The Development of Students Critical Thinking Abilities and

Educational Research Review 37 (2022) 100481
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Educational Research Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/edurev
Integrative research review
The development of students critical thinking abilities and

dispositions through the concept mapping learning method – A
meta-analysis
Andrea Barta a,b,*, Liviu Andrei Fodor b,c, Borbala Tamas a,b, Istvan Szamoskozi a
a
Department of Applied Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
b
Evidence Based Psychological Assessment and Interventions Doctoral School, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
c
International Institute for the Advanced Studies of Psychotherapy and Applied Mental Health, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Our meta-analysis investigates the effectiveness of the concept mapping method compared
Concept mapping method
Critical thinking ability
with the traditional teaching method, for the improvement of critical thinking ability and
Critical thinking disposition disposition outcomes. We included studies measuring students’ critical thinking through
Meta-analysis standardised tests, comparing an experimental (concept mapping) group with a control
(traditional teaching) one. Effect sizes for critical thinking ability and disposition outcomes
were pooled with a random- effects model. We included in our meta-analysis 21 studies (108
comparisons) involving 1695 students. The concept mapping method was more effective than
the traditional teaching method
at posttest for the improvement of critical thinking ability ( g = 0.531, 95% CI 0.279 to 0.783) and
disposition (g = 0.648, 95% CI 0.266 to 1.031). Heterogeneity was moderate to high, Egger’s test
did not indicate any evidence of publication bias; however, both visual inspection of the Funnel
plot and Duval and Tweedie’s trim and fill method indicated potentially three missing studies
for critical thinking ability and two for critical thinking disposition. Additionally, we analysed
the potential moderating effect of students’ demographic characteristics, educational
conditions, concept mapping elaboration methods and allocation type. Allocation type was a
significant
moderator, having a strong effect on concept mapping for critical thinking abilities in randomised
studies (g = 0.739, 95% CI 0.356 to 1.122), but its effect is low in non-randomised studies (g
= 0.265, 95% CI 0.014 to 0.517).
1. Introduction
The goal of education is to prepare students for life, not only to impart lexical knowledge but to develop 21st century skills that
lead to success on the labour market (Chu et al., 2017). Instead of traditional, frontal education, the use of alternative methods is
rec- ommended, thanks to which lexical knowledge is transformed into conditional knowledge, making knowledge transfer
possible, facilitating the use of knowledge for everyday solutions, thus developing 21st century skills (analytical thinking,
metacognition, critical thinking, problem-solving, collaborative communication, creativity skills) (Abdurrahman et al., 2019; Kim et
al., 2019; Saleh, 2019; Sanabria & Ara´mburo-Liza´rraga, 2017; Yennita & Zukmadini, 2021). In traditional teaching, the
teacher transmits the
* Corresponding author. Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Applied Psychology, No. 128
December 21, 1989, Boulevard, 400603, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
E-mail address: andrea.barta@ubbcluj.ro (A. Barta).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100481
Received 26 June 2021; Received in revised form 16 July 2022; Accepted 26 August 2022
Available online 14 September 2022
1747-938X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Barta et al. Educational Research Review 37 (2022) 100481
information in lecture form, students are mostly passive participants, often taking notes, while group discussion or exercises are rare
during the lesson. As a result of this inactivity, students’ attention is easily distracted, they do not deeply process the course
material, neither do they make connections between the information presented, nor draw conclusions based on the main ideas (Lo &
Hew, 2020; Lodhiya & Brahmbhatt, 2019; Oderinu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Graphical methods used to represent concepts
as opposed to traditional education, such as the concept mapping method, allow the graphical mapping of information, the
identification of linear and cross-relations in the curriculum, thus contributing to deeper understanding and better academic
performance (Chen et al., 2019; Chiou et al., 2020; Hwang et al., 2020; Machado & Carvalho, 2020; Zubaidah et al., 2020).
However, in addition to academic performance, the concept mapping method also has a positive effect on the development of
higher-order cognitive abilities, such as metacognition (Prinz et al., 2020; Redford et al., 2012; Stevenson et al., 2017; Thiede et al.,
2010) and critical thinking (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Canãs et al., 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020; Chen & Hwang, 2020; Huang et al.,
2017; Khrais & Saleh, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2019; Roshangar et al., 2020; Tseng, 2019; Yue et al., 2017), which contribute not
only to academic success but also to success in life and career (Hyslop-Margison & Graham, 2001; Majid et al., 2012; Strods &
Strode, 2018). The concept mapping method is becoming more prevalent in education, being suitable for developing both critical
thinking ability (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2017; Kaddoura et al., 2016; Khrais & Saleh, 2020;
Mohammadi et al., 2019; Roshangar et al., 2020; Tseng, 2019) and disposition (Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Huang et al., 2012; Lee et
al., 2016; Moattari et al., 2014; Wang & Liao, 2014).
Preliminary reviews and meta-analyses have profile-specifically investigated the effect of the concept mapping method on
critical thinking. In the included studies only nursing (Chabeli, 2010; Gul & Boman, 2006; Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017) or medical
(Daley & Torre, 2010) or speech-language pathology education students (Mok et al., 2008) were analysed. In contrast, we did not
exclude research based on university profile but we treated study profile and academic level (secondary school and university
students) as moderator variables. The two preliminary meta-analyses (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017) highlight the positive effect
of concept mapping on both critical thinking ability and disposition, but we do not have information on the extent to which the
method is effective in developing critical thinking subcomponents. The literature shows great variety in terms of what
subcomponents belong to critical thinking ability (Abrami et al., 2008; Davies & Barnett, 2015; Ennis, 2018; Facione, 1990; Haber,
2020; Halpern & Sternberg, 2020) and what motivational factors and personality traits form the critical thinking disposition (As’ari
et al., 2019; Cui et al., 2021; Davies & Barnett, 2015; Haber, 2020; Kurniati et al., 2019; Noone & Seery, 2018; Rauscher &
Badenhorst, 2020). Yue et al. (2017) presented in their meta-analysis results for different measuring tools, there was no
summarisation of results for the same subcomponents measured with different instruments. Thus, in our meta-analysis, we do not
only draw a general conclusion about the effect of concept mapping on critical thinking ability and disposition but also synthesize
the results on subcomponents, examining which of these are affected by the concept mapping method as opposed to traditional
education. We explore the potential moderating effect of demographic variables on the effectiveness of the method, such as gender
and age. We also tested whether the methods of concept mapping (number of concept maps constructed, collaborative elaboration,
computerised method) moderate the effect on critical thinking. Preliminary meta-analyses did not take into account the different
applications of the method (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017). In his meta-analysis, Romanko (2016) also included research
that did not involve randomisation, whereas Yue et al. (2017) analysed RCTs only. Since randomisation is difficult in many cases in
education, quasi-experiments are used instead of randomised research to explore the effect of the independent variable (McMillan &
Schumacher, 2014). Similarly, a significant proportion of research on this topic did not use random assignment, so in addition to
randomised research, we also included non-randomised research in our analysis, examining how randomisation moderates the effect
size (ES).
1.1. The principles of the concept mapping method
Concept mapping, which is based on Novak’s (2010) theory of meaningful learning and assimilation, is a tool suitable for the
graphical representation of knowledge, the representation and understanding of linear and cross-relations between concepts. The
concept mapping method simultaneously stimulates analytical and synthetic thinking (Clayton, 2006), it is a creative learning
