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 w ir T7
> temssnsm V

*
f *

Q
"•<
58 Chapter 1 ( Basic C
£!l£epts
Scholar’s CHEMISTRY - XI (Subjective
Q. In combustion analysis, why the %age of oxygen cannot be measured directly ? 59
Ans. In combustion analysis, a known amount of organic compound is burnt in free supply 0f oxygen
,
hydrogen of the organic compound is converted into C02 and H 0 respectively But as
The Chapter 2
provided from the external source to burn the organic compound, so we cannot measure
oxygen gas is \
the %aee f 0 xYgen “ ^
° S
present in the compound directly. However it is determined by method of difference °
-
% ageo fQ = 100 ( % ageo fC + % age of H )
======^==== EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Q. How can we calculate the efficiency of a chemical reaction ? —
Ans. , ,
The ftovn cy of a chemical react on s calculated in the term of % age yield . “ Percentage IN CHEMISTRY
k
'
the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by ioo. "

% age yield = Actual yield

x 100
yield is
^
def nedT as: it is
Analytical Chemistry
P
%
Theoretical yield
product is ,orme d Hen« The branch of chemistry which deals with the chemical characterization (qualitative and quantitative analysis)
of Ze re aa Za Be * * '
"
reaCti
* ° * °" °
'
m re am Un
° ''
0 greater the
efficiency a compound is called analytical chemistry .'
of

Q. What is a Compound ? Major steps involved in quantitative analysis of a compound

a compound -?*
Ans. A substance formed by the reaction of two or more chemical elements Following major steps are necessary for complete quantitative analysis of a compound
The elements in
present in fixed ratios For example pure water is a compound
made from two
elements hydrogen and oxyeen
-
i . Obtaining a sample for analysis .
The fixed ratio of hydro
^ gen to oxygen in water is 2:1. Each molecule of water
bonded to a single oxygen atom.
contains two hydro
y gen ai0rT>s atnl ii. Separation of the desired constituent.
Compounds can be decomposed chemically into their constituent elements. .
iii Measurement and calculation of results.
Q.
Ans.
j_
— --- —
The Term formula mass Is used for ionic compounds instead of molecular mass.
_
The term formula Unit is used for the ionic compounds as represented in their empirical
. - _ _
formula . And the sum
of atomic masses of elements in the formula unit is called formula mass e .g Formula Unit of sodium
chloride s
NaCI and formula mass is 58.5g/ mole . The term molecular mass is used for molecular compounds e . g . H
20
— iv . Drawing conclusion from the analysis.

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
FILT RAT ION
( "TJijLpi&cesjLJn which insoluble particles (suspended parades or precipitates ) are separated from liquids is called
Important Previous Board Questions ^
filtration
.

.1
Q. How does a limiting reactant control the amounts of products formed ?
\
Filter media / ^
Filtration can be performed with several types of filter media. Nature of the precipitate and other factors dictate which
Q. How can the efficiency of a chemical reaction be expressed ? filter medium must be used . Following filter media are frequently used for filtration .
Q. Concept of limiting reactant is not applicable to the reversible reactions . Explain it. Paper pulp Filter crucibles
Filter paper
a The atomic masses may be in fractions . Why ?
Cloth Cotton Sand I
Q. What is the function of electrometer in mass spectrometer ?
Q. Which laws are to be considered during stoichiometric calculations? Filtration through filter paper
Q. What is the justification of two strong peaks in mass spectrum of bromine ? 1 . Filtration by a glass funne l and filter paper is usuall y a slow proce ss . As the mixtu re is poure d onto the filter paper ,

Q. Amount of products formed during a chemical reaction; depend upon the amount of limiting reactant. Justify . the solvent ( water) passes through leaving behind the suspended particles on the filter paper .
Whic h pore size is to be used , depen ds upon the size of
Q. Explain formation of ions with respect to energy changes. 2 . Filter papers are available in variet y of poros ites ( pore sizes ) .
Q. Give the applications of limiting reactant . the particles in the precipitate . *
filtrat ion
Q. Why the isotopes have same chemical properties? 3. The filter paper should be large enoug h so that it is one -
fourth to one - half
the
full of
circu
precip
mfere
itate
nce
at
ot
the
the
end
paper
ol ,

The funnel should be large enough for its rim to exten d 1 to 2 cm above top
funne l shoul d remai n contin uously full of liquid as long
4 . If the process of filtration is to run smoothly , the stem of the
For Answers study Scholar's CHEMISTRY (Objective) XI
• as there is liquid in the conical portion . receiv ing
a few centim eters down into the
5. The stem of funnel should be several inches long so that it can exten d
beaker and tip shou ld touch the side of the beake r . In this way .
the filtrat e runs down the side of beake r without

splashing.

