SECTION 6: TYPES OF CEMENT PRODUCED IN KENYA

In Kenya, several types of cement are commonly produced to meet different construction needs.
Here are the types of cement that are commonly produced in Kenya;
6.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) simply called ordinary cement refers to the hydraulic binding
material ground by mixing Portland cement clinker, (a hydraulic material which consists of at least
two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2) 6% ~ 15% blended materials, and
appropriate amount of gypsum, code-named P•O (Zhang, 2011).
It is the most commonly used type of cement worldwide and in Kenya with an annual global
production capacity of nearly four million cubic meters.
In Kenya, it is used for general construction purposes e.g., concrete works. Here's some information
about the OPC produced in Kenya:
Production Process
OPC in Kenya is typically manufactured using the dry process, which involves grinding raw materials
like limestone, clay, and iron ore to a fine powder. The dry powder is then heated in a kiln at high
temperatures (around 1450°C or 2642°F) to form clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to produce
the final OPC product.
Composition
OPC generally follows the standard composition guidelines for OPC. It primarily consists of calcium
silicates (C3S and C2S), calcium aluminates (C3A), calcium ferrites (C4AF), and gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O).
The proportions of these components may vary slightly depending on the specific manufacturing
process and the desired properties of the cement.
Strength and Grade
OPC produced in Kenya is available in various strength grades, commonly referred to as 32.5, 42.5,
and 52.5. These numbers indicate the compressive strength of the cement in megapascals (MPa)
after a certain curing period. For instance, 32.5 OPC attains a compressive strength of 32.5 MPa after
28 days of curing. Higher-grade OPC (e.g., 42.5 and 52.5) generally exhibits greater strength and is
often preferred for structural applications.
Applications
OPC produced in Kenya is widely used in various construction applications. It is commonly used in the
production of concrete, mortar, and grout, which are essential for constructing buildings, bridges,
roads, and other infrastructure projects. OPC is versatile and compatible with various aggregates and
admixtures, allowing for flexibility in concrete mix design.
Quality Standards
OPC produced in Kenya is regulated by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS). KEBS has established
standards and specifications that cement manufacturers must adhere to ensure the quality and
performance of their products. These standards cover factors such as composition, fineness, setting
time, strength, and other physical properties.
6.2 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is a type of cement that is also widely used in Kenya. Here’s a
breakdown of the PPC produced in Kenya;
Production Process
PPC in Kenya is typically manufactured using the dry process similar to Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC). The production involves grinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker, gypsum, and
pozzolanic materials, such as volcanic ash, fly ash, or calcined clay. The dry powder is then heated in
a kiln at high temperatures to form clinker. The clinker is further ground with additional gypsum and
pozzolanic materials to produce the final PPC product.
Composition
The composition of PPC in Kenya generally adheres to the standard guidelines for Portland Pozzolana
Cement. It primarily consists of Portland cement clinker, pozzolanic materials, gypsum, and
sometimes minor additives to enhance specific properties. The proportions of these components
may vary depending on the specific manufacturing process and the desired characteristics of the
cement.
Pozzolanic Materials
The inclusion of pozzolanic materials is a key characteristic of PPC. In Kenya, commonly used
pozzolanic materials include volcanic ash, fly ash, and calcined clay. These materials are added to
enhance the cement's performance by providing additional strength, durability, and workability
properties.
Strength and Grade
PPC produced in Kenya is available in various strength grades, similar to OPC. The strength grades are
denoted by numbers such as 32.5, 42.5, and 52.5, indicating the compressive strength of the cement
in megapascals (MPa) after a certain curing period. The strength of PPC may vary depending on the
specific blend of pozzolanic materials used.
Applications
PPC produced in Kenya is suitable for a wide range of applications, similar to OPC. It is commonly
used in general construction, including residential, commercial, and infrastructure projects. PPC is
known for its improved workability, reduced heat of hydration, and enhanced resistance to certain
forms of chemical attack, making it a favorable choice for various concrete applications.
Quality Standards
PPC produced in Kenya is regulated by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS). KEBS has established
standards and specifications that cement manufacturers must adhere to ensure the quality and
performance of their products. These standards cover factors such as composition, fineness, setting
time, strength, and other physical properties.
6.3 Rapid Hardening Cement
Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC), also known as High Early Strength Cement, is a type of cement that
has a significantly faster rate of strength development compared to ordinary Portland cement. This
type of cement achieves high strength in the early days, and it is therefore commonly used in
concrete where formworks are removed at an early stage. It contains higher lime content and C3S
content, and finer grinding that offers better initial strength development compared with ordinary
Portland cement. The strength of rapid hardening cement at day 3 is comparable to the 7th day
strength of ordinary Portland cement with similar water-cement ratio. It is therefore commonly used
in prefabricated construction works.
Composition
The raw materials used in the production of Rapid Hardening Cement in Kenya are the same as those
used for OPC production, which are limestone, clay, iron ore, and gypsum. However, the proportion
of these raw materials may vary depending on the desired properties of the cement. This type of
cement is produced by adding a higher amount of C3S (tricalcium silicate) and a lower amount of C2S
(dicalcium silicate) during the production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) which results in a
cement that can achieve higher strength in a shorter period of time.
Rapid Strength Development
The key characteristic of Rapid Hardening Cement is its ability to gain strength quickly. It achieves
higher early-age strengths, often within a few days of casting or application. This property makes it
suitable for applications where early formwork removal or early loading is desired, enabling faster
construction progress.
Applications
Rapid Hardening Cement produced in Kenya finds various applications in construction projects. It is
commonly used in projects that require early strength development, such as repairs, precast
elements, and fast-track construction. It can also be used for emergency repairs, where quick setting
and high strength gain are necessary.
Compatibility
Rapid Hardening Cement in Kenya is compatible with other cement types and can be used in
combination with ordinary Portland cement or blended cements. This allows flexibility in meeting
specific project requirements while still achieving the desired rapid strength development.
Curing
Proper curing is essential to maximize the performance of Rapid Hardening Cement. Adequate
moisture retention, temperature control, and curing practices should be employed to ensure optimal
strength development and long-term durability.
Quality Standards
Rapid Hardening Cement produced in Kenya adheres to the quality standards set by the Kenya
Bureau of Standards (KEBS). The cement must meet specific requirements related to composition,
strength, setting time, and other physical properties. Compliance with international standards, such
as ASTM C150 or BS EN 197, may also be considered to ensure consistent quality.
6.4 Oil Well Cement
Oil Well Cement (OWC) produced in Kenya follows similar principles and standards as Oil Well
Cement produced in other countries. This type of cement is produced by using a special blend of raw
materials that are designed to withstand high pressures and temperatures. The main raw materials
used in the production of oil well cement in Kenya are limestone, clay, and iron ore. It is used in the
construction of oil wells and other types of underground structures.
Production Process
The production process of Oil Well Cement in Kenya is similar to that of regular cement. It involves
grinding a mixture of clinker, gypsum, and other additives to a fine powder. The composition and
specific additives used may vary depending on the manufacturer and the desired properties of the
cement.
Composition
Oil Well Cement in Kenya typically consists of Portland cement clinker, gypsum, and various
additives. The exact composition may vary depending on the specific formulation and the
requirements of the well. The cement composition must be designed to withstand high
temperatures, high pressures, and aggressive downhole conditions.
Quality Standards
Oil Well Cement produced in Kenya is subject to the quality standards set by the Kenya Bureau of
Standards (KEBS). These standards ensure that the cement meets the necessary requirements for oil
well applications. The cement must pass various tests and comply with specifications related to
composition, strength, setting time, and other physical properties.
Classifications
Oil Well Cement is classified into different classes or grades based on its properties and performance.
These classes include A, B, C, D, and other designations. Each class has specific requirements
regarding compressive strength, setting time, fluid loss, and other parameters. The classification of
Oil Well Cement helps in selecting the appropriate type for different well conditions.
Testing and Certification
Oil Well Cement produced in Kenya undergoes rigorous testing to ensure its quality and
performance. Tests such as thickening time, compressive strength, fluid loss, free fluid, and other
relevant tests are conducted. Additionally, the cement may be certified by recognized organizations
or adhere to international standards such as API Spec 10A to validate its suitability for oil well
applications.
Application and Usage
Oil Well Cement produced in Kenya is primarily used for cementing operations in oil and gas wells. It
is employed to seal the annular space between the casing and the wellbore, providing zonal isolation
and preventing fluid migration. The cement's properties, such as strength, viscosity, and gas
resistance, are crucial for ensuring well integrity and long-term performance in the challenging
downhole environment.
6.5 White Cement
This type of cement is made by using raw materials that are low in iron and magnesium which gives it
a bright white color. The main raw materials used in the production of white cement in Kenya are
limestone and kaolin clay. It is often used in decorative applications such as terrazzo and
architectural precast concrete.
White cement produced in Kenya offers unique characteristics and is commonly used in various
construction applications where a light and bright appearance is desired.
