Vehicle Technology Ebook

Dieter Schramm, Benjamin Hesse, Niko Maas, Michael Unterreiner
Vehicle Technology
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Dieter Schramm, Benjamin Hesse,
Niko Maas, Michael Unterreiner
Vehicle
Technology
Technical Foundations of Current and

Future Motor Vehicles
Authors
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Dieter Schramm Dr.-Ing. Niko Maas
Universität Duisburg-Essen Universität Duisburg-Essen
Fakultät für Ingenieurwissenschaften Fakultät für Ingenieurwissenschaften
Lotharstr. 1 Lotharstr. 1
47057 Duisburg 47057 Duisburg
www.imech.de/vehicle_technology
Dr.-Ing. Benjamin Hesse Dr.-Ing. Michael Unterreiner

Ford Werke GmbH Porsche AG
50735 Köln Porschestr. 911
71287 Weissach
ISBN 978-3-11-059569-7
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-059570-3
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-059346-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020931121
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: metamorworks / iStock / Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck
www.degruyter.com
Contents
Preface XVII
1 Introduction and overview 1

1.1 Basic terminology 1
1.1.1 Definition of the term motor vehicle 1
1.1.2 Life cycle of a vehicle 2
1.1.3 Motor vehicles as part of the energy chain 3
1.1.4 Vehicle categories and segments 4
1.1.5 Vehicle types according to drive type 5
1.1.6 Registration and production figures 5
1.2 Configuration of a vehicle 7
1.2.1 Vehicle assembly groups and component configuration 9
1.2.2 Important dimensions and vehicle packaging 11
1.2.3 The vehicle as part of the transport system 12
1.3 Product and technology development process in the automotive
industry 13
1.3.1 New product development process 13
1.3.2 Automotive industry’s share of technical innovation 18
1.4 Automotive standards and conventions 19
1.5 Historic development of selected parameters 22
2 Wheels and tires 25

2.1 Tire structure 25
2.1.1 Structure of the radial tire 25
2.1.2 Avoidance of punctures and tires with emergency running
properties 27
2.1.3 Comments on the manufacturing process of a tire 28
2.1.4 Tire labeling 29
2.2 Basic tire characteristics 30
2.2.1 Viscoelastic behavior 30
2.2.2 Rubber friction 32
2.2.3 Rolling resistance 35
2.2.4 Transmission of vertical forces 36
2.2.5 Influence of tire inflation pressure on tire properties 38
2.2.6 Influence of temperature on tire properties 42
2.2.7 Conflicting goals of tire development 43
2.3 Mathematical description of tire forces 44
2.3.1 Classification of tire forces 44
2.3.2 Tires under the influence of vertical forces 45
2.3.3 Tires under the influence of longitudinal and lateral forces 46
VI Contents
2.3.4 Impact of the tire’s normal forces 54

2.3.5 Influence of the camber on the lateral tire force 56
2.3.6 Mathematical tire models 56
2.3.7 Superposition of horizontal forces 59
2.3.8 Instationary tire forces 61
2.3.9 Dynamics of the braked and driven wheel 63
2.4 Monitoring of the tire pressure 65
2.4.1 Direct tire pressure monitoring 65
2.4.2 Indirect tire pressure monitoring 69
3 Vehicle dynamics and suspension system 73

3.1 General definitions of vehicle motion 73
3.2 Coordinate systems 75
3.3 Structure and components of the chassis 77
3.4 Axle kinematic properties 79
3.4.1 Toe in angle 80
3.4.2 Camber angle 82
3.4.3 Steering axis 83
3.5 Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics 85
3.5.1 Description of the planar vehicle dynamics using the linear single
track model 85
3.5.2 Equations of motion of the linear single track model 86
3.5.3 Stationary steering behavior and circular drive 92
3.5.4 Transient steering behavior and driving stability 96
3.5.5 Influence of vehicle body roll 97
3.5.6 Quasistatic calculation of dynamic wheel loads 103
3.5.7 Effect of wheel load transfer on cornering behavior 104
3.6 Description of fundamental properties of dynamics in the general
case 106
3.6.1 Stationary driving behavior 107
3.6.2 Instationary driving behavior 112
3.7 Standard driving maneuvers 116
3.7.1 Maneuver steady-state circular drive 117
3.7.2 Frequency response 118
3.7.3 Step-steer input 119
3.7.4 Double lane change 119
3.8 Chassis systems and suspensions 120
3.8.1 Overview of the characteristics of wheel suspensions 120
3.8.2 MacPherson spring-strut axle suspension 123
3.8.3 Multilink wheel suspension 124
3.8.4 Examination of the wheel suspension motion 126
3.9 Three-dimensional modeling of wheel suspensions 130
Contents VII
3.9.1 Kinematic models 131

3.9.2 Dynamic models 132
3.9.3 Elastokinematic models 133
3.10 Vertical dynamics 134
3.10.1 Vertical dynamic requirements of the chassis 134
3.10.2 Roadway excitation 134
3.10.3 Wheel vertical dynamics 138
3.10.4 Body springs 138
3.10.5 Body damper 144
3.10.6 Stabilizers 145
3.10.7 Description of vertical dynamics 147
3.10.8 Objectification of vibration comfort 151
3.10.9 Oscillation frequency of wheel, seat, and body 155
4 Vehicle steering 157

4.1 Technical requirements of vehicle steering systems 158
4.2 Driver–vehicle interaction and steering feel 159
4.2.1 Basic requirements for steering systems 159
4.2.2 Assessment criteria for steering systems 161
4.2.3 Subject study and press analysis 162
4.2.4 Results of the press analysis on steering systems 163
4.3 Common designs of steering systems 164
4.4 Interpreting steering kinematics 166
4.4.1 Ackermann steering kinematics 166
4.4.2 Dynamic approach to steering kinematics 168
4.5 Components of the steering system 170
4.5.1 Steering wheel 170
4.5.2 Steering column and intermediate steering shaft 171
4.5.3 Steering rack 173
4.6 Parameters of the steered wheels 174
4.6.1 Definition of geometric parameters of the wheel 175
4.6.2 Changes in geometric parameters during cornering 177
4.7 Steering transmission 179
4.7.1 Ratio of the steering gear 181
4.7.2 Ratio of the steering linkages 181
4.8 Steering torques for conventional steering systems 186
4.8.1 Steering rack forces 186
4.8.2 Drilling torque 186
4.8.3 Drilling torque during stationary steering 188
4.8.4 Steering rack forces for large steering angles 190
4.8.5 Steering rack force during parking 190
4.9 Simplified model of rack and pinion steering 191
VIII Contents
4.10 Power steering assistance systems 195

4.10.1 Hydraulic power steering 196
4.10.2 Electrohydraulic power steering 197
4.10.3 Electromechanical power steering 198
4.11 Use of test benches for the development of steering
systems 207
4.11.1 Example: test bench for electromechanical steering
systems 208
4.12 Innovative approaches to vehicle steering 211
4.12.1 Superimposed Steering 211
4.12.2 All-wheel steering 212
4.12.3 Steer-by-wire 213
5 Braking systems 217

5.1 Structure of the braking system 217
5.2 Different implementations of braking systems 217
5.2.1 Design types 218
5.2.2 Functionality 219
5.2.3 Ideal brake force distribution 220
5.2.4 Failure of a brake circuit 225
5.3 Assembly components of the braking system 226
5.3.1 Overview and functionality 226
5.3.2 Brake pedal and master brake cylinder 231
5.3.3 Brake booster 232
5.3.4 Drum brakes 234
5.3.5 Disc brakes 236
5.3.6 Brake discs 237
5.3.7 Brake pads 237
5.3.8 Thermal behavior of brakes 238
5.4 Brake circuit layout 239
5.5 Braking process 240
5.5.1 Reaction and response times 240
5.5.2 Braking distances 241
5.6 Servo brakes 243
5.6.1 Electrohydraulic brakes (EHB) 243
5.6.2 Electromechanical brakes (EMB) and brake-by-wire systems 244
6 Propulsion systems 247

6.1 Basic types of powertrains 247
6.2 Propulsion requirements for motorized vehicles 248
6.2.1 Driving resistance 249
6.2.2 Wheel resistance 251
Contents IX
6.2.3 Air resistance (Drag) 253

6.2.4 Gravitational resistance (inclines) 254
6.2.5 Inertial resistance 255
6.2.6 The traction force equation 255
6.2.7 Ideal drive- and output mapping 259
6.3 Tangential force transfer tire-road contact 260
6.4 Power sources 262
6.4.1 Combustion engines 262
6.4.2 Electric traction drives 274
6.4.3 Power electronics 279
6.4.4 Hybrid drives 281
6.4.5 Implementing powertrains in the vehicle 288
6.5 Transmissions and shafts 288
6.5.1 Gears 288
6.5.2 Power losses in the drivetrain 290
6.6 Energy consumption 291
6.6.1 Determining energy consumption 292
6.6.2 WILLANS curves 293
6.6.3 Identification of different driving states 294
6.6.4 Driving cycles 295
6.7 Energy sources and storage 303
6.7.1 Fossil fuels 303
6.7.2 Alternative fuels 305
6.7.3 Electrical energy storage 306
7 Vehicle safety 317

7.1 Areas of vehicle safety 317
7.1.1 Definitions 317
7.1.2 Systems of active safety 319
7.1.3 Systems of passive safety 320
7.1.4 Legal rules and regulations 322
7.2 The role of the vehicle structure 325
7.2.1 Example frontal crash 328
7.2.2 AZT/RCAR test 328
7.2.3 FF (full frontal) 329
7.2.4 ODB (offset deformable barrier) 329
7.3 Basic course of a frontal collision 330
7.3.1 Physical considerations concerning the frontal crash 330
7.3.2 Parameters for accident severity 332
7.4 Restraint systems 333
7.4.1 Seat belts and pretensioners 334
7.4.2 Airbag systems 336
X Contents
7.4.3 Trigger sensors and algorithms 341

7.5 Passenger detection 344
7.6 Vehicle roll-over 344
7.6.1 Physical considerations concerning the tipping
of vehicles 346
8 Automotive electrical system 349

8.1 Energy powernet 350
8.1.1 History 350
8.1.2 Structure and mode of operation of today’s powernets 353
8.2 Energy storage 362
8.2.1 Starter batteries 363
8.2.2 Characteristics and guidelines for lead-acid batteries 368
8.3 Modeling of the battery behavior 373
8.4 Alternators in motor vehicles 378
8.4.1 Design of vehicle alternators 379
8.4.2 Efficiencies of vehicle alternators 380
8.5 Simplified model of a vehicle alternator 381
8.5.1 Electrical machine 382
8.5.2 Rectifier 385
8.5.3 Voltage regulators 386
8.5.4 Alternator load torque 387
8.6 Electrical consumers of the powernet 387
8.7 Approaches for an energy management 389
8.8 Electrical signal transmission 391
8.8.1 Overview of bus systems in motor vehicles 392
8.8.2 Fundamental terms 394
8.8.3 Analog signal transmission 394
8.8.4 Bus topologies 395
8.8.5 Structure of a bus system 396
8.8.6 The bus protocol 397
8.8.7 The data frame 400
8.8.8 The bit stream 404
8.8.9 Bus media – physical layer 405
8.8.10 Examples of bus systems in motor vehicles other than CAN 407
9 Driving dynamics control systems and driver assistance

systems 411
9.1 Definition of the term “driver assistance system” 412
9.2 Vehicle automation concepts 416
9.2.1 Classification according to the degree of automation 416
Contents XI
9.2.2 Semi-automated systems 417

9.2.3 Highly automated systems 419
9.2.4 Fully automated vehicles 420
9.3 Driver assistance systems vs. driving dynamics control
systems 421
9.4 Human–machine interface 422
9.4.1 Sensory channels 422
9.4.2 Warning levels 424
9.5 Driving dynamics control systems 425
9.5.1 Anti-lock braking system 425
9.5.2 Traction control system 432
9.5.3 Electronic stability program 432
9.6 Driver assistance systems 435
9.6.1 Adaptive cruise control 435
9.6.2 Lane keeping assistant 443
9.6.3 Lane changing assistance (LCA) 446
9.6.4 Highway driving assistant 447
9.6.5 Pedestrian assistance 448
9.6.6 Parking assistance 452
9.7 Adapted design of vehicles for assisted driving 454
9.8 Future development trends 454
9.9 Legal possibilities and limits for autonomous driving 456
10 Driving simulators 459

10.1 Basic requirements for driving simulators 461
10.1.1 Perception and distinction when driving a car 463
10.1.2 Vehicle guidance and requirements to information sources in
driving simulators 463
10.2 Classification and basic structure of driving
simulators 464
10.2.1 Simulation 465
10.2.2 Driver’s workplace 466
10.2.3 Environment depiction 467
10.2.4 The motion system 468
10.3 Simulator experiment 470
10.3.1 Reasons for the use of simulators 471
10.3.2 Study design and implementation 472
10.3.3 Possible values from simulator experiments 473
10.3.4 The phenomenon of simulator sickness 474
10.4 Exemplary implementation of a driving simulator 476
10.4.1 Desktop simulator 477
XII Contents
10.4.2 Simulator with cockpit 478

10.4.3 Static driving simulator with full vehicle 479
10.4.4 Dynamic driving simulators 480
Literature 489
Index 505
Preface
In the 125 years of its history, automobile technology has become extremely com-
plex in many areas. This includes the development and production of technology,
as well as methods of quality assurance. It has become an exemplary field of exper-
tise, not only limited to pure engineering sciences. This development has signifi-
cantly contributed to the fact that vehicle technology poses highly functional
reliability and safety requirements on its products. This means that motor vehicles
must always remain operational even under harsh environmental conditions. and in
the event of a malfunction, it must in many cases be possible for inexperienced ope-
rators to restore them to a safe condition. In addition, the car is mass-produced to
produce millions of units at comparatively low cost.
Decades of improvement processes, as triggered by these requirements, have
resulted in an extremely mature product group. As such, it is considered the model
for many other products in terms of cost, function, and quality. Nevertheless, there
are fields that are currently undergoing major changes in the area of vehicle tech-
nology. This applies, on the one hand, to the field of vehicle drive. The combustion
engine, which is used for over 120 years, is, though not nearly completely, replaced
in short and medium terms, but at least supplemented by electric drives. The tech-
nical reasoning behind this is part of a detailed discussion in Chapter 6. On the
other hand, there is a continuing development driven by processes in electronics
and sensor technology since the past decades: connected cars and (advanced)
driver assistance systems, which include purely supportive systems, further to sys-
tems that allow highly automated and, in the long term, fully automated driving.
This topic is covered in Chapter 9.
As a result of the discussed developments, changes in the vehicle industry have
become apparent in ways they have not been observed in the past (Dudenhöffer
2016) but also delivers new opportunities for the future (Schramm 2017).
In addition to these specialized topics, the book also introduces basic topics
within current vehicle technology. The basis of this book is a lecture series on auto-
motive technology, which runs at the University of Duisburg-Essen for many years.
Furthermore, some of the authors have contributed current research results from their
dissertations and research projects as well as discussions of their experience from
working with vehicle manufacturers. Furthermore, results of the dissertations and re-
search work of Dr.-Ing. Jeannette Kerkhoff, née Heide, Dr.-Ing. Mira Schüller, Dr.-Ing.
Michael Ried, Dr.-Ing. M. Koppers, Dr.-Ing. Frederic Kracht, Dr.-Ing. Dario Düsterloh,
M. Sc. Georg Burkhard and Dipl.-Ing. Stephan Schweig are included in the book. We
would also like to thank Dr. jur. Schneider for his contribution to the topic “legal
boundary conditions of automated driving”.
In addition, many other persons were involved in the preparation of the book; a
special mention of which goes to Dr.-Ing. Frederic Kracht, based on his significant
contribution to the organization of the book and coordination of the creation of
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-203
XIV Preface
illustrations. We would also like to thank Messrs. Neuhaus and Golovko for their
thorough production of the illustrations and Mr. M. Sc. Driesch for his support in
obtaining printing permissions.
Duisburg, February 2020

Dieter Schramm, Niko Maas, Benjamin Hesse, and Michael Unterreiner
1 Introduction and overview
In the 125 years of its history, automobile technology has become extremely com-
plex in many areas. This includes the development and production of technology as
well as methods of quality assurance. It has become an exemplary field of expertise,
not only limited to pure engineering sciences. This development has significantly
contributed to the fact that vehicle technology poses highly functional reliability
and safety requirements on its products. In that sense, motor vehicles must remain
operational under harsh environmental conditions. In addition, in case of fault, ve-
hicles must be able to be brought back in a safe state by inexperienced operators.
In addition, the car is made in mass production to produce quantities of millions of
units at extremely low cost.
Decades of improvement processes, as triggered by these requirements, have re-
sulted in an extremely mature product group. As such, it is considered the model for
many other products in terms of cost, function, and quality. Nevertheless, there are
fields that are currently undergoing major changes in the area of vehicle technology.
This applies, on the one hand, to the field of vehicle drive. The combustion engine,
which is used for over 120 years, is though not nearly completely replaced in short
and medium terms, but at least supplemented by electric and semielectric drives. The
technical reasoning behind this is part of a detailed discussion in Chapter 6. On the
other hand, there is a continuing development, driven by processes in electronics
and sensor technology since the past decades: connected cars and the development
of (advanced) driver assistance systems, which include purely supportive systems,
further to systems that allow highly automated and, in the long term, fully automated
driving. This topic is covered in Chapter 9.
In addition to these specialized topics, the book also introduces the basic topics
within current vehicle technology.
1.1 Basic terminology
1.1.1 Definition of the term motor vehicle
According to Bundesministerium für Verkehr (2011)1 motor vehicles are
“Non-permanent track-guided land vehicles moved by machine power.”
To keep the volume of the book manageable, only four-wheeled passenger cars will
be considered. The book does not cover bikes, trucks, and buses. Nevertheless,
some of the topics addressed are also applicable to these vehicle classes.
1 German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-001
2 1 Introduction and overview
1.1.2 Life cycle of a vehicle
A vehicle is a product that is produced by an original equipment manufacturer

(OEM) and is traditionally sold via a car dealer to a consumer. However, there are
indications of change in this area as even as of today more and more new and used
vehicles are being sold over the Internet.
A large number of suppliers are usually involved in the manufacturing process.
They are classified according to their position in the supplier pyramid in tier 1, tier 2,
and so on and raw material supplier (Figure 1.1). However, this hierarchy is not always
strictly preserved. Instead, for example, for electrical contacts, connecting parts and
of course raw materials direct deliveries from tier 2, tier 3, and so on to OEMs are
common.
Direct delivery
OEM
Tier 1
System and module
suppliers
Tier 2
Component and
assembly suppliers
Tier 3
Parts manufacturer
Figure 1.1: Supplier pyramid.
After a period of use, which is typically between 8 and 15 years, the vehicle is
scrapped, or rather recycled to a large extent. Figure 1.2 illustrates this development
and life cycle.
Concept
Development Production Useful life Recycling
definition
Figure 1.2: Development and life cycle of a vehicle.

1.1.3 Motor vehicles as part of the energy chain
Motor vehicles account for a considerable part of the world’s energy consumption
of transport systems.2 In 2012, about 82% of the total energy consumption of trans-
portation systems in Germany was due to road traffic (Figure 1.3).
3,000
2,500
Energy consumption/peta joule
2,000
Road traffic
1,500
Air traffic
1,000 Rail transport
Coastal and inland navigation

500
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year
Figure 1.3: Distribution of energy consumption for transport systems in Germany 1990–2012
(Umweltbundesamt 2015).
For the analysis of energy consumption, it has to be considered that only a small
part of energy consumed is actually converted into kinetic energy. The process illus-
trated in Figure 1.4 uses several terms, which will be used repeatedly:
– Well-to-tank: Energy supply. The book does not cover this topic in detail.
– Tank-to-wheel: Energy consumption of the vehicle. This field of energy conver-
sion chain is more relevant than ever before in the history of automobiles and
therefore is included in much detail in several chapters of the book.
– Well-to-wheel: Total energy consumption during vehicle use.
Figure 1.4 describes the process of converting chemical primary energy into me-
chanical energy, which may be required several times to move the vehicle. In prin-
ciple, this illustration may also apply to electrically driven vehicles. However, in
this case, a possibility exists of replacing primary energy source with renewable
2 The proportion of total energy consumption (including, e.g., also industry and households) is much
lower.
Usage–well-to-wheel
Primary Wheel
Well-to- Energy stored Tank-to-
energy available
tank in the car wheel
source energy
Figure 1.4: Energy consumption chain of a vehicle.
energies, at least in the long term. Furthermore, electric powertrains prove to be

significantly superior in terms of their efficiency to all internal combustion engine
drives. This will be explained in Chapter 6.
In addition, the field of energy and raw material consumption, which is not
considered yet, is essential in the production of the vehicle.
1.1.4 Vehicle categories and segments
Even when focusing on passenger cars, the variety of vehicles to be considered is

difficult to overview. In that sense, a classification into vehicle segments is usually
carried out. This can be done according to different criteria. Hence, the KBA,3 as an
example, does not follow a single formula for segment formation, but a combina-
tion of criteria:
– external dimensions (length, height),
– weight (maximum authorized mass),
– engine (displacement),
– power (maximum speed and acceleration),
– luggage compartment (indicated load, variability),
– seats (quantity),
– seat height (front),
– all-wheel drive (driven axles),
– tail shape (variants),
– vehicle category (for mobile homes), and
– basic price.
This results for Germany in the 10 segments listed in Figure 1.5. The graph shows
that there is a strong trend toward the sports utility vehicles (SUV) segment, which
is at the expense of the other vehicle segments.
3 KBA: German Federal Motor Transport Authority.