! .
 Muluro Of
tolitf *nd liquid rod

r
3
U- R . np stand
u

Homogonaoua
liquid

“ Crystallization is remi ol a
'
id from solution increasing Sintered Glass
Filtration assembly Filtration assembly Crucible
coi alion abi the ration point in such a manner that the excess solid
Folding of filter paper sepal it in tlv crystals.”
The folding of filter paper is important and following points should be kept in mind: principle -
Q. Why NaCI cannof he
• The paper should be folded twice. The first fold should be along the diameter of the paper. The second fold should k. Tlv e of crystallization is that solute should be soluble in a suitable purified by crystallization 5
such that the edges do not quite match . * solvent at temper ; nd excess amount of solute is thrown out as crystals when it
is cooled .
• The paper should be opened on the slightly larger section . This provides a cone with three fold thickness halfway
around and one thickness the other halfway around and an apex angle very slightly greater than 60° .
- Steps invoi d in crystallization
1 he process o ition involves the following steps
• The paper may then be inserted into 60° funnel, moistened with water and firmly pressed down . Choice of a solvent
Suction and Rate of Filtration iaration ol the saturated solution
The filtering operation could be very time consuming if it were not aided by a gentle suction as liquid passes nitration
through stem This suction cannot develop unless the paper fits tightly all around its upper circumference. Cooling
Fluted filter paper 5. Collecting the crystals
The rate of filtration through conical funnel can be considerably increased by Q Rate of 6. Drying the crystals
using fluted filter paper . For preparation of such a paper ordinary filter paper is folded in
filtration can . -
7 . Ix coImiri /.alion of undesirable colours .
be increased by using crystallization ol a compound .
such a way that a fan like arrangement with alternate elevations and depressions at (or
various folds is obtained . In this way, we increase the surface area of filter paper . As a
fluted filter paper . Justify Q9 . Write down the main characteristics of a solvent selected

result, the rate of filtration increases. (1) Choice of solvent

a number ol solvents betore arriving at a conclusion
on hit and trial basis . It is necessary to try
The solvent is chosen
fllltr Jhi Characteristics of an ideal solvent and only a small amount at the
of the substance ( solute ) at its boiling point
(i) It should dissolve a large amount
foM Ulfutf
room temperature .
not chemically react \ sith solute.
s' yii) It should
should not he crystallize Irom w done with the solute
( iii ) It should cither not dissolve the impurities or impurities
stals of the pure compound
( iv ) On cooling. it should deposit well- formed cry
(v ) It should be inexpensive
0U« 1« lha
accordion ’ ahapo
foM » utiM in*
»<9 1 *o«ttona
*
-
.
f o M t o o r + aaUw
quart « </*Oon a
*
( vi ) It should be sale to use and should be easily removable .

Mostly used solvents

Filtration through filter crucibles mostly used lor crystallization are
r\ The solvents which are t
This is a convenient way to filter a precipitate by suction through a crucible. Two
• Rectified spirit (95% ethanol ) • Absolute ethanol
.o f crucibles are generally used . • Water ( I I 0 )
typc
.
>
| <, Id I )
Q. Differentiate between acid ( ClI ,COOU ) • < hlorofomi *

/y
•^ is made uprifporcelaiit>0
Gooch crucible and sintered
glass crucible.
• Acetone ( Cl I COCH . )

•
Acetic
Petroleum ether * Diethyl ether ( C II * i ( Mi *
it
• t urhon tetrachloride ( CCL )

£/ It has a performcfl ~bonom which is cover* d with paper -pulp or a filter paper cut to its
size.

IUBS. M
& m m
w
. mjt
m mt J 8
 Combination of Solvents
•unit oi Uic solvents is found suitable foi crystallization
'

, a combination of two
or mo re miscible solven
be employ cd ts may ( iii ) Vacuum Desiccator
A sale and reliable method of drying crystals \* thro ih :t vs
Precdutiorjry Measures
" llu
'
," wm ,s
nllainmaUc then prvcaunon should be taken
while heating the solution so that it doe,
process, crystals are spread over a watch glass and ke
hours Drying agents used in a desiccator are CaCl jj
acuum dev
i phosplun ou?
ar. In this
ir several

fife in suCb cases, water bath rs used for heating purpose . ^ iitaoxide
( 2) Pr ep ar ati on of the saturated solution
n t
catch ° ( P.'Qs) ( con . HiSO^ alsoJ. 5 1=
. . .
. . . •uloa ng a uii» r wlvvnt. the substance is
* then dissolved in a minimum amount of
(7) Decolourization of Undesirable Colo
Sometimes during the preparation of u cruJ substance, the colouring matter or
Jirectly or or. a water bath vv ith constant stirring.
\dd more solvent to the boiling solution if
solvent andd ,1s
Sealed
*
resinous products affect the appearanet ot prod net :i?U
impurities are conveniently removed ty
|
. iniiv uppear coloured Such
„
hu ling me 5UU,a ce ,n the * lvem with s i ca *« .
Simple Octreeaior

