Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

Unit 2- Construction of Sub-Substructure

(14-Marks)
Q.1 Define the job layout and site clearance.
job layout: A plan in which the arrangement for placing site office, store room, labour quarter, medical aid
center, godowns for keeping construction material and other facility are properly prepared is called as job
layout or site layout.
Site Clearance: Site clearance is the process of removing big trees, plant, Boulder, roots, old construction etc.
to prepare a leveled ground for marking of layout.
Q.2 State any four precautions to be taken while marking layout on ground.
The necessary precaution to be taken while marking layout on ground are as follows
Correct measurement of distance preferably by steel tape. Prepared
2. Correct fixing of plot boundaries with the help of location sketches.
3. Use of level either dumpy level or mason's level. or center line.
4. Prepare the location sketch of reference markings.
5. Checking the distances from at least independent measurements.
6. Diagonal checks for individual room position as well as for complete building.
7. Use of correct plumb bob for transferring points on ground.
8. Meticulous care in all types of measurement.
9. All vertical wooden post should be firmly fixed into the ground with concrete and curing should.
10. Mark the face line or center line correctly.
11. Use proper or correct plumb bob for centering.
12. Horizontal wooden planks called as railing should be straight and should have standard size.
13. Joints of the wooden railing should not be overlapped but should be joined by small wooden planks on
either side of joint and nailed properly.
14. All vertical post should be kept generally at the same level
15. Horizontal wooden railing should have same level throughout and leveled should be found either by level
tube or dumpy level.
16. Railing should be fixed by the nails of 50 mm in dia.
17. Nails of 40 mm in dia. Should be used for locating the center of column in framed structure and locating
the center of masonry wall in load bearing structure
18. A diagonal check should be done for every day work while locating the center of column.
19. Strict instruction should be given to the staff and labors not to sit on railing such that bending of railings
avoided and it helps for better accuracy
20. Periodical checking should be done by measuring distances of each rail from the face marking or origin
21. Position of nails on the horizontal railing should not be disturbed till the completion of the plinth work
22. All column number i.e. C1, C2, C3 etc. marked on wooden railing should be visible.
23. All the work should be certified by RCC consultant and Architect
24. To prevent the lime powder flowing away with wind action, it should be thoroughly mixed with sand.
25. Marking with lime powder should be clear and distinct to excavate the pits and trenches properly by labour.
26. Measure or check all distances by steel tape.
Q.3 Describe the procedure for layout of load bearing structure by center – line method.
1. From the plan (fig 1), the center line of the walls are calculated. Then the center lines of the rooms are set
out by setting perpendiculars in the ratio 3:4:5. Suppose the corner points are A, B, C, D, E, F and G which
are marked by pegs with nails on top.
2. The setting of the corner point is checked according to diagonals AC, BD, CF and EG. 3. During excavation,
the center points A, B, C, D, E, F, G may be removed. Therefore, the center lines are extended and the center
points are marked about 2m away from the outer edge of excavation. Thus, the points A1, A2, B1, B2 and
1
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

likewise, are marked outside the trench. Centre line are shown clearly by stretching thread or rope. The center
points fixed 2m away from the excavation are marked with sit out pegs.
4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by thread with pegs at appropriate
positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked by lime or by with furrow with spade.
6. A theodolite should be used for accurate center line marking.

Q.4 Tools and Equipment’s used for Excavation

The excavation works to be carried have two choices - to be done with labour or with equipment’s. The
suitability depends upon the quantum of work. Mass excavation/ Block excavation is usually done by help of
equipment’s while small scale works use labour. The hand tools used by labors for these operations are as
follows -
1. Spade 5. Rammer 9. Line & Pin
2. Phawrah or kassi 6. Wedge 10. Iron pan
3. Pick axe 7. Boning rod
4. Crow Bar 8. Sledge hammer
Q.5 Explain timbering and strutting with a neat sketch.
A method of giving the temporary support to the side of deep trench or when subsoil is loose or very soft is
known as timbering (i.e. shoring) and strutting. It consists of timber planks and strut to give temporary support
to the side of trench.
Trenches can be done with the help of the following methods:
1. Stay bracing: - If depth of foundation is upto 2m and soil is firm soil
2. Box sheeting: - If depth of foundation is upto 4m and soil is loose
3. Vertical sheeting: - similar to box strutting, but provided an offset at the end of each stage. Suitable for deep
trenches in soft soil.