strategy that helps to logically synthesize, organise and place concepts in a conceptual hierarchy based on a complex logical structure ( Aguiar &
Correia, 2017; Alt & Naamati-Schneider, 2021; Farrokhnia et al., 2019; Novak, 2010; Roessger et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017). At
the higher levels of the conceptual hierarchy are located the most general concepts, followed by increasingly specific
concepts. Cross-relations connect concepts located in different parts of a concept map (Novak, 2010). Representing the relationships
between concepts contributes to the analysis of knowledge, the application of inductive and deductive thinking, the evaluation of
understanding, that is the application of the skills that critical thinking includes (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020;
Huang et al., 2017; Mohammadi et al., 2019; Tseng, 2019), and may increase analyticity, systematicity, self-confidence in
knowledge, open-mindedness for discovering relations and inquisitiveness (Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Huang et al., 2012; Lee et al.,
2016; Moattari et al., 2014; Wang & Liao, 2014).
1.2. The effect of the concept mapping method on students’ critical thinking abilities
Paul and Elder (2020) defined critical thinking as the art of evaluating cognitive processes, a process aimed at continuous
improvement, self-monitoring, control, correction. Critical thinking is composed of a number of cognitive abilities and affective
dispositions (Ennis, 2018; Facione, 1990; Haber, 2020). So, it includes not only the totality of skills but also the disposition to apply
those skills. To be able to think critically about a particular topic requires knowledge of that topic and disposition to use thinking
skills (Ennis, 2018; Halpern & Sternberg, 2020).
2
The cognitive dimension includes critical thinking skills such as analysis, explanation, interpretation, induction, deduction,
3
recognition of assumptions, inference (Abrami et al., 2008; Davies & Barnett, 2015; Haber, 2020). Based on the research of Facione
(1990), we can highlight six general cognitive skills: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, conclusion, explanation, self-regulation.
Davies and Barnett (2015) classified the cognitive skills of critical thinking into four groups. Lower-level thinking skills include
interpreting, explanation, and recognition of assumptions, higher-level thinking skills include analysis and synthesis, complex skills
include induction, deduction, inference, and metacognitive skills are at the highest level. Complex and metacognitive critical
thinking skills require the activation of higher-level cognitive processes, also the conscious application of low- and high-level
cognitive skills, and metacognitive awareness (Amin et al., 2020; Lukitasari et al., 2019; Magno, 2010; Mohseni et al., 2020;
Çakıcı, 2018). In contrast to traditional teaching methods, which do not encourage the use of metacognitive processes and self-
regulation strategies, the concept mapping method allows students not only to interpret and identify key ideas but also to use
metacognitive regulation strategies such as planning the hierarchical system of identified information, monitoring the process of
creating a concept map, evaluating the concept map (Khine et al., 2019; Powell et al., 2021; Sannathimmappa, 2022; Stevenson et
al., 2017). The concept mapping method itself is considered to be a metacognitive regulation, information management strategy that
helps students to draw inferences about the relationships between the information they are processing, to apply complex and metacognitive
critical thinking skills (Amin et al., 2020; Lukitasari et al., 2019; Mohseni et al., 2020).
The concept mapping method has a positive effect on the development of many cognitive abilities related to critical thinking
(Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2017; Mohammadi et al., 2019; Tseng, 2019). In their research, Aein
and Aliakbari (2017) highlighted the positive effect of concept mapping: the students in the experimental group scored higher on
cognitive abilities such as analysis, evaluation, inference, deduction, and induction in the posttest than the control group members,
who participated in traditional education. Carvalho et al. (2020) found that of the cognitive abilities only the evaluation skill
increased significantly from pretest to posttest in the experimental group where the concept mapping method was applied. No
significant development was observed in the control group. In the experiment of Huang et al. (2017) the group using the concept
mapping method performed significantly better along critical thinking skills (recognition of assumptions, induction, deduction,
interpretation, evaluation) than the traditionally learning control group, both in the posttest and the follow-up measurement. In the
research of Mohammadi et al. (2019) the concept mapping method was also effective in developing evaluation, analysis, deduction
skills, but there was no significant difference between the experimental and control groups along the induction and inference scores.
Tseng (2019) also showed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the posttest along critical
thinking skills. The group using the concept mapping method had higher scores in inference, interpretation, analysis, evaluation and
explanation.
1.3. The effect of the concept mapping method on students’ critical thinking dispositions
Critical thinking dispositions are affective states, thinking habits, not skills. Disposition includes a set of attitudes, psychological
readiness for critical thinking (Davies & Barnett, 2015; Haber, 2020). These thinking habits can be divided into three categories.
We can talk about cognitive components (analyticity, systematicity), personality components (self-confidence, cognitive maturity)
and motivational components (open-mindedness, truth-seeking, inquisitiveness) (Cui et al., 2021). Open-mindedness, as disposition,
means openness to ideas which we disagree with, thinking from opposing perspectives (As’ari et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Cui et
al., 2021; Haber, 2020; Kurniati et al., 2019; Moattari et al., 2014). The truth-seeking tendency to aim for the best understanding of
a situation (Kurniati et al., 2019) forms the basis for the application of critical thinking skills such as inference, evaluation,
explanation, interpretation, enabling more objective, more accurate decision-making (As’ari et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Cui et
al., 2021; Noone & Seery, 2018; Rauscher & Badenhorst, 2020). The analytical person divides the problem into parts, checks his
answers separately to see how well they fit into the whole picture, looks for errors and difficulties during problem-solving. On the
other hand, the disposition for systematicity means arranging, organising, highlighting information, the ability to focus on relevant
information (Chen et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2021; Kavenuke et al., 2020; Maharani et al., 2019). Self-confidence in critical thinking is
also required to be motivated to apply critical thinking skills. A person with high self-confidence believes in the effectiveness of
their abilities, in their good problem-solving ability, in making the right decisions, and sees oneself as a good thinker ( Chen et al.,
2020; Kavenuke et al., 2020; Noone & Seery, 2018; Rauscher & Badenhorst, 2020). In the presence of inquisitiveness, the person
feels a high degree of enthusiasm and curiosity for acquiring knowledge and for learning, even in situations where it is not clear
how to apply and use the acquired knowledge (Chen et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2021; Moattari et al., 2014; Noone & Seery, 2018;
Rauscher & Badenhorst, 2020). Another feature is cognitive maturity, which is manifested in caution and consideration in decision-
making, in the reflection and control of decisions, and in the awareness that there are several alternative solutions to a problem
(Chen et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2021; Noone & Seery, 2018; Rauscher & Badenhorst, 2020).
Concept mapping is a possible way to develop students ‘critical thinking disposition (Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Huang et al.,
2012;
Lee et al., 2016; Moattari et al., 2014; Wang & Liao, 2014). In the study by Atay and Karabacak (2012) and Wang and Liao (2014)
the experimental group using concept mapping had significantly higher open-mindedness, truth-seeking, analyticity, systematicity,
self-confidence and inquisitiveness in the posttest than the control group using traditional learning. Huang et al. (2012) found that
the concept mapping method was effective in developing open-mindedness, inquisitiveness and maturity, but in the posttest there
was no significant difference in students’ truth-seeking, analyticity, systematicity and self-confidence between the group using
concept mapping and the control group. Contrary to these results, Samawi’s (2006) research did not show a significant difference
