Advanced Digital Signal Processing Tutorial

Recent Development of Image Compression Techniques

Chia-Jung Chang (張嘉容)

National Taiwan University
 ABSTRACT
Digital image compression technology is of special interest for the fast
transmission and real-time processing of digital image information on the
internet. Although still image compression is a technique developed for a long
time, plus there are several approaches which reduce the compression rate, and
accelerate computation time, there are still a lot to go to improve the efficacy of
compression. In this tutorial, several important image compression algorithms
at present are examined, including DCT and the derived tools such as JPEG,
JPEG 2000, fractal image compression and wavelet transformation. These use
different aspects to help image processing smoother and faster.
In the following tutorial, I would like to talk about the background of image
compression first, including when we will need image compression, categories
of techniques, and their properties. Secondly, I would briefly introduce some
common image compression methods nowadays such as JPEG, JPEG2000,
wavelet-based, fractal-based, and several other techniques like NTT and neural
networks. When they can be applied, how to implement the algorithms, their
advantages and disadvantages, how they differ and their development prospect
will be described as well.

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 CONTENTS

Abstract

I. Introduction

1. Introduction to Image Compression

1.1 Image
1.1.1 Pixel
1.1.2 RGB
1.1.3 Grayscale
1.1.4 YUV
1.2 Image Compression
1.2.1 System
1.2.2 Benefits
1.2.3 Categories
2. Lossy Compression Techniques
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Techniques
2.2.1 Transform Coding
2.2.2 Vector Quantization
2.2.3 Fractal Coding
2.2.4 Block Truncation Coding
2.2.5 Subband Coding
3. Lossless Compression Techniques
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Techniques
3.2.1 Run Length Encoding
3.2.2 Huffman Encoding
3.2.3 LZW Coding
3.2.4 Area Coding

II. Commonly Used Techniques

4. JPEG
4.1 JPEG

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 4.1.1 JPEG Encoder
4.1.2 The 2D 8x8 DCT
4.1.3 Quantization
4.1.4 Differential Coding of DC Coefficients
4.1.5 Zigzag Scanning of AC Coefficients
4.1.6 Entropy Coding
5. Other Commonly Used Techniques
5.1 JPEG2000
5.2 Others

Summary

References

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 1. Introduction to Image Compression

The digital multimedia is popular nowadays because of their highly perceptual

effects and the advanced development its corresponding technology. However,
it often requires a large amount of data to store these multimedia contents due
to the complex information they may encounter. Besides, the requirement of
resolution is much higher than before, such that the data size of the image is
surprisingly large.
In other words, a still image is a sensory signal that contains significant amount
of redundant information which exists in their canonical forms. Image data
compression is the technique of reducing the redundancies in image data
required to maintain a given quantity of information. Therefore, how to
improve image compression becomes an important question. Great progress
has been made in applying digital signal processing or wavelet transform
techniques in this area.
There are two different technique groups including lossy compression and
lossless compression depending on if the information can be recovered after
compression. I would like to briefly introduce different methods included in
these two techniques. As for JPEG and JPEG2000, they are very popular
compression tools, which will be described in details in the latter chapters.
1.1 Image
An image is essentially a 2-D signal processed by the human visual system.
The signals representing images are usually in analog form. However, for
image processing, storage and transmission, they are converted from analog to
digital form. A digital image is basically a 2-D array of pixels.
Images are formed of the significant part of data, particularly in remote
sensing, biomedical and video conferencing applications. The use of and
dependence on information and computers continue to grow, so does our need
for efficient ways of storing and transmitting large amounts of data.
1.1.1 Pixel
In digital image, a pixel is a single point in a raster image. It is the smallest unit
of picture that can be controlled, and is the smallest addressable screen element
as shown in Fig. 1. Each pixel has its own address. The address of a pixel
corresponds to its coordinates. They are usually arranged in a 2-D grid, and are
often represented with dots or squares.

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Each pixel is a sample of an original image. More samples typically provide
more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is
variable. In color image systems, a color is typically represented by three or
four component intensities such as red, green, and blue.