... . . „ ,^
.
•
( 3 ) Fil tra tio n
-.
Inc iii uiuole impurities
necessary until all the solute has dissolved .

in saturated solution are then

Hot Saturateo

removed by filtering the hot

Solution
Hot water
solution I he coloured nn , .
deco]*mrr/ ed substance crystallizes put from the filtrate on cooling
*
sufficient quantity of finely powdered animal charcoal and then filtering the hut dC a t cat,on o* soo uu
, , „
tollowed Dy
p ei B

. dsorbed h > . n „ ., i charcoal and the pure siicaie with so phunc acid
w U\
. .
saturated solution , through a normal or fluted filter paper. waiei ana crying.
.4 Why is there a need to < ystallize the crude product?
I • * ' avoids flic premature crystallization of the solute on
the filler paper or in the
luiiiiei Stem Ans . The preparation of chemical compounds usually affords a crude product . The Q rtoi voioureu impurities are
*
crude product may contain soluble and insoluble impurities. Insoluble impurities remove*, iron 1 duue Wbsu*oc»:
11 utves . .
v li 'i water tunnel should be used for this purpose . are removed by filtration while soluble impurities are removed uy crystallization during crystallization,
(4) Cooling process. Crystallization also gives a definite geometrical shape to the crystals of
the crude product . So in order to get pure product in the torm of crystals mere
if . •* »! 11tiered solution is then cooled at a moderate rate so that medium sized is a need to crystallize the crude product .
cry si.iis a / e formed.
• M \ cooling yields bigger cry stals which are likely to includ
*>i . e considerable amount
nlvent carrying impurities with it and complicating the drying process.
Hot water funnel
The process in which a solid, when healed vapourizes directly without passing
"

through the liquid phase and these vapours can be condensed to form the solid
This enootnermte phase
( c; Collecting the Crystals transition occurs dt
i, is called sublimation ." tempeidtures and pressures
"
Filtration: W hen the crystallization is complete, the mixture of crystals and the mother Solid Vapours below the tuple point .
IK|IH J is filtered through a Gooch crucible using a vacuum pump. Full suction is applied Enample:
• It is frequently used to purify a solid . Dry ice is solid carbon
ordc to drain the mother liquor from the crystals as effectively as possible.
a ——
in Cl
Plertorated Cotton dioxide At room temperature
Cl osing: When the filter cake is rigid enough , it is pressed firmly with a cork to drain 0
* andpressuie, it sublimates
-
the left over liquid.
Sudion
F«tf
Pip*
s.
; Inverted
tunnel
into carbon dio/pde vapour

Washing: The crystals arc then washed with a small portion of cold solvent and the punp Sub lim ate --
piocess repealed for several times. Perforated
V a ^ bevtoa tbeel
Evaporation: The mother liquor is quite often concentrated by evaporation and cooled Moire/
Co obtain a fresh crop of crystals.
Mixture
*s » * u» of Operation : I
lie process of crystallization appears to be very simple yel the lOM*
• co * oI operation lies m the amount or percentage of crystallized product obtained
Iroin the crude substance .
(6) Drying of crystallized substance
(i ) Through filter paper Q .What is safe and Examples
reliable method of drying Benzoic acid naphthalene, iodiue ( I ), annm» niuni chloride (NH4CI ) . dry ice Mid CO:> etc.
l # ic * » m _ .
1
ti l .
» ; . * \ ii wvei .n . >lds of filter papers and repealing the process
eveial limes
due the crystallized substance. I his process lias the disadvanuge that the crystals are - the crystals ?
Sublimand
,

Idle solid substance which is being sublimed is called sublimand

crushed to a fine powder and sometimes the fibres of filter paper contaminate the
product. Sublimate
(ii) Drying in an oven The pure solid obtained after su bli ma tio n is cal led sub lim ate .
I IK Sublimation process
CIV
healing «it 100V
dais are dried in an oven provided the sub lance docs not; melt or decompose on
I o carry' out die process, the subslant . tak en m wa kh
uni
gl
> , th and
-
iss. covered with
luiu n \ i - 1
mv vltcd
inv
'
v . it .
'i

Imiuci Mie substance t \ ilicii xlowi . •* 1 v « ,1 «

on UK nr. ci >idc oi tui nci .