2
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

4. Runner system: - when soil is extremely loose and soft and require immediate support at the time of
excavation.
5. Sheet piling: -if depth of excavation is more, if subsoil water is there, if width of trench is wide & large, if
soil is loose and soft.
Define Lead & Lift in Excavation
Lead: The horizontal distance upto which a contractor will haul the material excavated and it is included in
the rates of excavation is called as lead.
The lead of 30 m is called as standard or normal lead The lift of 1.5 m is called as normal lift A separate
measurements are taken for every 30 m lead and for every 15 m lift or depth.
Lift: The vertical distance upto which a contractor will haul the material excavated and it is included in the
rates of excavation is called as lift.
For additional lead of 30 m and lift of 1.5 m the rate shall be different for every 30 m lead and for every. So
initial lead and lift for earthwork is 30 m and 15 m respectively.
Q.6 Foundation:
Lowermost part of structure which provide base for superstructure and transmit load of superstructure to
subsoil.
Purpose of Foundation
1) To transfer the load of the structure up to the hard strata.
2) To distribute load of the entire structure over a wide spread area.
3) To increase the stability of the structure.
4) To prevent the lateral movement of supporting material.
5) To attain a level and firm bed for building operations.
6) To prevent or minimize the cracks due to movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils etc.

Q.7 Draw neat sketches of any three shallow foundations and suggest suitability of them for different
loading and soil conditions.
Types of shallow foundation with their suitability:
1. Wall Footing: Wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil
layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the
weight of the structure over the base area of the structure.

2. Isolated Footing: This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad foundation. The
footing of concrete columns may be a slab, stepped or sloped type.

3
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

3. Combined Footing: A combined footing provided as a column for two or more columns in a row. Combine
footing is also provided when the columns are very near to each other and isolated footing of these column
will overlap on each other.

4. Raft Footing: It is suitable where ground is soft. Clayey or marshy having low bearing capacity, and where
sub soil water conditions are uncertain. The raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly
compressible soils.

5. Grillage Footing : It is suitable where the bearing capacity of soil is very low. It is also suitable where heavy
structural load from columns, piers are required to be transferred to a soil of low bearing capacity of soil
6. Inverted Arch footing: It is suitable to be used for the construction of bridges, tanks, sewers, and reservoirs.
This type of foundation can be used for such structure where the load is concentrated over the column and
where it is desired to distribute the load over a large area or in such cases where the bearing capacity of soil is
poor.

7. Cantilever Footing/Strap Beam: This type of footing may be used where the distance between the columns
is so great that a combined becomes quite narrow with high bending moment.
8. Continuous Footing: This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also
prevents differential settlement in the structure.

4
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

Q.8 Explain types of Deep Foundation

8.a Pile Foundations

It is a foundation system that transfers loads to a deeper and component soil layer. Generally, pile foundation
is used if the structure is situated on sea shore or river bed and if the top soil has poor bearing capacity.
Pile foundation is used:
1. When there is inadequate bearing capacity of shallow foundations.
2. To prevent uplift forces.
3. To reduce excessive settlement.
Classification of Piles Depending Upon the Functions:
1. Bearing piles: These are driven into the ground until a hard stratum, directly supported base and pile act as
pillar to transmit the load.
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum. These are
also used to carry heavy loads safely to hard strata. These are used when hard strata is available at few metre
below the soft layer. End bearing piles settles less.
2. Friction piles: When the soil is soft to a considerable depth the pile which is required to be driven is called
friction pile. The load carried by a pile is borne by the friction developed between the sides of the piles and
the surrounding ground (and is called as skin friction).
3. Anchor piles: When piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull they are called anchor piles.
4. Batter piles: When the piles are driven at an inclination to resist large horizontal or inclined forces the the
piles are called batter piles.
5. Fender piles: When the water front structure or concrete check is required to protect from the impact or
abrasion caused by the ship then the fender piles are used at the front.
6. Compaction piles: When the piles are driven to increase the bearing capacity of granular soil then they are
called as compaction piles.
8.b Special Foundations
These foundations are provided when the bearing capacity of the soil is low and hard strata available on the
given site.
(1) Mat or raft foundations,
(2) Under-reamed piles
Q.9 Cofferdams
Definition: It is temporary structure constructed in a river or lake or any other water bearing surface for
excluding water from a given site to enable the building operations to be performed under dry conditions.
Walls are water tight. They are advantageously constructed where the large area of site is to be enclosed and
the hard bed is at reasonable depth.
Cofferdams may be classified as:
(i) Earth filled cofferdams.
(ii) Rock filled cofferdams
(iii) Sheet pile cofferdams.