SUVs 23.8%
15.7%
23.3%
Compact class 25.6%
Sub compact cars 14.5%
16.3%
Middle class 11.9%
12.6%
VANs 7.2%
10.9%
6.7%
Mini 6.9%
Utilities 4.9% 2017
4.0%
Upper middle class 4.0%
4.5% 2013
2.7%
Other (*) 2.5%
0.8%
Luxury class 0.8%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Registration shares
Figure 1.5: Registration sharesa of passenger cars segments in Germany according to/as cited by
KBA classification (*: including sports cars) in 2013 and 2017 (Radke 2018).
a
Rounded values.
1.1.5 Vehicle types according to drive type
Due to the emergence of partially or fully electrically driven vehicles, a more de-
tailed classification of vehicles according to the drive type is required (Table 1.1).
Another distinction concerns the design of new vehicles with modified power-
trains (see also Chapter 6). One refers to “Purpose Design” if a completely new vehicle
is developed based on powertrain structures. Examples include the Nissan Leaf, the
vehicle models by Tesla or BMW models i3 and i8. If a new drive train is integrated
into an already existing design, one refers to “Conversion Design.” Examples include
Daimler B-class, Volkswagen e-up, and e-Golf.
1.1.6 Registration and production figures
To be able to assess the importance of the automotive industry and thus of motor vehi-
cle technology, exploration of some key data sets is helpful. For example, in 2018, ap-
proximately 70.5 million passenger vehicles were produced worldwide (Figure 1.6),
18.71 million in the whole European Union, and thereof 5.12 million in Germany
(OICA 2019). The development of the motor vehicle stock in Germany during the last
decades is shown in Figure 1.8. The strong decline in 2008/2009 is attributable to the
economic weakness at that time.
Table 1.1: Classification of motor vehicles according to the drive system used (see also Chapter 6).
Designation Acronym Description
Internal combustion ICEV Motor vehicle conventionally powered by a combustion

engine vehicle engine
Battery electric vehicle BEV Electric vehicle with batteries as energy storage
Range extended electric REX Electric vehicle with additional combustion engine for
vehicle range extension
Hybrid electric vehicle HEV Vehicles with combustion engine drives and,
simultaneously, electromotive drives. Charging of battery
via combustion engine
Plug-in hybrid electric PHEV Similar to HEV, but battery is rechargeable via power grid
vehicle
Fuel cell hybrid electric FCHEV Electric vehicle with fuel cells for energy supply
vehicle
80
72.1 73.5
68.5 70.5
70 67.8
65.7
63.1
58.3 59.9
60
53.2 52.7
49.9 47.8
50 46.9
44.6
42
41.2 39.8 41.4
40
30
20
10
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Figure 1.6: Development of global automobile production in the years 2000 to 2018 (in millions)
(OICA 2019).
To date (2019), only production figures for electrically powered motor vehicles
have been reported that are well below the figures specified or targeted by individual
governments. This applies in particular to the major automotive markets in China, the
USA, and Germany (see Chapter 6). Therefore, while the number of conventionally
powered vehicles registered worldwide has increased drastically over the past few
years, driven among other things by the strong increase in motorization in China, the
number of electrically powered vehicles in stock has lagged far behind the expecta-
tions (see Figure 1.7). This is mainly due to the high cost of batteries and the unusually
low range of these vehicles for customers. However, a strong increase is expected in
the future due to government measures in many countries and the strategic orientation
of major vehicle manufacturers, not least due to the expected cost reductions for
batteries. The latter will also result in larger batteries eliminating or at least greatly
reducing the well-known range restrictions of BEVs, which will lead to improved mar-
ket acceptance. Figure 1.8 shows an exemplary overview of the development of the
stock of vehicles with conventional drive systems in Germany.
7,000,000
6,000,000 5,610,860
Number of electric cars
5,000,000
worldwide
4,000,000 3,416,680
3,000,000
2,157,760
2,000,000
1,404,030
845,210
1,000,000 422,870
205,380
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Figure 1.7: Stock development of electric cars worldwide between 2012 and 2018 (ZSW 2019).
Of course, the total numbers are reflected in one of the major economic factors in
consumer spending on passenger cars. In addition, the automotive industry is one
of the most important sources of employment, especially in Germany. Conversely, a
large proportion of consumer spending by German households, notwithstanding a
stagnation in recent years, accounts for traffic, and an even greater part to motor-
ized individual transport (Figure 1.9).
1.2 Configuration of a vehicle
The entire vehicle is usually divided into assemblies, which are described in
Section 1.2.1. Moreover, a common terminology for the dimensions and the so-
called packaging of a vehicle exists, which provides a uniform language for techni-
cal descriptions of vehicles. Section 1.2.2 describes the most important and common
measurement variables.
8
Stock in thousands of pieces

50,000
45,376 46,090 46,570
45,023 45,041
42,917 43,418 43,833 44,379
45,000 42,292
41,184 41,311 41,729
7,387 7,464
6,860 7,013 6,861
6,692 6,770
40,000 6,625 6,658
6,542 6,587
6,419 6,432
35,000
9,338 9,602 9,918 10,282
10,230 10,426
9,752 9,916 10,058
9,302 9,470 9,613
30,000 9,231
1 Introduction and overview
25,000
15,473 15,377 15,325 15,219 12,514 12,405 12,350

20,000 12,699 12,638
13,219 13,066 12,708 12,681
15,000
10,000
13,604 14,206 14,570 14,974 15,404
13,352 13,384 13,460 12,315 12,511 13,009 13,412 13,841
5,000
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
< 1,399 ccm 1,400–1,700 ccm 1,800–1,999 ccm > 2,000 ccm Total
Figure 1.8: Stock of motor vehicles in Germany (KBA).

As of 2008 only registered vehicles without temporary shutdowns/decommissioning broken down by engine displacement ranges.
Billion €
200
180
160
140 Purchase of vehicles
120
100
Goods and services for operation
80
60
Fuels and lubricants
40
20
Transport services
0
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
Figure 1.9: Consumer spending for traffic in Germany, according to Kunert, Radke et al. (2012).
1.2.1 Vehicle assembly groups and component configuration
1.2.1.1 Vehicle assembly groups

The essential assemblies for a vehicle are
– chassis and wheels (see Chapters 2–4),
– powertrain with engine and transmission gear (see Chapters 5 and 6),
– vehicle body and safety systems (see Chapters 7 and 8), and
– vehicle electrics and electronics (see Chapter 9).
These assemblies can be assigned to the individual subassemblies and components

of a vehicle. An overview of the allocation of individual components of a vehicle to
the assemblies is given in Table 1.2.
In terms of added value, there has been a steady shift away from mechanics to
electrics and electronics over the past two decades. This trend is further intensified
by electrification of vehicles as well as networking and massive sensory upgrades
of new vehicles.
1.2.1.2 Topologic arrangement of components

The vehicle topology describes the arrangement of essential components of the
vehicle. Due to its significance and its structural scope, this includes, in particular,
Table 1.2: Typical assembly groups of a vehicle.
Chassis and Powertrain Vehicle body and Vehicle electrics and

wheels safety systems electronics
Wheels and tires Engine with auxiliary units Frame, chassis Battery, generator,
starter
Wheel suspension Transmission gear, clutch, Doors, hoods, roof Wiring harnesses for
converter power and information
Springs and Propeller shaft Glazing Lighting

dampers
Braking system Differential Seats Servomotors
Steering system Driveshafts Pedals Sensors and actuators
Antiroll bars Restraint systems Infotainment
Active elements Instrumentation
Bearings Bumper
Vehicle fairing
Air conditioning
the powertrain. The powertrain includes, in case of purely combustion engine

drives, the combustion engine with its auxiliary units and the fuel reservoir (tank),
the transmission gear as well as central and wheel-specific driveshafts. In case of
HEVs, electric drive and storage systems are added. In case of a combination of
both propulsion systems, a multitude of possible combinations for vehicles with
more than one power source exists. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
In recent decades, the combustion engine has been used almost exclusively as
the sole driving source for traction in private transport. In essence, drive topologies
have been established. They are depicted in Figure 1.10 (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
In 75% of vehicles, the combustion engine is installed transversely at the front and
the front axle is powered. This topology has benefits for the integration process as
the motor is positioned exactly on the driven axle. Accordingly, there is no need for
an additional drive shaft.
The second most popular drive topology is the standard drive (16%). The front
of the engine is installed longitudinally and powers the rear axle. This variant al-
lows the installation of larger engines and allows for advantageous driving dynam-
ics due to drive on the rear axle.
With 3% and 4% market share, respectively, the all-wheel drive variants use
the two presented drive topologies.
Vehicles with rear or center engine have a small market share and together
only make up about 1% of vehicles.
Front-lateral Front-longitudinal
Front Four-wheel Front Rear Four-wheel
75% 3% 1% 16% 4%
Figure 1.10: Essential combustion engine powertrain topologies with corresponding market sharesa
in Germany, according to Ried (2014) and Grote and Feldhusen (2012).
a
Rounded figures.
1.2.2 Important dimensions and vehicle packaging
Regulations and definitions of main dimensions and the so-called packaging in ve-
hicles are summarized under “vehicle dimension concept,” which defines essential
characteristics of a vehicle (Roschinski, Hansis et al. 2008). The vehicle dimension
concept includes the dimensions describing a vehicle with lengths (L), widths (W),
heights (H), and angles (A) based on the nomenclature of (SAE 2009). The German
Automobile Industry Association (VDA4) describes a dimensional exchange plan
that contains all the basic vehicle dimensions of a model. The international variant
is referred to as the GCIE5 (GCIE 2011).
Figures 1.11 and 1.12 show the main dimensions of a vehicle of the exterior and
interior (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
The classification of vehicles in vehicle classes is based on the main dimensions
of the exterior. However, due to the panoply of new vehicle concepts that have
emerged in recent years and the resulting variety of models, the differences between
vehicle classes are sometimes blurred, complicating a precise classification. Table 1.3
lists a possible classification into vehicle classes based on average values of the prin-
cipal dimensions of the exterior and interior. For each vehicle class, a corresponding
4 VDA: Verband Der Automobilindustrie (Automotive Industry Association).

5 GCIE: Global Car Manufacturer’s Information Exchange Group.
Figure 1.11: Main dimensions of the exterior (Ried 2014), (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
Figure 1.12: Main dimensions of the interior (Ried 2014), (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
vehicle is given as an example. A commonly used reference mark is the seat reference
point (SRP) of the manikin6 (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
1.2.3 The vehicle as part of the transport system
The vehicle is an important part of the transport system, which consists of

– private transport,
– public transport,
– public long-distance transport, and
– nonmotorized private transport.
6 Manikin: CAD model of the human being which is mainly used in the automotive industry for
anthropometric purposes and examinations.
1.3 Product and technology development process in the automotive industry 13
Table 1.3: Vehicle classification with example vehicles of main dimensions of the exterior and
interior according to (Braess and Seiffert 2011).
Subcompact Compact Lower Middle Upper Luxury Van SUV

middle class middle class
class class
Example Fiat  Opel VW Golf BMW Audi A MB VW BMW

Corsa  series S-class Sharan X
Length , , , , , , , ,

L/mm
Width , , , , , , , ,

W/mm
Hight , , , , , , , ,

H-B/mm
Wheelbase , , , , , , , ,

L/mm
Distance SRP        
road surface
H-/mm
Distance SRP        
heel flat front
H-/mm
This book deals exclusively with passenger cars. However, regarding the impor-
tance of assistance systems, not only the behavior of the vehicle on the road but
also the interaction between the driver and the vehicle must be considered as well
as future developments, such as the communication between vehicles and the infra-
structure. Therefore, there is a strong interaction between vehicle, driver, and envi-
ronment (infrastructure; see Figure 1.13).
1.3 Product and technology development process

in the automotive industry
1.3.1 New product development process
In the automotive industry, every manufacturer typically runs its own process for
developing a new vehicle. However, this proprietary process usually follows a typi-
cal pattern. The following exemplary presentation follows the procedure described
in Düsterloh (2018). There also new approaches for a further optimization of the
product development process and the complexity management can be found.
Driver Behavioral Perception Environment

• Navigation
• Anticipation
• Stability
Motion Position
Steering wheel Velocity Friction

Forces
Communication
Brake pedal Acceleration
Road inclination
Drive pedal
Wind
Vehicle Dynamics
Figure 1.13: Interaction between vehicle, driver, and environment.
The development process for new products (NPD) can be divided into three
basic phases (Figure 1.14).
1.3.1.1 Concept development

During this phase, the vehicle concept is defined, developed, analyzed, and agreed
upon. This phase normally lasts from 18 to 24 months. This timeframe suits a
completely new vehicle. In case a new vehicle is based on a predecessor, the concept
phase can dramatically shrink. This is true for all of the generic development phases.
The concept phase often already sets ground for the market success of a vehicle.
Considering that this phase starts about 4–5 years prior to production start, it is not
an easy task to define what kind of vehicle will meet the future customers’ demands.
1.3.1.2 Series development

In the phase of series development, the vehicle is developed from concept to series
maturity and its function is validated. The duration of this phase is between 24 and
30 months.
Production
Concept development Serial development
start-up
Phase
Project
18–24 months 24–30 months 4–6 months
Key
Project Project- Project- Concept- Design Parts Availability Preproduction Production SOP Market
Fact Sheet Definition Feasability Definition Specification for Production Series Series Launch
Milestones
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis - FMEA
Safety
Danger and Risk Analysis - D&R
Functional
Project Scheduling Procurement Build-up Testing Virtual methods have proven design
readiness for prototype build
Simulation (digital twin), virtual validation and optimization
Phase
Vehicle
Project Scheduling Procurement Build-Up Testing
Testing
Building Steps Release Procurement Release Design Approval
Release
Full System
Figure 1.14: Simplified representation of a product development process.
1.3 Product and technology development process in the automotive industry
15
The series development starts after the concept development if all the concepts have
proven to meet future demands and the intended vehicle promises return on invest
(ROI). The development phase itself is often subdivided into several parallel and se-
rial tasks. Figure 1.14 shows building and testing phases that are used to build up
prototype vehicles and then use them to validate the system behavior. Today’s devel-
opment cycles of the automotive industry vastly use virtual methods to build virtual
prototypes (digital twins). These simulation models are then used to validate the sys-
tem behavior prior to availability of physical prototypes. This method enables the de-
velopers to save time and cost but also to check more possible designs and therefore
optimize the entire vehicle.
The development phase could be subdivided into virtual and physical phases.
Often the physical prototype phase will only be entered if the virtual methods have
proven that no major issues exist. The goal today is to increase the product maturity
as much as possible only using virtual methods before building few prototypes to
finally sign off the vehicle.
1.3.1.3 Production start-up

In the last 4–6 months of the development process, the production start-up phase
begins, and the first vehicles are already produced with series tools.
Key milestones are defined within the product development process. These key
milestones represent a binding framework for the timely and technical objectives
for all company stakeholders. In particular, the technical and economic objectives
defined for each of the following main milestone must be met.
Project fact sheet

The key milestone set up of the project fact sheet defines the strategic and technical
product positioning. In addition to defining the target vehicle segment, this in-
cludes the estimation of sales figures. It is becoming increasingly important to ex-
ploit synergies concerning the configuration variants in order to achieve economic
goals in particular. However, it is also important to differentiate the new vehicle
from other vehicles in the same modular building blocks.
Project definition
In order to achieve this key milestone, the desired characteristics of the vehicle as
well as the financial target values must be defined in the project definition. In ad-
dition, a first version of the specifications must be available here at the latest. The
requirement specification contains a technical product description of the target
vehicle.
1.3 Product and technology development process in the automotive industry 17
Project feasibility
Both the technical and the economic feasibility of the development project must be
confirmed here by all the relevant business units. The location of the planned pro-
duction and the first suppliers for front-loading volumes will also be determined
here. Front-loading volumes are components or assemblies that, due to their high
complexity of content or innovative functional concepts, require an advanced, inten-
sive concept validation to achieve a quality suitable for testing in the series phase.
Concept definition
The key milestone concept definition concludes the concept phase. This assumes
that the vehicle concept can be confirmed. In particular, the interior and exterior
dimensions must be defined. In addition, estimates of the equipment ratios of op-
tional extras must be available. An important and indispensable point is that the
manufacturability of the vehicle can be confirmed by production.
Design specification
The existence of an exterior and interior design with the package and the technical
feasibility both for the development and the production are the prerequisite for the
successful achievement of the milestone design definition. In addition, the specifi-
cation sheet, which contains all requirements for the vehicle, is confirmed.
Parts availability for production

The key milestone parts availability for production confirms the required availabil-
ity and quality of parts to manufacture the product in terms of market launch
planning.
Preproduction series
The prerequisite for reaching this key milestone is the availability of a first preseries
vehicle. In order to optimize manufacturing facilities and production processes, the
construction for high-priority volumes is to be carried out using the manufacturing
facilities for series production. In this way, problems in production or dimensional
accuracy can be identified and eliminated at an early stage.
Production series
This is where the production processes are coordinated and optimized. Components
and parts with series properties are installed in the vehicles. In addition, the function
of operating resources and systems under production conditions on concatenated
lines have to be tested and confirmed.
Start of production (SOP)

When this key milestone is reached, the vehicles can be manufactured for press
events, trade fairs, and dealers. The series ramp-up will end approximately 3 months
after the SOP.
Market launch
This is the latest time at which the vehicle is presented to the trade and to customers.
Some of the new vehicles can even be ordered before they go into series production.
The time for the presentation to the public depends on when there are, for example,
big fairs.
1.3.2 Automotive industry’s share of technical innovation
Already at the introduction of this chapter, reference was made to the economic
importance of the automotive industry. However, the automotive industry also
plays a significant role in technical innovation. One way to measure innovation
performance is to count the number of patent applications filed in a particular area
of industry. Figure 1.15 shows an overview of the number of patent applications in
Robert Bosch GmbH 4038

Schaeffler Technologies
2383
AG & Co. KG
Ford Global Technologies LLC 2047
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG 1776
Daimler AG 1588
Audi AG 1266
ZF Friedrichshafen AG 1157
GM Global Technology
1128
Operations LLC
Volkswagen AG 1077
Siemens AG 972
Continental Automotive
542
GmbH
BSH Hausgeräte GmbH 533
FANUC Corporation 527
Toyota Jidosha K.K. 520
Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG 503

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500
Figure 1.15: Most important companies by number of patent applications filed with the German
Patent and Trade Mark Office in 2017, (DPMA 2019).
Germany for 2017. This illustration immediately shows that the vast majority of patent
applications at least in Germany are filed by companies that are either directly active
in the automotive industry or have at least a large part of their business in this sector.
1.4 Automotive standards and conventions
For the development, production, and operation of motor vehicles, a large number
of standards and legal regulations that are subject to both international and na-
tional specifications exist. The following sections only list a selection of these regu-
lations that play an important role for the topics covered in this book.
A selection of the automotive standards cited in the book is listed in Table 1.4.
For more selected references to standards in the individual automotive disciplines,
please refer to the corresponding chapters of the book.
Table 1.4: Selected standards in the field of automotive engineering.
Topic Standard
Life cycle of vehicles EN ISO 
Development processes ISO 
Functional safety ISO  (ISO )
Environmental management ISO  (ISO )
RL //EWG
Vehicle dynamics DIN  (DIN )
SAE J  (SAE )
Determination of unloaded mass DIN  (DIN )
EN ISO: standard adopted as European standard.

ISO: International Organization for Standardization.
DIN: Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization).
SAE: SAE International; former denomination Society of Automotive Engineers.
Motor vehicles are, as mentioned, subject to a number of additional and specific

standards due to specific operating conditions and threats arising from their use.
Vehicle standards regulate and structure, among other things, the quality processes
in the development and construction of vehicles. This has become increasingly im-
portant, especially because of the massive use of electrical and electronic systems
and increasing variety and complexity of vehicle functions over the last decades.
Thus, for example, ISO 26262 regulates functional safety of motor vehicles. The idea
of this standard bases on the assumption that especially safety of electrical and
electronic systems of a vehicle must be an integral part of the system. For this pur-
pose, the standard defines the necessary activities, as well as the methods to be
used for the development and production of electric and electronic systems, in a
so-called procedure mode. The requirements are structured and classified by the
so-called security requirement levels. From these, corresponding quality goals are
derived. Safety requirement levels start with nonsafety-related requirements and
are divided into the so-called ASI-levels (automotive safety integrity level) in the
safety-relevant area. The ASI levels are divided into the levels QM (quality man-
agement) and A to D. The QM class describes the lowest risk rating and the D class
the highest rating. The higher the risk classification of a system, the more compre-
hensive the validation must be. To determine the risk class, a system must be as-
sessed against three different criteria. The first criterion is the severity (designated
with “S” in Figure 1.17) of a system error (“E” in Figure 1.17) or the resulting threat to
the user or the environment. The second criterion to be assessed is the probability of
exposure. The last criterion describes the controllability (“E” in Figure 1.17) of the ve-
hicle when the fault occurs. Defined evaluation categories exist for the three criteria,
which are listed below (ISO 2011):
– Severity – S (severity of the fault, danger to the user or the environment)
– S0: no injuries (unharmed)
– S1: minor to moderate injuries
– S2: severe injuries (survival very likely)
– S3: most severe injuries (survival unlikely)
– Probability of exposure – E (probability of occurrence, connection of malfunc-
tion and operating condition, taking into account the duration and frequency
of the occurrence of the situation)
– E0: impossible occurrence
– E1: rare occurrence (e.g., lying on a level crossing)
– E2: occasional occurrence (1% of service life, e.g., driving with trailer or roof
rack)
– E3: frequent occurrence (1–10% of the service life, e.g., refueling of the ve-
hicle or driving on a wet road)
– E4: constant occurrence (10% of service life, e.g., acceleration/deceleration,
brakes/steering)
– Controllability C (controllability of situation)
– C0: safe control (all drivers control this situation, e.g., unwanted increase
of the radio volume)
– C1: easy controllability (more than 99% of the drivers can handle the situa-
tion (e.g., steering column engaged when starting the vehicle))
– C2: normal controllability (more than 90% of drivers are able to control the
situation; e.g., failure of the ABS during emergency braking)
– C3: difficult controllability (less than 90% of drivers can control the situa-
tion; e.g., suddenly occurring high steering forces)
The basis of this classification into safety requirement levels is an assessment of

system risk without consideration of safety measures through hazard and risk anal-
ysis. Subsequently, a safety concept is to be developed, which reduces the existing
system risk to a permissible level. The effectiveness of the created safety concept
must be documented by means of a safety certificate and its scope is determined by
the safety requirement level.
Figure 1.16 shows the evaluation criteria and the resulting ASIL classification
(ISO 2011). Accordingly, the highest risk level ASIL-D is only assigned if the highest
criticality level occurs for all three evaluation criteria. If one of the criteria is evalu-
ated with class 0, the system is classified with QM. In automotive engineering, there
are currently two systems, the braking system and the steering system, which are
classified in accordance with ASIL-D.
Figure 1.16: Risk graph for ASIL classification according to ISO (2011).
Within the framework of a hazard and risk analysis, a system evaluation is carried
out with the help of the ASIL classification. For this purpose, an evaluation of the
risk when an error occurs is performed for different safety-relevant driving situations.
In doing so, all theoretically conceivable errors, their consequences, the reaction of
the driver, and their impact on the assessment must be included.
For the evaluation of the probability of occurrence E of a driving situation both
the location, the road type, the road condition, the traffic situation, and the driving
maneuvers are of importance.
The assessment of the controllability C of the vehicle during the fault occurrence
can be prevented by means of driving tests under safe conditions on a test site.
To evaluate the severity of error S, the following must be taken into consider-
ation of the driving situation estimates of the possible effects can be made. The sys-
tem is evaluated according to the highest risk class occurring within the hazard and
risk analysis in the first place. The described ASIL classification procedure is shown
in Figure 1.17.
Driving situation E ISO 26262 ASIL
Fail Impact Reaction C
Consequence S
Figure 1.17: ASIL-classification process (Düsterloh 2018).
1.5 Historic development of selected parameters
In the following, important developmental trends of two selected vehicle parameters

for newly registered passenger cars in Germany between 1985 and 2012 are presented
in their temporal development. For this, total vehicle mass and fuel consumption per
100 km were selected as parameters. Data were deduced empirically from correspond-
ing vehicle data of vehicles available on the market for small and compact cars, middle
class, upper middle class, and luxury class. Figure 1.18 shows a steady increase in total
vehicle mass, which was largely caused by massive growth in comfort and safety
2100
Segment +
+ +
1900
+
Luxury
1700
+
Upper mid- + + +
dle class
Mass / kg
1500 + + +
+ +
+
+ + +
1300 Middle class + +
+
+ +
+ +
1100 + Compact
+ +
+
+
900 + Subcompact
+
+
700
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 1.18: Development of masses of passenger cars in Germany 1985–2012 (Schramm 2012).
1.5 Historic development of selected parameters 23
systems and has only recently grind to halt. Nowadays, a downward trend due to re-
quirements for CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of vehicles powered by internal
combustion engines (ICE) can be observed.
An example of significant reduction in vehicle mass for a vehicle of upper middle
class is shown in Figure 1.19. Following a steady increase in the last three generations
of vehicles, a reduction in the total mass of a comparable vehicle version of about
80 kg in the model change (2016) was recorded.
+120 kg 1.760 –80 kg

+20 kg
1.680
+95 kg 1.620 1.640
1.525
Type series W124 W210 W211 W212 W213
Market launch 1985 1995 2002 2009 2016
Type E 300 TD E 220 CDI E 220 CDI E 220 Blue

E 220 d
(year of manufacture) (1987) (1999) (2004) (2015)
Performance [KW] 105 105 110 125 143
Unladen weight ff EG 1525 1620 1640 1760 1680
Figure 1.19: Development of overall mass of Mercedes E-Class in years 1985 to 2016 © Daimler AG.
Figure 1.20 shows the relationship between vehicle mass and fuel consumption in
the formerly used driving cycle NEDC7 using the example of DIESEL vehicles. Data
show values for vehicles that were on the market in Germany in 2012. A propor-
tional increase in fuel consumption with the vehicle mass (0,5 l fuel per 100 kg ve-
hicle mass) is observed.
However, this relationship in combination with the development of vehicle
masses is not reflected in the development of average fuel consumption. On the
contrary, Figure 1.21 shows that despite increasing vehicle mass, the average fuel
consumption according to NEDC was reduced by about 20% between 1985 and 2012.
This can be substantially attributed to the optimization of the powertrain as well as
to measures, which are further discussed in Chapter 6. The important technical-
physical contexts are discussed there.
7 NEDC: New European Drive Cycle (see Chapter 6).

