic (H+) organic acid, n =1 so, M = N = 8

D. 2N NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base having 1 OH-. Therefore n = 1, and M = N = 2

All the molarities in A, B, D are the same, C is different.

Bonding is ionic for compound with the greatest electronegative difference, hence, KCl.

The organic cellular components include the four biomolecules:

1. Proteins – made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds which enables to absorb and neutralize H⁺
and OH⁻ added in solution; amino acids are organic molecules containing both carboxyl and amino functional
groups; the most abundant in cellular components making up 70% of the organic matter in a cell.

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 2. Nucleic acid – the building blocks of DNA and RNA made up of polymers of nucleotides linked together by
phosphodiester bonds.
3. Carbohydrates – the most abundant organic molecule in the biosphere; are polymers of polyhydroxy aldehydes
and / or polyhydroxy ketones and their derivatives; they may exist as monomers (monosaccharides), dimers
(disaccharides), and polymers (polysaccharides); frequently referred to as sugars; linked by glycosidic bonds.
4. Lipids – refer to a group of heterogenous substances with the following properties: insolubility in water,
solubility in non-polar solvents such as ether, acetone, benzene, and methanol, and must be found in biological
systems; simple lipids include fatty acids, glycerol esters, terpenes, sterols and steroids, and eicosanoids while
conjugated lipids include phospholipids.

FATS – source of energy in times of prolonged hunger and insulate body against loss of heat.

UNITS OF CONCENTRATION
1. MOLARITY: moles / liter = grams / molecular weight / liters of solution
2. NORMALITY: the number of gram equivalent weights of solute / liters of solution
3. MOLALITY: the number of moles of the solute / liter of solution or the kilograms of solvent
4. MOLE FRACTION: the number of moles of the compound / total number of moles in the system
5. PERCENT COMPOSITION BY MASS: (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 100

CHEMICAL BONDS FROM STRONGEST TO THE WEAKEST

1. COVALENT BOND: chemical bond that involves sharing of electron pairs between atoms (CH4)
2. IONIC BOND: formed through electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions (NaCl)
3. METALLIC BONDING: between metals only
4. HYDROGEN BOND: A bond with N, O, F
5. DIPOLE-DIPOLE: force that exists because of interaction of dipoles on polar molecules with close contact
6. LONDON-VAN DER WAALS DISPERSION FORCES: these forces involve interaction between molecules on the
basis of their polarizability. They may be important in nonpolar compounds.

Problem 12. What is the normality of an acid solution if 50mL of the solution requires 48.61mL of 0.1879 N alkali for
neutralization?

NORMALITY is the number of gram equivalent weights of the compound in one liter of its solution. If N is normality and
V is volume of solution in liter, then, the product, (N×V) is equal to number of gram equivalent weights of the compound
in the solution. For neutralization, number of equivalent weights of the acid must be equal to number of equivalent
weights of the base and therefore, the product (N×V) for the acid must be equal to the product (N×V) for the base.

Normality of alkali solution, N1 = 0.1879 N

Volume of alkali solution, V1 = 48.61 mL
Volume of acid solution, V2 = 50 mL
Normality of acid solution, N2, can be calculated using the equation:
N1 × V1 = N2 × V2
N2 = N1 × V1 × 1 / V2
N2 = 0.1879 N × 48.61 mL × 1 / 50 mL
N2 = 0.1827, the Normality of the acid solution.

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A substance that floats in water has a lower density than water ( 1g / mL=1000kg / L ), hence, K.

Problem 14. An element with three naturally occurring isotopes of masses 23.9924, 24.9938, and 25.9898. These have
abundances of 78.6%, 10.1% and 11.3%, respectively. What is the average atomic mass of this element?