concerning critical thinking disposition between the concept mapping and the traditional learning group.
4
1.4. Differences in critical thinking related to gender, academic level and profile
Numerous studies have investigated gender differences in critical thinking skills and dispositions, but the results are very diver-
sified. According to some research, women have a higher disposition for critical thinking than men (Kaya et al., 2017; Turabik &
Gün, 2016; O¨ zsoy-Günes¸ et al., 2015). Fitriani et al. (2018) found that women have higher inquisitiveness and maturity, while
men have
higher self-confidence and open-mindedness. Several studies of critical thinking ability have also shown that women have better
critical thinking skills than men (Al-Mahrooqi & Denman, 2020; Kumar & James, 2015; Mansyur et al., 2018; Mehta et al., 2018).
Other studies have shown that men have better critical thinking and explanatory skills than women (Dilekli, 2017; Howard et al.,
2015; Leach, 2011; Rodzalan & Saat, 2015). Leach (2011) found that men scored higher on analysis, induction, deduction,
evaluation and inference abilities than women. Other research has shown no gender differences in critical thinking abilities (Be
ćirović et al., 2019; Hunter et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2018; Kettler, 2014; Myers & Dyer, 2006; Nazila et al., 2019), nor along the
critical thinking disposition (Karago¨l & Bekmezci, 2015).
Research using the concept mapping method to develop critical thinking or disposition did not study gender differences, nor did
preliminary meta-analyses test the effect of gender on the effectiveness of the method on developing critical thinking (Romanko,
2016; Yue et al., 2017), so one of the aims of our meta-analysis is to study gender as a moderator variable for ES.
Most of the research, in which students’ critical thinking was developed with the concept mapping method, was conducted with
undergraduates (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020; Kaddoura et al., 2016; Khrais & Saleh, 2020; Mohammadi et al.,
2019; Roshangar et al., 2020). In their research, Huang et al. (2017) developed the critical thinking of 11-year-old children using the
concept mapping method, such as recognition of assumptions, induction, deduction, interpretation, evaluation of arguments. In
Tseng’s (2019) research with secondary school students concept mapping increased analysis, inference, explanation, evaluation,
interpretation skills. Preliminary meta-analyses (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017) did not investigate whether age and level of study
affect the effectiveness of the concept mapping method in developing critical thinking, so the aim of the present research is to
determine age and level of study as possible moderator variables for the magnitude of the effect of the method.
Several studies have investigated differences in critical thinking skills between different disciplines (Al-Mahrooqi & Denman, 2020;
Leach, 2011; Rodzalan & Saat, 2015). Rodzalan and Saat (2015) found that social science students have better critical thinking than
engineering and science students. Leach (2011) found different results along the subcomponents of critical thinking. Nursing
students scored higher in analytical skills; art and science, respectively nursing students in inductive thinking; while art and science
students reached higher scores in inference, deductive thinking and evaluation. Al-Mahrooqi and Denman (2020) found no
difference in the critical thinking of science and humanities students.
Most research using the concept mapping method to develop critical thinking has been conducted with nursing students ( Aein &
Aliakbari, 2017; Alfayoumi, 2018; Carvalho et al., 2020; Kaddoura et al., 2016; Khrais & Saleh, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2019;
Roshangar et al., 2020). Other research has tested the effectiveness of the method on EFL students to develop critical thinking skills
(Khodadady & Ghanizadeh, 2011; Tseng, 2019) and disposition (Wang & Liao, 2014), as well as on medical students (Bixler et al.,
2015). The aim of the present meta-analysis is to test whether the study profile moderates the impact of the concept mapping method
on the development of critical thinking, as preliminary research and meta-analyses have not compared the impact of the concept
mapping along academic disciplines (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017).
1.5. Concept mapping elaboration methods
Research using the concept map as a development method differs in the way the concept map is designed. Some research has
investigated the effect of paper-pencil-type concept maps (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Chen et al., 2011;
Huang et al., 2017; Kaddoura et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2013; Maneval et al., 2011; Moattari et al., 2014; Mohammadi et al., 2019;
Nirmala & Shakuntala, 2011; Roshangar et al., 2020; Sinatra-Wilhelm, 2012; Tseng, 2019; Tseng et al., 2011; Wang & Liao, 2014),
while other studies have tested the effect of concept maps edited via a computer or online platform on critical thinking ( Carvalho et
al., 2020; Eggert et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2012; Hwang et al., 2021; Khodadady & Ghanizadeh, 2011). Some studies have shown
that computerised concept maps are more effective in increasing academic performance (Așiksoy, 2019; Chang et al., 2017; Chiou
et al., 2017; Hwang et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2010) and developing self-regulatory learning (Stevenson et al., 2017) than the paper-
based concept mapping method because technology compensates for the deficiencies of paper-pencil-type concept maps, such as
limited space, difficulty in making corrections and being time-consuming. In contrast, Islim (2018) in his research, demonstrated the
pros and cons of both methods.
Collaborative concept mapping can create conversations between students that increase the understanding of concepts and the
relationships between them, and develop reasoning skills (Hartmeyer et al., 2017). Collaboratively generated concept maps are
more detailed and of higher quality than those produced individually, suggesting a deeper conceptual understanding ( Kwon &
Cifuentes, 2009; Sadita et al., 2020). The collaborative concept mapping method increases learning motivation and academic
performance (Chiou et al., 2020). However, in a meta-analysis regarding the effect of the concept mapping method on students’
academic achievement (Schroeder et al., 2018) it was found that collaborative creation of a concept map is not more effective than
that of an individual one concerning the increase of academic performance. In some studies, individually created concept maps
(Atay & Kar- abacak, 2012; Carvalho et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2017; Kaddoura et al., 2016; Khodadady &
Ghanizadeh, 2011; Lee et al., 2013; Moattari et al., 2014; Mohammadi et al., 2019; Roshangar et al., 2020; Sinatra-Wilhelm, 2012;
Tseng, 2019; Wang & Liao, 2014), while in others, group-produced, collaboratively created concept maps (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Bixler
et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2012; Nirmala & Shakuntala, 2011; Tseng et al., 2011) were studied with regards to their impact on the
development of critical
5
thinking.
Preliminary research and meta-analyses (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017) have not examined whether the computerised
method is more effective than the traditional paper-pencil elaboration, or the collaborative concept mapping than the individual
method. In our meta-analysis, we also investigate whether the way the concept map is created moderates the effectiveness of the
method in developing critical thinking.
2. Research questions
Our primary research question is whether the concept mapping method is more effective in developing critical thinking skills
and dispositions than the traditional educational method. More precisely, in our research, we also examine the impact of concept
mapping on subcomponents of critical thinking skills and dispositions. We hypothesise that the concept mapping method, due to its
metacognitive process activating function, has a greater impact on complex critical thinking abilities (Davies & Barnett, 2015),
and on the cognitive and motivational components of critical thinking disposition (Cui et al., 2021), than the traditional teaching
method. Furthermore, we hypothesise that the personality components within critical thinking dispositions (Cui et al., 2021), due to
their stable trait nature, are not developed more significantly by the concept mapping method than by the traditional teaching
method.
Based on the preliminary research presented above, as well as the weaknesses of the meta-analyses and the unanswered
questions, we set up the following additional research questions in which we highlighted the potential effects of several moderators
on the effectiveness of the concept mapping method.
1. Do the effects of the concept mapping method differ depending on gender?