Production Process
It involves grinding raw materials such as limestone, clay, and gypsum to a fine powder. However,
the specific raw materials and their proportions may differ to achieve the desired whiteness.
Additionally, white cement undergoes stringent quality control measures during production to
ensure consistent color and high quality.
Composition
The composition of white cement in Kenya is slightly different from that of gray cement. It typically
contains a higher proportion of pure limestone and low-iron content raw materials. This results in a
whiter and brighter appearance compared to gray cement. Other additives and pigments may be
incorporated to achieve specific performance characteristics and enhance the color consistency.
Whiteness and Appearance:
White cement is prized for its exceptional whiteness, providing a clean and elegant look in
architectural designs. The whiteness is measured using standard colorimetric methods, such as the
Yellowness Index (YI) or Lab* color space. White cement produced in Kenya aims to achieve high
whiteness values, often surpassing the requirements of international standards.
Strength and Grade
White cement in Kenya is available in different strength grades, similar to gray cement. The strength
grades are typically denoted by numbers such as 32.5, 42.5, and 52.5, representing the compressive
strength of the cement in megapascals (MPa) after a specified curing period. The strength grades of
white cement can vary depending on the manufacturer and the specific product offering.
Applications
White cement produced in Kenya finds applications in a wide range of architectural and decorative
projects. It is commonly used for exposed concrete surfaces, precast elements, tiles, flooring, and
plastering. The white color provides a versatile base for achieving various aesthetics, including
vibrant colors and intricate patterns. It is also preferred in applications where color consistency and
purity are essential.
Quality Standards
White cement produced in Kenya follows the quality standards set by the Kenya Bureau of Standards
(KEBS). These standards ensure that the white cement meets specific requirements related to
composition, whiteness, strength, and other physical properties. Compliance with international
standards, such as ASTM C150, may also be considered by manufacturers to ensure consistent
quality.
Other types Include;
6.6 Quick Setting cement
Quick Setting Cement, also known as Fast-Setting Cement or Rapid-Setting Cement, is a type of
cement produced in Kenya that hardens and gains strength faster than ordinary Portland cement. It
consists of finely ground Portland cement clinker, gypsum, and additives.
The cement has a shorter setting time, typically within minutes to hours after mixing with water,
allowing for quick construction progress. It is commonly used for emergency repairs, patching, and
anchoring. While it gains strength rapidly, it may not reach the same long-term strength as ordinary
cement.
6.7 Low Heat Cement
This type of cement is designed to generate less heat during the hydration process, which helps to
prevent cracking and other types of damage by reducing the amount of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
(below 6%) and increasing the amount of dicalcium silicate (C2S) in the cement mix.
A little tricalcium aluminate helps concrete to generate low heat of hydration, This makes these
cement types ideal for mass concrete works such as gravity dams as the low heat of hydration stops
the cracking of concrete due to heat.
The raw materials used in the production of low heat cement in Kenya are similar to those used in
OPC production, which include limestone, clay, iron ore, and gypsum. It is commonly used in mass
concrete projects such as dams, bridges, and tunnels.
6.8 Sulphate Resistant Cement
This type of cement helps to lessen the risk of sulfate attack on concrete and hence it is used for
construction of foundations in soils with high sulfate content.
This type of cement is designed to resist the corrosive effects of sulphates, which can cause concrete
to deteriorate over time. Sulphate resistant cement is produced by reducing the amount of tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) and increasing the amount of dicalcium silicate (C2S) in the cement mix, similar to
low heat cement. Additionally, it contains a higher amount of tricalcium silicate (C3S) and calcium
sulfate (CaSO4) to resist the damaging effects of sulphate attacks. The raw materials used in the
production of sulphate-resistant cement in Kenya are also similar to those used in OPC production,
which include limestone, clay, iron ore, and gypsum. It is often used in coastal and marine
construction projects, where exposure to saltwater and other corrosive agents is common. It is also
used for works exposed to severe sulfate action by water and soil in structures such as culverts,
retaining walls, siphons, canal linings, etc.
6.9 Blast furnace slag cement
Blast Furnace Slag Cement, with properties comparable to ordinary Portland cement, is produced by
crushing clinkers with approximately 60% blast furnace slag. This type of cement is commonly
utilized in budget-constrained projects. Despite its lower cost, it still provides satisfactory
performance in terms of strength, durability, and workability. By incorporating a significant amount
of slag, blast furnace slag cement offers an economical alternative without compromising on
essential characteristics required for construction applications. It serves as a viable choice for
projects where cost-effectiveness is a priority.
6.10 Masonry Cement
Masonry cement is produced by blending Portland cement with lime and sand. The proportion of
Portland cement in the blend is usually lower than that in regular cement, and the amount of lime is
higher. This results in a cement that is specifically designed for use in masonry work, such as
bricklaying and plastering. In Kenya, the raw materials used in the production of masonry cement are
Portland cement, lime, and sand. This type of cement is made by grinding together clinker, gypsum,
and other additives, and is designed for use in mortar and other types of masonry work.
It is worth noting that the specific production process for each cement type may vary slightly
depending on the raw materials and additives used.
SECTION 7; CLASSES & CATEGORIES OF CEMENT IN KENYA
In Kenya, multiple cement manufacturers produce different classes of cement, adhering to the
stringent British Construction Standards and guidelines provided by the Kenya Bureau of Standards
(KEBS). The major cement producers in Kenya include Savannah Cement, East African Portland
Cement, Rhino Cement, Bamburi Cement, Blue Triangle Cement, Simba Cement, and Mombasa
Cement. While there are smaller players in the market, these companies are the primary cement
manufacturers in Kenya.
Below are some of the main strength classes of cement produced in Kenya; (Jongonga contractors,
n.d.)
7.1 Cement Class 32.5 N
This is the most commonly used cement with ordinary early strength. It is more suitable where high
early strength is not required for construction. Cement in the 32.5 strength class is designed to attain
a minimum compressive strength of 32.5 megapascals (MPa) after 28 days of curing.
The ‘N’ in the cement class denotes normal strength and this type of cement is used in the
construction of Foundations, Swimming Pools, Water tanks – concrete, suspended slabs, Beams and
Columns, Precast domestic applications, Brick and block making, Domestic floors, Plastering and brick
laying plaster and Domestic Poles.
7.2 Cement Class 32.5 R
This type of cement is used where high early strength is required for construction. The ‘R’ denotes
rapid strength when curing. 32.5 R cement is used where high early strength is required for
construction. This grade of cement is suitable in normal usage where little binding strength is
required, this includes; in plastering, tiles installation, walls building, septic tanks etc.
7.3 Cement Class 42.5 N
This is a stronger class of cement, able to withstand higher pressures and loads. This class of cement
should be used when a higher initial strength is needed during the curing phase; mainly to support
the weight of a heavy structure. This type of cement is used for heavy structures like Dams reservoir,
bridges Road stabilization formulations, Silos – concrete, Underground tunnels – Subways, High rise
buildings and structural concrete applications, Slip forming Reinforced Heavy-duty surfaces –
Foundations, Roads, Ports (Air and Sea port), post-tensioning and pre-stressed slabs and beams, Spun
pipe manufacturing, Pre-cast manufacturing, Medium and High strength concrete works
7.4 Cement Class 52.5 N
Cement in the 52.5 strength class is a High Strength Cement able to withstand higher pressures and
loads used in civil construction projects formulated to achieve a minimum compressive strength of
52.5 MPa after 28 days of curing. This strength class provides the highest strength among the
commonly produced classes. It is used in specialized construction projects that require exceptional
strength and durability, such as high-rise buildings, heavy-duty structures, precast concrete
elements, and large-scale infrastructure projects.
Powercrete by Bamburi cement is an example of a 52.5 grade cement. It is especially ideal for high
strength applications such as railway sleepers, skyscraper foundations, precast slabs and beams,
bridges, overpasses, windmill foundations, heavy-duty industrial floors, pre-stressed or post-
tensioned concrete and more.
Curing is very much essential for any class of Cement and Construction.
In cement production, the CEM classification is a standardized system used to categorize different
types of cement based on their composition and performance characteristics. The CEM classification
is defined by the European Standard EN 197-1, which provides specifications and testing methods for
cement.
The CEM classification consists of several letters and numbers that represent specific properties of
the cement. Here's a breakdown of the CEM classification:
 C: This letter represents the main constituents of the cement, which can be one or more of
the following:
o CEM I: Portland cement, composed mainly of clinker (95% or more) and a small
amount of gypsum.
o CEM II: Blended cement, which combines clinker with one or more supplementary
cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag, or silica fume.
o CEM III: Blast furnace cement, produced by blending clinker with a high proportion of
granulated blast furnace slag or other pozzolanic materials.
o CEM IV: Pozzolanic cement, containing a large amount of pozzolanic materials like fly
ash, volcanic ash, or calcined clay.
o CEM V: Composite cement, which combines various cementitious materials.
 X: This letter represents the strength class of the cement, indicating the minimum
compressive strength it can achieve. Common strength classes include 32.5, 42.5, and 52.5.
 L: This letter indicates the limestone content in the cement, with L being low (less than 5%)
and H being high (between 20% and 35%).
 A or B: These letters denote whether the cement has an early strength (A) or a normal
strength (B) development.
The combination of these letters and numbers provides a standardized way to identify and classify
different types of cement based on their composition and performance. The CEM classification helps
ensure consistency and allows for easier comparison of cement products across different
manufacturers and regions.