The average atomic mass of an element refers to the atomic masses of the isotopes of the element, taking into account
the different abundances of the element's isotopes. The average atomic mass can be calculated using the following
formula:
Average atomic mass = ∑ (mass of isotope × % natural abundance)
(23.9924 x 0.786) + (24.9938 x .101) + (25.9898x .113)
= 18.86 + 2.52 + 2.94 = 24.32g is the average atomic mass of this element

Oxides of non-metals with water form acids while oxides of metals with water form bases.
 Anything metal oxide is basic, like, Calcium oxide, Barium oxide, Magnesium oxide
 Anything non-metal is acidic, like, Carbon dioxide

Look at the table and find which two samples are of the same compound. Then, look for the sample that is the multiple
of another sample, hence, T and S.

Problem 17. Fifty-four grams of a certain metal at 98°C was placed into 80mL of water at 297 K. Assuming no heat is lost
to the surroundings, what is the temperature of the water and the metal? (Specific heat of metal = 0.085cal / g ∙ C°)

Use the Specific Heat formula which is Q = m c x ∆T

Let Tf be the final temperature to be found:

(0.085 cal / g °C) x (54 g) x (98 - Tf)°C = cal lost by the metal
(1.00 cal / g °C) x (80 g) x (Tf - (297 K - 273 K) = cal gained by the water
Set the two heat values equal to each other:
(0.085 cal / g °C) x (54 g) x (98 - Tf)°C = (1.00 cal / g °C) x (80 g) x (Tf - (297 K - 273 K))
Solve for Tf algebraically:
(4.59 cal / °C) x (98 - Tf)°C = (80 cal / °C) x (Tf - 24)°C
449.82 - (4.59 x Tf) = (80 x Tf) - 1920
449.82 + 1920 = (80 x Tf) + (4.59 x Tf)
2369.82 = 84.59 x Tf
Tf = 2369.82 / 84.59 = 28°C

Specific heat of water: 1 cal / g °C = 4.186J / g °C and remember that 1 mL of H2O has a mass of 1 g.

Problem 18. What is the molecular weight of an unknown gas if 200mL of this gas diffuses through an apparatus in 180
seconds while 250mL of NO2 under the same conditions diffuses through the same apparatus in 170 seconds?

The rate of diffusion of a gas is in accordance to Grahams law of diffusion.

GRAHAM’S LAW states that “the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, at
the same / constant / fixed temperature and pressure.”
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 Use Graham’s Law where r1/r2 = √m2/√m1

rate 1 is 250 mL / 170 sec

rate 2 is 200 mL / 180 sec
mass 2 = molecular weight of unknown gas (x)
mass 1 = molecular weight of NO2 which is 46 grams/mole
N = 14 O = 16 x 2 ( just add them to get 46 ) *see periodic table for atomic weights

250 mL / 170 sec divided by 200 mL / 180 sec = √ unknown (x) divided by √46
1.324 = √ unknown (x) divided by √46 g / mol
x = (1.324)2 (46)
x = 80.5 g / mol

Gas A and Gas B contain the same number of molecules and are at the same temperature. The external pressure on Gas
A is twice that of Gas B. When compared to Gas B, the volume of Gas is one-half that of gas B.

Remember Gas Laws where PV = nRT (n is the number of gas which is proportional to the number of molecules)
Thus, V = nRT / P; with n, R and T constant, V is inversely proportional to P. Doubling the pressure makes the
volume ½.

In every chemical reaction of Substance A, the sum of the weights of the products formed is greater than the initial
weight of A which undergoes a reaction. Substance X, in turn, undergoes a chemical reaction in which the combined
weight of the products is exactly equal to the initial weight of X which reacted. What kind of substances are A and X?
 Substance A is a pure compound while substance X is a mixture

COMPOUNDS – are made up of molecules of at least two different elements

Which of the following is the electron configuration of Cl⁺¹? (Atomic number of Cl = 17)

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION of an atom is the representation of the arrangement of electrons distributed among the
orbital shells and subshells. Commonly, the electron configuration is used to describe the orbitals of an atom in its
ground state, but it can also be used to represent an atom that has ionized into a cation or anion by compensating with
the loss of or gain of electrons in their subsequent orbitals.