12
Fuel consumption / (l/100 km) 11

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Mass/kg
Figure 1.20: Development of fuel consumption in NEDC taking into account mass using the example
of DIESEL vehicles (Schramm 2012).
14
13 Segment
+
12
Fuel consumption / (l/100 km)
+ Luxury
11
+ +
+
10 + Upper +
+
9 + middle class
+ + +
+ Middle class
8
+ +
+
Compact + + +
7 + +
+ +
Subcompact
6 + +
4
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 1.21: Development of masses of passenger cars in Germany 1985 to 2012 (Schramm 2012).
2 Wheels and tires
An essential part of the development of modern vehicles is the complex coordination

and tuning of the chassis as well as the tires held by the chassis, which significantly
contribute to the required safe and comfortable handling of the vehicle. The tires act as
a link between the vehicle and the road and take on the wheel loads in the vertical
direction. At the same time, the tires transmit forces in the longitudinal and lateral di-
rections that inevitably result from braking, accelerating, and cornering (Mitschke and
Wallentowitz 2014), (Schramm et al. 2018). The development of the chassis compo-
nents aims mainly to achieve the optimal usage of the tires’ potential. For this purpose,
for example, the kinematic of the chassis is designed to assure that in diverse driving
situations the tires are always oriented in a way enabling them to transmit the largest
possible forces and ensure vehicle stability (see Chapter 3). Today, however, semiactive
and active suspension components, such as devices for roll stabilization or steerable
rear axles, are used to positively influence the wheel contact force, the wheel position-
ing and thus the vehicle lateral balance. Concerning the implementation and the oper-
ation of the tire, compromises must nevertheless be made. Desirable are properties
such as high wet grip, low rolling resistance, a long service life, and a good comfort
behavior of the tires. In this chapter, in addition to comments on the general
manufacturing process of the tires, the structure of the tire, the basic mechanisms,
and dependencies of the power transmission through the tire are described. Finally,
Section 2.4 deals with direct and indirect tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS).
2.1 Tire structure
The most widely used tire in the automobile industry today is the tubeless radial
tire. The tire with radial carcass was patented in 1946 by the company Michelin and
was sold from 1949 onward under the name “X” (Michelin 2016). It combines a radi-
ally arranged carcass layer, which allows for good vertical deflection, with a belt
ply above the carcass ply giving the tire its stability and designation.
2.1.1 Structure of the radial tire
Figure 2.1 shows a sectional view of a radial tire. The tire consists of two bead rings
(6), which are connected to each other via the carcass layers (10) radially. This con-
struction forms the load-bearing substructure and is hermetically sealed on the in-
side by an inner liner (9).
The tire carcass (10) forms the supporting frame of the tire and is arranged radi-
ally. It consists of layers of cord, rayon, polyamide fibers, and steel, each separated
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-002
26 2 Wheels and tires
1 3 2
12
11 4
10
9
5
9
14 8
7
8
7 13
6
1 Tread 6 Bead ring 11 Belt layers

2 Tread block 7 Apex strip 12 Under tread
3 Tread groove 8 Chafer 13 Rim star
4 Tire shoulder 9 Inner liner 14 Rim flange
5 Sidewall 10 Carcass layers
Figure 2.1: Components and zones of a passenger car radial tire, cross section through a wheel.
by rubber layers. Each carcass layer extends from one tire bead to the other and
transmits, via internal pressure, which tensions the carcass, the forces arising be-
tween the tire and the road surface onto the rim. The sidewall influences the lateral
stiffness of the tire and thus effects the overall stiffness of the vehicle axle, the verti-
cal drive comfort, and the rolling resistance significantly.
Above the carcass are the belt layers (11) that give the tire its necessary rigidity
and stiffness at high speed. The tread (1), consisting of different rubber compounds,
is in touch with the road and, apart from the material properties, is significantly
characterized by the tread pattern. The tire tread pattern consists of the tread blocks
(2) and the tread grooves (3). Laterally, the carcass is protected from damage and
weather by the sidewall (5) (Nüssle 2002)
Hereafter, the individual components and zones of the tire and their function
are described in more detail.
The tread (1) contains the tire profile (tread blocks (2), tread grooves (3), and lamel-
las). It varies depending on the application area of the tire (e.g., summer, winter, all-
season, or racing tires). The tread consists of different rubber compounds (Sperling
2005), which should give the tire a high grip in dry conditions and a good grip in wet
conditions. In addition, a smooth running, a low rolling resistance, and a low noise
level must be ensured while being in use. The tire tread pattern must allow the drain-
age of water in wet conditions, so that the contact to the road of the tire is maintained
even at higher speeds and a floating of the tire on the water film is avoided. Given a
certain degree of road wetness and driving speed, the tire is eventually going to start
floating anyway, which gives rise to aquaplaning. The tread should maintain the
mentioned properties as constant as possible even under different operating conditions

(e.g., varying temperatures, different road properties, and aging).
The tire shoulder (4) is located in the area between the outer tire tread and the
edge of the side wall (5). The shoulder area of the tire plays a crucial role for the
necessary dissipation of heat.
The sidewall (5) is the area between the tire shoulder (4) and tire bead containing
the bead core (6) and the bead filling (apex strip) (7). It consists of a thin rubber layer
intended to protect the lateral carcass layers from chafing at the edge of the roadway
and to avoid the intrusion of foreign matter. Likewise, the sidewall protects the tire
from UV radiation and chemicals such as gasoline and oil. On the sidewall, the tire
label (e.g., tire size, tire design, load capacity, speed index, fabrication, and location
date) is applied in the vulcanization process using the baking mold.
The tire bead makes use of the bead core (6) for clamping the tire carcass on the
rim flange (14) air tightly. The tire bead consists, among other things, of the core of the
bead, the bead filling (7), and the chafer (8). The bead filling (7) and the chafer stiffen
the tire bead and thus influence the lateral stiffness of the tire. The bead core prevents
undesired movement of the tire in relation to the rim and secures the tire even under
high lateral forces on the rim. For the tire assembling and disassembling, the bead core
must be very resistant and strong, but it also has to allow sufficient elasticity and be as
light as possible. The bead core consists of a rubber-coated, ring-shaped steel cable.
The steel cable can consist of several twisted steel wires. The strength of the bead core
is designed to match the inflation pressure, tire size, and rotational speed.
The belt layers (11) are located under the tread and above the tire carcass (10).
They stabilize the tread and provide the necessary resistance to a possible impact,
which protects the tire from damage when driving over edges and blow bars. The
forces that arise while braking, accelerating, and cornering are transmitted to the car-
cass via the belt layers. Furthermore, the belt layers have to ensure an even distribution
of ground pressure in the footprint. In addition, the belt ply absorbs high lateral forces
at high speeds, thus ensuring the integrity of the tire. The tire belt width and the angle
(between 18° and 28°) under which the steel or cord threads are arranged largely deter-
mine the tire’s stiffness and thus to a large extent the driving behavior of a vehicle.
The tire innerliner (9) is an air- and waterproof membrane that seals the tire on
the rim flange (Heisler 2002).
2.1.2 Avoidance of punctures and tires with emergency running properties
If a tire is damaged, for example, by nails or broken pieces, it either loses air sud-
denly or slowly over a longer duration of time. The tire sidewall is compressed by the
lack of internal pressure between road surface and rim. The resulting flexing work
heats up the tire strongly while driving. Already after a very short distance this leads
to a tearing of the side wall and thus to the complete destruction of the tire.
Today, many newly registered vehicles do not employ a spare wheel anymore,
in order to save payload space and reduce the overall mass of the vehicle. If a pres-
sure loss is detected in time, for example, by direct measurement (by means of sen-
sor) or indirect measurement (calculation from the wheel speeds; see Section 2.4),
the tire may be sealed by a tire sealant. A compressor pumps the sealant into the
tire via the filling valve that temporarily seals the damage.
Furthermore, radial tires with emergency running properties known as run-flat
tires are available on the market. An additional reinforcement of the side wall by rub-
ber (Figure 2.2) ensures that the vertical force can be carried even in the absence of
internal pressure. Through this emergency-running property of the tires, a safe drive
over a certain distance to the next car workshop (at reduced speed) is enabled. For the
strengthening a special rubber compound is used, which has a lower heat sensitivity.
The disadvantages of the run-flat tire compared to the conventional radial tire are:
worse comfort behavior, increased rolling resistance, and a slightly higher weight.
Reinforcement elements
Figure 2.2: Transverse section through a run-flat tire.
There are also radial tires, which are self-sealing, thanks to an additional sealing
layer on the innerliner.
2.1.3 Comments on the manufacturing process of a tire
The production of a tire is a complex process, since the tire consists of a mixture
of different materials, is built up in several layers, and must undergo a thermal
manufacturing process. This is colloquially referred to as “black magic” because
it is extremely difficult to accurately predict how the tire must be designed to en-
sure fulfilling the requirements of a particular application at the end of a step in
the development. To tune a tire so that it meets the required driving dynamics of
car manufacturers, such as grip (maximum friction coefficient), vehicle balance,
rolling resistance, and its behavior on a wet road, and also features such as
stiffness, abrasion, and durability (see Section 2.2.7), many iterative steps are usu-
ally necessary in the development process.
The tire consists mostly of natural and synthetic rubber supplemented by ad-
ditives. Among those are silicates, soot, chemical additives such as accelerators,
retarders, activators, and mixing aids as well as sulfur. For the tire compound,
every tire manufacturer has developed its own secret mixture. The individual tire
components, such as treads, sidewalls, and other structural elements, are partly
embedded in this mixture. The tire is then wound from the tailored components
and strengthening layers of steel and synthetic fibers. The supporting layers give
the tire its strength and resistance, influencing the transmission of the longitudi-
nal and lateral forces, the vertical comfort, and thus the driving behavior of the
vehicle as a whole. The tire is then “baked” under high pressure and at temper-
atures of 160 to 200 °C in a solid mold for 9 to 17 minutes (goodyear 2016). This
baking process is called vulcanization. The vulcanization creates sulfur bridges,
which connect the entire tire and link the components of the tire inseparably.
During this process, elastic rubber is created from the plastic rubber mixture. This
baking process as well as the mixture and construction of the tire have a great
influence on the desired properties.
After vulcanization, the tire quality is assessed. Thereby nondestructive testing
processes, for example, X-ray analysis and holography procedures, are performed.
During production, tires are tested randomly on outer-drum test stands for their
high-speed and structural properties.
2.1.4 Tire labeling
The dimensions and other properties of a tire are usually obtained directly from
the label of the tire sidewall. For example, in Figure 2.3 this caption reads 255/35 R
19 94 W.
Figure 2.3: Tire labeling.

Using the information from Table 2.1 the construction radius can be calculated:
1 mm
r0 = bR qR + D · 25.4 . (2:1)
2 inch
In this case the radius is r0 = 330.55 mm.
Table 2.1: Tire labeling.
Example Value Description
255 bR = 255 Tire width in mm
 qR = 0.35 Height to width relation H=B in %
R – Radial tire
 D = 19 Rim diameter in incha
 – Classification number for tire tonnage, see Michelin ()
– Speed index, here “Y-” tire approved for max speed  km/h
V
(other indices: S:  km/h, H:  km/h, W:  km/h)
 – calendar week , year 

a
inch equals 25.4 mm.
2.2 Basic tire characteristics
The tire characteristics, such as longitudinal and transverse stiffness, maximum grip,
slippage at maximum power transmission, intake and comfort behavior change with
inflation pressure, tire temperature, tread depth, and age of the tire. To assess the
influences on the tires’ behavior and thus on the overall vehicle behavior, the mecha-
nisms for transmitting power from the tire to the roadway are described in the follow-
ing sections. In relation to this, the friction theory for rubber, presented by Kummer
and Meyer (1967), is considered. This differs fundamentally from the classical theory
of friction and is therefore discussed in more detail below. From this it is derived how
the tire’s force transmission takes place and which parameters are influenced by the
tire inflation pressure and temperature.
2.2.1 Viscoelastic behavior
Tires mostly consist of raw rubber, which is made through the vulcanization of
caoutchouc. The viscoelastic behavior of rubber is comparable to a spring in paral-
lel connection (corresponds to the elasticity) and a damper (corresponds to the vis-
cosity). When rubber is deformed, it returns to its original form due to its spring
component after removal of the impacting force. This requires a certain amount of
time due to the damping component. This phenomenon is also called hysteresis and
is associated with the creation of energy in the form of heat due to the damping
friction (Michelin 2005, Trzesniowski 2014).
Rubber changes its properties based on its temperature and load frequency
(Figure 2.4; “analogy between temperature and period/load frequency”). At low
temperatures or high load frequencies, rubber is in a “glassy” state. The stiffness
is high in this state, so that it is hard to deform the material. At higher tempera-
tures or low frequencies, rubber behaves elastically. The stiffness is then low, and
the material behaves flexibly. Around the glass transition temperature, rubber
reaches its maximum viscosity (Michelin 2005).
E-module
energy dissipation Main working area of tread rubber
Area of hysteresis
Glass maximum Rubber behavior
behavior
E-module
Hysteresis
Glass transition- Temperature/period

temperature (Tg) length
Figure 2.4: Dependence of the rubber properties, modulus and hysteresis on temperature and load
frequency or period length (Michelin 2005).
The occurring load frequency depends among others on the rolling speed of the tire.
As already mentioned, this influence behaves in exactly the opposite way as tempera-
ture influence (Figure 2.4 right). At low load frequencies, the material thus behaves
elastically; at high load frequencies, however, glass behavior occurs. In a different fre-
quency range depending on the rubber compound, the rubber behaves viscoelastic
(Michelin 2005).
The relationship between load frequency and glass transition temperature can be
explained by the temperature-dependent molecular velocity and the load frequency-
dependent strain rate. If the rate of deformation is greater than the rate at which the
molecules move, the material will show glass-like behavior. On the other hand, if the
rate of deformation is below the molecular velocity, the material behaves like rubber.
This equivalence of load frequency and temperature is described by the WLF law
(Williams–Landel–Ferry equation) (Williams et al.). For example, in the low fre-
quency range (10–100,000 Hz), a frequency increase by a factor of 10 has the same
effect as a temperature decrease of 7 to 8 °C (Michelin 2005).
2.2.2 Rubber friction
The classic friction laws, according to which the frictional force is only proportional
to the normal force and independent of the size of the contact area and the relative
sliding velocity (FR = μFN ) (Schramm 1986), no longer apply for rubber. In contrast
to classical friction, the friction coefficient μ of the rubber friction is not constant,
but depends on dynamic processes as well as on other parameters (Kummer and
Meyer 1967). Due to the viscoelastic properties of the rubber occurring hysteresis
acts through two main mechanisms: adhesion friction (also called molecular adhe-
sion) and hysteresis friction (also called interlocking effect) (Michelin 2005). The co-
hesive and the viscous friction play a minor role in this process.
Adhesive friction provides the majority of frictional force on smooth, dry, and
even surfaces (Bachmann 1999). It arises from the fact that external atoms of the
chain molecules of the rubber form a connection while in direct contact with the
road surface. The relative velocities between rubber and road stretch certain chain
molecules and tear apart other already existing links. After the dissolution of the
compound, the molecular chains return to their initial form. The process of periodic
tensioning and relaxation converts kinetic energy into heat energy and, as shown
on the right in Figure 2.5, gives rise to a frictional force opposite to the direction of
movement (Haken 1993).
V V
Rubber
Road surface
FH FA
Figure 2.5: Mechanisms of hysteresis (left) and adhesion rubber friction (right) according to
Heißing and Ersoy (2011).
Since these compounds form only in direct contact of the rubber with the friction
element, the adhesion FA is directly dependent on the contact surface. It maximizes
with increasing size of the footprint and increasing smoothness of the surface. In
addition, the material properties of the friction element as well as the temperature
and the relative sliding velocity of the rubber on the contact area influence the ad-
hesion (Bachmann 1999). The adhesion builds up in steps of hundredths of a mi-
cron and starts at 0.0001 km=h relative speed between the tire and the road surface,
reaching its maximum at about 0.1 km=h (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
The hysteresis portion FH of the frictional force is caused by the deformation of the
rubber element during friction. The hysteresis friction takes place in the centimeter to
micrometer range. It is effective in the frequency range of 102 and 106 Hz (Michelin
2005). In the contact area, an asymmetry of pressure arises due to damping losses of
the rubber element that acts opposite to the driving direction (Figure 2.5, left). In con-
trast to adhesion, hysteresis reaches its maximum only at very high relative sliding ve-
locities. The magnitude of the hysteresis is furthermore dependent on the composition
of the rubber, the surface structure, but relatively independent of a thin medium
(Bachmann 1999). If the road is humid, the importance of the hysteresis friction there-
fore increases proportionally, since almost no adhesion forces can arise between the
rubber and the road. However, if the water level on the road and the driving speed
rise, the tire can begin to float (aquaplaning). In this case, the power transmission be-
tween road and tire breaks down almost completely.
The force components FH from the hysteresis and FA from the adhesive effects
account for the majority of the total frictional force that results from rubber friction
FR = FH + FA . (2:2)
The proportion of the total transmittable force FR depends on the pressure between
rubber and road as well as the relative sliding velocity. The lower and more uniform
the local pressure, the higher is the friction coefficient (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
The superimposition of the components causes a velocity-dependent friction coeffi-
cient (Nüssle 2002), which leads to a speed dependence of the resulting forces.
These are shown in Figure 2.6 as a function of the relative sliding velocity (vslide ).
The energy that must be expended to form new surfaces, due to abrasion and
crackling gives rise to the cohesive portion of the frictional force. However, in most
cases this proportion is negligible (Nüssle 2002).
A viscous component of the friction is created due to the deformation or shear-
ing of a liquid intermediary medium that is trapped between rubber and road, such
as water or mud (Bachmann 1999).
The effects described distinguish rubber friction fundamentally from classic
friction. They are illustrated in Figure 2.7 in schematic diagrams.
With increasing surface pressure pN between rubber and surface, the effective fric-
tion coefficient μ decreases. On the contrary, as the contact surface AR increases, the
friction coefficient increases. The friction coefficient depends on the temperature as
Force
= +
0
0 Relative sliding velocity
Figure 2.6: Qualitative relationship between force and relative sliding velocity according to
Trzesniowski (2014).
Classical friction : Normal pressure
Rubber friction : Friction area

: Relative sliding velocity
Figure 2.7: Comparison between classical friction and friction caused by rubber (schematic
representation).
well as on the relative sliding velocity. The relative sliding velocity corresponds to
the relative speed between the rubber of the tire and the road surface. In classic fric-
tion, a constant friction coefficient would establish itself after overcoming the static
friction. In the case of rubber friction, on the other hand, the friction coefficient μ in-
creases with increasing relative sliding velocity up to a maximum value μmax and
then decreases rapidly after exceeding this maximum value. The friction coefficient
then takes a constant final value, the so-called sliding friction coefficient.
Since rubber changes its properties as described in Section 2.2.1 based on tem-
perature and load frequency, adhesive and hysteresis friction are also temperature
dependent. The rubber compound of the tire can be used to set the glass transition
temperature at a specific load frequency. The load frequency is adapted to the op-
erating points of the tire in order to achieve sufficient energy reduction that
causes greater adhesion (Michelin 2005). Therefore, the rubber compound of a
winter tire usually has a lower glass transition temperature compared to a summer
tire. Thus, given the same temperature, a winter tire is “softer” than a summer tire
(Michelin 2005).
2.2.3 Rolling resistance
Figure 2.8 shows a tire rolling on an even road surface. For simplification, the tire
tread pattern (also referred to as tire contact patch) is assumed to be a rectangular
area in this case. As the tire rolls off, rolling resistance is created, which can be ex-
pressed as a force opposing the direction of movement (Michelin 2005).
Contact patch exit (A)

Contact patch
Contact patch entry (E) Normal pressure characteristic
Figure 2.8: Development of the tire’s rolling resistance due to normal pressure shift in the tire
contact patch.
The main reasons for the rolling resistance are the viscoelastic properties of the rub-
ber compound, which are represented in Figure 2.8 by spring-damper elements.
When entering the contact area (tire contact patch relaxation area), the tire is de-
formed. As a result, energy is dissipated in the form of heat, which warms up the tire.
This energy dissipation causes 80 to 95% of the rolling resistance; the remaining re-
sistance is created due to the wheel’s microslip and air resistance. The values from
simulations in Figure 2.9 show that the energy loss due to the warming of the tire
with 65–70% for the most part takes place in the tire apex, that is, in the tread. The
remaining part is distributed with 15% on the side wall and 15–20% on the bead zone
(Baumgärtner 2010).
Tire apex/tread ca. 65–70%
Side walls ca. 15%
Figure 2.9: Distribution of energy

Bead zones 15–20 dissipation on the tire.
The concrete deformation of the tread depends significantly on the tire pressure
(Figure 2.13), the wheel load, and the stiffness of the rubber compound. Accordingly,
decreasing the tire pressure or increasing the wheel load leads to a larger deforma-
tion and thus to more rolling resistance. Furthermore, there are tire vibrations that
occur when driving with higher speed. Those lead to large deformations and accord-
ingly to an increase in rolling resistance. Additionally, increasing macroroughness1
of the road surface leads to an increase of the tread’s deformation. A higher tempera-
ture of the tire, for example, caused by a higher ambient temperature or long dura-
tion of travel, leads to a lower stiffness of the tire and thus to a reduction in rolling
resistance (Michelin 2005). By adjusting the rubber compound, the load frequency-
dependent hysteresis can be adjusted so that the rolling resistance is minimized at a
certain driving speed.
2.2.4 Transmission of vertical forces
In addition to longitudinal and lateral forces, the tire must also transmit vertical forces
to the road that are generated by the weight of the loaded vehicle. The vertical force is
determined almost solely by the effect of the filling pressure (Figure 2.10). The filling
pressure exerts its effect on the carcass belt from the entire inside of the tire. However,
the tire carcass can transmit thrust only to a very limited extent. Instead, the upper
1 Surface roughness of road surface between 0.5 and 50 mm.