Fig. 1 Pixel is smallest element of an image

1.1.2 RGB
When the eye perceives an image on a computer monitor, it is in actually
perceiving a large collection of finite color elements, or pixels [1]. Each of
these pixels is in and of itself composed of three dots of light; a green dot, a
blue dot, and a red dot. The color the eye perceives at each pixel is a result of
varying intensities of green, red, and blue light emanating from that location. A
color image can be represented as 3 matrixes of values, each corresponding to
the brightness of a particular color in each pixel. Therefore, a full color image
can be reconstructed by superimposing these three matrices of “RGB”, as
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 A color image is made of 3 matrices

1.1.3 Grayscale
If an image is measured by an intensity matrix with the relative intensity being
represented as a color between black and white, it would appear to be a
grayscale image, as shown in Fig. 3.

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 Fig. 3 A grayscale image

The intensity of a pixel is expressed within a given range between a minimum

and a maximum. This range is represented in a range from 0 to 1 with
incremental steps according to the bit-depth of the image. The greater the
number of steps is, the larger the bit-depth is. If each intensity value is
represented as an 8-bit number, then there are 256 variations. If the intensity
values are represented as 16-bit numbers, there are 32,000 variations between
absolute black and pure white. Fig. 4 demonstrates a black to white gradient in
4-bits of intensity.

Fig. 4 4-bit black to white gradient

1.1.4 YUV
In the case of a color RGB picture a point-wise transform is made to the YUV
(luminance, blue chrominance, red chrominance) color space. This space in
some sense is more efficient than the RGB space and allows better
quantization. The transform is given by

, (1)

and the inverse transform is

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 . (2)

1.2 Image Compression

Image compression is an application of data compaction that can reduce the
quantity of data. The block diagram of image coding system is shown in Fig.5.

Fig. 5 The block diagram of the general image storage system.

The camera captures the reflected light from the surface of the object, and the
received light will be converted into three primary color components R, G and
B. These three primary color components are processed by coding algorithms
afterward.
Image compression addresses the problem of reducing the amount of data
required to represent a digital image. It is a process intended to yield a compact
representation of an image, thereby reducing the image storage/transmission
requirements. Compression is achieved by the removal of one or more of the
following three basic data redundancies:
1. Coding Redundancy
2. Inter-pixel Redundancy
3. Perceptual Redundancy
Coding redundancy occurs when the codes assigned to a set of events such as
the pixel values of an image have not been selected to take full advantage of
the probabilities of the events [2].
Inter-pixel redundancy usually results from correlations between the pixels.
Due to the high correlation between the pixels, any given pixel can be predicted
from its neighboring pixels.
Perceptual redundancy is due to data that is ignored by the human visual
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system. In other words, all the neighboring pixels in the smooth region of a
natural image have a high degree of similarity and this insignificant variation in
the values of the neighboring pixels is not noticeable to the human eye.
1.2.1 System
Image compression techniques reduce the number of bits required to represent
an image by taking advantage of these redundancies. An inverse process
called decoding is applied to the compressed data to get the reconstructed
image. The objective of compression is to reduce the number of bits as much as
possible, while keeping the resolution and the quality of the reconstructed
image as close to the original image as possible.
Image compression systems are composed of two distinct structural blocks: an
encoder and a decoder, as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Image compression system

Image f(x,y) is fed into the encoder, which creates a set of symbols form the
input data and uses them to represent the image. If we let n 1 and n2 denote the
number of information carrying units in the original and encoded images
respectively, the compression that is achieved can be quantified numerically via
the compression ratio, CR = n1/n2
As shown in Fig. 6, the encoder is responsible for reducing the coding, inter-
pixel and perceptual redundancies of input image. In first stage, the mapper
transforms the input image into a format designed to reduce inter-pixel
redundancies. The second stage, qunatizer block reduces the accuracy of
mapper’s output in accordance with a predefined criterion. In third and final
stage, a symbol decoder creates a code for quantizer output and maps the
output in accordance with the code. These blocks perform, in reverse order, the
inverse operations of the encoder’s symbol coder and mapper block. As
quantization is irreversible, an inverse quantization is not included.