 Scholar s CHEMISTRY XI ( Subjective )
OLVENT EXTRACTION
** h is a technique in which 1 solu .
te can be separated from a solution
by shaking of transferring iodine molecules. No matter how much iodine is
constant. The constant is called distribution coefficient, K. and used /l
the solution with a solvent in which the solute is itio of the final concentrations at equilibrium is
more soluble and the added
solvent does not mix with the solution . '* is given
Characteristics K= !i £CU |
The main characteristics of solvent extraction are
as follow s f>r
.
b ji

• It is an equilibrium process and follows the

distribution law
At — C , the value ol "K for this equilibrium is 85
than in water
ins that the itralion ol Iodine in CC1» is 85 times more
• This technique is particularly useful when
the product is volatile or thermally
|ayer

Q5 - A water insoluble organic compound aspirin

- tstublc. is prepared by the reaction of salicylic acid with a mixture of
acetic acid and acetic anhydride. How wilt you separate the produ
• It is a convenient technique and is carried out in separating ct from the reaction mixture?
funnel .
Distribution Law / Partition Law Ans . The statement indicates that is insoluble in w ater so we can put the reaction mixture in ice chilled water
while stirring. Aspirin separates m S form of white precipitates which can be filtered by specific filtration
A solute distributes itself between two imm
“
iscible liquids in a con.stant ratio of
Separating funnel technique (particle size is very small lirin comes out as residue on filter media while filterate contains the
concentrations irrespective of the amount of solute added '' reaction mixture w
Applications of distribution law O
( i)
COOH COOH 1|
Solvent extraction
C- CH,
lii ) Liquid-phase chromatographs O
C O
'Distribution co-efficient
. ' The rati
•
- of concentration of solute dissolved in two immiscible liquids H ;S04
> HC
flCH + HO — C — CH ,
\cetic Acid
\ coefficient ' at equilibrium is called
distributiion
”
_
Concentration of solute in organic phase H
C

Concentration of solute in aqueous phase Salicylic Acid \ cct>! Salicylic Acid

Process
Solvent extraction is an important technique in chemical
the second liquid into a separating funnel. The funnel is
Ether Extraction
analysis. Usually, it is done by placing the solution
stoppered and the two liquids are shaken together. i Q6.
.
aqueous layer Describe a method of separation?
.
A solid organic compound is soluble in water as well as In chloroform During its preparation, it remains in

Ans . It is evident that organic compound is more soluble in chloroform than in water So during the preparation of
The most common laboratory example of solvent extraction is organic compound, if it remains in aqueous layer, then it can be separated by solvent extraction using a
ether extraction . I bis is used to separate products
of organic synthesis from water . In a typical organic synthes , separating funnel . Organic compound leaves the aqueous layer and comes in chloroform after shaking, leaving
is the aqueous solution containing the organic product 1
shaken up w ith ether in a separating funnel and allowed to sepa behind the impurities in water , (according to distribution law ). Separate the organic layer and evaporate it,
rate The inorganic impurities remain in aqueous phase
whereas the organic compound goes to the ether layer The ether layer is separated and
by evaporating the ether
the organic compound is obtained
Tl
/ organic compound is obtained .

l
(* •

Efficiency of the process In solvent extraction technique, why repeated extraction using small portions of solvent are more efficient

Repeated extractions by using small portions of solvent are more efficient than using a single bin
larger volume ol
\ than using a single extraction but larger volume of solvent.

solvent . Ans. According to Distribution law

distributes itself between two immiscible liquids in a constant ratio of concentrations irrespective of
Carbon Tetrachloride ( CCI4) Extraction
*
The distribution of iodine between two immiscible solvents, water in the p oence of Kl and
I
" A solute
the amount of solute added." . . . .
CCI4. Iodine reacts In a single extraction using larger ampunt of solvent, a little amount of solute is extracted out, so extraction &
,
with iodide ion to produce tri- iodide ion in a reversible reaction . The followin
g dynamic equilibrium is established
*
less efficient . While in repeated extractions, solute is extracted out to a greater extent by using smaller amount
I. + ± I of fresh solvent
») I i1 iajnfcV
( V
i kM. A1 V
"
*
Soluble in CCI4 Soluble in water crii»r So repe ated extra ction s are mor e effic ient , as reco very of solu te is grea ter Ii 1 * *
At this point the rale at which iodine passes CHROMATOGRAPH 1 0
,
from CCU to water equals the rale ai which it passes from water to CCIi - /
sep arat ed on
“ It is a tech niqu e of sep ara tion in w hich com pon ents of a mix ture are
So. if we add CCI4 lo an aqueous solution of I, ions. the the basis of thei r rela tive affi niti es for stat iona ry and mob ile pha ses."
iodine will transfer from the aqiicous layer into organic layer As .