2. Does the age of the students affect the effectiveness of the method?
3. Does the effect of the concept mapping method differ depending on the university profile?
4. Does the effect of the concept mapping method differ depending on the level of education? Is the method more effective in the
case of secondary school students or university students?
5. Does the number of concept maps affect the ES? Is the effect of development greater if students create more concept maps?
6. Does the concept mapping elaboration method affect the ES? Does collaborative creation have a higher development potential
than an individual one?
7. Does the ES differ depending on the digitalisation of concept maps? Does a concept map created on a computerised or online
platform have a greater impact than the traditional paper-and-pencil type?
8. Does the effect of the concept map differ depending on the allocation type (random or non-random)?
Fig. 1. PRISMA flowchart of the study selection process.

6
3. Method
3.1. Identification and selection of studies
We conducted a literature search in the Cochrane, Medline, ProQuest, PsycInfo, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of
Science electronic databases, using the following keywords: ‘university students’, ‘college students’, ‘undergraduate students’,
‘secondary school students’, ‘high school students’, ‘concept mapping’, ‘critical thinking’, ‘critical thinking ability’, ‘critical thinking
disposition’. We also searched for other relevant studies from the reference list of the included articles, previous reviews and meta-
analyses.
The studies had to meet the following criteria to be included in the meta-analysis:
1. To include a comparison between an experimental group applying the concept mapping method and a control group
participating in traditional education
2. To include critical thinking abilities and/or dispositions as outcomes
3. An evidence-based standardised tool was used to assess critical thinking (for instance we excluded studies that measured critical
thinking with the complexity of concept maps or other performance indicators)
4. Quantitative research (studies using a qualitative approach were excluded)
5. Studies with sufficient reported data to calculate the ES
6. Studies published in peer-reviewed journals and studies in English
The literature search identified 3791 studies, the additional search of the reference list of the previous relevant literature revealed
12 additional studies, 247 duplicates were excluded. From the remaining 3556 records we excluded 3418 based on titles and
abstracts and examined the full-text of 138 articles. The flowchart of the inclusion process based on the PRISMA guidelines (Moher
et al., 2009) is displayed in Fig. 1. The application of the inclusion criteria reduced the number of studies to 21.
3.2. Data extraction
We extracted quantitative data, descriptive statistics of the experimental and control group (i.e. means, standard deviations,
sample sizes) of each study and each outcome. We also extracted a series of categorical and continuous variables from the included
studies for further moderator analysis (see Table 1).
Participants’ gender (percent of female students), mean age, presence of the randomisation process, students’ academic level
(secondary school or university) and profile (nursing or English as a foreign language), number of created concept maps, type of
concept mapping elaboration method (individual or collaborative; computerised or paper-based) were extracted from the methods
section of studies (see Table 2 for the detailed presentation of the extracted characteristics for each study). Two independent raters
evaluated the extracted data from all 21 studies and disagreements were discussed until consensus was reached.
Two studies did not report sufficient data to calculate the ES, lacking the SD and the number of participants from each group.
The authors of these studies were contacted to provide missing SD and sample size information, but they did not yield the missing
data, hence these studies were excluded (Zubaidah et al., 2018).
3.3. Statistical analysis and interpretation
We executed all analyses using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (CMA, version 2.0). We calculated the individual
Hedges’ g ESs, measuring the standardised mean difference (SMD) between the concept mapping and traditional learning group.
Most often, the SMD was computed utilising means, standard deviations and sample sizes. Where means and standard deviations
were not
Table 1
List of variables extracted from the included studies.
Variable name Coding categories
Categorical variables
Academic profile English
Nursing
Academic level Secondary school
University
Concept mapping elaboration method Individual
Collaborative
Digital method Yes
No
Allocation type Random
Non-random
Continuous variables
Gender
Mean age
Number of concept maps created
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A. Barta et al.
Table 2
Selected characteristics of the included studies.
Study ID Nexp Ncon CT CT Gender (percentage Mean Academic Academic level Collaborative Digital Number of Random
ability disposition of females) age profile (university students) elaboration method concept maps allocation type
Aein, 2017 30 30 Y N 66 21 Nursing Y Y N 9 Y

Atay, 2012 40 40 N Y 86.25 N/R Nursing Y N N 4 Y
Carvalho, 2020 39 38 Y N N/R N/R Nursing Y N Y 4 Y
Chen, 2011 47 48 Y N 100 21.98 Nursing Y N N 5 N
Huang, 2012 67 67 Y Y 99.25 27.04 Nursing Y Y Y 11 Y
Huang, 2017 57 59 Y N 51.72 11.38 N/R N N N N/R N
Kaddoura, 2016 41 42 Y N 86.74 N/R Nursing Y N N 14 Y
Khodadady, 2011 18 18 Y N 86.11 N/R English Y N Y 20 Y
Khrais, 2020 58 57 Y N 60.9 24.18 Nursing Y N/R N/R N/R Y
7
Lee, 2013 46 48 Y N 100 22.03 Nursing Y N N 15 N

Maneval, 2011 111 41 Y N 88.81 N/R Nursing Y N/R N N/R N
Moattari, 2014 16 16 Y Y N/R N/R Nursing Y N N 2 Y
Mohammadi, 2019 41 40 Y N 80.24 25.12 Nursing Y N N 23 Y
Nirmala, 2011 40 44 Y N N/R N/R Nursing Y Y N 12 N
Roshangar, 2020 28 27 Y N 50.9 N/R Nursing Y N N N/R Y
Samawi, 2006 32 45 Y Y N/R N/R Nursing Y N/R N 2 N
Sinatra-Wilhelm, 22 22 Y N N/R N/R Nursing Y N N 1 Y
2012
Tseng, 2011 51 69 Y N N/R 28.6 Nursing Y Y N N/R N
Tseng, 2019 23 20 Y N N/R N/R English N N N N/R N
Wang, 2014 21 20 N Y 53.65 N/R English Y N N 12 N
Wheeler, 2003 44 32 Y N 94.73 23.46 Nursing Y N N 15 Y
Educational Research Review 37 (2022) 100481