CEM CLASSIFICATION MAIN CONSTITUENTS AS PER KS EAS 18-1: TYPE OF CEMENT

2017

CEM I Portland Cement consist > 92 % of Portland Portland cement

Cement Clinker as main constituents.

CEM II Portland Pozzolana cement consists of Portland Pozzolana cement,

Portland Cement Clinker with 35 % Fly Ash or
Slag or Natural Pozzolana or Lime Stone as
main constituents.
Portland Slag cement, Portland
Burnt-shale cement, Portland
Silica-fume cement, Portland
Fly-Ash cement, Portland
Limestone cement & Portland
Composite cement

CEM III Blast Furnace Cement consist of Portland Blast Furnace cement
Cement Clinker With 65 % or 80 % or 95 %
Granulated Blast furnace slag as main
constituents.

CEM IV Pozzolanic Cement consists of Min. 45 % Pozzolanic cement

Portland Cement Clinker with Natural
Pozzolana or Lime Stone as main
constituents.

CEM V Composite Cement is a composition of Composite cement

Portland Cement Clinker with Blast Furnace
Slag, Natural Pozzolana & Fly Ash.

For CEM-I, heat liberation rate is very high after adding of water to the cement. All other classes of
cement, due to the mixing of Pozzolanic materials, heat liberation rates are low after adding of water
when compared to Portland Cement.
TOP KEY INDUSTRY PLAYERS AND THEIR CEMENT TYPES

TOP CEMENT CEMENT BRAND TYPE OF CEMENT

COMPANIES

1. Bamburi cement 1. Bamburi’s TectorCeram SETI 1. Ordinary Portland cement

300 2. Masonry cement MC 22.5
2. Fundi 3. Pozzolanic cement (32,5 N)
3. Tembo 4. Pozzolanic Cement CEM IV/B(P) 32,5R
4. Nguvu 5. Portland limestone cement CEM II/B-L
5. Powermax 42.5
6. Duracem 6. Sulphate resistance 42,5 N
7. Powerplus 7. Ordinary Portland Cement 42,5 N
8. Powercrete 8. 52.5 Mpa

2. East African 1. Blue Triangle Cement 1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Portland cement 2. Blue Triangle Cement 2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

3. Savannah cement 1. Savannah Cement 1. Pozzolanic Cement 32.5 R

2. Savannah Cement 2. Pozzolanic Cement 42.5R

4. Mombasa cement 1. Mombasa Cement Nyumba
2. Mombasa Cement Nyumba
3. Mombasa Cement Nyumba
1. Portland Pozzolana Cement (KP Silver)
CEM II B P/32.5N
2. Portland Pozzolona Cement (PPC) “KP
Gold” – CEM II/B – P/32.5N
3. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) “KP
Diamond” – CEM I/42.5N High
Strength Cement for use in heavy
structS

5. National cement 1. Simba Cement Tororo 1. Portland Pozzolana Cement CEM IV/B
2. Simba Power – P/32.5 R
2. Portland Cement CEM I 42.5 R
SECTION 8; CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS
Cement production is a complex process that involves several stages, including mining, crushing and
grinding, mixing, preheating, calcination, cooling, and grinding. The following is a detailed outline of
the cement production process, along with the necessary raw materials, equipment, and conditions
required for each stage. All the cement production processes have the following sub-processes in common:
 Winning of raw materials
 Mining
 Quarrying
 Raw materials storage and preparation
 Fuels storage and preparation
 Clinker burning
 Cement grinding and storage
 Packing and dispatch
8.1 Winning of raw materials
Naturally occurring calcareous deposits, including limestone, marl, or chalk, serve as abundant
sources of calcium carbonate. These deposits, along with various ores and minerals containing silica,
iron oxide, and alumina, such as sand, shale, clay, and iron ore, provide the essential raw materials
for cement production. The winning process for these natural raw materials typically involves
quarrying and mining operations.
In the cement manufacturing process, the primary raw materials used are limestone, clay, and sand.
These materials are most commonly obtained from open surface quarries, although different
extraction methods are employed depending on the nature of the rocks. For hard rocks like
limestones, slates, and some shales, quarrying is the preferred method, often involving controlled
blasting to extract the materials. On the other hand, softer rocks such as chalk and clay can be
excavated directly using excavators.
The mining process encompasses various activities including drilling, blasting, and hauling the raw
materials to the cement plant. Operations such as rock drilling, blasting, excavation, hauling, and
crushing are necessary during this stage. Limestone, chalk marl, shale, or clay, which serve as the
main raw materials, are extracted from these quarries. In many cases, the quarries are strategically
located near the cement plant for logistical convenience and efficient transportation.
Once excavated, the materials are transported to the crushing plant through trucks, railway freight
cars, conveyor belts, or ropeways. In some cases, they may be transported in a wet state or slurry
form through pipelines. In regions where limestone with high lime content is not readily available,
beneficiation processes like froth flotation may be utilized to remove excess silica or alumina and
enhance the quality of the limestone. However, such processes are generally costly and used only
when necessary.
The extracted materials from quarries or mines are then transported to the cement plant. After
primary crushing, the raw materials are transported to the cement plant for storage and further
preparation. Limestone plays a crucial role as the primary raw material for cement production. It is a
sedimentary rock composed of more than 50% calcium carbonate (calcite - CaCO3). Different types of
limestone are formed through various processes, including;

 Biochemical limestone: - Limestone secreted by marine organisms such as algae and coral.
 Bio-clastic limestone: - Limestone formed from the shells of Dead Sea creatures.
 Clastic limestone: - Limestone formed from the cementation of sand and / or mud by calcite
and this often has the appearance of sandstone or mudstone.
These diverse types of limestone contribute to the unique properties of cement produced from
them.
8.2 Raw materials storage and preparation
Preparation of the raw material is of great importance to the subsequent kiln system both in getting
the chemistry of the raw feed right and in ensuring that the feed is sufficiently fine.