a result, the brown colour of tri-iodide ions fades and the

purple colour of free iodine molecules appears lii organic phase.
To achieve a good separation, the two liquids are gently
shaken to increase their area of contact and improve the chances
 i f rjn-
Chapter 2 (Experimental
TerhniT — ,
Meanings
The word chromatography orig Scholar’ s CHEMISTRY - XI (Subjective)
inates from the Greek word "
meaning "colour writing". I his is Kh rom ato s
confined to separation of coloured
because the earliest chromatographic
substances from their mixture.
methods w ere
”
• Theeluateis
Phase leaving he ,
Phases in chromatography
(hromafographv involves the distribution of a
* The eluent is
that will carry
the
,
he SOI ^
the analyse Vef|l
solute between two phases • Elution: ItC S
(i) Stationary Phase
of solutes 0 ,' the ten<jP
It may be .1 solid or a liquid >
upportcd as a thin film on the move with the dissolve
mot> ephas S >;
solid.
Examples
surface of an inert
"
.
silica gel
i /
f 1 ' Ifc » papcr Mt TTTS _
(ii ) Mobile Phase ( Moving
-°* y-
rAVl — etc
Phase ) Solvent
It may he a liquid or a gas. If
flows over the surface of the
While passing over the stationary phase, it stationary phase , Paper chromatography
competes with it for the
mixture components of the
Ascending Paper Chromatography
Examples
\ eetone. water etby fjlcohol.
, .
b -m
'

r In this technique, the solvent is in a pool at the bottom of a vessel in which the paper
travels upwards by capillary action
is supported a -' Mv. ol \ •

V ;line
, , ,' t c
i

Distribution Coefficient (K ) > A solvent mixture, specially composed in accordance with the sample to be separated, is poured into the
chromatographic tank. Cover the tank to homogenise its inner atmosphere.
Ihe distribution of the components of a

*
In distribution coefficient ( k > mixture between two phases is governed > Take about 20 cm strip of Whatmann's Chromatographic paper No. I and draw on it a thin pencil line about . > cm
which is from one end.

k= Concentration of a component in the mov

ing phase " Spo t .
a point , on the pencil line, with the sample mixture solution To facilitate identification of the component ' * ot the
Concentration of that component in the mixture, spots of the known compounds may also be placed alongside.
stationary phase ' Iv
| '"l
T here arc two possibilities for the > When the spots have dried, suspend the paper with clips so that the impregnated end dips into the Solvent mix’ m; * o .
value of * K \ depth of 5 -6 mm
(i ) The component with a greater value
phase and passes over the stationary
of k remains largely dissolved in the
mobile > Cover the tank . As the solvent front passes the spots, the solutes begin to move upward
phase quickly . - \
> The rate at which they move depends on their distribution coefficients. When the solvent from has risen to ui
4

till Ihe component with a small value of

k mostly remains in the stationary pha e
‘

^
the mobile phase follow s ove r if > ns of the length of the paper, remove the strip, mark the solvent front with a pencil and allow the strip to d» \
Differences between Adsorption and Partition Chromatogram
Chromatography
Adsorption Chromatography
Partition Chromatography
“ The finished dried product with the colour bandfC^Tvarious components of a
Ihe chromatography m winch flic stationary pha mixture obtained in chro mat ogra phic exp erim ent is call ed chro mat ogra m "

se is a The chromatography in which the stationary phase

solid is called adsorption chiotraVgraphy is a • The different components of the mixture if coloured, can visually be identified
,

liquid is called partition chromatog’ .iphy

In this type a substance leaves the mo Development of chromatogram
bile phase to become In this type, the substances being sgpt : itgd arc distributed
adsorbed on the surface of solid stationary phase If the components of a mixture are colourless, then the chromatogram has to be developed bv .
throughout both the .stationary and mobile phases.
Examples (i) Chemical Methods -
Examples
• Column chromatography By using locating agents such as ITS, ninhydrin and rubeanic acid etc .
• Paper elm ma - graphs *
.
'>

• Thin layer chromatography

• Gas liquid chromatography
(ii) Physical Methods
Bv heating or by throwing ultra violet radiations, we can identify the spots
.

