Layout of a building

1. From the plan (fig 1), the center line of the walls are calculated. Then the center lines
of the rooms are set out by setting perpendiculars in the ratio 3:4:5. Suppose the corner
points are A, B, C, D, E, F and G which are marked by pegs with nails on top.
2. The setting of the corner point is checked according to diagonals AC, BD, CF and EG.

3. During excavation, the center points A, B, C, D, E, F, G may be removed. Therefore,

the center lines are extended and the center points are marked about 2m away from the
outer edge of excavation. Thus the points A1, A2, B1, B2 and likewise, are marked
outside the trench. Centre line are shown clearly by stretching thread or rope. The center
points fixed 2m away from the excavation are marked with sit out pegs.
4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by thread with
pegs at appropriate positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked by lime or by with furrow with spade.
6. A theodolite should be used for accurate center line marking.

Precautions
The necessary precaution to be taken while marking layout on ground are as follows
1. All vertical wooden post should be firmly fixed into the ground with concrete and
curing should be done to the concrete work for the period of 7 days before fixing
horizontal railing.
 2. Horizontal wooden planks called as railing should be straight and should have standard
size.
3. Joints of the wooden railing should not be overlapped but should be joined by small
wooden planks on either side of joint and nailed properly.
4. All vertical post should be kept generally at the same level
5. Horizontal wooden railing should have same level throughout and leveled should be
found either by level tube or dumpy level.
6. Railing should be fixed by the nails of 50 mm in dia.
7. Nails of 40 mm in dia. Should be used for locating the center of column in framed
structure and locating the centre of masonry wall in load bearing structure
8. A diagonal check should be done for every day work while locating the centre of
column.
9. Strict instruction should be given to the staff and labours not to sit on railing such that
bending of railings avoided and it helps for better accuracy
10. Periodical checking should be done by measuring distances of each rail from the face
marking or origin
11. Position of nails on the horizontal railing should not be disturbed till the completion of
the plinth work
12. All column number i.e. C1, C2, C3 etc. marked on wooden railing should be visible.
13. All the work should be certified by RCC consultant and Architect
14. To prevent the lime powder flowing away with wind action, it should be thoroughly
mixed with sand.
15. Marking with lime powder should be clear and distinct to excavate the pits and trenches
properly by labour.
16. Measure or check all distances by steel tape.
17. Prepare the location sketch of reference markings.
18. Mark the face line or center line correctly.
19. Use proper or correct plumb bob for centering.

Earthwork in Excavation in Foundation

• Foundation trenches shall be dug out to the exact width of foundation concrete and the
sides shall be vertical.
• If the soil is not good and does not permit vertical sides, the sides should be sloped back
or protected with timber shoring.
 • Excavated earth shall not be placed within 1 m of the edge of the trench.
• The bottom of foundation trenches shall be perfectly leveled both longitudinally and
transversely and the sides of the trench shall be dressed perfectly vertical from bottom
up to the least thickness of loose concrete so that concrete may be laid to the exact width
as per design.
• The bed of the trench shall be lightly watered and well rammed. Excess digging if done
through mistake shall be filled with concrete at the expense of the contractor.
• Soft or defective spots shall be dug out and removed, filled with concrete or with
stabilized soil.
• If rocks or boulders are found during excavation, these should be removed and the bed
of the trenches shall be leveled and made hard by consolidating the earth.
• Foundation concrete shall not be laid before the inspection and approval of the trench
by the Engineer-in-charge.
• Any treasure and valuables or materials found during the excavation, shall be property
of the Government.
• Water, if any accumulates in the trench, should be baled or pumped out without any
extra payment and necessary precautions shall be taken to prevent surface water to enter
in to the trench.
• After the concrete has been laid masonry has been constructed, the remaining portion
of the trenches shall be filled up with earth in layers of 15cm and watered and well
rammed.
• The earth filling shall be free from rubbish and refuse matters and all clods shall be
broken before filling.
• Surplus earth, not required, shall be removed and disposed, and site shall be levelled
and dressed.
• The measurements of the excavation shall be taken in cu. m. as for rectangular trench,
bottom width of concrete multiplied by the vertical depth of foundation from ground
level and multiplied by the length of trenches, even though the contractor might have
excavated with sloping sides for his convenience.
• Rate shall be for complete work for 30 m lead and 1.5 m lift, including all tools and
plants required for the completions of the works. For every extra lead of 30 m and every
extra lift of 1.5 m separate extra rate is provided.
• Excavation in saturated soil or below sub-soil water level shall be taken under a separate
item and shall be carried out in the same manner as above.
• Pumping or bailing out of water and removal of slush shall be included in the item.
• Timbering of the sides of trenches if required, shall be under a separate item and paid
separately.
• Excavation in different kinds of soil mixed with moorum or kankar or shingle, soft rock
or decomposed rock or shale, hard rock, etc., shall be taken under separate items.

