Seismic methods:

Seismic reflection - II

Reflection reading:
Sharma p130-158; (Reynolds p343-379)

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Seismic reflection processing

Flow overview

These are the main

steps in processing

The order in which

they are applied is
variable

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Reflectivity and convolution

The seismic wave is sensitive to

the sequence of impedance
contrasts
Î The reflectivity series (R)

We input a source wavelet (W) which is

reflected at each impedance contrast
The seismogram recorded at the surface
(S) is the convolution of the two
S=W*R

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Deconvolution
…undoing the convolution to get back to the
reflectivity series – what we want

Spiking or whitening deconvolution

Reduces the source wavelet to a spike. The filter that best achieves this is
called a Wiener filter

Our seismogram S = R*W (reflectivity*source)

Deconvolution operator, D, is designed such that D*W = δ
So D*S = D*R*W = D*W*R = δ*R = R

Time-variant deconvolution
D changes with time to account for the different frequency content of
energy that has traveled greater distances

Predictive deconvolution
The arrival times of primary reflections are used to predict the arrival times
of multiples which are then removed

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Spiking deconvolution

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform 1 -1 ¾ -½

Deconvolution
operator ¼ 1 1

Output 0 1

Recovered
reflectivity
series

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform 1 -1 ¾ -½

Deconvolution
operator ¼ 1 1

Output 0 1 0

Recovered
reflectivity
series

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform 1 -1 ¾ -½

Deconvolution
operator ¼ 1 1

Output 0 1 0 0

Recovered
reflectivity
series

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform 1 -1 ¾ -½

Deconvolution
operator ¼ 1 1

Output 0 1 0 0 0

Recovered
reflectivity
series

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform 1 -1 ¾ -½

Deconvolution
operator ¼ 1 1

A perfect
Output 0 1 0 0 0
? deconvolution
operator is of
infinite length
Recovered
reflectivity
series

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Source-pulse deconvolution
Examples

Original Deconvolution:
section Ringing removed

Source wavelet becomes spike-like

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Deconvolution using correlation

If we know the source pulse

Then cross-correlating it with
the recorded waveform gets
us back (closer) to the
reflectivity function

If we don’t know the source pulse

Then autocorrelation of the waveform gives us something similar to
the input plus multiples.
Cross-correlating the autocorrelation with the waveform then
provides a better approximation to the reflectivity function.

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Multiples
Due to multiple bounce paths in the section
Î Looks like repeated structure

These are also removed with deconvolution

• easily identified with an autocorrelation
• removed using cross-correlation of the
autocorrelation with the waveform

Sea-bottom reflections

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Seismic reflection processing

Flow overview

These are the main

steps in processing

The order in which

they are applied is
variable

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Velocity analysis
Determination of seismic
velocity is key to seismic
methods
Velocity is needed to convert the
time-sections into depth-sections i.e.
geological cross-sections

Unfortunately reflection surveys

are not very sensitive to velocity
Often complimentary refraction
surveys are conducted to provide
better estimates of velocity

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Normal move out (NMO) correction

reflection
The reflection traveltime equation hyperbolae
predicts a hyperbolic shape to become fatter
reflections in a CMP gather. The with depth
hyperbolae become fatter/flatter (i.e. velocity)
with increasing velocity
x2
Tx2 = T02 +
V1
We want to subtract the NMO
correction from the common depth
point gather 2
x
∆TNMO ≈
2T0V12
But for that we need velocity…

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Stacking velocity
x2
In order to stack the waveforms we ∆TNMO =
need to know the velocity. We find the 2T0V12
velocity by trial and error:
• For each velocity we calculate the hyperbolae and stack the waveforms
• The correct velocity will stack the reflections on top of one another
• So, we choose the velocity which produces the most power in the stack

V2 causes the
waveforms to
stack on top of
one another

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Stacking velocity
mul
tiple

Multiple layer case

s

A stack of multiple horizontal layers is a

more realistic approximation to the Earth
• Can trace rays through the stack using
Snell’s Law (the ray parameter)
• For near-normal incidence the
moveout continues to be a hyperbolae
• The shape of the hyperbolae is related
to the time-weighted rms velocity
above the reflector
Î Velocity semblance spectrum
Î Pick stacking velocities

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Stacking velocity
Multiple layer case Note: the sensitivity
to velocity decreases
with depth
Stacking velocity panels: constant velocity gathers

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Multiple layers
Interval velocity zi
Vi =
ti
Average velocity V '= Z
T0
Root-mean-
square velocity VRMS =
∑V t i
2
i

∑t i

Two-way traveltime of ray reflected x2 + 4z 2

off the nth interface at a depth z tn =
VRMS
The interval velocity of layer n
determined from the rms velocities Vint =
(V RMS , n ) t − (V
2
n RMS , n −1 )t
2
n −1

and the two-way traveltimes to the t n − t n −1

nth and n-1th reflectors
Dix equation
The interval velocity can be determined from the
rms velocities layer by layer starting at the top
Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Velocity sensitivity: Example
Deep: Two layer model: Shallow: Two layer model:
α1 = 6 km/s, z = 20 km α1 = 3 km/s, z = 5 km
1 2
Equation of the t=
2
z2 + x
2
=
1
400 + x
2
t= 25 + x
4 3 4 1.5 4
reflection hyperbolae: α1

Normal move out x2 x2 x2

∆t NMO = = ∆t NMO =
correction: 2α t
2
1 0 480 60

For a 5 km offset: For a 5 km offset:

α1 = 6.0 km/s then 0.052 sec – correct value α1 = 3.0 km/s then 0.417 sec
α1 = 5.5 km/s then 0.062 sec α1 = 2.5 km/s then 0.600 sec
α1 = 6.5 km/s then 0.044 sec α1 = 3.5 km/s then 0.306 sec

Are these significant differences?

What can we do to improve
velocity resolution?

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Frequency filtering

Hi-pass: to remove ground roll

Low-pass: to remove high
frequency jitter/noise
Notch filter: to remove single
frequency

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Resolution of structure
Consider a vertical step in an interface
To be detectable the step must cause an
delay of ¼ to ½ a wavelength
This means the step (h) must be 1/8 to ¼
the wavelength (two way traveltime)

Example:
20 Hz, α = 4.8 km/s then λ = 240 m
Therefore need an offset greater than 30 m

Shorter wavelength signal (higher

frequencies) have better resolution.
What is the problem with very high
frequency sources?

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

Resolution of structure

When you have been mapping faults in the field what

were the vertical offsets?

Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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Fresnel Zone
Tells us about the horizontal resolution
on the surface of a reflector
First Fresnel Zone
The area of a reflector that returns energy to
the receiver within half a cycle of the first
reflection
The width of the first Fresnel zone, w:
2 2
 λ  w
d +  = d +  
2

 4 2
λ2
w2 = 2dλ +
4
If an interface is smaller than the first Fresnel
zone it appears as an point diffractor, if it is
larger it appears as an interface
Example:
30 Hz signal, 2 km depth where α = 3 km/s then λ = 0.1 km and the width of the
first Fresnel zone is 0.63 km
Applied Geophysics – Seismic reflection II

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