1. Raw materials storage

After the raw materials are excavated from the quarries in the cement production process, they are
stored in designated storage facilities before undergoing further preparation. The storage of raw
materials is crucial to ensure a continuous supply for the production process. The storage methods
and facilities can vary depending on the type of raw materials and the specific requirements of the
cement plant. Here are some common practices:
 Stockpiling: One common method is to create stockpiles of the excavated raw materials.
These stockpiles can be large outdoor areas where the materials are piled in separate sections
based on their types. For example, limestone, clay, and sand may have dedicated stockpile
areas. This method allows for easy access to the materials and efficient retrieval when
needed.
 Silos: Silos are tall, cylindrical structures used to store bulk materials. They are commonly
used for storing cement, but they can also be used to store raw materials before the
preparation stage. Silos provide a protected environment, shielding the materials from
external elements such as moisture and contamination.
 Covered Storage: In some cases, covered storage facilities such as warehouses or sheds may
be used to store the raw materials. These facilities provide additional protection from
weather conditions, ensuring the materials remain dry and unaffected by external factors.
 Blending Beds: Blending beds are large outdoor areas where the different raw materials are
laid out in specific proportions to facilitate the blending process. The materials are spread in
layers and allowed to mix naturally over time, creating a homogeneous mixture. This method
is often used when precise control over the composition of the raw materials is required.
The choice of storage method depends on factors such as the quantity of raw materials, their
characteristics, the plant's production capacity, and the specific requirements of the cement
production process. The goal is to ensure that the raw materials are stored in a controlled
environment to maintain their quality and facilitate efficient processing during the preparation stage.

2. Grinding of raw materials

In the grinding of raw materials in cement production, accurate metering and proportioning of the
mill feed components are crucial for achieving a consistent chemical composition of the raw meal.
This consistency is essential for steady kiln operation and the production of a high-quality cement
product. Accurate metering and proportioning ensure that the right amount of each raw material is
fed into the grinding mill in the correct proportions. This helps maintain the desired chemical
composition of the raw meal, which directly impacts the properties of the final cement product, such
as setting time, strength, and durability.
Furthermore, proper metering and proportioning of the mill feed components play a significant role
in the energy efficiency of the grinding system. When the raw materials are accurately measured and
proportioned, the grinding process can be optimized, leading to improved energy efficiency and
reduced energy consumption per ton of cement produced.
The two primary types of equipment used for metering and proportioning the raw material feed to
mills are apron feeders and belt weigh feeders.

 Apron Feeders: Apron feeders are commonly used to control the rate of material feed into
the grinding mill. They consist of a series of overlapping pans or plates that convey the raw
materials along a predetermined path. The material is discharged from the pans onto the
grinding mill, ensuring a steady and controlled flow of raw materials.
 Belt Weigh Feeders: Belt weigh feeders are another common type of equipment used for
metering and proportioning in the grinding process. They consist of a conveyor belt equipped
with a weighing system that accurately measures the weight of the material being fed into
the mill. The belt weigh feeder controls the feed rate based on the desired weight, ensuring
precise metering of the raw materials.
Both apron feeders and belt weigh feeders provide reliable and accurate metering and proportioning
of the mill feed components. They are designed to handle various types of raw materials and can be
adjusted to control the feed rate according to specific requirements. By using these metering and
proportioning equipment, cement plants can ensure consistent raw material feed to the grinding
mill, leading to a stable and efficient grinding process. This, in turn, contributes to the production of
high-quality cement while optimizing energy consumption and overall process efficiency.
1 Grinding of raw materials, dry and semi-dry kiln systems
The raw materials are carefully ground and blended in specific proportions to create a uniform
mixture with the desired chemical composition. In dry and semi-dry kiln systems, the raw material
components are ground and dried to a fine powder using the heat from the kiln exhaust gases and/or
cooler exhaust air. In cases where the raw materials have high moisture content or during start-up,
an auxiliary furnace may be utilized to provide additional heat.
Commonly used dry grinding systems include tube mills with centre discharge or air-swept design,
vertical roller mills, and horizontal roller mills. Other grinding systems, although less commonly used,
include tube mills with end discharge in closed circuit, autogenous mills, and roller presses with or
without crusher drier.
The fineness and particle size distribution of the ground product play a crucial role in the subsequent
burning process. To achieve the desired target for these parameters, the separator used to classify
the product leaving the grinding mill is adjusted. Air separators are commonly employed for dry
classification. Rotor cage type separators offer several advantages, including lower specific energy
consumption of the grinding system (reducing over-grinding), increased system throughput
(improved particle separation efficiency), and a more favorable particle size distribution for uniform
product quality.

2 Grinding of raw materials, wet or semi-wet kiln system

In wet grinding, which is used in conjunction with a wet or semi-wet kiln system, the raw materials
are ground with the addition of water to form a slurry. Closed circuit milling systems are typically
employed to achieve the required slurry fineness in accordance with modern quality standards.
The wet process is generally preferred when the raw materials have a moisture content exceeding
20% by weight. Sticky materials with high inherent moisture content, such as chalk, marl, or clay,
undergo initial grinding in a wash mill. In the wash mill, water and crushed material are combined
and transformed into a slurry through shearing and impact forces produced by rotating harrows.
Once the material reaches the desired fineness, it passes through screens and is pumped into
storage. Additional grinding in a tube mill is usually necessary to attain the required slurry fineness,
especially if other raw materials like sand need to be added.
To minimize kiln fuel consumption, the amount of water added during raw material grinding is
controlled to achieve the necessary slurry flow and pumpability characteristics, typically ranging from
32% to 40% water by weight. Chemical additives may also be used as slurry thinners, enabling a
reduction in water content.
3. Raw meal or slurry homogenization and storage
The raw meal or slurry obtained from the raw grinding process needs to undergo further blending or
homogenization to ensure optimal consistency of the raw mix before being fed into any type of kiln
system. This homogenized raw meal is then stored in silos, while the raw slurry is stored in tanks or
silos.
Various pneumatic and mechanical systems are utilized for transporting the raw meal to the storage
silos. Mechanical conveyors, although requiring a higher initial investment, offer lower operating
costs compared to pneumatic conveying systems. The most prevalent conveying system used today
involves a combination of air-slide or screw/chain conveyors along with a belt bucket elevator.
8.3 Fuel storage and preparation
The heat required for the cement production process can be generated using various fuels. The
primary types of fuels used in cement kiln firing, listed in decreasing order of importance, are
pulverized coal and petcoke, (heavy) fuel oil, and natural gas.
These fuels contain ash constituents, such as silica and alumina compounds, which interact with the
raw materials to become part of the clinker. Therefore, it is important to consider the ash content
when determining the proportion of raw materials. Using fuel with consistent ash content, although
not necessarily low, is desirable for accurate raw material calculations.
In the cement industry, petcoke and coal (including black coal and lignite) are the main fuels used,
primarily due to cost considerations. The use of natural gas or oil is less common and depends on
local factors such as the availability of domestic coal.
To minimize heat losses, cement kilns are operated with the lowest practical excess oxygen levels.
This requires precise and consistent fuel metering and presentation to facilitate easy and complete
combustion. Liquid and gaseous fuels naturally meet these conditions. However, for pulverized solid
fuels, proper design of hoppers, conveyors, and feeders is crucial to meet these requirements.

8.3.1 Fuel storage

Raw coal and petcoke are typically stored in a similar manner to raw materials, often in covered
storage areas or compacted stockpiles. For long-term storage, large stockpiles placed outdoors can
be used. To prevent erosion caused by rainwater and wind, these stockpiles may be seeded with
grass. However, it is important to address the issue of drainage from outdoor storage. Sealed
concrete floors underneath the stockpiles allow for the collection and purification of the drained
water.
When storing coal with a relatively high volatile-matter content for extended periods, it is essential to
follow proper practices regarding compaction and stockpile height to minimize the risk of
spontaneous ignition.
Pulverized coal and petcoke, on the other hand, are exclusively stored in silos. To ensure safety and
prevent hazards like smoldering fires and static electricity spark-overs, these silos must be of the
mass flow extraction type and equipped with standard safety devices.
Fuel oil, specifically, is stored in vertical steel tanks. In some cases, these tanks may be insulated to
maintain the oil at a pumpable temperature of 50 to 60 °C. Heatable suction points may also be
installed to regulate the temperature of the oil in specific areas as needed.