• ( i;» s solid chromatography

Retardation Factors (Rt) 0
y APER CHROMATOGRAi
• It a technique ol partition chromatographs
“ Itis the mathematical rati o whi ch is obt ain ed by divi ding dist
by
anc e trav
solv
elle
ent
d by a
from | v
o
is
component from original spot and the dist anc e trav elle d the
• Here the Mationary phase is ,i liquid ( say original spot .”
O •
\
11.0) adsoibcd on paper , Ihe adsorbed water behaves as an immiscible 0
liquid towards the mobile phase, which passes ove the Distance trav elle d by a com pon ent from the orig inal spot
r paper .
• Rr - Distance travelled by solvent from the original spot
-
I he mobile phase i . usually an organic liquid X A 6 C D
• I here are three common wavs of
carrying out paper dhromaingraphy namely
(i ) Descending ( ii ) Ascending ( lii ) Radial /circular
 68
4 *. i
71
i
mm
Chapter 2 ( Experimental T
M V i
itL
_ Lr
.
W/M’t
» /
/
I

\
ins
X ^
. I

ec hn iq ue si nc h L K
.
^
'
R(A) =“ !<

H
Scholar’s CHEMISTRY - XI (Subjective) 69
• Each component of a mixture has specific R
value
• value has no unit since it is the ratio of two similar quantities. 8) The process of sublimation involves converting a solid directly int
• urs and these vapours are then condensed u >
form solid again . It is frequently used to purify a solid .
• The R , value of a component is related to its distribution Solvent ext rac tion tec ^
v
^^
hnique involves the separation of a solute frofrm a solution by shaking it with an immisc rC
coefficient .
Uses of Chromatography
9)
solvent in which the solute is more soluble. The technique is mostly applied to separate organic compounds from
ible £
I (i ) The techniques of chromatograph
I ) arc very useful im orga
reparation i \ ol itnui mid purification
- . «
of products
nic synthesis foi 10 ) Repeated extractions using small portions of solvent are more effici than using a single extraction but large
fill They are equally important m qualitative and qua volume of solvent .
/
w
l ( iiil This technique is used for the
niiijtne analysis 11 ) Solvent extraction is an equilibrium process and it is conITR tr OLLED by d ibution law . The technique is particularly
( i\ i h j
del —
$ important for Forensic analysis
l i! l
HI
I '
1| !
' 1 ^
'
LQ e B in ih < 1 ; i snh si . im , useful when the compound to be separated is volatile or thermally unstable
. 12) Chromatography is a technique used for separating the components of a mixture These components are distributed
Exercise Q 7- The following figure between a stationary and a mobile phase. The stationary phase may be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid . It
shows a developed chromatogram
five spots on paper with adsorbs the mixture under separation . The mobile phase may be a liquid or a gas and while passing over the
stationary phase , competes with it for the constituents of the mixture.
1 Unxnown mixture X
13 ) In paper chromatography, the stationary phase is water adsorbed on paper . The mobile phase is usually an organic
( n) Sampled o SCIV «M
t’Ufl!
liquid .
J
( iii ) Samole 6 V o 14 ) The techniques of chromatography are very useful in organic synthesis for separation, isolation and purification ot
( iv ) Sample C
o o the products
< vri Sampled SOLVED OBJECTIVE EXERCISE]
find out X A I Spot!
p)
^
B C 0
( Multiple choice questions
( i ) Composition of X. , <
(i) A filtration process could be very time consuming if it were not aided by a gentle suetton which is developed
( ii ) Which sample is impu <
re with its composition ? (a ) if the paper covers the funnel upto its circumference .
Ans . ( i ) Composition of X
( bj if the paper has got small sized pores in it .
X contains two spots indicating
that it contains two substances . If (c ) if the steip-of form el is large so that it dips into the filtrate .
we will observe that sample B and C we compare the distances covered by
has the spot with equal distance spots,
and C samples . covered as the mixture X . So X
contain, B
paper fits tightly .
( ii ) Impure sample with During the process of crystallization, the hot saturated solution
its composition
Ail the samples have one spot (a) is cooled very slowly to get large sized crystals.
except D. So it is concluded
distances covered it is observed that D that D is an impure substance . By
contains A and C samples com paring the (b) is cooled at moderate rate to get medium sized crystals.
(c) is evaporated to get the crystals of product.
KEY POINTS (d ) is mixed with an immiscible liquid to get the pure crystals of product
1» A complete characterization of a
compound must include both qualitative and ( iii ) Solvent extraction is a technique which is controlled by
2 ) A complete quantitative quantitative analyses
analysis of a compound generally involves (b) amount of solvent
3 ) The process of filtration four major steps ( a ) law of mass action
is used to separate v
types of filter media insoluble particles from liquids and it can K per c ) distribution law (d) the amount of solute
formed with several
\ •
4 ) If the process of use ful tec hn iqu e for the sep ara tio n wh en the pro du ct to be sep ara ted is
filtration with the (liter paper is to run smoothly, ( iv ) Solvent extraction technique is particularly
full of liquid as long as there is the stem of the funnel should remain continu !)
liquid in the conical portion . ous (a) non volatile or the rm all y un sta ble . ( b ) vo lat ile or the rm all y sta ble .