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1.2.2 Benefits
The benefits of image compression can be listed as follows:
1. It provides a potential cost savings associated with sending less data over
switched telephone network where cost of call is really usually based upon
its duration.
2. It not only reduces storage requirements but also overall execution time.
3. It reduces the transmission errors since fewer bits are transferred.
4. It also provides a level of security against illicit monitoring.
1.2.3 Categories
The image compression techniques are broadly classified into two categories
depending whether or not an exact replica of the original image could be
reconstructed using the compressed image. These are:
1. Lossy technique
2. Lossless technique

2. Lossy Compression Techniques

2.1 Introduction
Lossy schemes provide much higher compression ratios than lossless schemes.
Lossy schemes are widely used since the quality of the reconstructed images is
adequate for most applications. By this scheme, the decompressed image is not
identical to the original image, but reasonably close to it.

Fig. 7 Lossy image compression

As shown in Fig. 7, this prediction – transformation – decomposition process is

completely reversible. The quantization process results in loss of information.
The entropy coding after the quantization step, however, is lossless. The

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decoding is a reverse process. Firstly, entropy decoding is applied to
compressed data to get the quantized data. Secondly, de-quantization is applied
to it and finally the inverse transformation to get the reconstructed image.
Major performance considerations of a lossy compression scheme include:
1. Compression ratio
2. Signal - to – noise ratio
3. Speed of encoding and decoding.
Lossy compression techniques includes following schemes:
1. Transform coding
2. ector quantization
3. Fractal coding
4. Block truncation coding
5. Subband coding
2.2 Techniques
2.2.1 Transform Coding
In this coding scheme, transforms such as DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform)
and DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) are used to change the pixels in the
original image into frequency domain coefficients. These coefficients have
several desirable properties. One is the energy compaction property that results
in most of the energy of the original data being concentrated in only a few of
the significant transform coefficients. Only those few significant coefficients
are selected and the remaining is discarded. The selected coefficients are
considered for further quantization and entropy encoding. DCT coding has
been the most common approach to transform coding. (See Fig. 8)

Fig. 8 DCT

2.2.2 Vector Quantization

The basic idea in this technique is to develop a dictionary of fixed-size vectors,

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called code vectors. As shown in Fig. 9, a vector is usually a block of pixel
values. A given image is then partitioned into non-overlapping blocks (vectors)
called image vectors. Each in the dictionary is determined and its index in the
dictionary is used as the encoding of the original image vector. Thus, each
image is represented by a sequence of indices that can be further entropy
coded.
(a)

(b)

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 Fig. 9 (a) Vector quantization coding procedure (b) decoding procedure

2.2.3 Fractal Coding

The essential idea here is to decompose the image into segments by using
standard image processing techniques such as color separation, edge detection,
and spectrum and texture analysis. Then each segment is looked up in a library
of fractals. The library actually contains codes called iterated function system
codes, which are compact sets of numbers. Using a systematic procedure, a set
of codes for a given image are determined, such that when the IFS codes are
applied to a suitable set of image blocks yield an image that is a very close
approximation of the original. This scheme is highly effective for compressing
images that have good regularity and self-similarity, as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Original image and self-similar portions of image

Now, we want to find a map W which takes an input image and yields an
output image. If we want to know when W is contractive, we will have to
define a distance between two images. The distance is defined as
δ ( f , g )=¿ (x , y )∈ P|f ( x , y )−g ( x , y )|

where f and g are value of the level of grey of pixel (for greyscale image), P is

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the space of the image, and x and y are the coordinates of any pixel. This
distance defines position (x,y) where images f and g differ the most.
Natural images are not exactly self similar. Lena image (see Fig. 10), a typical
image of a face, does not contain the type of self-similarity that can be found in
the Sierpinski triangle. But next image shows that we can find self-similar
portions of the image. A part of her hat is similar to a portion of the reflection
of the hat in the mirror.
2.2.4 Block Truncation Coding
In this scheme, the image is divided into non-overlapping blocks of pixels. For
each block, threshold and reconstruction values are determined. The threshold
is usually the mean of the pixel values in the block. Then a bitmap of the block
is derived by replacing all pixels whose values are greater than or equal (less
than) to the threshold by a 1 (0). Then for each segment (group of 1s and 0s) in
the bitmap, the reconstruction value is determined. This is the average of the
values of the corresponding pixels in the original block. (See Fig. 11)

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 Fig. 11 Block truncation coding procedure