8.3.2 Fuel preparations

Solid fuel preparation, which includes crushing, grinding, and drying, is typically conducted on-site in
cement production. Coal and petcoke are pulverized to achieve the desired fineness, similar to the
grinding of raw materials. The fineness of the pulverized fuel is crucial for optimal combustion. Fine
particles can lead to excessively high flame temperatures, while coarse particles can result in poor
combustion. Solid fuels with low volatility or low volatile content require finer grinding. If there is
insufficient hot air available from the kiln or cooler for drying, an auxiliary furnace may be necessary.
Safety measures must be implemented to protect the equipment from fires and explosions. There
are three main types of coal milling and grinding systems utilized:

 Air-swept tube mill: This mill has a single grinding compartment. The ground material is
discharged pneumatically and carried in the gas stream to a high-efficiency separator. Air-
swept mills are suitable for grinding very moist materials that require a large flow rate of low-
temperature gas for drying. They offer a simple design and low capital expenditure.
 Vertical roller or ring-ball mill: This type of mill consists of two rings separated by large balls.
The lower ring rotates while the upper ring presses down on the balls through spring and
adjuster assemblies or pressurized rams. Coal is introduced into the center or side of the
pulverizer, and as the lower ring rotates, the balls orbit between the rings, rolling over the
bed of coal on the lower ring. The pulverized material is carried out of the mill by the airflow,
and a classifier separator determines the size of the pulverized particles. Coarser particles
return for further pulverization.
 Impact mill: Impact mills are high-speed beater mills used for pulverizing and micro-
pulverizing. The product is fed centrally via an inlet box and pre-crushed by primary beater
tools. The grinding stock is fluidized in the air flow and comminuted by the rotor and stator.
The final particle size can be adjusted by changing the grinding rotor clearance, air flow, and
rotor speed. Impact mills are versatile and efficient, suitable for various applications such as
grinding, blending, and drying.
Modern cement installations store ground solid fuel in silos for efficient indirect firing in kilns.
Preventing explosions and fires requires careful design and operation of solid fuel systems, including
grinding, storage, and firing, with controlled air temperatures and avoidance of fine material buildup
in heat-exposed zones.
 8.4 Clinker burning
The clinker burning process is crucial for emissions, product quality, and cost. Raw mill or raw mill
slurry is fed into the rotary kiln system, where it undergoes drying, pre-heating, calcination, and
sintering to produce cement clinker. Maintaining specific kiln and gas temperatures, along with
oxidizing conditions, is essential.
The rotary kiln, introduced in the late 19th century, has become central to modern clinker
production, with a steel tube design having a length to diameter ratio of 10:1 to 38:1. The rotary kiln
is supported by multiple stations, inclined at 2.5 to 4.5%, and rotated at 0.5 to 4.5 revolutions per
minute, allowing material to be transported slowly along its slope. To withstand high temperatures,
the kiln is lined with heat-resistant refractory bricks. Long and some short kilns are equipped with
internals like chains, crosses, and lifters to enhance heat transfer. Rings, such as gypsum rings, clinker
rings, and ash rings, can form transiently on the inner surface of the kiln, potentially causing issues
and the need for material reprocessing or waste rejection. Additionally, material build-up in cyclones
and grates of preheater kilns can lead to blockages.

8.4.1 Kiln firing

The main burner is responsible for generating the primary flame in the kiln, reaching temperatures of
approximately 2000 °C. To optimize the process, it is necessary to have control over the flame within
specific limits. In modern indirectly fired burners, the shape and adjustment of the flame are
achieved using the primary air, which accounts for 10-15% of the total combustion air. There are
several options for introducing fuel into the kiln system:
 Fuel can be supplied through the main burner located at the outlet end of the rotary kiln.
 For solid fuel, such as lump fuel, a feed chute at the transition chamber of the rotary kiln inlet
end can be used.
 Secondary burners can supply fuel to the riser duct.
 Pre-calciner burners are used to introduce fuel into the pre-calciner.
 For solid fuel, a feed chute can be utilized to introduce fuel directly into the pre-calciner.
 In long wet and dry kilns, a mid-kiln valve can be used as a feed point for lump fuel.
There are two types of coal/petcoke firing plants: indirect-firing and direct-firing. Direct-firing plants
do not require storage or metering of fine-coal. Instead, pulverized fuel is blown directly into the kiln
using the mill sweeping air as a carrier and primary air for flame shaping. However, direct-firing
plants have several disadvantages, including higher kiln-system heat losses of around 200-250
MJ/tonne clinker compared to modern kiln systems (6 to 8% higher losses). As a result, direct firing is
rarely used nowadays.
In some cases, fuel oil can be discharged into the kiln through an atomizer nozzle to create the main
flame, provided it has the appropriate viscosity and pressure. The shaping of the flame is primarily
achieved using multi-primary air channel burners, with the oil atomizer located centrally. Kiln burners
designed for natural gas also follow the multi-channel principle, with the gas replacing not only coal
or fuel oil but also primary air.
There are several types of rotary kilns used during kiln firing, each with its specific characteristics and
applications. Here are some common types:

 Wet Process Kilns: These kilns are designed for wet raw materials and operate with water
content in the slurry. The water is evaporated and released as steam during the firing process.
 Dry Process Kilns: Dry process kilns are used for dry raw materials and operate without any
added water. The heat required for the chemical reactions comes solely from the combustion
of fuel.
 Preheater Kilns: Preheater kilns are equipped with preheater towers or cyclone preheaters.
These towers utilize the waste heat from the kiln exhaust gases to preheat the raw materials
before they enter the rotary kiln. This helps in reducing energy consumption and improving
overall efficiency.
 Pre-calciner Kilns: Pre-calciner kilns have an additional combustion chamber called a pre-
calciner, which is located above the rotary kiln. Fuel is burned in the pre-calciner, and the hot
gases are directed into the rotary kiln. This arrangement allows for better fuel utilization and
enhanced control over the combustion process.
 Suspension Preheater Kilns: Suspension preheater kilns, also known as SP kilns or cyclone
preheater kilns, incorporate multiple cyclone stages to preheat the raw materials. The
cyclones separate the raw meal from the kiln exhaust gases, allowing for efficient heat
transfer and calcination.
 Multi-stage Preheater Kilns: Multi-stage preheater kilns are similar to suspension preheater
kilns but feature additional preheater stages for further heat exchange. These kilns offer
increased energy efficiency and better control over the calcination process.
 Shaft Kilns: While not technically rotary kilns, shaft kilns are vertical kilns that also serve the
purpose of firing materials. They operate on a continuous or batch basis and are commonly
used for small-scale or specialized applications
8.5 Cement grinding and storage

8.5.1 Clinker storage

Clinker and other cement components are stored in silos or in closed sheds. Larger stocks can be
stored in the open if the necessary precautions against dust formation are taken. The most common
clinker storage systems are:
 Longitudinal store with gravity discharge (limited live-stock);
 Circular store with gravity discharge (limited live-stock);
 Clinker storage silo (high live stock; problems with ground vibrations can occur during
 clinker withdrawal from the silo at certain silo levels);
 Clinker storage dome (limited live-stock).
8.5.2 Cement grinding
Cement production involves the inter-grinding of cement clinker and sulphates like gypsum and
anhydrite. However, in blended cements or composite cements, additional constituents are included,
such as granulated blast furnace slag, natural or artificial pozzolanas, limestone, or inert fillers. These
constituents are either inter-ground with the clinker or may require separate drying and grinding
processes. It is not uncommon for grinding plants to be located separately from clinker production
plants.
The selection of the cement grinding process and the plant concept at a specific site depends on the
type of cement to be produced. Factors such as grindability (the ease with which the clinker and
other constituents can be ground), humidity, and the abrasive behavior of the cement compounds
play a significant role in determining the appropriate approach.
Most cement mills operate in a closed-circuit system. This means that they have the ability to
separate cement with the desired fineness from the material being ground and return any coarse
material back to the mill for further grinding. The closed-circuit configuration allows for efficient
control over the particle size distribution of the final product.
In the cement grinding process, the clinker and other constituents are finely ground to form a
powder known as cement. This is achieved by using grinding equipment, such as ball mills, vertical
roller mills, or roller presses. These mills apply mechanical forces, such as impact, compression, and
attrition, to break down the particles and reduce their size. The specific type of mill used can vary
depending on factors such as the desired fineness, production capacity, and energy efficiency
requirements.
The grinding process is a critical stage in cement production, as it significantly influences the quality
and performance of the final product. It determines important properties of the cement, including its
strength development, setting time, and durability. Therefore, careful control and optimization of the
grinding process are essential to ensure consistent and high-quality cement production.