Notes. Nexp = number of paricipants in the experimental group; Ncon = number of paricipants in the control group; CT = critical thinking; Y = yes; N = no; N/R = not reported.
available, we calculated the SMD from other statistics, such as t-values or F values for differences between groups. When a study
reported multiple measurement data from the same outcome, the average ES was calculated (Borenstein et al., 2009). A positive
Hedges’ g reflects that the concept mapping group has higher scores of critical thinking than the traditional learning group. ESs
were interpreted applying Cohen’s guidelines, where g = 0.2 indicates small, g = 0.5 medium and g = 0.8 large ESs (Cohen,
1992).
We applied a random-effects model for the calculation of mean ESs due to the heterogeneity of study results. In contrast with the
fixed effects model, which assumes that the reason for variability is only the sampling error, the random-effects model assumes the
heterogeneity of ESs as the consequence of study design and sampling error (Borenstein et al., 2009). As a result of the variability of the
critical thinking outcomes, we grouped them into critical thinking ability and disposition outcome. We conducted separate analyses
for these two groups of outcomes. Additionally, we calculated the ESs for each subcomponent of critical thinking ability (analysis,
deduction, evaluation, explanation, induction, inference, interpretation, recognition of assumptions) and disposition (analyticity,
inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, self-confidence, systematicity, truth-seeking). We conducted a sensitivity analysis excluding out-
liers which were defined as studies in which the pooled ES’s 95% CI (confidence interval) was outside of the 95% CI of the pooled
ES (on both sides). 95% CIs were also calculated to determine statistical significance (if the 95% CI does not include zero, this denotes
that there is a significant difference between the mean critical thinking outcomes of the concept mapping and the traditional learning
group).
Heterogeneity was assessed with I2 statistic, interpreting 25% as low, 50% as moderate, and 75% as high heterogeneity (Higgins,
2003). The potential impact of categorical moderator variables was measured by conducting subgroup analysis using the mixed-
effects model, which consists of a fixed-effects procedure across subgroups and a random-effects procedure within subgroups
(Borenstein et al., 2009). We applied meta-regression with a restricted maximum likelihood model for continuous moderator
variables (Borenstein et al., 2009).
We investigated small study effects with several methods. Publication bias was analysed through the visual inspection of the
funnel plot, which helps in distinguishing publication bias from other factors of asymmetry (Peters et al., 2008). We also employed the
Egger’s test for the asymmetry of the funnel plot (Egger et al., 1997) and the trim and fill method (Duval & Tweedie, 2000) as
complementary procedures in investigating potential publication bias or small study effects.
4. Results
The 21 selected studies included 108 relevant comparisons between the concept mapping and the traditional learning groups,
with 872 participants in the concept mapping (experimental) group and 823 in the traditional learning (control) group. We present
the results of the meta-analysis in three tables. Table 3 reports ESs for the overall critical thinking ability, for the subcomponents of
critical thinking ability, for moderating effects on critical thinking ability of educational level (secondary school, university),
academic discipline (English as a foreign language, nursing), concept mapping elaboration method (individual, collaborative),
digital method (yes, no) and allocation type (random, non-random). Table 4 reports ESs for the overall critical thinking disposition,
for the subcomponents of critical thinking disposition and for the moderating effect of allocation type (random, non-random) on
critical thinking disposition. Table 5 presents the moderating effects on the overall critical thinking ability and disposition of the
following continuous variables: gender, mean age and number of concept maps.
Table 3
Effect of concept mapping method vs. traditional method on critical thinking ability outcomes.
Critical thinking ability N g 95% CI I2 p
All studies 19 0.531 0.279 to 0.783 82

Outliers excluded 15 0.490 0.312 to 0.668 55
Analysis 7 0.638 —0.041 to 1.317 92
Deduction 8 0.661 0.124 to 1.197 91
Evaluation 10 0.196 —0.087 to 0.479 75
Explanation 3 0.155 —0.577 to 0.887 87
Induction 5 0.493 0.134 to 0.852 67
Inference 8 0.578 0.036 to 1.120 90
Interpretation 4 0.131 —0.213 to 0.474 63
Recognition of assumptions 3 0.337 0.111 to 0.562 0
Subgroup analysis
Educational level Secondary school 2 0.480 0.031 to 0.929 41 0.840
University 17 0.534 0.253 to 0.815 83
Academic discipline English 2 0.945 0.486 to 1.403 0 0.109
Nursing 16 0.502 0.214 to 0.789 84
Concept mapping elaboration method Individual 12 0.489 0.179 to 0.798 77 0.266
Collaborative 4 0.864 0.280 to 1.447 86
Digital method Yes 3 0.602 0.024 to 1.181 67 0.756
No 15 0.499 0.199 to 0.799 84
Allocation type Random 11 0.739 0.356 to 1.122 83 0.043
Non-random 8 0.265 0.014 to 0.517 66
8
Table 4
Effect of the concept mapping method vs. the traditional method on critical thinking disposition outcomes.
Critical thinking disposition N g 95% CI I2 p
All studies 5 0.648 0.266 to 1.031 66

Analyticity 3 0.753 0.204 to 1.301 75
Inquisitiveness 3 0.591 0.342 to 0.840 0
Open-mindedness 3 0.568 0.320 to 0.817 0
Self-confidence 2 0.373 —0.100 to 0.846 65
Systematicity 3 0.492 —0.115 to 1.099 80
Truth-seeking 3 0.994 0.227 to 1.761 86
Subgroup analysis
Allocation type Random 3 0.699 0.218 to 1.179 66 0.860
Non-random 2 0.604 —0.336 to 1.543 82
Table 5
The moderating effect of gender, age and number of concept maps.
Critical thinking ability Coeff. 95% CI
Percent of females All studies ¡0.008 —0.027 to 0.010