Figure 2.10: Transmission of vertical forces (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017).
carcass threads, driven by the filling pressure, pull on the bead core and support the
rim flange and thus the vertical load (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017). If the tire is loaded, it
deforms in the lower area and creates a contact surface between the tire and the road,
the so-called tire contact patch (Mitschke and Wallentowitz 2014). In the tire contact
area filling and ground pressure must compensate. On the other hand, a higher filling
pressure causes increased ground pressure caused by the reduction of the wheel–road
contact patch (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017). Due to the filling air pressure-dependent size of
the tire contact patch and the distribution of the bearing load, the transmission of the
longitudinal and lateral forces is influenced and thus the general driving behavior of
the vehicle. The performance of the tire decreases due to an incorrect filling pressure
(see Section 2.2.5).
As an elastic element the tire deforms depending on the magnitude of the ver-
tically acting force. The elastic properties of the tire can be approximately ex-
plained comparing them to the way a spring acts (Heißing and Ersoy 2011). The
tire spring stiffness is influenced by the structure and materials of the tire, the
rolling speed, and above all by the inflation pressure of the tire. The spring’s stiff-
ness is defined as the quotient of wheel load and tire deflection. Within the wheel
load range in which a tire is stressed under usual circumstances, the deflection is
therefore linearly proportional to the wheel load and the quotient represented by
a constant (Reimpell and Sponagel 1988). Figure 2.11 shows the deformation as
a function of the acting force (wheel load). An increasing wheel load leads to a
greater deformation of the tire and, as a result, to a larger tire contact patch. A
comparable behavior can be observed given a constant wheel load and decreasing
filling pressure.
1 < 2 < 3
or
1 > 2 > 3
1 2 3
Figure 2.11: Deformation of the tire by the wheel load (Jazar 2008).
The combination of the tire’s suspension characteristics and the unsprung masses
of the vehicle creates an oscillation system. The size of the resonance frequency de-
pends on the stiffness of the tire and thus directly on the tire’s inflation pressure.
The suspension characteristic of the tire greatly influences the vehicle’s handling.
Only due to that the double suspension of the vehicle by body springs and the tire is
assured. The double “spring-damper system” allows comfortable and safe driving even
at high speeds. Especially in racing cars, which are very hardly damped and suspended
to minimize the wheel load fluctuations, the tire makes out a considerable part of the
vehicle’s overall suspension (Milliken and Milliken 1995). The damping of the tire, how-
ever, compared to the damping of the chassis, is usually of minor importance.
2.2.5 Influence of tire inflation pressure on tire properties
The tire inflation pressure affects different properties of the tire. Gießler (2012) investi-
gated the influence of tire inflation pressure on the formation of the tire contact patch.
This produced, among other things, the measurements shown in Figure 2.12. They
show the distribution of pressure in the tire contact patch. It can be clearly seen that at
lower inflation pressure, the area of the tire contact patch is larger. Accordingly, there
is a lower surface pressure in the tire contact patch because a larger area is supporting
the same wheel load. According to the theories of force transmission presented in
Section 2.2.1, a larger tire contact patch combined with lower surface pressure leads to
an increase of the maximum friction coefficient.
However, Milliken and Milliken (1995) described that too low or too high tire
pressure leads to an uneven loading of the tire contact patch. In the case of too
low pressure, the outer areas are under significantly higher surface pressures
(Figure 2.13), while the middle of the tread loaded only lightly. If the pressure is too
high, this effect will be reversed qualitatively. All in all, these inhomogeneous pres-
sure distributions in the tire contact patch lead to a decline of the maximum
Distribution of normal pressure at filling pressure
9 bar
8
7
6
5
4
3
2.3 bar 2.36 bar 3.69 bar
2
1
1.4 bar 2.2 bar 3.0 bar
Figure 2.12: Pressure distribution in the tire contact patch depending on the filling pressure
(Gießler 2012).
correct to high to low
Figure 2.13: Influence of tire filling pressure (Trzesniowski 2014).
transmittable force. Therefore, for reasons of security, the required minimum value of
the pressure in the tire should always be maintained. Furthermore, too low filling
pressure holds the risk of making the tire jump off the rim during fast cornering.
In 1995, the Vehicle Research Association (FAT) commissioned a study to de-
termine μ-slip curves of car tires (Gnadler et al. 1995). Gießler (2012) and Milliken
and Milliken (1995) confirmed that increasing filling pressure lowers the maxi-
mum friction coefficient (Figure 2.14). In addition, the friction coefficient maxi-
mum, as shown in Figure 2.14, is only reached at higher slip values (see Section 2.2.4).
Therefore, a low pressure in the tire not only increases the maximum value, but
also its longitudinal slip stiffness. The longitudinal slip stiffness corresponds to
the initial slope of the μ-slip curve (see Section 2.2.4). One explanation for the
increasing rigidity is that the decreasing pressure leads to a higher proportion of
rubber elements in the contact area that get into contact with the road surface.
This acts like a parallel connection of several spring elements, whereby the re-
sulting stiffness increases accordingly.
1.4
1.2
1,0 pF
Friction coefficient
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Braking slip/%
Figure 2.14: Influence of filling pressure on longitudinal friction coefficient according to Gnadler
et al. (1995).
The dependence of the radial and the vertical stiffness from filling pressure
can, as described earlier, be regarded as linear. Figure 2.15 shows the behavior as
an example for different tire variables. Increasing pressure thus increases the radial
450
400 245/50 ZR18

275/40 ZR18
Radial stiffness/(N/mm)
350
255/45 ZR18
300 285/40 ZR19
250
200
150
1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8
Tie pressure/bar
Figure 2.15: Radial stiffness of different tires according to Harrer and Pfeffer (2017).
stiffness and deteriorates the drive comfort. However, it also reduces the rolling re-
sistance and thereby the fuel consumption of the vehicle.
The tire cornering stiffness described in Section 2.3.3 is also affected by inflation
pressure. The principal change due to different filling pressures is shown in
Figure 2.16 (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017). At low and medium wheel loads, the cornering
stiffness increases with decreasing inflation pressure.
3,500
3,000
High pressure
Cornering stiffness/(N/°)
Low pressure
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
0 2 4 6 8
Wheel load/kN
Figure 2.16: Influence of the filling pressure on the cornering stiffness according to (Harrer and
Pfeffer 2017).
However, if a certain threshold of the wheel load is exceeded, the behavior reverses.
From this value, the increased inflation pressure assists the lateral tire stiffness and
minimizes the tire’s transverse deformation, which may occur during cornering
(Figure 2.17). Therefore, the tire with higher inflation pressure has the greater cor-
nering stiffness (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017). However, the point of intersection de-
pends strongly on the tire’s design. The structure, the width, the flank height, and
also the processed materials of the tire have a major influence on the shape of the
curve. Reliable statements about the shape of the curve and the point of intersec-
tion can therefore only be made for a specific tire.
Curve outside
Figure 2.17: Deformation of the tire when cornering.

2.2.6 Influence of temperature on tire properties
The tire’s temperature influences the tire’s properties such as the maximum friction
value (grip) and the stiffness due to the temperature dependent change in charac-
teristics of the rubber compound.
Angrick et al. (2014) and Gutjahr et al. (2011) investigated the influence of
tire temperature on various tire properties by means of test-bench measurements
(Figure 2.18). In Angrick et al. (2014) a significant reduction of the cornering
stiffness of three to four percent with each increase of 10 °C was reported.
However, the lateral relaxation length showed no reproducible correlation to the
temperature. The cause of this observation becomes clear when considering the
relationship for the relaxation length (see Section 2.3.8) in lateral direction σα :
cα
σα = . (2:3)
cy
Max friction coefficient
Cornering stiffness
Relaxation length
Temperature Temperature Temperature
Figure 2.18: Qualitative dependence of essential tire properties on temperature according to

Angrick et al. (2014).
Assuming that the cornering stiffness cα and the lateral stiffness cy change equally
with varying tire temperature, it can be expected that the relaxation length is approx-
imately constant with respect to temperature. The maximum friction coefficient in lat-
eral direction was observed to initially increase with rising temperature (Angrick
et al. 2014). At a surface temperature of about 70 °C the friction coefficient reached its
maximum and dropped again as the temperature continued to rise. The friction coef-
ficient ranged from 0.6 at 20 °C to 1.5 at 70 °C in these measurements. The qualitative
dependency of the maximum friction coefficient, the cornering stiffness, and the re-
laxation length can be summarized as shown in Figure 2.18. The qualitative course of
the maximum friction coefficient and the cornering stiffness toward temperature thus
are in accordance with the theory of temperature dependency of the module and the
hysteresis of rubber (Figure 2.4). It should be noted that the tire’s temperature is a
crucial factor concerning the tire properties which determine the driving dynamics.
How much the tire properties change in the face of temperature alterations depends
strongly on the specific tire.
When evaluating the results of test bench measurements, it must be regarded
that these tendencies do not necessarily occur on the real vehicle, since changes
in temperature and filling pressure cannot be separated while driving. An increase
of the tire’s temperature always leads (with a certain temporal delay) to an in-
crease of the air temperature within the tire. Given the correct assumption of an
isochoric transformation, the thermic equation of state for ideal gases yields the
relationship:
p2 T2
= . (2:4)
p1 T1
The relative change in filling air temperature (in Kelvin) and the filling pressure is
therefore always the same. As a rule of thumb, a pressure increase of 0.1 bar can be
assumed to lead to a temperature increase of 10 Kelvin. This in turn leads to an in-
crease in the vertical stiffness of the tire.
2.2.7 Conflicting goals of tire development
In addition to the texture of the road surface and the characteristics of the vehicle
itself, the tire has a considerable influence on all aspects of driving behavior. This
includes comfort, handling, and driving safety as well as economic and environ-
mental aspects. The goal of the development of tires is therefore to produce a tire
that performs best considering all aspects. This results in a conflict between goals
that emerge from the contradictory requirements that each individual area has on
the tire. Depending on the way in which the tire is used, the priorities are weighted
differently.
Figure 2.19 lists some of these requirements. For example, in a sports tire, as-
pects such as dry braking and handling are weighted higher than comfort and roll-
ing noise. However, in a rolling resistance-optimized tire the driving behavior is
less important than the rolling resistance.
Therefore, conflicting requirements arise, concerning the filling pressure, which
can only be met by making compromises. For example, the vehicle’s load and
maximum speed require a certain minimum pressure to ensure safe operation of
the tire (EU 2014). However, the vertical stiffness increases with increasing tire
pressure. This, in turn, reduces the comfort for the vehicle occupants because the
road influences can be compensated less by the tire. If one aims to reduce rolling
resistance, a high tire pressure is additionally important to minimize the deforma-
tion of the tire. Higher tire pressures, on the other hand, reduce the size of the tire
contact patch, which results in a lower friction coefficient and thus lower maxi-
mum power transmission.
Rolling friction
3
Abrasion 2.5 Durability
2
1.5
1
Comfort 0.5 Wet braking
0
Rolling noise Aquaplaning
Driving Behavior Dry braking
Figure 2.19: Examples of a tire’s requirements.
2.3 Mathematical description of tire forces
For the mathematical description of tire force transmission different modeling ap-
proaches exist, which can be assigned to the categories of mathematical models,
physical models, and mixed forms.
The goal of this section is to present tire characteristics that describe the phys-
ics of the tire mathematically. Based on this a tire model is described that calculates
the static tire force depending on kinematic variables. Finally, the calculation of the
tire’s dynamic force is explained. For more detailed considerations of different tire
modeling refer to Zomotor (1987), Burckhardt (1993), Gipser (2010), Pacejka (2006),
and Mitschke and Wallentowitz (2014).
2.3.1 Classification of tire forces
When modeling a vehicle, the forces’ impact between road and tire can be in-
ferred from the contact forces and torques. These are applied forces and torques
that can be determined (as opposed to reaction forces) as functions of position
and velocity variables. The contact force in the tire contact patch can be broken
down into three components of the wheel-fixed coordinate system KR (Figure 2.20
and Table 2.2).
The forces are represented in the coordinates of the wheel-fixed coordinate sys-
tem, whereby the internal rotation of the wheel is disregarded. The vertical force
acts one-sided, since only compressive forces can be transmitted between tire and
road. The tire forces, which arise parallel to the tire contact patch, are calculated
from slip and slip angle taking into account the vertical force in appropriate force
OR = M
Contact patch ,
Figure 2.20: Contact forces in the tire contact patch and kinematic quantities of tire and wheel-fixed
coordinate system KR = {OR; xR, yR, zR}.
Table 2.2: Forces and kinematic variables of tires (see also Figure 2.20).
Notation Description
FRx Longitudinal/circumferential force along the x-axis of KR
FRy Lateral force along the y-axis of KR
FRz Vertical/Ground force along the z-axis of KR
MA, B Drive and brake torque around the y-axis of KR
vR Velocity vector of the wheel center
vR x = vR cos α Velocity of the wheel center in the direction of the x-axis of KR
vR y = vR sin α Speed of the wheel center in the direction of the y-axis of KR
α Slip angle of the tire
laws. These depend on the material combination of tire and road surface, as well as
on the rubber compound and the geometrical dimensions of the tire.
2.3.2 Tires under the influence of vertical forces
The stiffness of the tire in the vertical direction can be considered as largely inde-
pendent from movements in the longitudinal and transverse directions. The vertical
elasticity of the tire allows compression that compensates for, for example, minor
road disturbances. The complex mechanical properties of the tire structure and the
change in the size of the tire contact patch cause a nonlinear shape of the tire’s
spring characteristic curve. By taking solely static loads into account we yield a nonlin-
ear force law of the form
FRz = FRz ðΔzR Þ (2:5)
(Figure 2.21). The nonlinear characteristic curve can be linearized using the static
point of balance ðz0 , Fz0 Þ as a reference point, which yields the relationship
FRz = FRz0 + cR ΔzR , (2:6)
with the spring constant cR and the equilibrium force FRz0 . The tire damping is usu-
ally negligible and therefore omitted.
)
Rz0
z
FR
Normalized vertical force/( F
1
Linear approximation
0 1 2
z
Normalized compression travel ( zR )
0
Figure 2.21: Vertical force characteristic of a tire (schematic diagram).
2.3.3 Tires under the influence of longitudinal and lateral forces
The transmission of circumferential and lateral forces in the tire contact patch area
is subject to adhesion friction (intermolecular bonding forces between tire rubber
and road surface) and hysteresis friction (tight fit due to interlocking effects be-
tween tire and road surface; see Section 2.2.2 and Gillespie (1992)). Both effects de-
pend on small, relative movements between tire and road, which are distributed
differently among the wheel contact surface.
The formation of circumferential and lateral forces can be described by shear
deformations of the tire contact patch, in combination with the friction between the
tire contact patch and road surface. This requires a macroscopic description of the
shearing mechanisms, which can be easily incorporated into a Multibody formalism.
Descriptions such as longitudinal slip (circumferential slip) s and side slip angle α,
which arise due to relative movements in the tire contact patch, can be used.
2.3.3.1 Longitudinal slip

The longitudinal slip is a kinematic variable that describes the relative movement be-
tween tire and road surface in the longitudinal direction of the wheel. The wheel can
take the state of motion driven, braked, and rolling without drive. For simplicity the
wheel is considered to be a rigid body. The slip introduced below is therefore also
referred to as rigid body slip. The contact surface of the tire degenerates from an area
to a line perpendicular to the direction of travel, when modeled as a rigid body.
Under the assumption of a rigid wheel, the tire moves with a combination of rolling
and sliding (Schramm, et al. 2018). By considering the dynamic tire radius rdyn a sub-
stitution model is obtained, which reflects the slip well.
For the radial tires, nowadays almost exclusively used, the fundamental behav-
ior of the tire can be described sufficiently well by the substitution model (brush
model) shown in Figure 2.22.
Wheel carrier
ρ̇R Inextensible
r0
steel belt
rdyn
ν Rx
M
rstat
νP
MP
Tread element L
x Patch length
E A
Inlet zone Outlet zone
Figure 2.22: Mechanical substitution model for the description of tire forces (Schramm, et al. 2018).
A basic assumption in this modeling is the bendable but almost not expanding
steel belt. The tread is represented by corresponding tread elements whose inner
ends are firmly connected to the steel belt and therefore move in line with it. In the
inlet zone E of the tire contact patch, the tread elements are decelerated within an
extremely short distance to a vertical speed of zero. In the outlet zone A, the tread
elements lift off the roadway again. The inner ends of the tread elements move to-
gether with the belt (due to the quasistatic view) with a constant speed vP . On the
other hand, they stick with their outer ends to the road. This results in a shearing of
the elements, which increases proportionally with the distance 0 < x < L from point
E because of vP = const, which leads to a resulting shear stress whose integration
over the tire tread pattern results in longitudinal force. Depending on the wheel
being in a state of acceleration or braking sliding between tire and road occurs
above a limit 0 < xstick < L.
Figure 2.23 shows a free-body diagram of a flat, longitudinally rolling wheel;
the variables are listed in Table 2.3. Kinematic wheel suspension variables such as
camber and toe angles are neglected.
, , ,
OR
Figure 2.23: Velocities, longitudinal forces, and

P torques of the tire in circumferential direction.
Table 2.3: Variables of the moving wheel.
Symbols Description
ρ_ R The wheel’s angle velocity around the y-axis of the wheel-fixed system KR
ΘRyy The wheel’s moment of inertia around the its y-axis
FRx The wheel’s longitudinal force along the x-axis of the wheel system KR
MA, B Drive and brake torque around the y-axis of the wheel system KR
vRx Velocity of the wheel’s center in the longitudinal direction
vP Velocity of the (virtual) wheel–road contact point P
rstat Static wheel radius

UR
rdyn = Dynamic (effective) wheel radius
2π
MP Instantaneous center of rotation
s Slip
sA , sB Drive slip, brake slip

EULER’s equation for the wheel results to
€R = MA, B − FRx rstat .

ΘRyy ρ (2:7)
The angular acceleration ρ €R depends on the driving and braking torque MA,B and
the tire’s longitudinal force FRx , which acts parallel to the roadway, as well as on
the rotational inertia ΘRyy . The dynamic tire radius rdyn required for the calculation
of the slip is determined by the rolling circumference UR of the wheel. For this pur-
pose, the wheel is towed without drive and braking forces at a defined vertical load
at the speed of 60km=h and the rolling circumference UR is measured during the
rotation of the wheel on the road.
To describe the forces acting upon the wheel, the concept of rigid body slip is
used (Figure 2.24). Given an ideal (slip-free) rolling movement of wheel, the velocity
vP of the wheel contact point disappears and the speed of the wheel center becomes
vRx = ρ_ R rdyn . Given an accelerated or braked wheel, a relative velocity within the tire
contact point arises that refers to the wheel velocity (the so-called slip).
M MP = M
MP
P P
M Driven wheel Spinning wheel
− = =1
= =
P ≡ MP
Free rolling wheel
M
=0
M M
P P
MP
Braked wheel Blocked wheel
− = =1
= =
Figure 2.24: Explanation of the rigid body slip.
To be able to distinguish between driving slip sA and brake slip sB , the amount of
relative speed vP in the wheel contact point P is related to the respectively larger
value of the two variables vRx and ρ_ R rdyn . The driven wheel thus results in the driv-
ing slip ðvRx < ρ_ R rdyn Þ as
vP ρ_ rdyn − vRx
sA = = R . (2:8)
ρ_ R rdyn ρ_ R rdyn
The brake slip ðvRx > ρ_ R rdyn Þ of the braked wheel can be described as
vP vR − ρ_ R rdyn
sB = = x . (2:9)
vRx v Rx
The combination of eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) yields for the general case
ρ_ R rdyn − vRx
sA,B = . (2:10)
max ρ_ R rdyn , jvRx j
The slip sA, B is thus defined for the interval ½ − 1, 1 = fsA,B 2 Rj − 1 ≤ sA,B ≤ 1g. In case
of a blocked wheel ðvR ≠ 0, ρ_ R = 0Þ, the slip is described as sA, B = − 1. For a spinning
wheel ðvR = 0, ρ_ R ≠ 0Þ, the slip results in sA,B = 1. The values of the longitudinal slip
are therefore (Figure 2.24):
– sA, B = 1 spinning wheel,
– 0 < sA, B < 1 driven wheel,
– sA, B = 0 rolling wheel,
– − 1 < sA, B < 0 braked wheel, and
– sA, B = − 1 blocked wheel.
The slip is often reported as a percentage, for example, sA = 20 % equals sA = 0.2.