Familiarize yourself with the Periodic table. Remember the positions of the elements; the S P D F blocks. In writing the
electron configuration for Chlorine, for example, the first two electrons will go in the 1s orbital. Since 1s can only hold
two electrons the next 2 electrons for Chlorine go in the 2s orbital. The next six electrons will go in the 2p orbital. The p
orbital can hold up to six electrons. We'll put six in the 2p orbital and then put the next two electrons in the 3s. Since the
3s if now full we'll move to the 3p where we'll place the remaining five electrons. Therefore, the Chlorine electron
configuration will be 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 .

The atomic number (Z of chlorine is 17. Since the atomic number is always equal to the number of protons or Z =
number of protons and in ground state (no charge), the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons,
then Z = number of protons = number of electrons (ground state)
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 The ground state electron configuration of Chlorine is: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 = 17 electrons. For a ground state
element to become an ion, it has to either gain or lose an electron in its outermost orbital. Elements usually do
this in order to gain the electron stability of the noble gases (octet rule).

Always remember that:

(1) electron gain will result to a negative charge (−), and
(2) electron loss will result to a positive charge (+),

In the problem, the chloride ion, Cl+1, has a charge of +1, meaning, it had lose 1 electron in its outermost orbital.
Thus, the electron configuration for Cl+1 should be 1s22s22p63s23p4 = 16 electrons

PRECIPITATION – product of condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under gravity
NEUTRALIZATION – combination of equivalent amounts of acids and bases
HYDROLYSIS – cleavage of chemical bonds by addition of water
IONIZATION – process by which an atom or molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing
electrons

Problem 24. In a neutralization reaction, the number of milliequivalents of the acid and the base must be equal at the
end point. If 20mL of 0.15 N NaOH is used with 0.2 N HCl, how many mL of the HCl will be needed?

Volume x Normality = Volume x Normality

N1 x V1 = N2 x V2

N1 = normality of the NaOH = 0.15 N

V1 = volume of NaOH used = 20 mL
N2 = normality of the HCl = 0.2 N
V2 = volume of HCl = what we are looking for

So, just isolate V2 and plug the numbers as following:

V2 = (N1 x V1) / N2
V2 = (0.15 x 20) / 0.2
V2 = 15 mL

Problem 25. If every mole of methane produces 192 kilocalories of heat, how many kilocalories of heat will be produced
by 160 grams of methane? (Atomic weights: H = 1, C = 12)

Methane is CH4. A mole of methane is 16 grams.

So, 160 grams is 10 moles (160 / 16).
If 1 mole produces 192 kcal, then, 10 moles produce 1920 kcal (192 x 10).

Effect of adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent: higher boiling point and lowers the freezing point.

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This represents COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES. According to RAOULT'S LAW:
1. When adding the non-volatile solute to pure solvent, its vapour pressure decreased. This is due to reduction of
area on the surface of solvent by solute particles. Hence, the number of solvent molecules escaping from the
solvent surface is lowered, so the vapour pressure of solution is decreased than that of the pure solvent;
2. Melting point is decreased, in this case the solute particles disrupts the crystallization and more kinetic energy is
required to freeze the solution than that of pure solvent;
3. Boiling point is increased on addition of non-volatile solute. The boiling point is the temperature at which the
solvent starts to boil when its vapour pressure is equal to its atmospheric pressure, thus, more heat energy is
required to boil the solution than that of pure solvent. Note that the freezing and boiling point constants are
specific to solvents.

Problem 27. How many grams of water must be added to 200mL of NaOH solution in order to have a solution with a
specific gravity of 1.157, 13.55%? (Specific gravity of NaOH = 1.32, 28.83%)

MOLARITY OF TWO SOLUTION

Molarity relates the moles per liter. The specific gravity of NaOH is 1.32g/mL so, convert 1 liter solution to mL,
which will be equal to 1000 mL. Hence, in 1.32g/mL, if we have 1000mL, we will have 1320 grams of solution.