Outliers excluded —0.001 —0.012 to 0.008
Mean age All studies 0.027 —0.051 to 0.105
Outliers excluded 0.027 —0.005 to 0.060
Number of concept maps All studies 0.041 —0.006 to 0.090
Outliers excluded 0.010 —0.029 to 0.050
Critical thinking disposition
Percent of females —0.018 —0.034 to —0.002
Number of concept maps 0.004 —0.075 to 0.084
4.1. The effect of the concept mapping method compared to the traditional learning method on critical thinking ability outcomes
For the critical thinking ability outcome 19 studies were pooled, with an ES of g = 0.531, 95% CI 0.279 to 0.783, with
substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 82%). Exclusion of four potential outliers led to a small decrease in ES, g = 0.490, 95% CI 0.312 to
0.668, and reduced heterogeneity (I2 = 55%). With regard to critical thinking subcomponents, we found significant moderate ESs
for deduction ability (g = 0.661, 95% CI 0.124 to 1.197), with considerable heterogeneity (I2 = 91%), and for inference (g =
0.578, 95% CI 0.036 to 1.120), with substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 90%). We also detected significant but smaller ESs for induction (g
= 0.493, 95% CI 0.134 to 0.852), with moderate heterogeneity (I2 = 67%), and small ES for recognition of assumptions (g = 0.337,
95% CI 0.111 to 0.562), without heterogeneity (I2 = 0%). For analysis (g = 0.638, 95% CI -0.041 to 1.317, I2 = 92%), evaluation (g =
0.196, 95% CI -0.087 to
0.479, I2 = 75%), explanation (g = 0.155, 95% CI -0.577 to 0.887, I2 = 87%), and interpretation (g = 0.131, 95% CI -0.213 to 0.474, I2
= 63%) no statistically significant differences were found (see Table 3). Follow-up outcomes were only reported in two studies for
critical thinking ability.
4.2. The effect of the concept mapping method compared to the traditional learning method on critical thinking disposition outcomes
For the critical thinking disposition outcome 5 studies were pooled, g = 0.648, 95% CI 0.266 to 1.031, with moderate heterogeneity
(I2 = 66%). For the critical thinking disposition outcome no outliers were identified. A significant high ES for truth-seeking was
demonstrated, g = 0.994, 95% CI 0.227 to 1.761, with high heterogeneity (I2 = 86%). A significant moderate ES for analyticity was
found g = 0.753, 95% CI 0.204 to 1.301, with considerable heterogeneity (I2 = 75%). Similarly, moderate ES was detected for
inquisitiveness, g = 0.591, 95% CI 0.342 to 0.840, and for open-mindedness, g = 0.568, 95% CI 0.320 to 0.817, without heterogeneity
(I2 = 0%). The ES is non-significant for self-confidence, g = 0.373, 95% CI -0.100 to 0.846, with moderate heterogeneity (I2 = 65%),
and for systematicity, g = 0.492, 95% CI -0.115 to 1.099, with considerable heterogeneity (I2 = 80%) (see Table 4). In the included
studies follow-up outcomes were not reported for critical thinking disposition.
4.3. The moderating effect of students demographic characteristics
Univariate meta-regression indicated a non-significant relationship between students’ gender as a continuous variable (percent of
females) and critical thinking ability ES (slope = —0.008, 95% CI: —0.027 to 0.010). After the exclusion of the outliers, the relationship
remained statistically non-significant (slope = —0.001, 95% CI: —0.012 to 0.008) (see Table 5).
Students’ gender was significantly associated with critical thinking disposition ES (slope = —0.018, 95% CI: —0.034 to —0.002); an
increase in the percentage of female participants leads to a decrease in critical thinking disposition (see Table 5).
We found a non-significant relationship between students’ mean age and critical thinking ability ES (slope = 0.027, 95% CI: —0.051
to 0.105); even with the exclusion of outliers this result remains non-significant (slope = 0.027, 95% CI: —0.005 to 0.060) (see Table 5).
The association between mean age and critical thinking disposition could not be tested because the mean age of the participants
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was provided in only one study out of five on critical thinking disposition.
4.4. The moderating effect of educational conditions
Students’ educational level was not a significant moderator of ES for critical thinking ability (p = 0.840). Similarly, academic
discipline was not a significant moderator of ES for critical thinking ability (p = 0.109) (see Table 3).
We could not test the moderating effect of the educational level and the academic discipline on critical thinking disposition ES
due to the lack of studies including primary or secondary school students. Only in one study was the effect of the concept mapping
method on English as a foreign language students’ critical thinking disposition investigated, in the other studies nursing students
participated.
4.5. The moderating effect of concept mapping elaboration methods
There is a non-significant association between the number of concept maps created by the students and critical thinking ability ES
(slope = 0.041, 95% CI: —0.006 to 0.090), after the exclusion of outliers, this result remains non-significant (slope = 0.010, 95% CI:
—0.029 to 0.050). Similarly, there is no significant relationship between the number of concept maps and critical thinking disposition
ES (slope = 0.004, 95% CI: —0.075 to 0.084) (see Table 5).
It was revealed that the collaborative development of concept maps was not a significant moderator of ES for critical thinking
ability (p = 0.266), nor the digital method (p = 0.756) (see Table 3).
We could not test the moderating effect of the collaborative elaboration and digital method on critical thinking disposition ES
due to the lack of studies including these methods. Only one included study applied the collaborative and digital method for the
development of students’ critical thinking disposition.
4.6. The moderating effect of allocation type
The allocation type was a significant moderator for the comparison between concept mapping and traditional learning for critical
thinking ability (p = 0.043). Effects were moderate for randomised studies (11 trials, g = 0.739, 95% CI 0.356 to 1.122), with high
heterogeneity (I2 = 83%). The ES in non-randomised studies was low (8 trials, g = 0.265, 95% CI 0.014 to 0.517), with moderate
heterogeneity (I2 = 66%) (see Table 3).
Fig. 2. Funnel plot for comparison between the concept mapping and the traditional learning method for critical thinking ability (A) and disposition
(B) outcomes.
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For critical thinking disposition the allocation sequence was not a significant moderator of the ES (p = 0.860) (see Table 4).
4.7. Small study effects and publication bias
Visual inspection pointed to an asymmetrical funnel for both critical thinking ability and disposition (see Fig. 2). Egger’s regression
intercept test was not statistically significant for critical thinking ability (intercept = 3.174, 95% CI: —1.748 to 8.097, p = 0.191) and
critical thinking disposition (intercept = 4.525, 95% CI: —2.243 to 11.295, p = 0.123), thus revealing no evidence for publication bias/
small study effects.
The Duval & Tweedie’s trim and fill method revealed three potentially missing studies for critical thinking ability, which, if
included would lead to the decrease of the ES from 0.531 (95% CI: 0.278 to 0.783) to 0.353 (95% CI: 0.073 to 0.633). For critical
thinking disposition the trim and fill method estimated two potentially missing studies which, if imputed, would lead to the decrease
of ES from 0.648 (95% CI: 0.265 to 1.031) to 0.426 (95% CI: 0.041 to 0.810).
5. Discussion
Our overall results showed moderate effects of the concept mapping method compared with the control condition (traditional
learning method) for critical thinking ability and disposition outcomes. These moderate effects are stronger than those small effects
reported in previous meta-analyses which analysed the effect of the concept mapping method for critical thinking abilities and dis-
positions restricting the population to nursing students (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017). The number of studies with follow-up
measures was too small for the calculation of relevant ES. Moderate to high heterogeneity was revealed. Sensitivity analysis
excluding outliers decreased the ES for critical thinking ability, after all, remaining significant, but reducing heterogeneity from high to
moderate. Possible explanations for this heterogeneity include differences in participants, research design, the use of the concept
mapping method, the instruments used to measure critical thinking. The students who participated in the research included in our
meta-analysis have different socio-demographic characteristics, different ages, different levels of education. Similarly, in our
meta-analysis, we included research using random and non-random allocation types, as well as research using the concept mapping
method individually, in groups, in paper-pencil format, and digitally. The effects of these factors, moderator variables were
examined using subgroup analysis and metaregression.
5.1. Improvement of critical thinking abilities and dispositions
We found several ESs for different critical thinking abilities. The concept mapping method has a significant small effect on the
recognition of assumptions, without heterogeneity, and induction, with moderate heterogeneity, a moderate ES for deduction and
inference, with high heterogeneity, compared with the traditional education group. Nevertheless, the concept mapping method has