8.5.3 Cement storage and handling

After the grinding process, the cement is typically stored in large silos or storage facilities before it is
ready for distribution and use. Cement storage is a crucial step in the production process, as it
ensures the availability of cement in sufficient quantities to meet market demands.
Here are some key aspects related to cement storage after grinding:

 Silos: Silos are commonly used for cement storage. They are tall, cylindrical structures made
of steel or reinforced concrete. Silos provide a controlled and protected environment for
storing cement, shielding it from moisture, contaminants, and temperature variations that
could affect its quality. The capacity of silos can vary, ranging from a few hundred tons to
several thousand tons of cement.
  Silo Design: Silo design takes into consideration various factors such as the required storage
capacity, site conditions, material flow characteristics, and safety considerations. Silos are
equipped with proper ventilation systems to prevent the accumulation of moisture and the
formation of condensation, which can lead to caking or degradation of the cement.
Additionally, safety features like pressure relief valves, level sensors, and temperature
monitoring systems are incorporated into the design to ensure safe and efficient storage.
 Bulk Storage: Cement is often stored in bulk quantities rather than individual bags. Bulk
storage allows for efficient handling and transportation, particularly for large-scale
construction projects. The cement can be stored in a silo or a storage dome, depending on
the specific requirements of the facility.
 Inventory Management: Effective inventory management is crucial in cement storage. The
inventory levels are closely monitored to ensure an adequate supply of cement is maintained
to meet the demands of customers. This involves regular monitoring of stock levels,
implementing a reliable tracking system, and timely replenishment to avoid stockouts or
excess inventory.
 Quality Control: Quality control measures continue during the storage phase to ensure that
the cement retains its desired properties. Regular sampling and testing are performed to
assess the chemical composition, fineness, setting time, and strength development of the
stored cement. This helps ensure that the cement meets the required standards when it is
eventually dispatched for use.

8.6 Packing and dispatch

Cement is normally transferred from the silos either directs into bulk road or tankers, or to a bag
packing station.
Cement is often packaged in bags or bulk containers, depending on the intended use and market
requirements. Bagged cement is commonly used for small-scale projects or retail purposes. The
cement bags are filled with a specific weight of cement and sealed to prevent moisture ingress. Bulk
cement, on the other hand, is transported in specialized containers or silo trucks and is typically used
for larger construction projects where high volumes of cement are required.
Packaging of cement also involves labeling and marking the bags or containers with essential
information, including the cement type, production date, batch number, and manufacturer's details.
Proper packaging ensures convenient handling, transportation, and storage of cement while
maintaining its quality and traceability.
SUMMARY OF THE CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS
Cement production is a complex process that involves several stages, including mining, crushing and
grinding, mixing, preheating, calcination, cooling, and grinding.
Overall, the production of cement requires a range of equipment, including crushers, hammer mills,
ball mills, preheaters, rotary kilns, clinker coolers, and cement mills. The process also requires
significant amounts of energy and produces large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. Efforts are
being made to reduce the environmental impact of cement production, including the use of
alternative fuels and the development of carbon capture and utilization technologies.
The following is a detailed outline of the cement production process, along with the necessary raw
materials, equipment, and conditions required for each stage:
 The main raw materials used in cement production are limestone, clay, and sand. These
STAG materials are mined from quarries or mines and transported to the cement plant. The
E 1; mining process involves drilling, blasting, and hauling the raw materials to the plant.
Miini
ng

STAG The raw materials are crushed and ground into a fine powder using crushers, hammer
E 2; mills, or ball mills. The grinding process is necessary to increase the surface area of the
Crus raw materials, which promotes chemical reactions in the subsequent stages. The
hing resulting material is called "raw meal."
and
grind
ing

STAG The raw meal is blended in the correct proportions to form the "raw mix." The raw mix
E 3; is then stored in a pre-homogenization pile to ensure a consistent composition.
Mixi
ng

The preheated raw mix is fed into a rotary kiln, where it is heated to temperatures of
STAG around 1,450°C. At this temperature, the raw materials undergo a chemical reaction
E 4; called "calcination," which converts the raw mix into clinker. The clinker is made up of
Calci small, marble-sized balls of the fused ingredients.
natio
n
The raw mix is preheated to around 800-900°C in a preheater tower. The preheating
STAG process helps to reduce the energy required for the chemical reactions that take place
E 5; during the next stage. Preheaters are typically equipped with cyclone separators that
Preh remove coarse particles from the gas stream before they reach the kiln.
eatin
g
The clinker is then cooled and stored in a clinker silo. The cooling process is essential to
STAG prevent the clinker from reacting with moisture and to reduce the temperature of the
E 6; clinker to below 150°C, which is the temperature required for safe handling. The cooling
Cooli process is typically accomplished using air or water.
ng

The clinker is ground with a small amount of gypsum to form a fine powder, which is
STAG called cement. The grinding process is critical to achieving the desired fineness of the
E cement and to improving its chemical and physical properties. The cement is typically
7;Gri ground using ball mills or vertical roller mills.
ndin
g
STAG
E 8;
Pack The cement is then packaged in bags or bulk and shipped to customers. Cement bags
akagi are typically made of paper or plastic and can range in size from 25 to 50 kg.
ng
and
shipp
ing
SECTION 9; CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS TYPES
The procedures for cement production are basically the same, which can be divided into three
stages:
1. Raw materials preparation: Grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or shale to make a fine
"raw mix"
2. Clinker calcination: Heating the raw mix to sintering temperature (up to 1450 °C) in a cement
kiln
3. Cement grinding: Grinding the resulting clinker to make cement.
 There are several types of cement production processes, each with its own distinct characteristics.
Here are the three most common types:

9.1 Dry method

The dry process of cement production is a method of manufacturing cement that is used in many
countries around the world, including Kenya. It’s the most common way to manufacture Portland cement.
The process involves the following steps:
1. Raw material preparation: The raw materials, such as limestone, clay, and iron ore, are
crushed and ground into a fine powder. The powder is then blended in the correct
proportions to form a homogenous mixture.
2. Preheating and pre-calcination: The homogenous mixture is fed into a preheater tower,
where it is preheated to temperatures of up to 800°C. The hot gases produced in the
preheater tower are then used to pre-calcine the raw materials in a precalciner, which is a
separate chamber located above the rotary kiln. The precalcination process partially
decomposes the raw materials and prepares them for the high-temperature reactions that
will take place in the kiln.
 3. Burning: The preheated and pre-calcined raw materials are fed into a rotary kiln, which is a
large, cylindrical furnace. The kiln is heated to temperatures of up to 1500°C, which causes
the raw materials to undergo a series of chemical reactions, resulting in the formation of
clinker. The clinker is a marble-sized nodules, and it is then cooled in a rotary cooler and
stored in a clinker silo.
4. Grinding: The clinker is ground into a fine powder with the addition of a small amount of
gypsum (usually about 5%) to control the setting time. This step takes place in a cement mill,
which is a horizontal cylinder with steel balls inside. The clinker and gypsum are fed into the
mill, and the rotation of the cylinder grinds the clinker into a fine powder.
5. Packaging and shipping: The final product is cement powder, which is packed in bags or bulk
containers for distribution. The bags are typically 50 kg, and they are stacked on pallets and
shipped by truck or rail to the end-users.