- 1 I he filtering operation with the filter paper

liquid passes through the could be very time consuming if it were not (c) non volatile or thermally stable. {jdy^ volatile or thermally unstable
stem . This suction cannot deve aided by a gentle suction as
circumference of the funnel. lop unless the paper fits tightly all around the upper wh ich the sol ute mo ve s in pa pe r ch rom ato gra ph y de pe nd up on
The comparative rates at
6 ) The rate of filtration
7 ) A crystalline so
can be considerably increa a by
lid compound is purified
should be able to dissolve
-
using a (luted filter paper.
by crystallization from suitable
the solute at high temperatirc solvent. A solvent (or crystallization
v)
(a) the size
(c) tempe
of pa pe r
of experiment
rature
' fb
(d
)
)
R <
siz
va
e of
—
lue of
ch ro
so
ma
lut
tog
e
rap hic tan k used
out by the solvent
when the solution is cooled Th an d the maximum amount of the solute
e proces of crystallization involves should be thrown
manv steps.
 of concentrations irrespective of the amount of solute Ans .
added
fhis law is applicable in solvent extraction as well as in ** 9
- Strip cfl Whatmann' omati paper NOI . .
. capillary tubes, mixture of «nks, mixture of suitable solvents
(d ) volati le nr therm ally Since no hca is required during solvent extraction so no
chromat aphy
2£ chroi ic tank. V iks <or references.

unstable. *
decomposition of a sensitive compound.
chances for Procedure
0) Draw a in strip dose to its one end by a lead pencil .
capillary tubes.
(h) R( value of solute wlr is the mathematical ratio which is obtained by dividing (I Now spo
'S line with mixture of inks and separate samples A, B, C inks with
dista
by a component from original spot and the distance travelled by nce traveljj (iflf) After & ,put it in chromatographic tank having solvent.
from original spot ."
the solvcm When solvent ( along with spots) covers %th of strip, put it out and dry .
of each ink noting distanc es cover ed by inks and solven t front
_ Distance travelled by a component from the original spot (v ) Calcu late the R ( values by
n

Distance travelled by solvent from the original spot m - ,

Compare thi R of spots in mixture with samples to evaluate the conclusion.
Distance covered by ink from original spot
= Discover covered by solvent from original spot CO
A
Fill in the blanks of ink A *.V
0)
00
A comp lete chemical characterization of a compound must include
Durin g filtration the tip of stem of funnel should touch the side of beaker to avoid
: ,
R of ink B
B
=Y

(ili) A fluted filter paper is used fo _the process of filtration. ,

R of ink C
C
=Y
( iv ) A solve nt used for crystallization is required to dissolve of the substance at its boiling Conclusion
point and ,
at room temp eratu re are separa ted on the basis of their R values.
Mixture contains three inks which
(v ) Repe ated solvent extractions using small portions of solvent are than using single extraction with larger
volum e of solve nt . Additional Questions
ANSWERS

( i) both qualitative and quantitative analyses j ( iv) large amount , small amount Q. is partition chromatography a modd cd -
form o< -
< o Went extraction? if yes, justify the statement.
extrac , extrac tion is done on
( ii) splashing ( v) more efficient Ans . Partition ch -
omato graphy is a modif
(
ied
distrib
‘orm
ution)
of
of
solven
solute
t extrac
with the
tion in solvent
two immiscible
tion
solven ts . This is expla ined by
the basis of relative aff 'nity
( in) increase i speed up distribution co efficient (K).
Concentration of solute in organic phase
K= of solute in aque ous phase
Concentration
Tick the corre ct srntr nces . If the sente nce is incorrect write the correct statements. affinity of solute with the two phases
on the basis of relati ve
0) A qualitative analysis involves th idenr 'cation of elements present in a compound . In partition chromatography
i.e. stationa ry and mobi le
, the
ohase
proce
This is
ss
a' .
is
s o
done
exola med by distri butio n co -
efficie
in the moving phase
nt (K)