no significant effect on analysis, evaluation, explanation and interpretation abilities. These results on the one hand, support the
findings of earlier studies which investigated the effect of concept mapping on different critical thinking abilities ( Aein & Aliakbari,
2017; Carvalho et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2017; Mohammadi et al., 2019; Tseng, 2019), and on the other hand, are contradictory
with some results. In contrast with these earlier studies, it was revealed that concept mapping has no significant effect on students’
analysis, evaluation and interpretation. Based on the hierarchical categorisation of critical thinking abilities (Davies & Barnett,
2015), concept mapping is an effective method for the development of complex cognitive abilities (induction, deduction, inference),
but has no stronger effect on lower and higher-order thinking skills compared with traditional education, except for the ability of
recognition of assumptions. Traditional teaching methods, such as lecturing and dictation, do not require self-regulation processes
and metacognitive awareness, and thus do not activate complex critical thinking processes. However, the concept mapping method,
as a strategy for metacognitive regulation and information management, requires the mapping of complex relationships between
information and drawing conclusions based on recognised assumptions (Amin et al., 2020; Khine et al., 2019; Çakıcı, 2018).
The effect of the concept mapping method compared with traditional education has a moderate ES for overall critical thinking
disposition, with moderate heterogeneity. A moderate ES was detected for analyticity, with high heterogeneity, also a moderate ES
for inquisitiveness and open-mindedness, without heterogeneity. We found a high ES for truth-seeking disposition, with high
heterogeneity. However, the concept mapping method has no significant effect on students’ self-confidence and systematicity.
These results partly confirm the findings of earlier studies (Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Huang et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2016; Wang &
Liao, 2014), nevertheless, our results showed that the concept mapping method has no higher effect than traditional education
on students’ self-confidence and systematicity. The concept mapping method is more effective for the improvement of students’
analyticity, as a cognitive disposition, and for all motivational critical thinking dispositions (open-mindedness, truth-seeking,
inquisitiveness), but has no superiority in the development of personality components of critical thinking dispositions, compared
with the traditional method (Cui et al., 2021).
5.2. The moderating effect of students’ demographic, educational and concept mapping characteristics on method effectiveness
We found no significant relationship between students’ gender and critical thinking ability ES, this result remains insignificant after
sensitivity analysis, excluding outliers. Gender does not moderate the effect of the concept mapping method on critical thinking ability,
compared with the traditional learning method. This result is identical with the findings of earlier studies, highlighting no gender
differences in critical thinking abilities (Bećirović et al., 2019; Hunter et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2018; Kettler, 2014; Myers & Dyer, 2006;
11
Nazila et al., 2019), but contradicts the results of studies demonstrating higher critical thinking abilities in favour of females
(Al-Mahrooqi & Denman, 2020; Kumar & James, 2015; Mansyur et al., 2018; Mehta et al., 2018), or of males (Dilekli, 2017;
Howard et al., 2015; Leach, 2011; Rodzalan & Saat, 2015).
A significant relationship between gender and critical thinking disposition ES was established, gender is a significant moderator
of the effect of the concept mapping method on critical thinking disposition. The ES for critical thinking disposition decreases with
the increase of the percentage of female participants, indicating that the concept mapping method has a higher effect on male
students. This result partly corresponds with the results of Fitriani et al. (2018), who found that males have higher self-
confidence and open-mindedness than females, but is inconsistent with the results of studies showing higher levels of critical
thinking dispositions of
female students (Kaya et al., 2017; Turabik & Gün, 2016; O¨ zsoy-Günes¸ et al., 2015). It can be a source of bias that the gender dis-
tribution of participants was reported in only three included studies (Atay & Karabacak, 2012; Huang et al., 2012; Wang & Liao, 2014),
out of which in two studies the gender distribution was unequal, as mostly females participated in them ( Atay & Karabacak, 2012;
Huang et al., 2012).
No significant relationship between students’ mean age and critical thinking ability ES was revealed, this result remains insig-
nificant after sensitivity analysis, excluding outliers. Students’ age does not moderate the effect of the concept mapping method on
critical thinking ability, compared with the traditional learning method. Earlier studies also show a significant effect of the concept
mapping method regardless of mean age, research with children (Tseng, 2019) and adults (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Kaddoura et al.,
2016; Khrais & Saleh, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2019) also demonstrated the beneficial effects of this learning method for the
improvement of critical thinking abilities.
Students’ educational level has no significant moderating effect on critical thinking ability ES. The ES remains significant in the
case of secondary school (Tseng, 2019), as well as in the case of university students (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Kaddoura et al.,
2016; Khrais & Saleh, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2019). Similarly, students’ academic discipline is not a significant moderator of the
concept mapping method ES for critical thinking ability. We found a significant ES for Nursing, as well as for English as a foreign
language students.
We found no significant relationship between critical thinking ability ES and the number of concept maps created by students,
after sensitivity analysis excluding the outliers this result remains insignificant. The number of concept maps does not moderate the
ES of concept mapping for critical thinking disposition. Most of the research was conducted with Nursing students, where the
purpose of using concept mapping was to create complex case studies, explore specific syndromes and treatment plans in detail, so
the effectiveness of the method for developing critical thinking was not necessarily based on the number of concept maps created,
but on drawing conclusions about complex cases based on theoretical knowledge (Aein & Aliakbari, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020;
Kaddoura et al., 2016; Roshangar et al., 2020).
The collaborative elaboration method has no moderating effect for critical thinking ability ES. The ES is significant irrespective
of the elaboration method. The computerisation of the concept mapping elaboration has no moderating effect for critical thinking
ability ES, which remains insignificant regardless of the presence of digitalisation.
5.3. Study characteristics
The allocation type was found to be a significant moderator for critical thinking ability ES. A significant moderate effect was
revealed for randomised studies, and significant low ES for non-randomised studies, indicating that randomisation of students in
concept mapping and traditional learning groups increases the effect of the concept mapping method on the improvement of critical
thinking skills. The significant moderating effect of allocation type confirms the superiority of random allocation as opposed to the
allocation of participants into groups based on different characteristics or accessibility. The non-random assignment of students’
may result in inequality between groups, one group having different cognitive, emotional, motivational characteristics, which may
influence the effectiveness of the concept mapping method on critical thinking abilities. With the randomisation process
researchers could reduce the number of alternative explanations for their findings, and could improve the group equivalence. The
allocation type was not a significant moderator for critical thinking disposition ES, which could be explained with the reduced
number of studies measuring critical thinking disposition.
Previous meta-analyses investigating the effect of the concept mapping method on the improvement of critical thinking abilities
and dispositions did not consider publication bias at all (Romanko, 2016; Yue et al., 2017). We applied a range of methods to assess
funnel plot asymmetry. Egger’s regression intercept test indicated no evidence for publication bias. For critical thinking ability the
Duval & Tweedie’s trim and fill method revealed three, for critical thinking disposition two missing studies which, if included,
would lead to the decrease of ES.
5.4. Limitations and future research
One of the main limitations of our meta-analysis is the reduced number of studies investigating the effect of the concept
mapping method compared with the traditional learning method on the improvement of critical thinking disposition. As a result of