9.2 Wet process

Wet process cement manufacturing method can be used to produce various types of Portland
cement, such as ordinary Portland cement, white Portland cement, oil well cement, etc.
1. Raw material preparation: The raw materials undergo quarrying, primary crushing, secondary
crushing, proportioning and grinding in the preparation stage of the wet process and
grounded into a fine powder. The powder is then mixed with water to form a slurry.
2. Blending and homogenization: The slurry is blended and homogenized in a mixer or a slurry
tank to ensure that the raw materials are thoroughly mixed.
3. Burning/Calcination stage: The homogenized slurry is fed into a rotary kiln, which is a large,
cylindrical furnace. The kiln is heated to temperatures of up to 1400°C, and the slurry is dried,
heated, and partially decomposed. The high temperature causes the raw materials to
undergo a series of chemical reactions, resulting in the formation of clinker namely Di-calcium
Silicate, Tricalcium Silicate, Tri-calcium Aluminate and Tetra Calcium Alumino-Ferrite. The
clinker is a marble-sized nodules, and it is then cooled in a rotary cooler and stored in a
clinker silo.
4. Grinding: The clinker is ground into a fine powder with the addition of a small amount of
gypsum (usually about 5%) to control the setting time. This step takes place in a cement mill,
which is a horizontal cylinder with steel balls inside. The clinker and gypsum are fed into the
mill, and the rotation of the cylinder grinds the clinker into a fine powder.
5. Packaging and shipping: The final product is cement powder, which is packed in bags or bulk
containers for distribution. The bags are typically 50 kg, and they are stacked on pallets and
shipped by truck or rail to the end users.
The wet process of cement production has become less common in recent years due to its higher
energy consumption and the production of more pollutants compared to the dry process. However,
it is still used in some countries around the world, particularly in areas where water is abundant and
energy costs are low. (Civil giant, n.d.)
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DRY AND WET PROCESS
9.3 Semi dry process
The semi-dry process of cement production is a variation of the dry process method, where a limited
amount of water is added to the raw mix to form a slurry. The slurry is then fed into the kiln for
processing. The following are the steps involved in the semi-dry process of cement production:
1. Raw material preparation: The first step is to collect the raw materials. These materials are
then crushed and ground to a fine powder.
2. Mixing: The ground raw materials in the form of nodules are then mixed with water to form a
slurry. The water content in the slurry is typically between 20% and 30%.
3. Drying: The slurry is fed into a preheater, where it is dried by hot gases from the kiln. The
preheater is typically a series of cyclones that separate the slurry into fine particles and
coarse particles.
4. Calcination: The dried slurry is then fed into the kiln, where it is heated to a temperature of
about 1450°C. The heat causes a series of chemical reactions that convert the raw materials
into clinker, which is a gray, hard, and dense material.
5. Grinding: The clinker is then ground into a fine powder with the addition of a small amount of
gypsum. This powder is known as cement.
6. Packaging and shipping: The cement is then packaged into bags or transported in bulk to
storage facilities, where it can be shipped to customers.
Compared to the traditional wet process, the semi-dry process of cement production is more energy-
efficient and produces less waste. However, it requires a higher amount of heat and is not as widely
used as the dry or wet processes.
In addition to these three main types of cement production, there are also several variations and
modifications of these processes, such as the precalciner method, which is a variation of the dry
process that includes a precalciner chamber for greater fuel efficiency and reduced emissions.

WHY CHOOSE THE DRY PROCESS

 The dry process requires less energy to evaporate moisture from the raw materials during the
drying and preheating stages. This makes it a more energy-efficient option than wet and semi-
wet processes that are more energy consuming.
 Plants using semi dry processes are likely to change to dry technologies whenever expansion
or major improvement is required.
 The dry process requires less water usage than the wet process, which can be an important
consideration in regions with limited water resources
 The dry process requires fewer capital expenditures than the wet process or semi-dry
process. This is because it requires less equipment and infrastructure, which can result in
lower capital costs for the cement manufacturer.
 The dry process can result in a higher quality product due to the better homogenization of the
raw materials and the precise control of the manufacturing process.
 The dry process can result in lower emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants
compared to the wet process, which involves water evaporation and can produce high levels
of air pollution.

SECTION 10: CRITICAL FACTORS IN SETTING UP A CEMENT
PLANT
Cement is a key ingredient of construction sector and is one of the indicators of development in a
country. Setting up a cement plant is both time and capital intensive. Below is a list of factors that
should be considered when setting a cement plant;

 Location
o Availability of raw material, key of which is limestone
o The availability of key infrastructure in the particular location
o Availability of market or linkages to market of the product
o Availability of land space to site the project
o Government Support
o Availability of a sufficient and reliable energy source
o Market Demand in the region and surrounding areas

 Technology
 Government legislations
10.1 Location
There are a number of key factors determining the location of a cement factory. These include but
not limited to:
 Availability of raw material, key of which is limestone
 The availability of key infrastructure in the particular location
 Availability of market or linkages to market of the product
 Availability of land space to site the project
 Government Support
 Availability of a sufficient and reliable energy source
 Market Demand in the region and surrounding areas
These factors are briefly discussed below: -

10.1.1 Availability of raw material & Additives

The availability of raw materials such as limestone, clay, and gypsum are essential in setting up a
cement plant. The quality and quantity of these raw materials should be evaluated to ensure they
meet the required standard. For a cement plant to be economically viable, it is important that
limestone sources be close to the processing plant. This is because owing to large contribution in the
raw material content, bulk transportation cost will form a major factor in determining cost of
cement. To minimize unit cost of the finished product, the location of the plant should be convenient
enough relative to the source of limestone.
RAW MATERIALS SOURCES AND COSTS

RAW MATERIAL SOURCE COST

Locally Imported Locally Imported
Limestone  Kilifi Ksh 600
(Primary raw-material)  Kitui per bag
 Athiriver (25 kgs)
 Bamburi
 Mombasa
 West Pokot
Pozzolana  Athiriver; EAPC  Kabarole
farm District-
 Kajiado Uganda
Gypsum  Athi River  Thailand Ksh 4000
(Retarding agent)  Makueni  Oman per tonne
 Tana River  Egypt
 Garissa  Italy
 UAE
Iron ore • Mwatate  116.960
• Kishushe USD/Ton
• Marimanti
 Samia
 Jaribuni-Kilifi
Shale • Vyambani-kilifi 
• Kajiado
• Narok
• Turkana
Clay • Thika Ksh 2385
• Kajiado Per tonne
• Kitui
Fly ash • Coal-fired power
(By product of coal-fired plants)
power plants)

Blast Furnace slag • Steel plants $750 per

(By-product of the iron and Tonne
steel industry)

Sand • Near river beds Ksh 1300

to 1800
per tonne
10.1.2 Key infrastructure
 Close proximity and the availability of good transportation networks, including roads,
railways, and ports, is crucial in deciding the location of a cement plant.
This facilitates the transportation of materials of raw materials which are usually sourced
from nearby mines.
 A cement plant needs a high amount of electricity to operate the kiln, grinding mills, and
other equipment. The availability of reliable power supply at an affordable cost is essential in
deciding the location of a cement plant.
 The cement manufacturing process requires a considerable amount of water, which is used
for cooling the equipment and controlling the dust emissions. An adequate water supply is
necessary to ensure smooth operations of the plant. The source and quality of water should
also be considered while selecting the site for the plant.
 Cement plants require an efficient communication system for managing the operations and
ensuring the safety of the workers. The plant should have a reliable telephone network,
internet connectivity, and other communication systems to facilitate smooth operations.

10.1.3 Water supply

The Cement plant uses large quantities of water as a coolant and for dust suppression. The plant
therefore must be located where a dependable supply of water is available.

10.1.4 Power supply

The average electric line voltage for a cement plant in Kenya would depend on the size and capacity
of the plant, as well as the local power infrastructure. However, in general, most medium to large
cement plants in Kenya would require a high voltage power supply of 33kV or above to meet their
energy needs.

10.1.5 Markets
Isiolo County is located in the Northern part of Kenya and is strategically positioned as a gateway to
the Northern frontier/Corridor which is a major transport route connecting Kenya to other countries
in the region such as Ethiopia and South Sudan. The cement plant could leverage this location to
reach a wider market beyond Isiolo County and potentially tap into the regional market.
10.1.6 Availability of land
A cement plant requires a large area of land in order to effectively accommodate its different
operations. The availability of ample land ensures the efficient storage of raw materials, the proper
allocation of manufacturing processes and equipment, the construction of necessary infrastructure
and facilities, the storage and distribution of finished cement, and the implementation of safety and
environmental measures. Careful land-use planning and layout design are essential to optimize the
utilization of the land area and ensure the smooth functioning of a cement plant.

10.1.7 Market Demand in the region and surrounding areas (Access to a growing market)
The population of Isiolo County and the surrounding regions has been growing steadily in recent
years, driven by factors such as increased economic activities, urbanization, and infrastructure
development. This growth could create a demand for construction materials such as cement,
presenting an opportunity for a cement plant to tap into the market.