Con centration of a component

K= comp onent in the stationary phase
Concen tration of that
during crysta llizati on. Why?
coole mo derate rate
d at

-
Hot saturated solution is
are obta ined. Due to
rate mediu m sued crystals
A moderate
When Tot saturated on (
solut
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 which these crystals have following advantages Scholar s CHEMISTRY - XI (Subjective!
(I) Crystals are less likely to include impurities, hence, are pure
( ii) Crystals are less likely to include solvent, hence are easy to dry .
Whereas slow cooling produces bigger sized crystals which represents opposite to above advantages
cooling leads to improper crystallization.
and
raPifl
Chapter 3
Q. What are factors that decide solvent extraction or crystallization, a technique selected for

Ans .
compo und ?
When crude product to be purified is volatile or thermally unstable, then solvent extraction is used as
purification technique because no heating is required in this technique. Crystallization cannot be done
Purification
^
beca
heating is required to form saturated solution. Heat can evaporate the volatile compound or can decompose *
:
thermally unstable compound Whereas in case of non- volatile or thermally stable compound. crystallization ,
s Matter exists in the following
done .
(i) Gas (ii) Liquid (iii) Soj
Q Differentiate between residue and filtrate . of mail
• The simplest fni gaseous :e
Ans .
Residue Filtrate
• The most ol mu
• Liquids are less
und
han s<
a
-.
•
the solid state
-gases and plasmas because they can exist only within a relatively narrow range
The insoluble particles which are left behind on the The clear liquid which is obtained in beaker after the of temperature and pi
filter paper after the filtration is called as residue. filtration is called as filtrate.
Residue is either consists of insoluble impurities, Filtrate is either a pure solvent or a solution separated
precipitates or crystals. from impurities. * a* » 9 Cool or
compress Cool
9 O
9* * 9 Heal or , Heal
Q. What are the requirements for a smooth filtering process ? reduce

Ans. If the proce ss of filtratio n is to run

be
smoot
large
hly,
enoug
we
h
should
so that
observ
it is %
e
to
followi
Vi full
ng
of
points
precipi
.
tates at the end of filtration
" o
a pressure

(< ) The filter paper should Gas Liquid Crystalline solid

in turn be large enoug h from its rim to exten d 1- 2 cm above the top circumference of
(ii) The funnel should , Total disorder; much Disorder; particles Ordered arrangement ,
'

..
particles are essentially
the paper. empty space ; particles or clusters of
particles are free n fixed positions;
( ) The stem of the funnel should remain continuously full of
liquid. have complete
freedom ol mot in . to move relative to
‘
particles close together
sever al inches long so that it can exten d a few cm into .
’he beake r particles far apart each other particles
( fV| The stem of the funnel should be
close togethor
( V) It should touch the side of the beaker to avoid splashing

Previous Board Questions

(i) Shape
shape ot ihe conta iner in which the > are placed
Gases do not have a definite shape l hey lake, ihe
Q. How desiccator Is usetf for drying the crystal ?
? which techni que it is applicable ? (ii ) Volume
Q. What is distribution coeffi cient To
molec ules and there fore ihe gases ill the whole space availa ble
is helpfu l in solve nt extrac tion . Ihere is no signif icant attrac tive force in ihe gas
Q. Define distribution law and how it which the \ are placed
volum e of the conta iner in
to them. Hence, their volume becomes equal the
filtrati on 7 to
Q. Why should tip of funnel be touched with the wall of beak er during
(iii ) Low Density e Henc e , the -:a >cs will
highe r volum

<
en the gas molec ules , the gases occupy a
ISTRY ( Objec tive ) XI Due to large empty space s in betwe tend to rise
For Answers study Schol ar's CHEM
, the gases bubble up throug h the liquid s and
have a low density ( d m / v ) Due to this reaso n
(iv ) Diffusion called difflis iotf of cusev Diffu sion
readil y to form a homo geneo us mixture This is
Two or more gases intermix
f .s due to collision of gas molecules .

( v ) Effusion press ure to a lieuMT ot lower

i leeim of highet
can pass throu gh an extremely small hole from
Gas molecules
•M l * f pressure I his is known as effusiojl of gases
\ compressed b> • application ot
( vi ) Compressibility
Due to large empty spaces in between
the gas molec ules the ease -- an

pressure