2.2.5 Subband Coding

In this scheme, the image is analyzed to produce the components containing
frequencies in well-defined bands, the sub bands. Subsequently, quantization
and coding is applied to each of the bands. The advantage of this scheme is that
the quantization and coding well suited for each of the sub bands can be
designed separately. (See Fig. 12)

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 Fig. 12 Subband coding

3. Lossless Compression Techniques

3.1 Introduction
In lossless compression techniques, the original image can be perfectly
recovered from the compressed image. These are also called noiseless since
they do not add noise to the signal. It is also known as entropy coding since it
use decomposition techniques to minimize redundancy.
Following techniques are included in lossless compression:
1. Run length encoding
2. Huffman encoding
3. LZW coding
4. Area coding
3.2 Techniques
3.2.1 Run Length Encoding
This is a very simple compression method used for sequential data. It is very
useful in repetitive data. This technique replaces sequences of identical pixels,
called runs by shorter symbols. The run length code for a gray scale image is
represented by a sequence {Vi, Ri} where Vi is the intensity of pixel and Ri
refers to the number of consecutive pixels with the intensity Vi as shown in the
figure. If both Vi and Ri are represented by one byte, this span of 12 pixels is
coded using eight bytes yielding a compression ration of 1: 5. (See Fig. 13)

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 Fig. 13 Run-length encoding

3.2.2 Huffman Encoding

As shown in Fig. 14, this is a general technique for coding symbols based on
their statistical occurrence frequencies.

Fig. 14 Huffman encoding

The pixels in the image are treated as symbols. The symbols that occur more
frequently are assigned a smaller number of bits, while the symbols that occur
less frequent are assigned a relatively larger number of bits. Huffman code is a
prefix code. The binary code of any symbol is not the prefix of the code of any
other symbol. Most image coding standards use lossy techniques in earlier
stages of compression and use Huffman coding as the final step.
3.2.3 LZW Coding
LZW (Lempel-Ziv–Welch) is a dictionary based coding. Dictionary based

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coding can be static or dynamic. In static dictionary coding, dictionary is fixed
during the encoding and decoding processes. In dynamic dictionary coding, the
dictionary is updated on fly. LZW is widely used in computer industry and is
implemented as compress command on UNIX. (See Fig. 15)

Fig. 15 LZW coding

3.2.4 Area Coding

Area coding is an enhanced form of run length coding, reflecting the two
dimensional character of images. This is a significant advance over the other
lossless methods. For coding an image it does not make too much sense to
interpret it as a sequential stream, as it is in fact an array of sequences, building
up a two dimensional object. The algorithms for area coding try to find
rectangular regions with the same characteristics. These regions are coded in a
descriptive form as an element with two points and a certain structure. This
type of coding can be highly effective but it bears the problem of a nonlinear
method, which cannot be implemented in hardware. Thus, the performance in
terms of compressio time is not competitive, although the compression ratio is.

4. JPEG

4.1 JPEG
JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group) standard will be simply described in
this section, and the flow chart, and the algorithm will be introduced.
4.1.1 JPEG Encoder
Fig. 16 shows the block diagram of the JPEG standard. The YCbCr color

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transform and the chrominance subsampling format are not defined in the
JPEG standard, but most JPEG software will perform this processing because it
makes the JPEG encoder reduce the date quantity more efficient. However, we
don’t discuss the basic concept of subsampling format here. We will focus on
JPEG encoder as follows.

Fig. 16 The flow chart of JPEG standard

4.1.2 2D 8x8 DCT

As we learned, we know that the energy of nature image are concentrated in
low frequency, so we can used DCT transform to separate low frequency and
high frequency. And then reserve the low frequency component as far as
possible, and subtract the high frequency component to achieve reduction of
compression rate.
The encoder performs the DCT on these macroblocks to achieve decorrelation
and frequency analysis. Because the transform are performed on the 8x8
blocks, the forward 2-D DCT formula is defined in (3), and x[m,n] and X[u,v]
represent the input signal and the DCT coefficients, respectively.

(3)

where

5.