10.1.8 Government Support

The Kenyan government has been promoting investment in Isiolo County as part of its development
agenda for the Northern frontier region. The government has rolled out several initiatives aimed at
improving infrastructure, promoting economic activities, and creating employment opportunities in
the region, which could create a conducive environment for setting up a cement plant.
For instance, the Northern Corridor Development Initiative (NCDI) which is a collaboration between
Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Sudan to enhance trade, infrastructure, and connectivity in the region.
The initiative aims to improve road networks, railway connectivity, and cross-border trade facilitation
to spur economic growth and development in northern Kenya.

10.1.9 Availability of a sufficient and reliable energy source and fuels

The availability of a sufficient and reliable energy source and fuels is a critical consideration for
setting up a cement plant in Isiolo. Factors such as the availability of power supply, fuel sources,
energy costs, environmental regulations, and the fuel supply chain influence the feasibility and
operational viability of a cement plant.
Despite Isiolo County being located in Kenya's arid and semi-arid region, which results in limited
conventional energy resources, there are several energy and fuel sources that can be considered in
the area:
• Solar Energy: Isiolo County receives abundant sunlight throughout the year, making solar energy
a convenient and sustainable option. Solar power can be harnessed through photovoltaic (PV)
panels to generate electricity for various operations in a cement plant. Implementing solar
energy can help reduce reliance on the grid and lower energy costs over the long term.
• Biomass: Biomass resources, such as agricultural residues and organic waste, can be convenient
fuel sources for a cement plant in Isiolo County. Biomass can be used for generating heat or
 electricity through processes like biomass combustion or gasification. The availability of biomass
from agricultural activities and waste streams in the region can provide a convenient and cost-
effective fuel source.
• Fuel Oil: Fuel oil, although a conventional fuel source, may pose some challenges in terms of
convenience for a cement plant in Isiolo County. As the region does not have local oil reserves,
fuel oil would need to be transported from other areas or imported, which can lead to logistical
issues and higher costs. However, if a reliable supply chain and infrastructure are established,
fuel oil can still be a convenient option for a cement plant.
• Grid Electricity: Isiolo County is connected to the national electricity grid, providing convenient
access to grid electricity for a cement plant. This can be a reliable and readily available energy
source. However, the cost and reliability of the grid supply should be considered when
evaluating the convenience of grid electricity for a cement plant in the region.

10.2 Technology
Technologies in the proposed project can be discussed in terms of:
 The main process for the manufacture of cement at Isico Cement Plant in Isiolo
 The choice of kiln
10.2.1 The cement production process type at Isico cement plant
As discussed earlier the dry method of cement production is highly suitable for a cement plant in
Isiolo County, Kenya due to several reasons. Firstly, the region faces water scarcity, and the dry
method eliminates the need for water in the production process, making it more sustainable.
Additionally, the dry method is energy efficient, requiring less energy and resulting in lower
operational costs. It also has a lower environmental impact, producing fewer emissions and
minimizing water consumption. The method offers flexibility in raw material selection and allows for
the use of alternative fuels, further reducing environmental impact and operational costs. Lastly, the
dry method ensures operational reliability with better control over the production process, leading to
consistent product quality, which is crucial in areas with limited technical resources. (9.19.1)
10.2.2 Choice of kiln
In the second stage of cement production i.e., clinker calcination, the raw mix is fed into the kiln and
gradually heated by contact with the hot gases from combustion of the kiln fuel.
In broad terms, there are 2 main types of kilns for making clinker. These are;
 Rotary Kilns
 Vertical shaft Kilns

10.2.1.1 Rotary Kilns

Rotary kilns are one of the most commonly used types of kilns in cement production. They are large,
cylindrical rotating vessels that are used to heat raw materials to high temperatures in a continuous
process. It consists of a tube made from steel plate, and lined with firebrick.
The tube slopes slightly (1–4°) and slowly rotates on its axis at between 30 and 250 revolutions per
hour. Raw mix is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation of the kiln causes it gradually to move
downhill to the other end of the kiln. At the other end fuel, in the form of gas, oil, or pulverized solid
fuel, is blown in through the "burner pipe", producing a large concentric flame in the lower part of
the kiln tube. As material moves under the flame, it reaches its peak temperature, before dropping
out of the kiln tube into the cooler. Air is drawn first through the cooler and then through the kiln for
combustion of the fuel.
In the cooler the air is heated by the cooling clinker, so that it may be 400 to 800 °C before it enters
the kiln, thus causing intense and rapid combustion of the fuel.
Salient features of this type of kiln are:
 They have been in use since 1895
 They have become a central part of all modern clinker producing installations
 They are of various improved forms, allowing much room for appropriate choice to be made
10.2.1.2 Vertical Shaft Kilns
The Vertical Shaft Kiln or VSK is the first type of kiln that was used and it can be traced back to the
5th century A.C. in Greece, when they were used for limestone (Alsop, 2007). In the 20th century,
they have been largely replaced by rotary kilns, which were implemented for the first time in 1885.
Shaft kilns are vertical kilns that are also used for clinker burning, although they are less commonly
used compared to rotary kilns. In shaft kilns, the clinker is fed into the top of the kiln, and it moves
downward due to gravity. The heat required for clinker formation is generated by the combustion of
fuel at the lower end of the kiln. Shaft kilns can have multiple stages, allowing for better control over
the process.
10.2.1.3 PROs and CONs of the two types of kilns
Rotary Kilns Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSK)

Pros Pros
High production capacity Lower capital costs

Fuel flexibility Lower energy consumption

Higher quality product Solid fuel flexibility: Can be operated with a

variety of fuels
Low emission of pollutants Simpler design and operations

Can handle a wide variety of materials

Robust and reliable

Cons Cons
Higher capital costs Lower capital costs

Higher energy consumption Energy efficiency

More complex design and operation Solid fuel flexibility

Limited to certain types of materials and

applications

Less reliable than rotary kilns, and may require

more maintenance
 10.3 Government legislations
Government of Kenya legislations for a cement plant can cover various aspects, including
environmental management, land use, health and safety, labor, and industrial operations. Here are
some of the legislations that are relevant to this project:
 The Environmental Management and Coordination (Water Quality) Regulations, 2006
 The Environmental Management and Coordination (Waste Management) Regulations, 2006
 The Environmental Management and Coordination (Noise and Excessive Vibration Pollution)
(Control) Regulations 2009
 The Public Health Act
 The Water Act of 2002
 The Employment Act 2007
 The Work Injuries Benefits Act 2007
 The labour Institutions Act 2007
 The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007
 The Environmental Management and Coordination (Conservation of Biological Diversity and
Resources, Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit sharing) Regulations
 The Environmental (Impact Assessment and Audit) Regulations 2003
 The Land Act 2012
 The Energy Act 2006
 The Environmental Management and Co-Ordination (Amendment) Act, 2015
 The Environmental Management and Co-Ordination (Air Quality) Regulations, 2009
SECTION 11: STATEMENT OF INSTALLED PRODUCTION
CAPACITY FOR 4000 TONNES PER DAY OR LESS
The Isico cement plant is poised to become a key player in the cement manufacturing industry in
Kenya, with an anticipated installed capacity of 4000 tonnes or less per day of----------- cement
This state-of-the-art facility will make a significant contribution to the sector's growth and
development.
Over the past years, Kenya has witnessed substantial expansion in its cement production capacity. In
response to the rising demand, both existing cement plants have expanded their capacities, while
new plants have been established.
The establishment of the Isico cement plant, with its 4000-tonne or less per day capacity, is in line
with Kenya's strategic endeavors to enhance its cement production capabilities. By prioritizing
modern and eco-friendly manufacturing practices, this plant aims to establish new benchmarks in
terms of efficiency, quality, and sustainability. Leveraging advanced technologies and a skilled
workforce, we are committed to upholding the highest standards in cement production.
Furthermore, the Isico cement plant will generate local employment opportunities in Isiolo county,
fostering economic development in the region. We are dedicated to engaging with local communities
and promoting social responsibility, while adhering to sustainable practices throughout our
operations.
We eagerly anticipate collaboration with various stakeholders, including government agencies,
construction companies, and suppliers, to fortify Kenya's cement industry. By working together, we
can contribute to the nation's development agenda and meet the escalating demand for cement
across the country.