The transmitted circumferential force FRx is generated by the tangential ten-
sions τx in the tire contact patch (Figure 2.25). However, the tangential tensions are
limited by the static friction coefficient between tire and road surface. Therefore,
given a normal pressure pN and the static friction coefficient μH the tangential ten-
sion cannot exceed a value of
τxmax = μH pN . (2:11)
If τx exceeds this maximum value, the tangential tension becomes limited to the value
τxmin = μG pN . (2:12)
Therefore, the transmittable circumferential force in the tire contact patch can be
described as
ðA
FRx = τx dx. (2:13)
E
Static friction limit
Sliding friction
E G A
Stiction Sliding
Figure 2.25: Qualitative behavior of the tangential tensions in the tire contact patch (shaded area:
tire longitudinal force).
The circumferential force FRx can now be represented as a function of the circumfer-
ential slip sA, B . The qualitative behavior of the circumferential force as a function of
longitudinal slip is shown in Figure 2.26. Depending on the type of tire and the road
surface, the maximum transmittable longitudinal force and the shape of the curve
change. The circumferential force initially increases linearly until it saturates and
reaches the maximum value FRx, max . In this area static friction conditions prevail
within the tire contact patch (see section EG in Figure 2.25), while in the remaining
part of the tire contact patch sliding already occurs (see section GA in Figure 2.25).
With increasing slip values, the point G increasingly moves toward inlet zone E,
until the entire tread pattern is sliding.
For small slip values, the circumferential force with the longitudinal slip stiff-
ness cs can be described well by a linear function (Figure 2.26):
FRx = cs sA, B . (2:14)
If the slip exceeds the value sA, Bmax (Figure 2.26), the longitudinal force is reduced
due to slippage in the tire contact patch surface. If the longitudinal slip continues
to increase, the transmittable longitudinal force takes the value of FRx, G , which usu-
ally is smaller than the force FRx, max . In this area the complete tire contact patch is
sliding. If the front wheels block, the vehicle no longer reacts to steering interven-
tions because the blocked tires can no longer maintain lateral forces.
2.3.3.2 Lateral slip

The lateral slip is determined by the slip angle α and is a kinematic variable that de-
scribes the relative movement between tire and road in the transverse or lateral direc-
tion of the wheel. If a vehicle is steered into a turn at high speed, the vehicle’s wheels
develop a speed component speed component transversely to the rolling direction,
FRx
Stiction (rolling wheel)
Sliding (blocked wheel)

FRx,max
FRx,G = μGFz,eff
CS
0% SA,B
max
100% SA,B
Figure 2.26: Qualitative longitudinal force curve as a function of longitudinal slip.
which has to be considered. The slip angle α arises between the direction of move-
ment of the wheel center and the longitudinal direction of the wheel (Figure 2.27).
The slip angle α is calculated as
vRy
α = arctan . (2:15)
vRx
Under normal driving circumstances, jαj < 12 (Heißing and Ersoy 2011); it is as-
sumed that the tire contact patch has similar deformation characteristics in the
longitudinal and lateral direction. Therefore, the principles used modeling lateral
force transmission apply modeling simultaneously to longitudinal force transmis-
sion. Figure 2.27 shows the way in which lateral force transmission acts; impor-
tant variables are listed in Table 2.4.
While rolling the lateral force FRy shifts the tire contact patch transversely to
the direction of travel due to its material properties. Since the wheel is rolling si-
multaneously, the slip angle α arises. The tread elements of the tire contact patch
initially stick to the road surface. While the tire contact patch runs through, the lat-
eral deformation of the tread pattern elements increases (Figure 2.27). At smaller
slip angles, the elements adhere to the road until they leave the tire contact patch.
The tangential tension in transverse direction of the tire increases linearly toward
the end of the contact patch (Schramm, et al. 2018). For small slip angles, the linear
law of force applies
FRy = cα α. (2:16)
xR
vR
α
Contact patch
MR z
yR F ′Ry
OR
nR
FR y
Figure 2.27: Tire in response to lateral force (Matschinsky 2007).
Table 2.4: Variables of the tire concerning lateral force (see also Figure 2.27).
Symbol Description
vR Velocity of the wheel center
α Slip angle (lateral slip)
cα Cornering stiffness (lateral stiffness)
FRy Tire lateral force parallel to the y-axis of the tire system KR
F ′Ry Reaction force
MRz Aligning torque around the z-axis of the tire system KR
nR Pneumatic trail due to slipping within the tire contact patch
τ Tangential tension within the tire contact patch
Due to the increasing tangential tension τ in the direction of the patch outlet, the
resulting lateral force no longer acts in the middle of the tread, but further behind,
at a distance nR (tire:caster). This generates an aligning torque
MRz = FRy nR (2:17)

around the zR -axis of the wheel-fixed coordinate system KR = fOR ; xR , yR , zR g. The

tire caster is calculated based on the resulting area balance point of the trapezoidal
distribution of tension (Figure 2.27).
With increasing transverse deformation, the tread elements in the rear region of
the tire contact patch begin to slide. This limits the transmittable lateral force and
reduces the tire caster and thus the aligning torque. Figure 2.28 shows the qualita-
tive lateral force curve as a function of the slip angle. The maximum transmittable
lateral force and the curve characteristics vary depending on the tire.
The lateral force initially increases linearly as the tread pattern elements enter
into the tire contact patch area (eq. (2.16) and Figure 2.28). Subsequently, the slip
angle further increases, thus increasing the deflections of the tread elements and
thereby the tangential tension. The closer to the edge of the tire contact patch the
more pronounced this effect becomes. During this process, tread elements increas-
ingly change from a state of adhering to the road to slipping. The lateral force no
longer increases linearly but gradually decreases based on the slip angle. With in-
creasing slip angle, the area in which sliding occurs extends to the front section of
the tire contact patch. If the entire tire contact patch slides in transverse direction,
the lateral force decreases again, similar to the longitudinal force.
FR y
FR y,max
cα
≈ 14˚ α
Figure 2.28: Qualitative lateral force curve as a function of the slip angle.
2.3.4 Impact of the tire’s normal forces
In the normal operating range (small wheel loads), there is an approximately lin-
ear dependency of the tire forces FRx and FRy in the tire contact patch area on the
current vertical force FRz . Given very high wheel loads, this dependence changes.
The wheel forces then increase disproportionately (degressively) in response to

the vertical force, since the friction compound of the tire rubber in the tire contact
patch area decreases with increasing contact pressure (see Section 2.2.2). The
maximum coefficient of friction decreases with increasing wheel load. This means
that an increasing vertical force of the tire does not proportionally increase the
upper limit of the lateral cornering force. Thereby, the lateral dynamics of the ve-
hicle can be influenced by changing the wheel loads (e.g., by active suspension
systems; see Chapter 7). In Figure 2.29 the cornering stiffness cα of a tire is de-
picted as a function of the vertical force.
cα
Nonlinear range
Cornering stiffness
Linear range
Vertical wheel force FR

z
Figure 2.29: Qualitative dependence of the cornering stiffness on the wheel vertical force.
The transition from the linear to the nonlinear range is here defined by exceeding a
defined constructional operating load FRz, B . The degressive force curve can, for in-
stance, be accounted for by implementing an effective wheel load
0 !2 1
F
FRz, eff = FRz @1 − eRz A,
Rz
(2:18)
FRz, B
which is used instead of the actual wheel load FRz to calculate the wheel horizontal
forces (Ammon 2013). The degression parameter eRz typically ranges in an interval
of eRz 2 ½ 0.05 . . . 0.09.
2.3.5 Influence of the camber on the lateral tire force
The camber angle γ contributes additionally to the occurring lateral force of the
tire. The emergence of this force can be explained using a wheel that produces a
camber angle γ in relation to the road vertical (Figure 2.30). Let the lateral force
caused by this camber angle be Fy ðγÞ. A wheel rolling freely given the camber angle
γ would, without its bindings to the wheel suspension, move in a circular path
along the imagined apex O. However, the suspension forces a movement in x direc-
tion. This can be explained by the lateral force Fy ðγÞ and the steering torque MRz ðγÞ.
For small camber angles γ < 5 , the camber lateral force and the steering torque,
which is caused by the camber, increase approximately linearly with the camber
angle. Therefore, the linear relationships
Fy ðγÞ = − cγ γ and (2:19)
MRz ðγÞ = − cM, γ γ (2:20)
are obtained (Schramm et al. 2018).
Suspension-enforced
direction of movement
γ Direction of movement
without suspension
r MR (γ)
z
O γ O
Fy (γ) Fy (γ)
r
MR (γ)
z
Figure 2.30: Development of the camber-induced lateral force of the tire (Schramm et al. 2018).
2.3.6 Mathematical tire models
Due to its importance for the dynamic behavior of a vehicle, the description of the
tire forces requires an extraordinary degree of attention. Basically, tire models can
be assigned to three basic categories:
– mathematical models,
– physical models, and
– mixed forms.
The rest of this book deals with mathematical models exclusively, since fundamen-
tal physical considerations have been covered in the previous sections.
A mathematical tire model frequently used in practice is the Magic Formula

tire model, which was developed at the TU Delft in the Netherlands (Pacejka and
Bakker 1993). It is based on a purely mathematical–empirical description of the
initial and final behavior of wheel–road contact under quasistationary conditions.
The model illustrates the relationship between kinematic tire variables and the
tire force by employing a combination of fundamental mathematical formulas.
Quasistatic measurements at test benches and with test drives using real tires are
used to determine the coefficients for the force transmission formula, thereby cap-
turing the major characteristics of the respective tire. These include, for example,
cornering force, longitudinal force, and aligning torque. The advantages of this
empirical tire model are among others:
– modeling of the behavior of (stationary) tire characteristics with high accuracy,
– the adaptation of the curve’s shape by changing only a few parameters (good
adjustability and availability of data via measurements and the identification
of parameters),
– numerical stability and short processing times due to a steady and easy imple-
mentation and evaluation of the functions, and
– the possibility to easily carry out parameter studies of tire characteristics re-
garding driving behavior.
This empirical tire model assumes a locally flat roadway under the tire as described
below.
The Magic Formula models allow the linkage of relevant force variables of the
tire with the rigid body slips by means of appropriately selected fundamental math-
ematical functions. Specifically, those links are as follows:
– circumferential force Fx with circumferential slip s,
– lateral force Fy with the slip angle α, and
– aligning torque MRz with slip angle α.
Pacejka and Bakker (1993) proposed to first determine the force–slip relationships
by means of quasistatic rolling or driving tests and to approximate the acquired
data with a combination of sine and arctangent functions. The formulas allow a de-
scription of the relationships with high accuracy. However, the description is lim-
ited to stationary properties. Figure 2.31 shows the basic shapes of these model
functions. The requirements for the description functions are in addition to the
meaningful description of all stationary tire characteristics:
– a (comparably) easy access to the raw data,
– the possibility of an at least partial physical interpretation of the relationships,
– a high accuracy, and
– an easy assessment of the resulting formulae.
y Y
arctan(BCD)
Circumferential force
D
ya
Sv xm x
Lateral force
Sh
Figure 2.31: Basic tire characteristics from the Magic Formula approach and interpretation of the
coefficients.
Common is, for example, the following relationship (Pacejka 2006):
yðxÞ = D sinðC arctanðBx − EðBx − arctanðBxÞÞÞÞ, (2:21)
Y ð XÞ = yðxÞ + Sv , (2:22)
x = X + Sh , (2:23)
whereby Y ð XÞ represents either the circumferential force, the lateral force, or the
aligning torque, which is not treated here. The variable X represents either the lon-
gitudinal slip s or the slip angle α. The used parameters can now be interpreted as
listed in Table 2.5 or shown graphically in Figure 2.31.
Table 2.5: Magic Formula parameters for the tire’s longitudinal forces and torques
(see also Figure 2.31).
Symbol Description
D Maximum force or maximum torque
C Influences the shape of the curve – stretching in the x direction
E Additional stretching or compression of the characteristics
BCD Slope of the characteristics at zero slip (stiffness)
Sv, Sh Vertical or horizontal shift of the characteristics
Between parameters and typical variables of the curves the following relationships
apply:

2 ya
C=1± − arcsin (2:24)
π D
π
Bxm − tan 2C
E= . (2:25)
Bxm − arctanðBxm Þ
Data sets for clarification purposes of the described parameters can be found in the
literature. For special applications, the parameters of the respective tires have to be
approximated using data bases of measurements (Pacejka 2006). The typical ap-
pearance of the basic curve shapes in eqs. (2.21) to (2.23) can be found in
Figure 2.31. However, it should be noted that this is a quasistationary description
of tire forces. The actual process and the temporal properties of the construction
of actual tire forces is not considered. This is instead discussed in Section 2.3.8.
2.3.7 Superposition of horizontal forces
The maximum resulting force in the tire contact patch is limited and therefore con-
sideration of the dependence on longitudinal and lateral force are necessary (e.g.,
when steering and braking simultaneously or accelerating in a curve). To simulate
a vehicle’s behavior realistically, the effects of the tire force saturation under strong
forces in the tire contact patch are to be considered. This characteristic can be de-
scribed by the resulting tire force of the KAMM’s circle2 (Figure 2.32), which is based
on Coulomb’s friction circle. It applies
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
FR2 x + FR2 y ≤ μmax Fz, eff . (2:26)
KAMM’s circle describes the relationship between longitudinal and lateral force in com-
bination with a given type of slip. The maximum transmittable lateral force is smaller,
if the longitudinal force occurs simultaneously (and vice versa). In reality, the thresh-
old curve of the maximum transmittable horizontal force forms an ellipse, since real
tires usually have a bigger adhesion limit in the longitudinal direction μmax, x Fz, eff
than in the transverse direction μmax, y Fz, eff (Schramm et al. 2018). The smaller dashed
circle in Figure 2.32 corresponds to the tire force given pure sliding friction μG Fz, eff .
In Figure 2.33, lateral force curve, slip angle, and slip curve of the circumferential
force are used to derive the KREMPEL friction ellipse (Krempel 1965). The Krempel fric-
tion ellipse corresponds roughly to KAMM’s circle (Kamm et al. 2013). For different lon-
gitudinal slips or slip angles corresponding friction ellipses can be derived.
2 Wunibald Kamm (1893–1966): German scientist in the field of motor vehicle and engine technol-
ogy and one of the leading motor vehicle aerodynamicists.
Figure 2.32: Simultaneous transmission of longitudinal

and lateral force (KAMM’s circle).
10°
20°
2° when = 0N
= 1°
α
, 1°2° 10° 20°
= 10° 1°
Figure 2.33: Krempel’s friction ellipse as envelope; derivation from lateral force, slip angle, and
slip curve of the circumferential force.
To be able to account for overlapping effects in different driving situations

(braking or acceleration in the curve) in which both circumferential and lateral slip
occur, an absolute slip term sa (the so-called combined slip) based on longitudinal
slip sA, B and slip angle α is defined as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sa = s2A, B + tan2 α (2:27)
with the operating direction

tan α
ψa = arctan . (2:28)
sA, B
The resulting tire force in direction of angle ψa is calculated as

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s2A, B FR2 x ðsa Þ + tan2 αFR2 y ðsa Þ
Fψa ðsa Þ = . (2:29)
s2a
The resulting tire longitudinal and lateral forces now read

sA, B
FRa, x = Fψa ðsa Þ cos ψa = Fψ a ð s a Þ (2:30)
sa
and
tan α
FRa, y = Fψa ðsa Þ sin ψa = Fψa ðsa Þ. (2:31)
sa
2.3.8 Instationary tire forces
In previous approaches to tire force transmission, it is assumed that lateral slip, cir-
cumferential slip, tire forces, and torques remain constant over time or change very
slowly. In unsteady maneuvers such as step steering input or antiblocking system
(ABS) braking, the tire forces follow the slip sizes with a delay (response time of
the tire (Figure 2.34). Thus, the tire forces influence the dynamic transmission while
driving.
The transient construction of the tire force behaves approximately like a first-
order element and can therefore also be represented by a PT1 -element. The approxi-
mation of the temporal development of the dynamic longitudinal force is given by
the differential equation of first order:
dFRx
Tx + FRx = FRx , stat , (2:32)
dt
(Einsle 2010), (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).

For the dynamic lateral force applies accordingly
dFRy
Ty + FRy = FRy , stat . (2:33)
dt
F R = c αα 0
y
Lateral force / N
T0 Time
σα
Ty =
| ρR rdyn |
Figure 2.34: Time course of the lateral force FRy with a slip angle jump to α0 at T0 .
The time constants Tx and Ty in eqs. (2.32) and (2.33) depend on the rolling
speed of the tire and are calculated as
c c
Tx = s and Ty = α . (2:34)
cx ρ_ R rdyn cy ρ_ R rdyn
The parameters used in eq. (2.34) are described in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Formula parameters used to calculate the dynamic tire forces.
Symbol Description
cx Static tire circumferential stiffness
cy Static tire lateral stiffness

ρ_ rdyn Absolute value of the circumferential velocity
R
Static tire longitudinal force calculated by the Magic Formula model with the slip
FRx , stat
sA, B considering Kamm’s circle
Static tire lateral force calculated by the Magic Formula model with the slip angle
FRy , stat
α considering Kamm’s circle
The time course of the force construction depends on the relaxation length. This
dependency is determined by the relaxation length σRx for the longitudinal force,
which is derived from the quotient of the longitudinal slip stiffness cs and the tire
longitudinal stiffness cx
cs
σ Rx = . (2:35)
cx
as well as the relaxation length σRy for the lateral force. The lateral force, in turn, is
derived from the quotient of the lateral slip stiffness cα and the tire’s lateral stiffness cy
cα
σ Ry = . (2:36)
cy
The relaxation length σR describes the way the tire must travel to build up about
two-thirds of the dynamic tire force. Whereby, the relaxation length in the lateral
direction of the tire is higher than in the circumferential direction. This is related to
the lateral resilience of the tire, which is greater than the longitudinal resilience
(Gipser 1999).
The solution of the differential eqs. (2.32) and (2.33) yields the difference equa-
tion after discretization (Gipser 1999):
− Δt
FRi ðn + 1Þ = e Ti FRi ðnÞ − FRi , stat ðnÞ + FRi , stat ðnÞ, i = x, y. (2:37)
The transformation of the mathematical model from a real continuous system into a
time discrete model is necessary if one would like to solve it in real time.
2.3.9 Dynamics of the braked and driven wheel
The following sections cover the equations of motion in the direction of travel and
force relationships on the braked and driven wheel. The equations will be summa-
rized below. For this purpose, the designations from Figure 2.35 and Table 2.7 are
used. Whereby, the dynamics of the wheel are only considered in the direction of
travel. The vertical dynamics of the wheel are neglected.
First, NEWTON’s equation for a wheel is
mR €xR = FRx − FVAx , (2:38)
and the balance of forces in vertical direction is
FRz = FVAz + mR g. (2:39)
EULER’s equation regarding the wheel’s center is
€R = + MA, B − FRx rstat .

ΘRyy ρ (2:40)
The relationship between rotational speed and translational speed of the wheel is
obtained by means of the dynamic wheel radius introduced above
P
Figure 2.35: Force relationships for a driven
wheel.
x_ R = rdyn ρ_ R . (2:41)
The tire’s longitudinal force can now be calculated by combining eqs. (2.40) and (2.41)
€R
ρ MA, B ΘRyy €xR MA, B
FRx = ΘRyy + =− + . (2:42)
rstat rstat rdyn rstat rstat
It can be derived from that relationship that the inertia of the wheel reduces accelera-
tion and braking. In particular, when braking this has a disadvantageous effect on the
performance of the ABS, since the time that the wheel takes after blocking in order to
get rolling again, depends on the wheel’s moment of inertia. This is further compli-
cated by the fact that the wheel of a driven axle has a significantly larger effective mo-
ment of inertia due to additional rotating masses of the power train (see Chapter 6).
Table 2.7: Formula parameters for calculating the dynamic tire forces
Symbol Description
MA, B Drive or braking torque
FVAx , FVAz Forces of the vehicle on the wheel in x- and z-direction

ρ_ rdyn Absolut value of tire peripheral speed
R
xR Acceleration of the wheel center
FRz Wheel load
mR Mass of tire
ΘRyy Effective moment of inertia of the wheel

2.4 Monitoring of the tire pressure
In addition to driving behavior and driving comfort, the tire inflation pressure also
significantly influences fuel consumption and thus the emissions of a motor vehi-
cle. If the pressure is too low, there is a risk of tire damage. This represents a signifi-
cant risk to the driving safety. Although it is recommended to regularly check the
tire inflation pressure, it is known that drivers only occasionally and partially check
tire pressure. When checking, mostly only an inadequate visual inspection of the
tire is performed (Hoppe et al. 2013). The tire is already at risk if the vehicle is
driven on a longer trip with only 20% reduced pressure. Figure 2.36 shows that it is
hardly possible to detect a lack of pressure with the naked eye. The result is more
than 150,000 punctures per year in in Germany alone (Hoppe et al. 2013).
1 2
1 Correct tire pressure (2.4 bar)
2 20% lower tire pressure

3 4
Figure 2.36: Insufficient visual inspection of a lack of tire pressure (courtesy of Huf Hülsbeck &
Fürst GmbH & Co. KG).
TPMS shall serve as a solution to that problem by warning the driver if the tire
pressure decreases. Thereby, fuel consumption and thus CO2 emissions can be re-
duced by up to 4%. At the same time, a correctly adjusted tire pressure increases the
tire’s service life, optimizes tire noise, and lane groove sensitivity (Hoppe et al.
2013).
Since November 2014, all new vehicles within the European Union with a gross
vehicle weight of up to 3.5 t have to be equipped with TPMS (EU Regulation
No. 661/2009). A distinction is made between direct and indirect TPMS. These differ
in the way in which the filling pressure is monitored.
2.4.1 Direct tire pressure monitoring
In direct TPMS, the pressure of each tire is measured with a sensor. Figure 2.37
shows an example of a vehicle display that shows the driver both the tire
Figure 2.37: Vehicle display with information about the tire pressure and temperature.
Figure 2.38: Example of a warning of tire pressure

loss (courtesy of Nira Dynamics AB, 2016).
inflation pressure and the temperature of the air within the tire. In the event of
deviations from the correct pressure, the driver is informed by a warning mes-
sage, (Hoppe et al. 2013), Figure 2.37.
More than 80% of the “blowouts” are the result of a gradual loss of pressure.
This happens because the sidewall of the tire heats up due to excessive flexing
work, which eventually results in a puncture.
Direct TPMS (Figure 2.39) use a tire pressure sensor in each wheel to measure
the inflation pressures and inflation air temperatures. This information is transmit-
ted together with the individual sensor identification via radio signal (Europe
434 MHz band) to the control unit in the vehicle (Hoppe et al. 2013). This enables a
tire-specific pressure display in the instrument cluster. Direct measuring systems
detect both, slow diffusion losses and fast pressure losses.
Instrument cluster Electronic control unit
Radio signal
Tire pressure sensor
Figure 2.39: Scheme of a direct tire pressure monitoring system (courtesy of Huf Hülsbeck & Fürst
GmbH & Co. KG).
The tire pressure sensors achieve a measuring accuracy of approx. 0.1 bar. The sen-
sors typically provide a signal every 30 to 60 seconds. A control unit processes the
information and prepares it for display in the instrument cluster.
The tire pressure sensor is also referred to as wheel electronic unit. Figure 2.40
shows a sensor integrated into the rim. Figure 2.41 shows the essential components of
a valve-integrated wheel electronic unit. The valve (1) is screwed to the sensor housing
(2) and is attached to the valve hole on the rim. The sensor case contains a circuit
board (3) with a highly integrated sensor (4) and further electronic components like a
lithium button cell (5) for power supply. To ensure mechanical stability and protection
against moisture, circuit board and battery are enclosed by a protective cast.
A new innovative concept of tire pressure sensor attachment is the attachment
of the sensor to the inside of the tread (innerliner; Figure 2.42). This type of attach-
ment characterizes the mechanical connection of the sensor to the tire, resulting in
a solid unit of sensor and tire. If the sensor moves from the rim or the valve to the
tire, the centrifugal accelerations acting on the sensor and the mechanical load
change accordingly. To avoid unbalance, the weight introduced should be very low
( < 10g) (Hoppe et al. 2013). Because this type of attachment allows the formation of
a unit between tire and tire sensor, information about the tire can be stored by the
sensor and transmitted to the vehicle. Important tire parameters are the maximum
Figure 2.40: Tire pressure sensor integrated in

the rim (courtesy of Huf Hülsbeck & Fürst
GmbH & Co. KG).
Figure 2.41: Tire pressure sensor integrated in

the valve (courtesy of Huf Hülsbeck & Fürst
GmbH & Co. KG).
Figure 2.42: Tread-integrated tire pressure

sensor (courtesy of Huf Hülsbeck & Fürst
GmbH & Co. KG).
permitted speed, for example, in winter tires. Exceeding this permissible speed could
thus be automatically prevented or at least displayed.
Another valuable information is the mounted tire type. This information could
be used on the side of the vehicle to achieve a tire-specific adaptation of the chassis
controller to increase driving safety and driving performance. If a sensor is mounted
on the rim, it does not form a unit of tire and sensor anymore, since both are sepa-
rated if the tire is changed.
If the sensor is mounted on the innerliner of the tire, it is possible to estimate the
tire’s footprint on the roadway using a suitable accelerometer. This is done by mea-
suring the change of the sensor’s acceleration in the area of the wheel contact surface
(Figure 2.43). If wheel contact length, tire pressure, tire temperature, and other tire-
and vehicle-specific information are known, it is further possible to estimate the
wheel load and thus the degree to which the vehicle is loaded in general.
x-signal
Running direction
z-signal Contact patch
x-signal
Acceleration ax, az
z-signal
Time
Figure 2.43: Acceleration of the tire sensor while running through the contact patch (courtesy of
Huf Hülsbeck & Fürst GmbH & Co. KG).
2.4.2 Indirect tire pressure monitoring
In contrast to direct TPMS, indirect tire pressure monitoring systems do not mea-
sure the pressure in the tires, but primarily make use of the existing signals from
the ABS wheel speed sensors (Figure 2.44).
Indirect systems make use of the fact that the rolling circumference of the wheel
and thus the effective rolling radius depends on the tire pressure. If the tire pressure
drops, the rolling radius decreases. This, in turn, increases the wheel’s speed relative
to the other wheels. Thus, by evaluating the differential speeds of all wheels, the pres-
sure loss of individual wheels can be detected, as shown, for example, in Figure 2.45.
Electronic control unit