The discrete cosine transform shown is closely related to the Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT). Both take a set of points from the spatial domain and
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transform them into an equivalent representation in the frequency domain. The
difference is that while the DFT takes a discrete signal in one spatial dimension
and transforms it into a set of points in one frequency dimension and the
Discrete Cosine Transform (for an 8x8 block of values) takes a 64-point
discrete signal, which can be thought of as a function of two spatial dimensions
x and y, and turns them into 64 DCT coefficients which are in terms of the 64
unique orthogonal 2D spectrum shown in Fig. 17.
The DCT coefficient values are the relative amounts of the 64 spatial
frequencies present in the original 64-point input. The element in the upper
most left corresponding to zero frequency in both directions is the “DC
coefficient” and the rest are called “AC coefficients.”

Fig. 17 64 two-dimensional spatial frequencies

Because pixel values typically change vary slowly from point to point across an
image, the FDCT processing step lays the foundation for achieving data
compression by concentrating most of the signal in the lower spatial
frequencies. For a typical 8x8 sample block from a typical source image, most
of the spatial frequencies have zero or near-zero amplitude and need not be
encoded.
At the decoder the IDCT reverses this processing step. It takes the 64 DCT
coefficients and reconstructs a 64-point output image signal by summing the
basis signals. Mathematically, the DCT is one-to-one mapping for 64-point
vectors between the image and the frequency domains. In principle, the DCT
introduces no loss to the source image samples; it merely transforms them to a
domain in which they can be more efficiently encoded.
4.1.3 Quantization
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After DCT, the encoder performs quantization to reduce precision of the data
and discard the less important high frequency coefficients. As mentioned
above, the human eyes are more sensitive to the low frequency components
than the high frequency components, the JPEG quantization assigns large
quantization step size to high frequency components to discard the redundant
information, and assign small quantization step size to the low frequency
components to preserve the significant information. Fig. 18 shows two
quantization tables defined in JPEG, where Qr is the luminance quantization
table and Qc is the chrominance quantization table.

Fig. 18 Quantization table

The quantization step size is smaller in the upper left region to preserve the low
frequency components. On the other hand, the quantization step is larger in the
lower right region to reduce the less important high frequency components to
zero. Since the distortion of the high frequency features of the image is less
sensitive to the human eyes, it is not easy for us to observe the difference
between the original image and the quantized image.
4.1.4 Differential Coding of DC Coefficients
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After 2-D DCT and quantization, we can find that the component of AC terms
in 8×8 block will consist of many zeros such as Fig. 19. And the DC coefficient
is the mean of each corresponding block, and the current DC coefficient is very
similar to the DC coefficients in its neighboring blocks. Thus, the JPEG
encoder performs the predictive coding on the DC coefficients to reduce the
redundancy, as shown in Fig. 20. The differential coding of DC coefficient is
denoted as difference of DCi and DCi-1.

Fig. 19 8x8 block after 2-D DCT and quantization

Fig. 20 Differential coding of DC coefficients

4.1.5 Zigzag Scanning of AC Coefficients

In JPEG, the Huffman coding is adopted as the kernel of entropy coding.
Nevertheless, Huffman coding assign at least 1 bit to the most probable
symbol, so the best compression ratio that can be achieved is only 1/8 even
when all the AC coefficients are assigned the shortest code, which is 1-bit long.
So, the zero-run-length coding algorithm, which converts the data into more
efficient form, is introduced as follows.

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The zero run length coding encoded and represented the AC coefficients as the
following form
(1)

RUN is the number of continuous zeros before the nonzero coefficient VALUE
For example, if we want to encode the AC coefficients as follows

(2)
Then the zero run length encoded AC coefficients will become

(3)
EOB means that the remaining coefficients are all zeros
After zero run length coding, we want to determinate the order of scanning.
Since the energy of image usually concentrate on low frequency, the non-zero
coefficient will appear at low frequency region with higher probability. On the
other hand, zero will appear at hig frequency. We adopt zigzag scanning that
can concentrate zero on the high frequency. (See Fig. 21.)

Fig. 20 Zigzag Scanning

4.1.6 Entropy Coding

After differential coding of the DC coefficients and zero run length coding of
AC coefficients, the entropy coding must be applied. JPEG defines the
Huffman tables for the DC and AC coefficients, respectively.