28.83% of 1320 grams of solution = 380.556 grams of NaOH

Convert mass to mole using the molar mass:
380.556 grams of NaOH divided by 40.00 g/mol = 9.513 moles of NaOH
So, if we found that the 1000 mL of solution has 9.513 moles of NaOH, it is a 9.513 Molar NaOH sol'n

1000 mL divided by 1.157 g/mL = 1157 grams of solution

13.55% of 1157 grams of solution = 156.774 grams of NaOH
Convert mass to mole using the molar mass:
156.774 grams of NaOH divided by 40.00 g/mol = 3.919 moles of NaOH
So, if we found that the 1000 mL of solution has 3.919 moles of NaOH, it is a 3.919 Molar NaOH sol'n

Now to answer the problem, let us use the dilution formula:

M1V1 = M2V2
9.513 x 200 mL = 3.919 x V2
V2 = 485.48 mL

The original solution must be diluted up to that volume in order to become 1.157, 13.55%,
Since we started with 200 mL, we still need to add 285.48 mL to it

Problem 28. If 40mL of 0.100 M KMnO4 (acidified) is diluted with 160mL of water, then the normality of the resulting
solution will be

To answer this problem, we will still be using the dilution equation C1V1 = C2V2;

Where C = Concentration, and V = Volume IN LITRES.

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 C1 = 0.100
V1 = (40/1000) = 0.04
C2 = Unknown
V2 = (40/1000) + (160/1000) = (200/1000) = 0.2

Distribute,
(0.100) x (0.04) = C2 x (0.2)
0.004 = C2 x (0.2)
0.004/0.2 = C2

Diluted KMnO4 = 0.02 Mol/L or 0.02 N

THERMODYNAMICS deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. In particular, it describes how
thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy and how it affects matter.

1. LAWS
a. The Zeroth Law – states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in
equilibrium with each other. This establishes temperature as a fundamental and measurable property of matter.
b. First Law – energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
c. Second Law – the spontaneous flow of heat is always unidirectional from the higher to the lower temperature.
d. Third Law – the entropy of all pure crystalline solids may be taken as zero at the absolute zero of temperature.

2. CHANGE IN ENTHALPY
The change in enthalpy is ΔH. A negative ΔH for a reaction indicates that the products have a lower heat content than
the reactants; therefore, heat is evolved. Since enthalpy is independent of the route of a reaction, it is possible to
algebraically add reactions.

3. CHANGE IN ENTROPY
The change in entropy is ΔS. Entropy may be described as the degree of disorder of a system. It is also seen as
unrecoverable energy. Without the addition of energy to a system, entropy increases to a maximum.

4. GIBBS FREE ENERGY

Gibbs proposed that both change in enthalpy of a reaction and change in entropy of the reaction together decide if a
reaction could be spontaneous. Gibbs combined enthalpy change and entropy change by the following equation:
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS , where
 ΔG is change in the free energy
 ΔH is the change in enthalpy
 ΔS is the change in entropy where
 T is temperature in kelvin.

ΔG is commonly called Gibbs free energy. It is a measure of the stored energy in a reaction. Gibbs free energy is the
amount of energy left over after a chemical reaction has taken place. Gibbs proposed that all spontaneous physical and
chemical changes take place in the direction of a decrease in free energy. A spontaneous reaction may involve an
increase or decrease in enthalpy, it may involve an increase or decrease in entropy, but it will always involve a decrease
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in free energy that is a negative ΔG. When ΔG is negative, the reaction would go in the direction of reactants forming
products and not in the reverse direction.

Spontaneity of reaction Vs Enthalpy Vs Entropy G H S Outcome

When ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive, ΔG will be negative - - + Spontaneous at all
over all temperatures. temperatures
When ΔH is negative and ΔS is negative, ΔG will be negative at + + - Nonspontaneous at all temps
low temperatures. - + + Spontaneous only at high temps
When ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative, ΔG will not be negative - - - Spontaneous only at low temps
at any temperature. There would be no spontaneous reaction.
When ΔH is positive and ΔS is positive, ΔG will be negative at high temperatures.
Therefore, finally it is the change in free energy of a reaction which can predict if a reaction is feasible.