5
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

Q.10 Difference Between Shallow and deep Foundation

Sr. Deep Foundation
Detail Shallow Foundation
No.
Shallow means having little Deep means e far down from the top or
1 Meaning depth. Or depth of foundation is surface or depth of Foundation is more
upto 1.5m than 1.5m
Foundation which is placed near Foundation which is placed at a greater
the surface of the earth or depth or transfers the loads to deep strata is
2 Definition transfers the loads at shallow called the deep foundation.
depth is called the shallow
foundation
A shallow foundation is cheaper. Deep foundations are generally more
3 Cost expensive than shallow foundations.
Shallow foundations include strip Deep foundations include pile caps, piles,
Types of footing, isolated footings, drilled piers, and caissons.
4 combined footings, mat
Foundations
foundations, and grade beams.
Depth of the Shallow foundations can be made Deep foundations can be made at depths of
5 in depths of as little as 3ft (1m) 60 - 200ft (20 - 65m).
Foundation
Shape of A shallow foundation is a A deep foundation is a bit circular and
6 rectangular or square shape. cylindrical shape.
Footing
Shallow foundations are easier to A deep foundation is more complex.
7 Feasibility construct.
Shallow foundations transfer Deep foundations rely both on end bearing
Mechanism of
8 loads mostly by end bearing. and skin friction, with few exceptions like
Load Transfer
end-bearing pile.
Construction materials are Deep foundation can be provided at a
available, less labour is needed, greater depth, Provide lateral support and
9 Advantages construction procedure is simple resist uplift, effective when foundation at
at an affordable cost, etc. shallow depth is not possible, can carry a
huge load, etc.
Possibility of a settlement, usually More expensive needs skilled labours,
applicable for lightweight complex construction procedures, can be
10 Disadvantages structure, weak against lateral time-consuming and some types of deep
loads, etc. foundations are not very flexible, etc.
Earthquake Earthquake resistance is less Earthquake resistance is More
11
Resistance
Q.11Define settlement of foundation and its types. Enlist various causes and suggest remedial measures
for the same.
Settlement of foundation: Due to the self-weight and the live load of the structure and due to compressibility
of the soil supporting the foundation of the structure, settlement of the structure does occur. Settlement is the
vertical downward movement to the loaded base. As a result of settlement, the original depth of soil mass
decrease due to soil grains coming closer together. Uneven settlement leads to cracks. The amount of
settlement is different for different type of soil or rock. For example, there is no or very less settlement for
rocky strata whereas settlement is very large in case if marshy land. Settlement is time dependent process i.e
in case of clayey soil settlement is very gradual, continuous for long time and is more. On the other hand, for
sandy soil settlement is quick and less.
Types of Settlement:
1. Differential foundation settlement: Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of
a building is termed differential settlement. Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads,
6
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar
Unit-2 14-Marks TGPCET

or structural systems between parts of a building. In this case, different parts of the building structure could
settle by substantially different amounts.
2. Uniform foundation settlement: When foundation settlement occurs at nearly the same rate throughout all
portions of a building, it is called uniform settlement. If all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil,
then uniform settlement the most probable type to take place. However, it influences utility of the building for
example damaging sewer; water supply; and mains and jamming doors and windows.
Causes of settlement are :
1. Uneven bearing capacity of soil at foundation level.
2. Different loads on different parts of foundation.
3. Varying ground water table height.
4. Compressible foundation soil.
5. Earthquakes and floods.
6. Expansive soil such as black cotton soil.
Various remedial measures:
1. Compaction of soil over the complete area at foundation level.
2. Proper designs so that large load difference does not exist on different parts of the foundation.
3. Dewatering of foundation if ground water table interference with construction of foundation.
4. Stabilization of soil of foundation level if it is compressible.
5. Special type of foundation for expansive soils such as black cotton soil.
6. Consideration of earthquake loads and other earthquake resisting methods during design and construction
of buildings.
Q.12 Suggest relevant type of foundation with sketch for educational building on black cotton soil
with justification.
Black cotton soil- Pile foundation.
In case the depth of black cotton soil is more, the following type of foundation may be provided
1. Strip or pad foundation
2. Pier foundation with arches and
3. Under reamed pile foundation
Under-reamed piles are best solution for foundation problem in black cotton soil or such similar type of
expansive soil. They are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having bulb shaped enlarged base.
The under-reamed piles are the best solution for the foundation problems in black-cotton soil or such similar
type of expensive soil. A pile having one bulb, is known as single under-reamed pile and the load bearing
capacity can be increased by increasing the number of bulbs and the pile is known as multi-under-reamed pile.
After boring upto desired depth, the base of the hole is enlarged in the form of bulb by using under reamer.
The black cotton soil has a great affinity for water. It swells excessively when wet, and shrinks excessively
when dry. This creates a lot of problems for and structure.
Q.13 Precautions while constructing Foundation in black cotton soil.
By adopting following precautions, safe building structures can be built in black cotton soil.
(a) Limit the loads on the soil to 5.5 tonnes/m²
(b) Take the foundation at such depths where cracks cease to extend.
(c) Provide reinforced concrete ties or bands all around the main walls of building.
(d) If the depth of black cotton type soil is less upto 1.5 m, the entire soil may be removed.
(e) Break the direct contact between black cotton soil and masonry.
(f) Construction should be undertaken during dry season.
(g) Masonry should start at least 15 cm below ground level.
(h) Trench for main walls should be dug 40 cm wider than the width of foundation.
(1) For important structures, raft foundation should be provided.

7
Notes by- Ms. Shweta Bhoyar