the reduced number of included studies, our results regarding the concept mapping effect on critical thinking disposition may be
incomplete.
A moderate to high heterogeneity was detected for all outcomes, which also reduces the reliability of our results. We were able
to identify only few moderators and a reduced number of studies were included in some subgroups. For the critical thinking ability
outcome, only two studies with secondary school students were included, two studies with English as a foreign language students.
Thus, most of the research using the concept mapping method to develop critical thinking has involved undergraduate and Nursing
12
students, which may influence our results and narrow their generalisability. Also the digital and collaborative creation of the
concept maps was performed in only a few studies. As a result of the reduced number of articles and missing data for the critical
thinking disposition outcome, we could not test the moderating effect of mean age, educational level, academic discipline,
collaborative and digital elaboration methods. In addition to the demographic, educational, and concept mapping moderator
variables we examined, other factors that have not been addressed in the research, such as proficiency in the concept mapping
method, respectively other differences in the use of the traditional method and concept mapping method, may have influenced
heterogeneity. We could not calculate the ESs for two studies, which did not contain enough information, and the authors did not
provide the missing data.
As a consequence of the reduced number of critical thinking disposition-oriented articles, future studies should focus on the in-
spection of the concept mapping method’s effect on critical thinking disposition, with the interest of drawing a more precise conclusion
regarding the effect of this method on different critical thinking disposition outcomes. Our meta-analysis also highlights the lack of
studies that explore the effect of the concept mapping method on children’s critical thinking skills. In future studies authors should
pay more attention to the reporting of participants’ demographic characteristics, such as their mean age, to make it possible to
investigate age differences in the applicability of this method. In future research, it would also be worthwhile to investigate the
impact of proficiency in the concept mapping method, its prior application on critical thinking. It is possible that prior use of
concept mapping could explain the effect of the method on critical thinking skills. There may be differences between educational
institutions in the use of methods aimed at developing higher-order cognitive processes. Students in some schools and universities
may have had several op- portunities to use the concept mapping method during education, even outside the research setting, while
students in other institutions may have been using the method for the first time.
Concept mapping could be an effective method for the development of critical thinking skills of students with diverse school or
university profiles, it would be meritorious to apply this method in different science and humanities disciplines. Nevertheless, the
positive effects of collaboration and digitalisation are not proven, these innovative forms of concept mapping are adopted only in a
few studies. Future studies could build these novel forms of concept mapping into education, it would also be beneficial to compare
the effect of traditional (paper-pencil) and digital elaborations, as well as the individual and collaborative methods for critical
thinking abilities and dispositions. The effectiveness of the concept mapping method for the improvement of critical thinking skills,
besides the traditional teaching method, can also be compared with other active learning methods for visual knowledge
representation, such as mind mapping, argument mapping, flipped learning model, problem-based learning model.
6. Conclusion
In the present meta-analysis, we found a moderate effect of the concept mapping method on students’ critical thinking ability
and disposition improvement compared with the traditional education method. The effect of concept mapping differs in diverse
critical thinking ability and disposition subcomponents, it is more useful for the development of critical thinking abilities, such as
recognition of assumptions, induction, deduction, inference and dispositions, like analyticity, inquisitiveness, open-mindedness,
truth-seeking, than the traditional teaching method. These results highlight the superiority of the use of the concept mapping method
in the improvement of critical thinking abilities and dispositions as compared to the traditional learning method. Through the
representation of concepts and their linear and cross relationships (Novak, 2010), students have more accurate inductive and
deductive reasoning skills, reflect relevant information more precisely, recognise assumptions more accurately than students using
traditional learning methods.
We analysed the impact of different moderators on the effect of concept mapping on critical thinking. Except for the
randomisation process (for critical thinking ability) and gender (for critical thinking disposition), the tested moderating effects are
not significant. We could draw more accurate conclusions regarding the differences in the effectiveness of this method for academic
levels and disciplines, respectively the effect of different elaboration types for critical thinking abilities and dispositions, if more
studies including the tested subgroups were conducted, reporting additional data about students’ characteristics and the description
of the method. Many existent studies are poorly reported. Detailed reporting of the statistical data for enhancing knowledge about
the applicability of concept mapping would be very useful.
The findings of the meta-analysis draw attention to the effectiveness of the concept mapping method as an active learning, met-
acognitive regulation strategy for teaching and applying it in educational settings. The deep processing of course material and the
exploration of the relationships between relevant concepts presuppose the functioning of metacognitive processes, which are
activated by the use of the concept mapping method (Khine et al., 2019; Powell et al., 2021; Stevenson et al., 2017). The method
can be applied in a variety of ways, either in paper-pencil or digital format, individually or in groups, and the introduction of the
method to students is time and energy efficient. Providing feedback on the created concept maps further enhances the effectiveness
of the method in promoting cognitive processes (Kaddoura et al., 2016; Powell et al., 2021; Stevenson et al., 2017), as well as
academic performance (Dmoshinskaia et al., 2021; Joseph et al., 2017). Finally, this meta-analysis compares the effectiveness of the
concept mapping method with the traditional, passive one. Further studies could contrast the applicability of concept mapping with
other active teaching methods.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Andrea Barta: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software,
Supervision, Term, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Liviu A. Fodor: Data curation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review &
13
editing. Borba´la Tamás: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Supervision, Term, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.
Istvań Szamosko¨zi: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Supervision, Term, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The publication of this article was supported by the Developmental Fund of the Babeș-Bolyai University 2021.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100481.
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The Development of Students Critical Thinking Abilities and

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Educational Research Review 37 (2022) 100481

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Educational Research Review

Integrative research review

The development of students critical thinking abilities and

1.1. The principles of the concept mapping method

1.5. Concept mapping elaboration methods

1. Do the effects of the concept mapping method differ depending on gender?

Fig. 1. PRISMA flowchart of the study selection process.

3.1. Identification and selection of studies

3.2. Data extraction

3.3. Statistical analysis and interpretation

Aein, 2017 30 30 Y N 66 21 Nursing Y Y N 9 Y

Lee, 2013 46 48 Y N 100 22.03 Nursing Y N N 15 N

Educational Research Review 37 (2022) 100481

All studies 19 0.531 0.279 to 0.783 82

All studies 5 0.648 0.266 to 1.031 66

Percent of females All studies ¡0.008 —0.027 to 0.010

4.3. The moderating effect of students demographic characteristics

4.4. The moderating effect of educational conditions

4.5. The moderating effect of concept mapping elaboration methods

4.6. The moderating effect of allocation type

4.7. Small study effects and publication bias

5.1. Improvement of critical thinking abilities and dispositions

5.3. Study characteristics

5.4. Limitations and future research

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

Data will be made available on request.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100481.

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