Change in internal energy of a system will be equal to the change in enthalpy of the system when the system absorbs
heat while expanding to a vacuum.

BENZOPYRENE – carcinogenic air pollutant from automotive sources and cigarette smoke.
AFLATOXIN – naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by a species of fungi
AMMONIA – colourless gas with pungent smell.
URETHANE – colorless or white crystalline compound used in organic synthesis and formerly as palliative treatment for
leukemia.

Problem 32. How many grams of NaOH is dissolved in 200mL of a 1M solution? (Atomic weights: Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1)

1 mole of NaOH has a mass of 40g = 40g/mol is present in 1000 cm^3 or ml of the solution,

No of Moles in solution
A 1M NaOH solution contains 1 mole of NaOH in every litre. 200mL of the same solution will contain 0.2 of a mole
of NaOH.

Mass of NaOH in solution

Mass of NaOH in solution = Molar Mass of NaOH x No of Moles in solution
= 40g x 0.2
= 8g

ORGANIC COMPOUND
 NOT soluble in water
 Soluble in ethanol
 Combustible
 Low melting point (10OC)

Problem 34. An analysis of a compound shows that it contains 78.2% B and 21.8% H and has a molecular weight 27.6.
What is the molecular weight of the compound? (Atomic weights: H = 1, B = 10.8)

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 Trick to remember:
Since we have been given the % data, assume that the total mass is 100 g. Then, B is 78.2 g while H is 21.8 g.

Get the molar value

(B) 78.2 g x 1 mol / 10.8 g (atomic weight) = 7.24 mol
(H) 21.8 g x 1 mol / 1 g = 21.8 mol

To get the empirical formula EF, find the ratio by dividing each molar value by the smallest molar value. Hence,
(B) 7.24 mol / 7.24 mol = 1
(H) 21.8 mol / 7.24 mol = 3
Thus, the ratio of B to H is 1:3. The EF would be BH3

To get the molecular formula MF, use MW/EW where MW is the molecular weight given in the problem and EW
is the empirical weight of the elements (total atomic weights of the elements); 27.6 / 11.8 = 2 , multiply the
product to the EF; B(1)(2)H(3)(2), the resulting MF would be B2H6

The reaction in the question is unbalanced because there are unequal oxygen atoms on each side. Given this knowledge,
8 moles of O2 could react with up to 4 moles of C2H2. Limiting reagent in the reaction is the one that there is less of in
the reactants. Since there are only 3 moles of C2H2, it is the limiting reactant.

NaNO2
 Component of curing salts which preserves meat
 Acts as a color fixative
 Mutagenic effect

EXOTHERMIC REACTION – energy is a product (–H)

Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually

in the form of heat or light. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released
because the total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the
reactants. For this reason, the change in enthalpy, for an exothermic
reaction will always be negative. In the presence of water, a strong acid will
dissociate quickly and release heat, so it is an exothermic reaction.

In an exothermic reaction, the total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants. Therefore, the
change in enthalpy is negative, and heat is released to the surroundings.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION – energy is a reactant (+H)

Endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually in

the form of heat, for the reaction to proceed. Since endothermic reactions
draw in heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments
to cool down. They are also generally non-spontaneous, since endothermic
reactions yield products that are higher in energy than the reactants.

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As such, the change in enthalpy for an endothermic reaction is always positive. In order to melt the ice cube, heat is
required, so the process is endothermic.

In an endothermic reaction, the products are higher in energy than the reactants. Therefore, the change in enthalpy is
positive, and heat is absorbed from the surroundings by the reaction.

Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the direction that it is going; some reactions are
reversible, and when you revert the products back to reactants, the change in enthalpy is opposite.

Decreasing conductivity: largest Ki to smallest Ki

ORTHO, PARA, META DIRECTORS

 Benzene – weakly activating ortho / para directing
 Phenolic group – strongly activating ortho / para directing
 Nitric acid – deactivating meta directing

GRIGNARD REAGENT are formed by the reaction of magnesium metal with alkyl or alkenyl halides. They’re extremely
good nucleophiles, reacting with electrophiles such as carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones, esters, carbon dioxide,
etc) and epoxides. They are also very strong bases and will react with acidic hydrogens (such as alcohols, water, and
carboxylic acids).