Types of Soil Excavation Tools and Machines:

Now a days, for the soil excavation there are so many equipment’s are there and these are
classified into two types. 1. Hand tools 2. Machineries
Hand tools for Soil Excavation:
These are generally used for smaller depths of excavations in small areas. Man power is
required to operate these tools. The tools come under this category are explained below.
Shovel
Shovel is tool which is used for the purpose of lifting of excavated soil. It is also similar to
spade the difference between spade and shovel is the difference in leading edge. The curvature
of metal plate of shovel is generally higher when compared to spade so we can hold the soil
easily and lifted it. Shovel can also be used for digging purpose in case of soft soils, sand etc.

Hoe
Hoe is an excavating tool which consists a metal plate attached to a long handle with acute
angle. The plate having sharp edge is used to excavate the soil. For small work of excavation
it is widely preferred tool. Sometimes metal plate is replaced by fork type plate.
Trowel

Trowel is hand sized tool which is generally used to dig the small trenches in soil or to remove
the shallow roots in soil.
Rake
Rake is a tools which is having a horizontal rod having metal teeth and is used to remove the
small layers of soil.

Pick axe
Pick axe consists hard spike attached perpendicular to handle. They are used for excavating
small trenches in soil. Pick axe can cut the soil even if the soil is of hard type. The metal spike
is pointed on one side and wide blade is provided on the other side.
Mattock

This looks like pickaxe. But serious digging is not possible with mattock. Generally it is used
as lifting tool because of its curve shapes metal at its bottom.
Machinery Tools for Soil Excavation:
These are the tools which are operated by mechanical force and are used for the larger depths
of excavations. There are so many types of machine tools with ease of operation are designed
in this modern day period.
Tracked Excavator
This is also called as track hoe. It consists of cabinet and long arm. Long arm again consists of
2 parts. The first part which is closure to cabinet is called as Boom and the other part is called
as Dipper-stick. Digging bucket is attached to the end of dipper. This entire system can rotate
360 degrees. In this case Vehicle is moved by traction, so we can use this equipment in mines,
forestry, pipeline industries etc. the function of excavator is done by hydraulic fluid so, it is
also called as hydraulic excavators.

Wheeled Excavator
This whole arrangement is similar to the tracked excavator except that the movement of vehicle
is done by wheels. It can move quickly when compared to tracked excavator but it is not
suitable for uneven grounds or hilly areas because of slippery nature. So these are

generally used for road constructions etc..

BackHoe Excavator
In case of back hoe excavator, the hoe arrangement is on back side and loader bucket is
arranged in front of the vehicle. So two operations digging and loading or lifting is done by
hoe and loader. This is widely used equipment nowadays because of its small size and
versatility. This is moved with the help of wheels. so, moving from one workstation to another
is quickly done.

Bulldozer
Bulldozer consists of hard steel plate with sharp edge at its front. This sharp edge is helps the
plate to cut the soil and for excavation. The metal plate can be raised and lowered with the help
of hydraulic arms. The bulldozers are available in both tracked and wheeled form. These

are widely used for the works of soil excavations, weak rock strata removal, lifting of soil etc.

Dragline Excavators

Dragline excavators consists large length boom. A cable is hanged from the top of the boom
and digging bucket is suspended to the cable. Generally dragline excavators are used for larger
depth excavations like port construction, under water sediment removal etc. These are heavy
equipment with greater economy.

Trenchers
Trenchers are the equipment’s used to dig trenches in the ground. These are also available in
many sizes based on our requirement. The trenches dug are generally used for drainage
purpose, pipeline laying, cable laying. The trenchers are generally available in two types.

• Chain trenchers
• Wheeled trenchers

Chain trenchers Chain trencher consists of a fixed arm called boom around which digging
chain is arranged. The chain is very hard and consists sharp tooth. Whenever it is driven into
ground the chain rotates around boom with rapid force and cuts the ground. By adjusting the
angle of the boom we can manage the depth to be excavated. It cuts the soil with hard strata
which cannot excavate by bucket type excavator. In case of smaller chain trenchers wheeled
vehicles are available and for larger chain trenchers are available in tracked form.
Wheeled trenchers In case of wheeled trencher, toothed metal wheel is used as trenching tool.
This equipment is available in both tracked and wheeled form of vehicles. When compared to
chain trencher the wheeled trencher can cut harder soil strata. It is also used to cut pavement
surface while road repair works. Economically also wheeled trencher is better than the chain
trencher.