Wheel RPM sensor
singnals
Instrument cluster
Wheel RPM
sensor signals
Figure 2.44: Scheme of an indirect tire pressure monitoring system according to Hoppe et al. (2013).
∆ , ℎ
, rear
, front
Front left
∆
∆
Rear left
Time
∆ ,left
Figure 2.45: Determination of pressure loss of the front left wheel by evaluating the differential
speeds (courtesy of Nira Dynamics AB).
The change in the wheel’s speed can be very low. Therefore, very robust signal-
processing algorithms (e.g., using Kalman filters) are needed to reliably detect these
differences. The algorithms are usually executed by means of the ESP control unit,
because this is where the raw signals of the wheel speed sensors are received. Rolling
radius differences occur, for example, when cornering or driving uphill. Those differ-
ences must be accounted for by a suitable dynamic model of the vehicle. Likewise,
tire type (summer, winter, and all-season tires), tire size, temperature effects, depth
change in the tire’s tread pattern, and radial tire expansion (occurring at high speeds)
must be considered. This may cause a delay in the detection of pressure loss. Indirect
TPMS are used since the beginning of 2000 (Hoppe et al., 2013).
However, the method of detecting wheel speed changes does not allow to detect
a simultaneous and uniform pressure loss of all four tires (as it is caused, for exam-
ple, by diffusion (Figure 2.48, left). To detect simultaneous and uniform pressure
losses, the spectral analysis method is used. If the tire rolls along the roadway, its
eigenmode oscillations are stimulated. Some eigenmodes, such as the tire torsional
mode at about 40 Hz, depend on the filling pressure (Figure 2.46, left). If the filling
pressure changes, the frequency of the tire eigenmode shifts (Figure 2.46, right and
Figure 2.47, right). Therefore, the system is able to detect pressure losses of a single,
as well as of all four tires at the same time (Figure 2.47, right and Figure 2.48, right).
0,8
230 kPa
0,6 177 kPa
Amplitude
0,4
0,2
0
30 40 50 60 70
Frequency/Hz
Figure 2.46: Left: 1. Torsional mode of the wheel–tire complex at approx. 40 Hz; right: example of a
frequency shift for different filling pressures (courtesy of Nira Dynamics AG).
Wheel rpm Amplitude
Time Frequency
Figure 2.47: Detection of pressure loss in the front left wheel using the wheel speed change
method (left) and frequency shift (right) (courtesy of Nira Dynamics AG).
All indirect TPMS can only detect relative pressure changes, either by relative
wheel speed or frequency differences. If the tire is replaced or refilled, the system
must be reinitialized. After refilling the tires, the driver is thus obligated to manually
Wheel rpm Amplitude
Time Frequency
Figure 2.48: No detection of simultaneous and uniform pressure loss, using the wheel speed
change method (left). Detection using frequency shifting technique (right) (courtesy of Nira
Dynamics AG).
reinitialize the system, for example, by pressing a button. Wrong initialization can
lead to incorrect driver warnings (Hoppe et al., 2013).
Advantages of the indirect systems are lower costs, since no additional compo-
nents have to be implemented. The disadvantage is that neither tire pressures nor
the inflation air’s temperature can be measured. A correct warning depends on the
correct calibration of the system. During highly dynamic driving with lateral accel-
eration greater than 2m=s2 , such as on racetracks, the system is inactive.
3 Vehicle dynamics and suspension system
Vehicle dynamics describes the movement of a vehicle under the influence of inter-
nal and external forces and torques (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018). These are trans-
mitted to the vehicle via the tires and through the air. The suspension system is
tasked with positioning the wheels on the road in a way that optimizes the transfer
of tire forces to the road. The hereby achieved driving behavior can be tested sub-
jectively by test drivers, or objectively using standardized parameters (DIN 2008).
While these parameters have been established mostly in driving tests, over the past
few years new procedures based on simulations have been gaining ground more
and more (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
The entire driving behavior of a motor vehicle can be divided up into longitudi-
nal, lateral, and vertical dynamics. Considering the linear part of driving dynamics,
the behavior can easily be considered distinct:
– Lateral dynamics describes the cornering behavior of a vehicle as well as its
response to steering movements. It has a large influence on the agility and driv-
ing safety of a vehicle.
– Longitudinal dynamics describes the acceleration and braking performance.
Furthermore, the energy consumption of the vehicle can be essentially derived
from it.
– Vertical dynamics describes the reaction of the vehicle to impulses given by
road unevenness and bumps and is essential to the riding comfort and (via the
wheel load fluctuation), responsible for the driving safety of a motor vehicle.
At the stability limit of driving dynamics and beyond however, there is a strong cou-
pling between the directions of movement; see, for example, Lenthaparambil (2015)
and Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018). In those cases, such a simplified division is no
longer possible.
The driving behavior is influenced substantially by the assembly groups body,
wheel suspension, and especially the tires.
3.1 General definitions of vehicle motion
To better understand the parameters of vehicle dynamics for lateral, vertical, and
logitudinal dynamics, one first needs to describe the spatial movement of the vehi-
cle in a suitable form.
While driving, the vehicle body performs a spatial motion. To describe it, the body
fixed coordinate system KV 1 (orthogonally and clockwise) is used (Figure 3.1). The
1 The index “V” stands for vehicle.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-003
74 3 Vehicle dynamics and suspension system
zv
Vertical axis
Heave
Yaw
𝜓v
0V
Jerk
xv
Roll Pitch Lateral axis
Longitudinal axis 𝜑v
𝜃v yv
(vehicle longitudinal centerline) Push
Figure 3.1: The six rigid body degrees of freedom of a vehicle.
origin OV of the system KV is placed in the center of mass (CoM) of the body (DIN
2008). This specific point is chosen because it makes calculations of the fundamen-
tal physical laws such as NEWTON’s and EULER’s equations much easier (Schramm,
Hiller et al. 2018).
The vehicle body is modeled as a rigid body for the fundamental analysis. It
possesses six rigid body degrees of freedom (DoF) through which its location in
space is conclusively determined. The DoF chosen here and their corresponding
generalized coordinates are shown in Figure 3.1. Here, the distinction is made be-
tween translational and rotational DoF.
The translational DoF are denoted by terms according to DIN (2008):
– “Jerk” in longitudinal direction of the vehicle (longitudinal movement toward
the xV -axis),
– “Push” in lateral direction of the vehicle (lateral movement along the yV -axis),
and
– “Heave” (vertical movement along the zV -axis).
The rotational DoF are described with the Cardan angles in the rotation sequence
x ! y ! z, initiating from the inertial system, and are named as according to DIN
(2008):
– “Roll” (rotation around the xV -axis with angle φV ),
– “Pitch” (rotation around the yV -axis with angle θV ), and
– “Yaw” (rotation around the zV -axis with angle ψV ).
For most driving conditions during normal operation and as a first-order approxi-
mation, the driving dynamics of the vehicle can be observed separately for the
3.2 Coordinate systems 75
longitudinal, lateral, and vertical direction, respectively. Nevertheless, the occurring

forms of movement are, of course, always coupled with one another (Figure 3.2). This
effect is particularly strong when driving in the (nonlinear) dynamical limits, but is
also relevant when studying the dynamic interactions combined with the use of driv-
ing dynamics control systems.
Vertical dynamics
carry/cushion/damp
Ro
h
tc
ll
Pi
Longitudinal dynamics Lateral dynamics

drive/brake Yaw steer
Figure 3.2: Relations in vehicle dynamics.
This chapter considers the lateral and vertical dynamics as well as their interaction.
The longitudinal dynamics of motor vehicles is examined further in Chapter 6.
3.2 Coordinate systems
The vehicle body and chassis are usually considered to consist of rigid bodies and
can thus be approximated as multibody systems (MBSs) (Schramm, Hiller et al.
2018). Torsions or other deformations of the body can be neglected for many exami-
nations. The frame can move freely in space. A body-fixed coordinate system
KV = fOV ; xV , yV , zV g is introduced for the description of positions. The vehicle-fixed
reference point OV lies in the body’s center of gravity (DIN 2008). The x-axis points
forward toward the longitudinal direction of the vehicle, the y-axis points left in the
lateral direction of the vehicle, and the z-axis is oriented perpendicular to the road
surface.
For the spatial description of the chassis, the three components E xV , E yV , E zV of
the position vector rV in the coordinates of an inertial system KE ,2 as well as the
three Cardan angles ψV (yaw), θV (pitch), and φV (roll) are introduced. Figure 3.3
2 The index “E” here means “environment.”


0

O =S
O
Figure 3.3: Coordinate systems and description of the position of motor vehicles.
shows the location of the used coordinate systems. Here, rV is the vector from the
origin OE of the inertial system to the origin OV of the body fixed coordinate system,
V r i the vector from OV to a point Pi of the vehicle, and r i the vector from the origin
of an inertial system to the rigid body point Pi .
The orientation of the vehicle system KV to the inertial system KE is clearly de-
termined by the three Cardan angles. It is assumed that at the start, the inertial sys-
tem and the vehicle system have the same orientation. Then, the vehicle runs three
successive rotations around predetermined axes. Every partial rotation corresponds
to a Cardan angle. The sequence of rotations of the Cardan angles is as follows:
– Due to the rotation around the zE -axis with the yaw angle ψV , the xE , yE , zE -
system transitions into the x1 , y1 , z1 -system with z1 = zE .
– Due to the rotation around the y1 -axis with the pitch angle θV , the x1 , y1 , z1 -
system transitions into the x2 , y2 , z2 -system with y2 = y1 .
– Due to the rotation around the x2 -axis with the roll angle φV , the x2 , y2 , z2 -
system transitions into the xV , yV , zV -system with xV = x2 .
For a more detailed description of the spatial movement of motor vehicle, see
Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
The choice of this coordinate system in the area of construction often is not
practical however, because the center of gravity has yet to be defined, and most co-
ordinates, especially in the xV - direction, would become negative. For those rea-
sons, a different coordinate system is used in CAD3 (in Figure 3.3 labeled with
3 CAD: Computer Aided Design.

3.3 Structure and components of the chassis 77
CAD), with its origin OCAD in the area of the forebody, for example, in the middle of
the front axle. In this case, the xCAD -axis is opposite to the direction of driving.
3.3 Structure and components of the chassis
The suspension system connects the wheels to the body of the vehicle. It is thus
responsible for guiding the wheels and protecting the vehicle in a way that passen-
gers, cargo, and vehicle systems do not suffer excessive loads caused by accelera-
tion and other forces. The typical suspension system of a car is made up of the
assembly groups (partially pictured in Figure 3.4):
Figure 3.4: Chassis and powertrain of the Porsche 911 Turbo S © Porsche AG.
– front and rear axle, including the corresponding subframe,

– suspension and damping (Sections 3.10.4 and 3.10.5),
– antiroll bars (Section 3.10.6)
– wheels and tires (Chapter 2),
– steering system (Chapter 4),
– brake system (Chapter 5),
– wheel bearings and carrier (Section 3.8),
– chassis control systems (Chapter 7),
– pedals and steering wheel (Chapters 4 and 5), and
– the bearing of the drive unit.
This chapter first discusses the basics of vehicle dynamics. This includes the defini-
tion of vehicle movement as well as static and dynamic parameters of vehicle dy-
namics. Additionally, driving maneuvers are described to determine and evaluate
the characteristics of driving dynamics. These considerations are completed by the
description of the kinematics of wheel suspensions. In the course of this, the often-
used MacPherson4- and multilink wheel suspensions are discussed exemplarily.
The basic structure of a suspension of an axle is shown in Figure 3.5.
Elastomer-link bearing Wishbone

(Annular spring)
Spring–damper
Combination
Drive shaft
Brake
Antiroll bar (torsion bar)
Figure 3.5: Multilink suspension © Porsche AG.
The definitions used in this chapter refer among others to the following standards:
– DIN 70000/DIN ISO 8855 Road vehicles – Vehicle dynamics and road holding
ability – Vocabulary (DIN/ISO 2011);
– DIN 70020 Road vehicles – Automotive engineering: part 1 (Passenger cars, defi-
nitions, dimensions, identification), part 2 (Terms and definitions for masses),
and part 3 (testing conditions, maximum speed, acceleration and elasticity, mass,
terms, miscellaneous) (DIN 2008);
– DIN ISO 7401: Road vehicles – Lateral transient response test methods – Open-
loop test methods (DIN/ISO 1989);
– DIN 70027: Road vehicles; specifications for wheel alignment, (DIN 1992);
– SAE J670e: Vehicle dynamics technology (SAE 2008);
4 Named after its inventor, Earle S. MacPherson (1881–1960), who received a patent for the axle in
1949.
– VDI-Guideline 2057 (VDI 2002);

– ISO 3888: Passenger cars – Steady-state circular driving behavior – Open-loop
test methods (ISO 2012);
– ISO 7401: Lateral transient response test methods (open-loop) (ISO 2011);
– ISO 3888: Test track for a severe lane-change manoeuvre (closed-loop) (ISO 2002).
3.4 Axle kinematic properties
Together with further parameters, the terms toe-in, camber, pneumatic trail, and
steering axis inclination describe the geometric and kinematic properties of the axle
of a vehicle. Within the framework of development, production, and maintenance
of motor vehicles, these parameters need to be measured. First, the single parame-
ters and their relationship to each other are presented.
The axle geometry of a vehicle is characterized by suitable angle and length di-
mensions. Additionally, the wheel center plane Π is determined for every wheel.
For steered wheels, the location of the axle is added, around which the wheel pivots
during steering. Hereinafter, the individual characteristics are defined.
The angular position of the wheel center plane is determined by two angles. To
this end, the profile of the wheel center plane Π is created with two perpendicular
planes (Figure 3.6). The first plane is the road plane Σ and the other plane Ω is per-
pendicular to the road. The angle γ between the wheel center plane Π and the
plane Ω is called camber angle and the angle δVS in plane Σ between the axis xV
and the intersection of plane Π and Σ is called toe-in angle. (Figures 3.6 and 3.7;
Table 3.1).

Π
Ω

Figure 3.6: Definition of key parameters in the wheel–road plane.


Figure 3.7: Definition of the toe-in angle.
Table 3.1: Important key parameters in the wheel–road plane (see also Figure 3.6).
Symbol Description
Σ Road plane
Π Wheel center plane
Ω Plane in the direction of driving and perpendicular to the road plane
r Wheel radius
A Virtual tire contact point
M Wheel center
γ Camber angle
3.4.1 Toe in angle
First, the toe-in angle δVS , the angle in the road plane is considered (Figure 3.7) and
(Table 3.2).5 Here, either the angle of both wheels of an axle in relation to each other
can be measured (total toe-in angle), or the angle of a wheel to a plane of reference
(toe-in angle). A possible plane of reference is the longitudinal center plane of the
vehicle. This plane is perpendicular to the road and goes through the middle of front
and rear wheel. Independent of the plane of reference, the sum of toe-in angles is
always equal to the total toe-in angle. The sign of the toe-in angle is positive when
5 It used to be customary to denote the toe-in as a measure of length instead of an angle. To this
end, the difference of distance of the rim flanges in the front and back was measured at the level of
the center of the wheels. This kind of measurement has the disadvantage that the measured value
is dependent on the rim size.
Table 3.2: Parameters of vehicle axles (see also Figures 3.7–3.9).
Symbol Description
r Wheel radius
δVS Toe-in angle
bA , bV , bB Wheel spacing of the wheels of an axle at the front, middle, and back
γ Camber angle
τ Caster angle
ln Trail
nl Trail offset
σ King pin angle
lσ King pin angle offset
rr Scrub radius
the front wheel is angled inwardly ðbA < bB Þ, see Table 3.2, meaning that the front part
of the wheel is closer to the wheel on the other side than the rear part of the wheel.
Consider now a vehicle whose non steered rear wheels have different toe-in an-
gles concerning the longitudinal center plane of the vehicle. For the vehicle to go
straight, the front wheels have to be turned by steering in such a way that the angle
bisector of the angle in between the front wheels is parallel to the angle bisector of
the angle between the rear wheels. The angle bisector of the angle in between the
rear wheels thus determines the direction of the vehicle driving on a straight track.
It is thus called geometric wheel axis. The angle between the geometric wheel axis
and the longitudinal center plane of the vehicle is called the axle angle. According
to the DIN draft “Fahrwerksvermessung,” the axle angle has a positive sign, if the
geometric wheel axis in the front deviates to the left of the longitudinal center
plane.
If possible, the rear axle should be fine tuned so that both axles coincide in a
way that the axle angle is equal to zero. This means that the toe-in angles of the rear
axle should be equal. If this is not possible, for example, because the toe-in of the
rear axle cannot be adjusted, the vehicle will move more or less angular to its center
line when driving straight. If in this case, the front axle is adjusted to have the same
toe-in angles while the steering wheel is straight (compared to the longitudinal center
plane of the vehicle), the steering wheel needs to be turned when going straight ac-
cording to the axle angle. The steering wheel then is not straight even though the
vehicle is going straight.
As a remedy, the toe-in angle of the front axle choses a different reference
point: the geometric wheel axle. As long as the toe-in angle of the front wheels in
reference to this axis is the same, the steering wheel is straight while driving
straight, even though the axle angle is not zero.
3.4.2 Camber angle
The second angle that describes the position of the wheel center plane is the camber
angle γ (Figure 3.8). This is the angle of the wheel center toward the perpendicular of
the road. The camber angle is positive when the wheel is tilted outwards at the top.
When turning a steered wheel, the camber usually changes. This will be described
later in combination with the measurement of the steering axle. In order to state the
adjustment value for the camber of a vehicle, it thus needs to be determined at which
turning angle and thus which toe-in angle, the camber is measured. Here, either
every single wheel can be measured at track zero, or the camber for both wheels is
measured when the wheels are directed for going straight, and therefore have the
same toe-in angle. If the camber is not measured at “track zero,” the disadvantage
arises that the adjustment value for the camber depends on the toe-in angle. On the
other hand, camber values can be determined for both wheels at the same steering
wheel position while for the measurement at “track zero,” every wheel needs to be
measured individually. The vehicle manufacturer states what kinds of measurements
are required for this chassis setting data. For axles that are not steered, the camber is
always measured at the toe-in angle, because the single wheels can at best be
brought to a toe-in angle of zero with difficulty.
Wheel center plane Π

Steering axis L
Camber angle
𝛾
Figure 3.8: Definition of the camber angle and the steering axle.
3.4.3 Steering axis
For steered wheels, the geometry of the axle is determined by the spatial position of
the steering axis6 L next to the previously described parameters. This is the axis
around which a steered wheel pivots when turned (Figure 3.8). The steering axis is
arranged at an angle. The puncture point of its extension with the road surface is
not identical to the center of the wheel contact area.
For a full description of a straight line in space, two solid angles and a point
are required. The two angles for the steering axis are called caster angle and king
pin angle. There are different ways to specify a point on the steering axis: Either the
point of the axis in the road plane or in the plane parallel to the road at the level of
the wheel center is chosen.
In the first case, the point is described using the trail ln and king pin offset rr ,
and in the second case using the trail offset nl and king pin angle offset lσ . The angles
and lines that describe the steering axis are measured in two mutually perpendicular
planes that are both perpendicular to the road. The first plane is perpendicular to the
road plane and parallel to the intersecting line of the wheel center plane. The second
plane is perpendicular to it and thus parallel to the rotation axis. When steering,
these planes move with the wheels. The parameters for describing the steering axis
thus change with steering. As described in Section 3.4.2, the toe-in value at which
measurement is to be done needs to be defined. In contrast to the camber, for the
parameters of the steering axis, the definitions in the norms exclusively refer to toe
angle zero at the single wheel.
In practice, measurements are still often done when going straight, meaning
with the same toe-in angle of the single wheels. There, it is assumed that the differ-
ence is relatively small and thus does not have a relevant impact. Whether this
holds true, however, depends on the kinematics of the individual vehicle. Thus, the
specifications of the vehicle manufacturer need to be obeyed.
For measuring the axle geometry, those two planes are essential. They are one
plane in longitudinal direction of the vehicle and one plane in lateral direction to the
vehicle, each perpendicular to the road. The projection of the steering axis is ob-
served for each plane.
The caster angle τ denotes the angle that results between the steering axis and
a perpendicular line to the road in the plane that is longitudinal to the vehicle. The
caster angle is positive when the steering axis L is inclined toward the back
(Figure 3.9).
The king pin angle σ is measured in a plane lateral to the vehicle against a per-
pendicular line toward the ground. The king pin angle is positive when the steering
6 Also called spread axis.