Grignard reagents are made through the addition of magnesium metal to alkyl or alkenyl halides. The halide can be Cl,
Br, or I (not F). It’s slightly easier to make Grignards from the iodides and bromides, however. Note what’s happening
here – the magnesium is “inserting” itself between the carbon and the halide. This halide the “X” referred to when we
refer to Grignard reagents as “RMgX”.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 12 I NMAT Reviewer for Chemistry
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
 Compound resulting from reduction of nitro compound:
Amine (NH2R, NHR2, NR3)

Cis-2-butene has both methyl groups on the same side of

the molecule. Trans-2-butene has the methyl groups on
opposite sides of the molecule. Their structural formulas
are as follows:

Contain water due to hydrogen bonding: Diethyl ether, Acetone, Methanol

Hydrogen bonding can occur when the hydrogen in water is weakly covalently bonded to oxygen in another compound.
Diethyl ether, acetone and methanol all contain oxygen and therefore, the oxygen is hydrogen bonded to water. Hexane
contains no oxygen.

C6H10 has a ring and a double bond.

Problem 45. A liquid C6H12O2, was hydrolyzed with water and acid to give an acid A and an alcohol B. Oxidation of B with
chromic acid produced A. The formula of the original compound is:

When alcohol B is oxidized it produces the acid A. What does it tells about number of Carbon atoms in both
compounds? That must mean that if alcohol B oxidation yields exactly acid A they should have the same amount
of Carbons (3 Carbon atoms) coming from the original compound which has equal amounts of Carbon before and
after the carbonyl group, hence, the answer would be A.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 13 I NMAT Reviewer for Chemistry
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
ACID AND BASES

C2H5OH, CH3OCH3, CH3COCH3 – are bases and CH3CH2COOH is an acid.

1. ARRHENIUS CONCEPT – an acid is a solute which produces H3OH+ when dissolved in water and a base is a
solute which produces OH- when dissolved in water.
Ex. Acid = HCl ; Base = NaOH

2. BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT – an acid is an H+ donor; a base is an H+ acceptor.

Ex. Acid = HCl in NH3; Base = NH3
Conjugate acid: an acid that forms when a base gains a proton.
Conjugate base: a base that forms when an acid loses a proton.

3. LEWIS CONCEPT – an acid is an electron donor; a base is an electron acceptor.

Ex. Acid = AlCl3; Base = Cl-

CARBOHYDRATES example: (C6H10O5)x

HYBRIDIZATION was introduced to explain molecular structure when the valence theory failed to correctly predict them.
It is experimentally observed that bond angles in organic compounds are close to 109o, 120o, or 180o. According to
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory, electron pairs repel each other and the bonds and lone pairs
around a central atom are generally separated by the largest possible angles.

Here is a shortcut for figuring out the hybridization of an atom in a molecule. This will save a lot of time:

Look at the atom and count the number of atoms connected to it (not bonds – atoms). Then, count the number
of lone pairs attached to it. Add these two numbers together.
 If it’s 4, your atom is sp3.
 If it’s 3, your atom is sp2.
 If it’s 2, your atom is sp; (If it is 1, it is probably Hydrogen!)

TYPES OF REACTIONS
1. SUBSTITUTION – AB + CD  AC + BD
2. SYNTHESIS – two or more simple compounds combine to form a more complicated compound.
3. CRACKING – when a compound splits into different products.
4. POLYMERIZATION – process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form a
polymer.
5. COMBUSTION – where oxygen combines with another compound to form water and carbon dioxide.
Exothermic reaction because it produces heat.

Largest dipole moment: Cis ClCH = CHCl

You can tell which molecule has the largest by looking on the periodic table, they are usually the pair that are
furthest from each other and it is also due to them having the biggest difference in electronegativity, usually the
closer two elements are, the weaker the dipole moment.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 14 I NMAT Reviewer for Chemistry
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018