Table 1: The Huffman table for VALUE of luminance DC/AC coefficients

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 VALUE Binary codes for VALUE SIZE
0 0
-1,1 0,1 1
-3,-2,2,3 00,01,10,11 2
-7,-6,-5,-4,4,5,6,7 000,001,010,011,100,101,110,111 3
-15,...,-8,8,...,15 0000,...,0111,1000,...,1111 4
-31,...,-16,16,...31 00000,...,01111,10000,...,11111 5
-63,...,-32,32,...63 000000,...,011111,100000,...,111111 6
-127,...,-64,64,...,127 0000000,...,0111111,1000000,...,1111111 7
-255,..,-128,128,..,255 ... 8
-511,..,-256,256,..,511 ... 9
-1023,..,-512,512,..,1023 ... 10

Table 2: The Huffman table for SIZE of luminance DC coefficients

SIZE Binary codes for SIZE Code Length

0 00 2
1 010 3
2 011 3
3 100 3
4 101 3
5 110 3
6 1110 4
7 11110 5
8 111110 6
9 1111110 7
10 11111110 8
11 111111110 9

Table 3: The Huffman table for RUN/SIZE of luminance AC coefficients

RUN/SIZE Code Length Binary codes for RUN/SIZE

0/0 (EOB) 4 1010
15/0 (ZRL) 11 11111111001

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0/1 2 00
...
0/6 7 1111000
...
0/10 16 1111111110000011
1/1 4 1100
1/2 5 11011
...
1/10 16 1111111110001000
2/1 5 11100
...
4/5 16 1111111110011000
...
15/10 16 1111111111111110

5. Other Commonly Used Techniques

5.1 JPEG2000
JPEG 2000 is an image compression standard and coding system. It was
created by the Joint Photographic Experts Group committee in 2000 with the
intention of superseding their original discrete cosine transform-based JPEG
standard (created in 1992) with a newly designed, wavelet-based method.
The aim of JPEG 2000 is not only improving compression performance over
JPEG but also adding features such as scalability. JPEG 2000's improvement in
compression performance relative to the original JPEG standard is actually
rather modest and should not ordinarily be the primary consideration for
evaluating the design. Very low and very high compression rates are supported
in JPEG 2000. The ability of the design to handle a very large range of
effective bit rates is one of the strengths of JPEG 2000. The following sections
describe the algorithm of JPEG 2000. (See Fig. 21 and Fig. 22)

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 Fig. 21 JPEG2000

Fig. 22 JPEG2000 coding procedure

5.2 Others
There are also many other popular image compression techniques that are not
introduced here. For example, wavelet-based image coding including EZW
encoder. In 1993 Shapiro defined POS, NEG, IZ and ZTR four spaces to do
wavelet coding, which eliminates encoding to high frequencies coeeficients,
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and enhances the efficiency of wavelet coefficients encoding. Such method
uses embedded coding and quantization, has low computation complexity.
Another wavelet-based encoder EBCOT encoder is also well developed. It
devides wavelet into independendent subsections, and uses optimized cutting
method to do encoding. This can support image random storage and has higher
complexity than EZW and SPIHT.
One more wavelet-based encoder SPIHT encoder is introduced by Said and
Pearlman. It uses space tree to devide, and effectively reduces bit scale.
Compared to EZW, SPIHT method creates two different types of space zero
tree, and uses wavelet coefficients more efficiently, so that it has higher
efficacy than that of EZW encoder.
Besides wavelet-based compression techniques, there are also many other
different kinds of algorithms. Fractal is also one of most commonly used
method, which has been introduced simply in the former chapters. There are
also several methods such as NTT (numerical theoretical transform), neural
network based compression, Hilbert scanning based, arbitrary shape
methods, and so on.

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 SUMMARY
This tutorial starts from the introduction of backgrounds of why we need image
compression, how image is formed, what kind of image processing tools are
there, what we can do via image compression techniques, to how each method
is implemented.
I didn’t talk much on how to implement JPEG and JPEG2000, but focus more
on introducing different kinds of compression techniques. The drawback is that
each cannot be discussed in details, but since the topic is development of
compression techniques, so I would like to talk more broadly. Therefore,
different methods are covered.
There are still many other analysis tools with more complex algorithms that
have not been introduced here. Readers who are interested can find more
information in the references.

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[19] Kuei-Lan Lin, “Analysis and Architecture Design for JPEG2000 Still
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