Steering axis L
Caster angle
𝜏 𝜎 King pin angle
Trail offset
nl l𝜎 King pin angle offset
M M
D D A
A
ln rr
Trail Scrub radius
Figure 3.9: Definition of the steering axle.
axis points inward. Accordingly, the lines defining a point of the steering axis are
measured within those two planes. If a point of the steering axis is defined at the
height of the center of the wheels, the horizontal distance of the center of the wheel
M to the steering axis is denoted, projected into the corresponding plane. The hori-
zontal distance nl between the center of the wheel and the steering axis observed in
longitudinal plane is called trail offset. If the center of the wheel lies behind the
steering axis, the trail offset has a positive sign. Accordingly, the king pin angle off-
set lσ is the horizontal distance to the center of the wheel M to the steering axis L in
the plane lateral to the vehicle. The sign is positive if the steering axis is on the in-
side of the vehicle compared to the center of the wheel. To determine a point on the
longitudinal axle on the road plane, the tire contact point is used as a point of refer-
ence and the distance from the point where it intersects with the extended steering
axis is specified. Here, the trail ln specifies the distance in the projection plane lon-
gitudinal to the vehicle. The trail is positive when the road surface intersection
point of the steering axis lies before the tire contact point.
In the plane lateral to the vehicle, the scrub radius rr (also called king pin offset)
indicates the distance from the road surface intersection point of the steering axis to
the tire contact point. If the tire contact point is outside compared to the road surface
intersection point, the scrub radius is positive. A negative scrub radius gives advan-
tages when braking on a road that is slippery on one side as the torsional torques
created by the longitudinal forces of the wheels around the vertical axis induce a
steering motion in the wheels. Those support the driver in compensating for the rota-
tional motion around the vertical axis resulting from the one-sided braking forces.
3.5 Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics
The vehicle dynamics is one of the most essential properties and differentiation
characteristics, especially for passenger cars. Thus, the fundamental parameters of
vehicle dynamics are introduced below that allow the description of the vehicle dy-
namics of the total vehicle.
3.5.1 Description of the planar vehicle dynamics using the linear single track
model
The classic linear single track model created by Rieckert and Schunck in 1940 (Rieckert
and Schunck 1940) allows a first, yet already meaningful assessment of the driving
behavior of a motor vehicle. It uses major simplifications of fundamental driving phys-
ics, but depicts regular operating conditions physically correct. Due to its fundamental
significance in understanding vehicle behavior in passenger cars, this model is dis-
cussed in detail below. The linear single track model is based on a series of essential
simplifications (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018). The velocity of the Center of Mass (CoM)
S of the vehicle along its trajectory is assumed to be constant, and all lifting, rolling,
and pitch movements of the vehicle are neglected. Front and rear wheels are aggre-
gated and observed as one wheel each. The virtual tire contact points V and H, where
the tire forces apply, are assumed to take effect each in the middle of the axle
(Figure 3.10). With this, the linear single track model only describes the lateral
dynamics of a vehicle. Using corresponding additional terms, an extension to
the interaction between longitudinal and lateral dynamics is possible (see Section 3.5.6
and Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018). These assumptions already allow a first examination
of the fundamental driving behavior of a motor vehicle with a dry roadway up to

S V
H
+
Figure 3.10: Parameters to describe the linear single track model.

lateral accelerations of ay ≤ 0, 4g ≈ 4 sm2 .7 Above this limit, the linear approaches gener-
ally do not suffice to describe the driving dynamics correctly.
Due to the assumptions made, the only possibilities of movement remaining
for the mechanical replacement model are the yaw angle ψ, appearing with its de-
rivative, the yaw rate8 ψ_ , and the side-slip angle β. The parameters ψ and β, com-
bined with their derivatives, describe the location and movement of the vehicle
body. The side-slip angle describes the deviation of the direction of velocity of the
CoM from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. The steering angle δ of the front
axle is assumed to be given and is thus an input parameter for the model.
3.5.2 Equations of motion of the linear single track model
Below, the equations of motion of a classical linear single track model are derived.
To this end, the symbols described in Table 3.3 are used.
Table 3.3: Parameters of the linear single track model (see also Figure 3.11).
Symbol Description
m, θ Vehicle mass and moment of inertia with respect the zV -axis
lv , lh , l Distance CoM – contact points front/rear, wheelbase
δ, δA Steering angle at the wheel; Ackermann’s angle
ψ, ψ_ Yaw angle, yaw angle velocity
β Side-slip angle
vv , vh Wheel velocity, front/rear
α v , αh Slip angle, front/rear
ρM , ρK Distance CoM – instantaneous center of rotation, radius of curvature, trajectory
To describe its motion, the vehicle body is assumed to be a rigid body (mass m, mo-
ment of inertia θ with respect to the zV -axis). The description of movement of a vehicle
in the xE , yE plane takes place in a road-fixed coordinate system KE = fOE ;xE , yE , zE g
that is assumed to be an inertial system (Figure 3.11).
7 For sports cars partially even higher.

8 Also referred to as yaw angle velocity.
V
K
, O ≡S
ℎ
ℎ
M
K −( − ℎ)
ℎ
K
H ,ℎ
Figure 3.11: Linear single track model – descriptions and coordinate systems.
The CoM of the vehicle moves along a trajectory that can locally be described
by an osculating circle with the radius ρK , circling around the center point KA . For
very small velocities v of the CoM, this point coincides with the instantaneous cen-
ter of rotation M of the motion of the vehicle. Assuming small steering motions and
a large curve radius relative to the dimensions of the vehicle, the steering angle δA
necessary for this purely geometrical motion is results in
l jδA j1, lh ρM l

tan δA = qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ! δA ≈ . (3:1)
ρM − l h
2 2 ρM
The steering angle δA of the front wheels resulting from this connection is called
Ackermann’s angle. In this context it can be derived that a short wheelbase requires
a smaller steering angle δA for the same curve radius ρM .
For any velocities, the velocity of the vehicle according to Figure 3.11 in the
body-fixed coordinate system KV = fOV ;xV , yV , zV g becomes
2 3
v cos β
6 7
V
v = 4 v sin β 5. (3:2)
0
The index “V” denotes the coordinate system in which the physical velocity vector
is depicted.
For the acceleration of the CoM of the vehicle S, the following is also valid for a
body-fixed system
2 3 2 3 2 2 3
_ 3 − v ψ_ + β_ sin β
− v sin β β 0 v cos β 6 7
dV v V 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
V
a= + ω × Vv = 6
4 v cos ββ_ 7
5 + 4 0 5 × 4 v sin β 5 = 6 v ψ_ + β_ cos β 7. (3:3)
dt 4 5
0 ψ_ 0
0
By assuming v = const and β 1, the acceleration a of the center of gravity of the

vehicle is always perpendicular to the velocity of the vehicle, aT v = 0 with the
amount of

an = jan j = a = v ψ_ + β_ . (3:4)
From Figure 3.11 and the definition of instantaneous center of rotation, the radius
of curvature ρK = KS of the trajectory of the center of gravity results in
v
ρK = . (3:5)
_ψ + β_
The radius of curvature ρK can also be calculated directly from the velocity (3.2).
For the radius of curvature of a trajectory,9 its representation of parameters is given
as
" #
xðt Þ
r ðt Þ = , t ≥ 0, (3:6)
yðtÞ
and in the planar case

3
x_ 2 + y_ 2 2
ρK = . (3:7)
x_ €y − €xy_
Since the scalar radius of the circle of curvature is invariant against transformations
of coordinate systems, the body-fixed coordinate system can be used to calculate
the velocity and acceleration vectors. With eqs. (3.2) and (3.3), this results in
3
ðv2 cos2 β + v2 sin2 βÞ2 v3 v
ρK = = = . (3:8)
_ _ _ _ _ _
v cos βv ψ + β cos β + v ψ + β sin β v sin β v ψ + β
2 ψ + β_
_
For the following observations, the acceleration ay of the CoM lateral to the longitu-
dinal axis is needed. For smaller side-slip angles β, with eq. (3.4) in a first approxi-
mation it holds:
9 Trajectory, in this case of the center of gravity.

v2
ay = v ψ_ + β_ cos β ≈ v ψ_ + β_ = . (3:9)
ρK
For the calculation of horizontal tire forces, the velocities of the tire contact points
are necessary (Figure 3.11). These amount to
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
v cos β 0 lv v cos β
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
V
vv = V v + V ω × VS rV = 4 v sin β 5 + 4 0 5 × 4 0 5 = 4 v sin β + lv ψ_ 5, (3:10)
0 _
ψ 0 0
at the front wheels and to

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
v cos β 0 − lh v cos β
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
V
vh = V v + ω × VS rH = 4 v sin β 5 + 4 0 5 × 4 0 5 = 4 v sin β − lh ψ_ 5 (3:11)
0 ψ_ 0 0
at the rear wheels. Here, S rV and S rH are the position vectors from the CoM S of the
vehicle to the tire contact point V in the front, or H in the rear, respectively. The cur-
rent velocity vv of the front axle can be described with eq. (3.10), or alternatively with
the slip angle αv and the steering angle δ in the body-fixed coordinate system KV :
2 3 2 3
v cos β vv cosðδ − αv Þ
6 7 6 7
V
vv = 4 v sin β + lv ψ_ 5 = 4 vv sinðδ − αv Þ 5. (3:12)
0 0
The first two vector components in eq. (3.12) offer a simple relationship for the slip
angle αv at the front axle for small steering angles δ
v sin β + lv ψ_ ψ_ ψ_
tanðδ − αv Þ = ≈ β + lv ! αv = δ − β − lv . (3:13)
v cos β v v
Accordingly, at the rear axis with

2 3 2 3
v cos β vh cos αh
6 7 6 7
V
vh = 4 v sin β − lh ψ_ 5 = 4 − vh sin αh 5, (3:14)
0 0
the relationship
v sin β − lh ψ_ ψ_ ψ_
− tanðαh Þ = ≈ β − lh ! αh = − β + lh (3:15)
v cos β v v
arises.
The preparation of the equations of motion now requires the forces acting on
the vehicle. When considering the position of the CoM S of the vehicle according to
Figure 3.12, the wheel loads, meaning the normal forces between road and wheels,
are

,! ,ℎ
"! "ℎ
Figure 3.12: Wheel loads in the linear single track model.
lh lv
Fz, v = mg and Fz, h = mg . (3:16)
l l
The tire forces can be calculated in this simple case in accordance with Chapter 2,
assuming a linear relationship with the slip angles as
Fy, v = cα, v αv and Fy, h = cα, h αh . (3:17)
Here, the cornering stiffnesses10 cα, v , and cα, h , which are typical values for the tire,
occur (Figure 3.13).
Fy
Linear
range Fz.2 > Fz.1
cα(Fz,2)
Lateral force
Fz,1
cα(Fz,1) Figure 3.13: Relationship between slip angle

and lateral tire forces for different wheel loads
Slip angle α Fz, 1 and Fz, 2 (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
10 Here, it must be noted that, in practice, elastokinematic parts of the suspensions often contrib-
ute to the cornering stiffness.
Outside of the marked linear area in Figure 3.13, the cornering stiffness does not
have a linear relation to the wheel loads. This results in an overall nonlinear rela-
tionship between wheel loads and lateral tire forces:
Fy, v = cα, v ðFz, v Þ αv and Fy, h = cα, h ðFz, h Þ αh . (3:18)
Qualitatively, a correlation emerges as shown qualitatively in Figure 3.14.

Cornering stiffness #$
Figure 3.14: Correlation between cornering stiffness

Vertical wheel force and wheel load (qualitative representation).
Using the accelerations in eq. (3.3), NEWTON’s equation in direction of the vehicle’s
lateral direction results in

mv ψ_ + β_ cos β = cos δ Fy, v + Fy, h . (3:19)
Accordingly, EULER’s equation around the body-fixed vertical axis results in the
relationship
€ = Fy, v cos δlv − Fy, h lh .
θψ (3:20)
When now replacing the expressions for lateral tire forces by the relationships de-
rived from eq. (3.17), as well as (3.13) and (3.15), and bearing in mind cosβ ≈ 1, cosδ ≈ 1
due to jβj, jδj 1, the two equations of motion necessary for the linear single track
model emerge
ψ_
mvβ_ + mv2 + cα, v lv − cα, h lh + ðcα, v + cα, h Þ β = cα, v δ and (3:21)
v
_
θψ € + cα, v l2 + cα, h l2 ψ + ðcα, v lv − cα, h lh Þ β = cα, v lv δ. (3:22)
v h
v
In this case, the mechanical system is not described by two differential equations of
the second order, but rather by one equation of the first order and one of the second
order. This is due to the assumption of a kinematic binding, resulting from the as-
sumption of a constant longitudinal velocity.
With the substitution

" # " #
x1 ψ_
x= = (3:23)
x2 β
finally, the state normal form known from control engineering emerges
" # 2 cα, v l2v + cα, h l2 cα, v lv − cα, h lh
3" # " #
x_ 1 − v1 h − x1 cα, v lv
=4 θ θ 5 + θ
½δ (3:24)
x_ 2 1 cα, v lv − cα, h lh 1 cα, v + cα, h x2 1 cα, v |{z}
− 1 −
|fflffl{zfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl −
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflffl{zfflffl} |fflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl} u
v m
v2 m v m
_x x B
A
with the ½2 × 1-state vector x, the ½2 × 2-system matrix A, the ½2 × 1-control matrix B,
and the ½1 × 1 input vector u. With this, the linear single track model can be inter-
preted and presented as a linear dynamic system (Figure 3.15), which can be investi-
gated with the methods of system dynamics. Especially, the transmission behavior of
the vehicle can be described in simple mathematical terms. The steering angle δ here
acts as the input parameter, while the state of the system is described by the yaw rate
ψ_ and the side-slip angle β, which, combined with the tire forces Fy, v and Fy, h , repre-
sent the output parameters that are generally the most interesting as well.
System- Linear System-

input single track model output
x = [ xx1 ] = [ 𝛽𝜓 ] Yaw rate 𝜓v

2
Steering angle 𝛿 Slip angle 𝛽
x = Ax + Bu
Tire forces Fy,v, Fy,h
Figure 3.15: Description of the linear single track model as a dynamic system.
The depiction in eq. (3.24) is thus a suitable foundation for basic studies of driving
dynamics. These are explained in the following sections, using the linear single
track model. Further descriptions and explanations of the most common driving
maneuvers as well as an explanation of the respective testing conditions can be
found in Section 3.7.
3.5.3 Stationary steering behavior and circular drive
As a simple example of the application of the equations of motion (3.24), the first
examination is that of a steady-state circular drive. Here, it is assumed that the
steering angle δ is chosen in a way that the vehicle moves at a constant velocity on
a circle with a constant radius ρ.
When driving on a circle with a constant radius ρ, the steering angle δ, yaw
angle velocity ψ,_ and the side-slip angle β are held constant, meaning that the fol-
lowing simplifications apply:
δ = const, δ_ = 0, (3:25)
ψ_ = const, ψ
€ = 0, (3:26)
β = const, β_ = 0, and (3:27)
v v
ρK = = = ρ. (3:28)
_ψ + β_ ψ_
With the additional conditions from eqs. (3.25) to (3.28), inserting those in eqs. (3.19)
and (3.20), as well as considering eq. (3.17), transformation reveals the following
relationship:

mv2 lh lv m lh cα, h − lv cα, v v2
αv − αh = − = . (3:29)
ρl cα, v cα, h l cα, v cα, h ρ
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
EG
The expression EG is called self-steering gradient and characterizes the typical reac-
tion behavior of a motor vehicle to steering actions. With this, the following exem-
plary tasks can be processed:
– Which steering wheel angle δH = iL δ with the transmission ratio iL is necessary
for the vehicle to move at the constant velocity v on a circular trajectory with
the radius ρ?
– What typical drive behavior appears if a steering wheel angle δH is suddenly
applied during a straight drive?
– What happens in the transition area (transient steering behavior)?
In order to answer the first question, first the slip angle and the necessary steering
angle for a given circular orbit with the radius ρ are derived. From the slip angle of
the rear wheel (eq. (3.15)), the side-slip angle β of the vehicle can be calculated
using transformations as
ψ_ lh m lv v2
β = lh − αh = − . (3:30)
v ρ cα, h l ρ
The steering angle δ necessary for the circular trajectory results via the slip angle of
the front wheel from eq. Gl. (3.13) to

ψ_ l l m lh cα, h − lv cα, v v2
δ = lv + αv + β = + αv − αh = + = δA + EG ay . (3:31)
v ρ ρ l c v cα, h ρ
|{z} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflα,
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |{z}
δA EG ay
The addend δA is Ackermann’s angle (see also eq. (3.1)), which is only dependent on
the axial distance and the (constant) curvature radius ρ. With increasing velocity v,
the steering angle necessary for a given circular path is amplified or reduced, de-
pending on the sign of the self-steering gradients EG. If the steering angle δ neces-
sary to remain on the circular orbit is larger than Ackermann’s angle δA and therefore
EG > 0, the driving behavior is called under-steering; for EG < 0, on the other hand,
the driving behavior is over-steering. The case EG = 0 features a neutral driving behav-
ior (Figure 3.16).
Steering angle 𝛿
EG = 0
𝛿 = 𝛿A + EG ×ay
2𝛿A
EG > 0
Under steering
l Neutral EG = 0
𝛿A = 𝜌
EG < 0 Under steering
𝜐crit
2
𝜐ch
2 Lateral 𝜐2
𝜌 𝜌 acceleration ay = 𝜌
Figure 3.16: Self-steering gradient in linear observation.
From eq. (3.31), the essential relationship
EG · ay = αv − αh (3:32)
can be observed that allows for a description of the self-steering behavior using the
difference between the slip angle at the front and rear wheels. Over-steering driving
behavior arises, for example, in cases where the slip angle at the rear axis is larger
than that at the front axis.
Now, the other parameters can also be calculated. The yaw rate turns out as
v
ψ_ = = const, (3:33)
ρ
v2
and with ay = the wheel lateral forces
ρ
lh lv
Fy, v = m ay , Fy, h = m ay (3:34)
l l
as well as the slip angles
Fy, v m lh Fy, h m lv
αv = = ay and αh = = ay . (3:35)
cv cα, v l ch cα, h l
If a steering angle δ is applied out of a straight drive, a stationary yaw angle velocity of
v v
ψ_ stat = = δstat (3:36)
ρ l + EG · v2
arises. That means that the yaw angle velocity has different values depending on
the self-steering gradient. This expression is referred to
ψ_ stat v
= (3:37)
δstat l + EG · v2
as yaw gain factor at the velocity v. This factor is small for large self-steering gra-
dients (under-steering vehicle) and large for small (negative) self-steering gradients
(neutral driving behavior or over-steering vehicle, respectively).
For
l
EG = − <0 (3:38)
v2
the denominator in eq. (3.37) becomes zero and thus the yaw gain factor becomes
infinite. In reality this means that the vehicle becomes unstable (more precisely:
leaves the linear range), as even small steering motions in this linear approach
would lead to very large yaw angle velocities. The velocity
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l
vcrit = − , ðEG < 0Þ (3:39)
EG
at which this occurs is called the critical velocity vcrit . Conversely, positive self-
steering gradients allow the calculation of the maximum of yaw gain. By differenti-
ating eq. (3.37) to the velocity v, it follows
!
d ψ_ l − EG · v2 l
= = 0 ! v2ch = . (3:40)
dv δ ðl + EG · v2 Þ2 EG
The velocity vch is called characteristic velocity. It can be interpreted as that velocity
at which the vehicle responds most sensitively to steering motions. Typical values
for vch are between 65 and 100 km=h.
3.5.4 Transient steering behavior and driving stability
To examine the driving stability on a straight drive, the steering angle is set to zero
in eq. (3.24). This constructs a linear, homogeneous State Equation
" # 2 cα, v l2v + cα, h l2 cα, v lv − cα, h lh
3" #
x_ 1 − v1 h − x
=4 θ θ 5 1 (3:41)
x_ 2 − 1 − 1 cα, v lv − cα, h lh
− 1 cα, v + cα, h x2
|fflffl{zfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
v2 m
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflffl{zffl
v m ffl}
x x
A
or in short
" # " #" #
x_ 1 − v1 a11 − a12 x1
= (3:42)
x_ 2 − 1 − v12 a21 − v1 a22 x2
|fflffl{zfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflffl{zfflffl}
x A x
with the coefficients independent of velocity
cα, v l2v + cα, h l2h cα, v lv − cα, h lh cα, v lv − cα, h lh cα, v + cα, h
a11 = , a12 = , a21 = , and a22 = .
θ θ m m
(3:43)
This results in the characteristic polynomial for the system matrix A

1 1
detðλE − AÞ = λ2 + ða11 + a22 Þλ − a12 + 2 ða11 a22 − a12 a21 Þ = λ2 + a1 λ + a2 . (3:44)
v v
As is well known, the linear system from eq. (3.42) is stable, when both coefficients
of the characteristic polynomial are positive. This is obviously always true for a1 .
From the condition for a2 follows

1 cα, v cα, h l2 cα, h lh − cα, v lv 2
a2 = − a12 + 2 ða11 a22 − a12 a21 Þ = 1+ mv > 0. (3:45)
v mθv2 cα, v cα, h l2
This condition is met for any velocity v, if
cα, h lv
cα, h lh > cα, v lv $ > . (3:46)
cα, v lh
If this is not the case, the stability has to at least to be

1 cα, v cα, h l2
v2 < . (3:47)
m cα, v lv − cα, h lh
The right-hand side of inequality (3.47) however is equivalent to the critical velocity
vcrit calculated before. That means that over-steering vehicles can become unsta-
ble, or show signs of nonlinear behavior at a certain speed on a straight drive,
while this is not the case for under-steering vehicles.
3.5.5 Influence of vehicle body roll
Due to its model-based restrictions, the linear single track model does not allow the
description of effects that result from different wheel loads on the same axle, as they
occur, for example, in turning maneuvers. In order to take account of such effects,
more elaborate models are necessary (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018). It is however pos-
sible, for example, for real-time applications or simple studies of fundamentals, to
account for such effects in the discussed single-track models. This is achieved by ex-
panding the models with a simple modeling of rolling of the vehicle body.
To this end, the concepts of roll center and roll axis are introduced (Figures 3.17
and 3.18). The roll axis is formed by connecting the roll centers of the front and rear
axle with an imaginary line. The roll centers are each on a plane that is defined by
being perpendicular to the road and cutting the wheel centers of an axle. The roll cen-
ters are thus those points on the plane in which a lateral force can be applied to the
spring-suspended mass without inducing a kinematic roll angle of the vehicle body.
Roll center
Figure 3.17: Construction of the roll center using the example of a double wishbone suspension.
The principal approach for constructing the roll center is shown in Figure 3.17
using the example of a double wishbone suspension (Table 3.4).
From Figure 3.18, the distance hWS between roll axis and CoM of all sprung
masses along the vertical axis can be calculated:
1
hWS = hS − hW = hS − ðhW, h lv + hW, v lh Þ (3:48)
l
CoM
ℎ%
Roll center Roll axis
ℎ
ℎ% ℎ%,ℎ
ℎ%,!
"! "ℎ
Figure 3.18: Roll center and roll axis.
Table 3.4: Parameters of the linear body roll model.
Symbol Description
lv , lh Distance center of mass (CoM) – tire contact points, front/rear
hW , hWS Height roll center, vertical distance between roll center and CoM
hS = hW + hWS Height of the vehicle CoM over road surface
hW, v , hW, h Height of the front and rear roll center
with l = lv + lh . However, the following limitations apply for this approach:

– Changes in vehicle geometry resulting from forces are not considered. This
means that all equilibrium conditions are formulated for the initial geometry.
– The roll angles and steering angles of the front wheels are assumed to be small.
– The inertial force may perpendicular to the direction of motion is assumed to
be an external applied force acting on the CoM of the body.
– “Inertial load shares” of the wheels or of components of the suspension are
neglected.
– The body mass mA is approximated to be equal to the total vehicle mass m.
– The roll axis is assumed to be parallel to the horizontal plane, that is,
hW = hW, v = hW, h applies.
A three-dimensional spatial roll model is shown in Figure 3.19. The free-cut model
with indicated forces is shown in Figure 3.20. For a simple, two-dimensional, linear
roll model, the front and rear axles are grouped together and the roll axis degenerates
to a point, the roll center W (Figure 3.21) (Ammon 2013) and (Öttgen 2005). As a reac-
tion to the roll torque resulting from the lateral acceleration ay of the vehicle body,
the forces Al, v , Ar, v , Al, h , Ar, h are created by body springs, dampers, and stabilizers in
order to counter the roll torque. The forces that are stationary with respect to the roll
Virtual pivot bearing
Roll axis
Figure 3.19: Simple roll model according to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
' ' ,! ",ℎ

,! %,ℎ
& ,! %,ℎ

,ℎ
",!
%,! ",ℎ
& %,! ,,ℎ
,!
%,ℎ
,! ,,ℎ
1 %,ℎ 1
,,! & ,ℎ ,",ℎ
2 ,! 2 ,ℎ
",!
%,! ,",ℎ
,,!
* %,!
1
&
,! ,",! 2 ,!
,",!
Figure 3.20: Roll model – free-cut according to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
torque Wy, v , Wz, v , Wy, h , Wz, h of the body to the wheel axles are transferred via virtual
pivot bearings and result from the quasistationary equilibrium conditions to
1
Wz, v = mA ðlh g − hWS ax Þ, (3:49)
l
1
Wz, h = mA ðlv g + hWS ax Þ, (3:50)
l
*
'
S

ℎ
W

ℎ% ,
,"

," = 2- ,
Figure 3.21: Linear roll model – forces summarized from front and rear according to Öttgen (2005)
and Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
lh
Wy, v = mA a y , (3:51)
l
lv
Wy, h = mA a y . (3:52)
l
Due to the CoM usually not being at the same level as the roll center W, the roll
angle arising in cornering depends on the lateral acceleration.
The equilibrium of torques for the whole vehicle around the roll center W, com-
bined with each sum for the lateral force and the force vertical to the wheels left
and right Fz, l , Fz, r and Fy, l , Fy, r , the total mass of the vehicle m, the moment of iner-
tia θxx around the roll axis, the distance hWS between CoM and roll center, and the
track width bV = 2sR , results in the relationship

0 = hWS mA ay + hWS mA gφ + hW Fy, l + Fy, r + sR ðFz, l − Fz, r Þ. (3:53)
When taking into account the (quasistationary) equilibrium of forces in lateral

direction
Fy, l + Fy, r = mA ay , (3:54)
eq. (3.53) can be simplified to

0 = hS may + hWS mA gφ + sR Fz, l − Fy, r . (3:55)
Due to the fact that the stiffness principle was applied in the derivation of eq. (3.53),
meaning that the inner forces are not accounted for, the wheel contact forces cannot
be determined for the single wheels due to the static indeterminacy. To do this, the
forces caused by the suspension need to be considered as well. To this end, the vehi-
cle body is cut free (Figure 3.22). EULER’s equation for the body concerning the roll
center results in the equation of motion for the body:
'

ℎ – ℎ%
," .," ," / ., ,

,
/.
/
%
," ,
Figure 3.22: Description of the roll dynamics of the body according to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
€ = hWS cos φmA ay + hWS sin φmA g + sF, v ðFF, l, v − FF, r, v Þ

θA φ
+ sF, h ðFF, l, h − FF, r, h Þ + sD, v ðFD, l, v − FD, r, v Þ
+ sD, h ðFD, l, h − FD, r, h Þ + sSt, v ðFSt, l, v − FSt, r, v Þ
+ sSt, h ðFSt, l, h − FSt, r, h Þ. (3:56)
Here, hWS denotes the distance between CoM and the roll center, sF, ðv=hÞ , sD, ðv=hÞ and
sSt, ðv=hÞ the distance of the spring, damper and stabilizer hardpoints to the middle
plane of the vehicle body, respectively. The vehicle body is considered to be sym-
metrical with respect to the middle plane. Due to the roll angle φ, which is consid-
ered to be small, a shift of the CoM and the points of origin of the lateral axle forces
can be neglected.
For the resulting spring and damper forces on the left and right side, assuming
linear force elements for the front axis, the following relationships arise:
FF, l, v = − cF, v sF, v sin φ ≈ − cF, v sF, v φ, (3:57)
FF, r, v = cF, v sF, v sin φ ≈ cF, v sF, v φ, (3:58)

FD, l, v = − dv sD, v cos φφ_ ≈ − dv sD, v φ,

_ (3:59)
FD, r, v = dv sD, v cos φφ_ ≈ dv sD, v φ.

_ (3:60)
Here cF, v and dv denote the spring and damper constants of the wheel suspen-
sion. The corresponding relationships for the rear axle arise by replacing the
index v by h in eqs. (3.57) to (3.60). The stabilizer forces result from the torque of
the torsion bars with the torsional stiffnesses cSt, v and cSt, h , the stabilizer lengths
lSt, v and lSt, h , as well as the stabilizer arms bSt, v and bSt, h . They can be approxi-
mated as

cSt, v lSt, v 1 cSt, v lSt, v
FSt, l, v = − arcsin sin φ ≈ − φ, (3:61)
bSt, v 2bSt, v 2 b2St, v

cSt, v lSt, v 1 cSt, v lSt, v
FSt, r, v = arcsin sin φ ≈ φ. (3:62)
bSt, v 2bSt, v 2 b2St, v
Here, too, the correlations for the rear axle can be calculated by replacing each the
index v by h. Using eq. (3.57) to (3.62), the equation of motion (3.56) can now be
written as

€ + 2 s2D, v dv + s2D, h dh φ_
θA φ
cSt, v lSt, v sSt, v 2 cSt, h lSt, h sSt, h
+ 2ðs2F, v cF, v + + sF, h cF, h + − hWS mA gÞφ = mA ay hWS .
2b2St, v 2b2St, h
(3:63)
Equation (3.63) represents a vibration differential equation for the roll angle φ.
Here, the roll center is assumed to be fixed. The stimulus on the vehicle body is cre-
ated by the inertial force (centrifugal force) and gravity. This additional equation can
be used for linear, and with restrictions for nonlinear, single-track models in order to
calculate the dynamic forces vertical to each of the four wheels (Schramm, Hiller et al.
2018). These allow, for example, calculations of load change reactions during corner-
ing, including the impact of cornering forces on the over- and under-steering behavior
of vehicles. Furthermore, these models allow an exploration of the influence of pas-
sive and active stabilizers on the driving behavior of motor vehicles (Öttgen 2005).
The moments of inertia and mass as well as all dimensions of length in eq. (3.63)
are generally available for any examined vehicle. Stiffness and damping how-
ever need to be determined, for example, through test driving and subsequent
parameter identification procedures. This can either be done via experiments, or
using virtual experiments with a more complex vehicle model; see, for example
(Öttgen 2005), (Lenthaparambil 2015), (Unterreiner 2013), (Schramm, Hiller et al.
2018).
3.5.6 Quasistatic calculation of dynamic wheel loads
The dynamic wheel loads during cornering with simultaneous acceleration or

braking can be approximated using a quasistatic calculation of the equilibriums of
forces and torques for the body, the front and rear axis. First, the forces and torques
of the wheel suspension result in

1
A ðv=hÞ = cF, ðv=hÞ sF, ðv=hÞ + cSt, ðv=hÞ sSt, ðv=hÞ φ + dðv=hÞ sD, ðv=hÞ φ_ (3:64)
2
and

1
2 2 _
MA, ðv=hÞ = cF, ðv=hÞ sF, ðv=hÞ + cSt, ðv=hÞ sSt, ðv=hÞ φ + dðv=hÞ s2D, ðv=hÞ φ. (3:65)
2
With this, the power balances in vertical and lateral direction can be specified for
both axes:
1
Fz, l, v + Fz, r, v = mA ðlh g − hWS ax Þ, (3:66)
l
1
Fz, l, h + Fz, r, h = mA ðlv g + hWS ax Þ, (3:67)
l
lh
Fy, l, v + Fy, r, v = mA a y , (3:68)
l
lv
Fy, l, h + Fy, r, h = mA ay . (3:69)
l
Furthermore, the equilibria of torques of the axles around the roll axis with respect
to the roll center W result in:

ðFz, l, v − Fz, r, v Þsr + Fy, l, v + Fy, r, v hW = − MA, v , (3:70)

ðFz, l, h − Fz, r, h Þsr + Fy, l, h + Fy, r, h hW = − MA, h . (3:71)
From evaluating eqs. (3.66)–(3.71), with use of eqs (3.64) and (3.65), the desired
wheel contact fores can be determined, resulting in

lh hWS hW 1
Fz, l, v = mA g − ax − ay − Av , (3:72)
2l lh sr sr

lh hWS hW 1
Fz, r, v = mA g − ax + ay + Av , (3:73)
2l lh sr sr

lv hWS hW 1
Fz, l, h = mA g + ax − ay − Ah , (3:74)
2l lv sr sr

lv hWS hW 1
Fz, r, h = mA g + ax + ay + Ah . (3:75)
2l lv sr sr
In order to evaluate eqs. (3.72)–(3.75), the roll angle φ and the roll angle velocity φ_
are necessary, which can be determined by integrating the differential equation
(3.63).
Overall, the dynamic model presented in Figure 3.23 is created, bearing in mind
that for the block “Tire model”, the wheel forces in horizontal direction first need to
be calculated for all four wheels before adding them by axle.
*
4
Single track ' Roll model
' model
Eqn. (3.21), (3.22) Eqn. (3.63)
,",!, ,,!, ,",ℎ, ,,ℎ

,!, ,ℎ
Tire model
Chapter 2
Figure 3.23: Linear single track model with linear roll dynamics as dynamic system.
3.5.7 Effect of wheel load transfer on cornering behavior
The linear single track model with the consideration of roll dynamics can now be
applied to describe the influence of the wheel loads, and in particular the effect of
stabilizers on the driving dynamics of a vehicle. To this end, the nonlinear relation-
ship between the lateral forces of the tires and the wheel loads needs to be consid-
ered. For the lateral force of a tire
Fy = cα ðFz Þα (3:76)
holds with the tire cornering stiffness cα , which is a nonlinear function of the verti-
cal force Fz . As an example, here the ratios at the front axle are observed. In order
to raise a lateral force Fy via both tires of the front axle, the slip angle αv needs to be
adopted, that is, here assumed to be equal for both wheels. According to
Fy, v
αv = , (3:77)
cα, v
this is dependent on the cornering stiffness cα, v , which in turn is a degressive func-
tion of wheel load Fz, v (see Chapter 2 and Figure 3.24).
#$
Δ#$2
Cornering stiffness
Δ#$1
0 Vertical tire force
Δ Δ
Figure 3.24: Degressive dependence of the cornering stiffness on the wheel load.
For the following analysis, the longitudinal acceleration is neglected. Furthermore,

the wheel on the inner side of the curve will be indexed as “i,” and the wheel on
the outer side will have the index “o.” Consequently, the wheel loads Fz, i and Fz, o
emerge. These each can be divided up into a fixed and a variable share, which de-
pends on the lateral acceleration and the roll angle. Therefore,
lh
Fz, i = mA g − ΔFz = Fz0 − ΔFz (3:78)
2l
and
lh
Fz, o = mA g + ΔFz = Fz0 + ΔFz . (3:79)
2l
From this, the lateral forces of the tire result in
Fy, i = cα, v ðFz0 − ΔFz Þαv (3:80)
and
Fy, o = cα, v ðFz0 + ΔFz Þαv . (3:81)
Due to the degressive dependence of the lateral tire forces on the wheel loads, the
loss of lateral forces at the wheel on the inside of the bend is larger than the gain
on the outer wheel, that is,
Fy, i + Fy, o = cα, v ðFz0 − ΔFz Þαv + cα, v ðFz0 + ΔFz Þαv < 2cα, v ðFz0 Þαv . (3:82)
Resulting from this, a new slip angle α v > αv needs to be set so that the equal sign is
valid for eq. (3.82), if this is physically possible in the corresponding driving situa-
tion. With this, the steering behavior also changes with the self-steering gradient
EG according to eq. (3.32). The change in wheel load ΔFz increases according to
eq. (3.65) with the stiffness of the stabilizer. The effect described is thus amplified
at an axle with stabilizer. Stabilizers are usually fitted on the front axle of motor
vehicles in order to enlarge the slip angle compared to the rear axle and to thus
rather achieve an under-steering driving behavior (eq. (3.32)).
This physical effect of the tire behavior also offers the opportunity to influence
the dynamics of the vehicle using an actively caused change of wheel load distribu-
tion in front and rear axle. That way, for example, fitting active stabilizers (see
Section 3.10.6) can influence the driving behavior of a vehicle during driving to-
ward either under-steering or neutral.11
3.6 Description of fundamental properties of dynamics

in the general case
An important property of motor vehicles is the driving behavior under the influence
of lateral acceleration ay (see Section 3.5.2). The driving behavior is decisively influ-
enced by the change in wheel position through the effect of force, the property of
tires to transfer forces (Heißing and Ersoy 2011), as well as the constructive vehicle
variables. In order to characterize the lateral dynamic driving behavior of a vehicle,
knowledge of the reaction of the vehicle to a steering angle as well as a quantitative
description of the driving behavior are necessary. In this section, the objective pa-
rameters necessary for this are described, upon which the analysis in Chapter 4, 5,
and 6 are built as well. These parameters are calculated here from the output pa-
rameters (e.g., centripetal acceleration, yaw rate, side-slip angle, and roll angle) in
combination with the input parameters (e.g., steering wheel angle and vehicle ve-
locity). The open- and closed-loop driving maneuvers (see Section 3.7) used in vehi-
cle development in order to evaluate the driving properties of new vehicles are
tightly linked with the assessment parameters.
11 Of course, a vehicle can also be constructed to be over-steering; this is however usually not advis-
able due to driving stability. However, within the framework of using active systems, the possibility
of at least temporarily over-steering a vehicle in certain driving situations arises to increase agility.
3.6 Description of fundamental properties of dynamics in the general case 107
Table 3.5 and Figure 3.25 describe important kinematic and geometric proper-
ties of the vehicle.
Table 3.5: Kinematic and geometric parameters at the vehicle (see also Figure 3.25).
Symbol Description
Side-slip angle, angle between the velocity of the center of mass of the
β
vehicle, and the longitudinal axis in the xI , yI -plane
ψ_ Yaw rate (yaw angle velocity) of the vehicle body relative to KE
vV Velocity of the center of mass of the vehicle
δi , i = 1, 2 Steering angle of the wheel
αi , i = 1, . . . , 4 Side-slip angle of the wheel
vR i , i = 1, . . . , 4 Velocity of the wheel center
ay Lateral acceleration of the center of mass of the vehicle
λv, h Ratio of axle loads mh =ðmv + mh Þ
lv = l λv, h Distance from center of mass to front axle
lh = l ð1 − λv, h Þ Distance from center of mass to rear axle
l = lv + lh Wheelbase
bV Track width
The driving behavior describes the dynamic response of the vehicle to steering
input. The differentiation between stationary and dynamic driving behavior is dis-
cussed in the following sections.
3.6.1 Stationary driving behavior
The so-called stationary driving behavior describes how the vehicle responds to con-
stant (stationary) input variables. The steady-state circular drive offers a way to
study stationary driving behavior (see Section 3.7.1). The maneuver describes the
yaw reaction of the vehicle to the stationary steering wheel turn of the driver. An
excessive yaw reaction to the steering motion is called unstable (over-steering); a
response that is too weak is called stable (under-steering). The yaw behavior of the
vehicle is also called self-steering behavior. Self-steering describes the steering
wheel angle requirements during cornering. The steering wheel angle requirement
changes depending on the velocity of the vehicle vV , the radius of curvature ρ, and
the resulting lateral acceleration ay (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
6 Indices: 1: VL
2: VR
3: HL
"ℎ "! 4: HR
OI
6
$1
!-1 1
$3
!-3 !
OV

$2
!-2 2
'
$4
!- 4
Figure 3.25: Kinematic and geometric parameters at the vehicle.
3.6.1.1 Self-steering gradient

One method to describe the self-steering behavior is the comparison of the slip
angle αi ði = v, hÞ between front and rear axle during stationary12 circular driving.
However, measuring the slip angles is very expensive. That is why a less elaborate
method is preferred, in which the self-steering behavior is characterized by the self-
steering gradient (EG). The self-steering gradient generally results from the need to
increase of the steering wheel angle δH = iL δ with the steering angle δ of the wheel
and the steering ration iL as a function of the lateral acceleration ay . These parame-
ters can, for example, be recorded using the standard sensors for the Electronic
Stability Program (ESP) (Reif 2010). To do this, the self-steering behavior is de-
scribed with the changing steering wheel angle requirement, which is connected to
an increase of lateral acceleration by the nonlinear self-steering gradient

1 ∂ΔδH 1 ∂δH ∂δA
EG = = − (3:83)
iL ∂ay iL ∂ay ∂ay
12 Fundamentally, the steady-state circular drive is a closed-loop maneuver as the driver has to
adjust the steering angle to remain on course with increasing velocity. As this almost describes a
steady state, this maneuver is defined as steady state.
(Zomotor 1991). The additional steering wheel angle requirement ΔδH and the
Ackermann portion δHA of the steering wheel angle add to
δH = δHA + ΔδH . (3:84)
If the steering wheel angle requirement increases with an increasing centripetal ac-
celeration, the result is under-steering (EG > 0). If otherwise the steering wheel
angle requirement decreases with an increasing centripetal acceleration, the result
is over-steering (EG < 0). If the steering wheel angle requirement remains constant
with changing lateral acceleration, the result is neutral steering (EG = 0).
Main features of the curve shape in Figure 3.26 are as follows:
Steering wheel angle δH
Neutral steering
Under-steering
дδH
EG = Over-steering
дay
δA
Lateral acceleration ay,max ay
Figure 3.26: Self-steering gradient in steady-state circular drive.
– the intersection of the curve with the ordinate, which corresponds to Ackermann’s
angle δA ,
– the slope in different areas of acceleration, and
– the maximum possible centripetal acceleration.
Ackermann’s angle δA depends on the wheelbase l and the curvature radius ρ. The
gradient and the maximum centripetal acceleration depend on the mass and CoM of
the vehicle, the CoM of the suspensions, and the parameters of the tires. The curve
for the under-steering vehicle (Figure 3.26) can be divided up into a linear and a non-
linear part. For the linear part, the curve has a constant slope (EG is assumed con-
stant). For the nonlinear part, the self-steering gradient rises. This is because the
lateral wheel forces at the front axle reach their saturation (see Chapter 2) and the
front axle moves laterally (vehicle is under-steering). For a lower self-steering gradi-
ent in the linear region, the vehicle responds more directly to steering input.
3.6.1.2 Yaw gain

In order to take into account the relationships in the overall system of driver and
vehicle, the reaction of the vehicle to the steering input needs to be observed. To
this end, as it is usual in control engineering, the output parameter yaw angle ve-
locity (also called yaw rate) ψ_ is correlated with the input parameter of the steering
wheel angle δH . The ratio
ψ_
GV = (3:85)
δH
is called yaw gain factor (Zomotor 1987). For an instationary circular drive, the yaw
gain (GV) is observed dependent on the velocity of the vehicle. It defines the sta-
tionary reaction to the steering motion, describes steering sensitivity, and indicates
the intensity of the reaction at a certain velocity to the input of a steering wheel
angle. With increasing yaw gain, the agility (reaction to steering angle inputs) of a
vehicle increases, while the stability of the vehicle decreases.
The curve of the yaw gain contains a maximum only for stable vehicles. The
corresponding velocity is the characteristic velocity vch , at which the vehicle has
the highest steering sensitivity (Figure 3.27). Vehicles with a rather neutral driving
behavior exhibit an excessive yaw gain for large velocities and thus have a low
Instable
EG < 0
𝛿H
𝜓v
0
=
Y aw gain
EG
Stable
EG > 0
vch vcrit
Vehicle velocity v
Figure 3.27: Stationary yaw gain in a circular drive.

stability margin. For instable vehicles, the curve of the yaw reaction at a defined
velocity approaches infinity. This velocity is then again called critical velocity vcrit .
Further significant features of the curve are
ψ_
– the magnitude of yaw gain δ V and
H
– the characteristic velocity vch (maximum yaw gain)
3.6.1.3 Roll angle gradient

The roll angle gradient (RG) describes the lateral tilt for stationary circle drives de-
pending on lateral acceleration. To this end, the roll angle φ is described using lat-
eral acceleration ay (Figure 3.28). The roll behavior mostly depends on the track,
the CoM, the roll center axis, the spring and damping element, the stabilizer, as
well as the kinematics and elasticity of the suspension. Those components also af-
fect the self-steering behavior. The roll behavior has an influence on the comfort
and driving stability. The roll angle gradient φ=ay can largely be characterized to be
constant, as long as there are no active stabilizers used (Lenthaparambil 2015) and
(Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
Roll angle *
Δ*
RG =
Δ'8
Figure 3.28: Qualitative characteristics of the roll

angle via lateral acceleration for a steady-state
Centrifugal force ' circular drive.
3.6.1.4 Side-slip angle gradient

The side-slip angle gradient (SG) describes the characteristics of the side-slip angle β
over the centripetal acceleration (Figure 3.29). The initial side-slip angle β0 is based
on the curvature radius ρ and the distance from the rear axle to the center of mass lh .
The increase of the curve is strongly linked with the degressive characteristic be-
havior of the lateral force on the rear axis (Wimmer 1997). As shown in
Figure 3.29, the SG is constant for low acceleration and grows with rising lateral
acceleration.
Side slip angle β
Stability margin
Δβ
SG =
Δay
β0 Rear stability
Lateral acceleration ay
Figure 3.29: Qualitative path of the side-slip angle over centripetal acceleration in a steady-state
circular drive.
The initially only constant ratio SG describes the rear stability and for larger accel-
erations the stability margin of the vehicle. Additionally, the side-slip angle changes
signs for larger accelerations. This is due to the growing slip angle on the wheels with
increasing centripetal acceleration. The instantaneous center of the curve shifts with
increasing lateral acceleration from the height of the rear axle (on which it lays during
very low lateral acceleration) towards the direction of travel. If the projected center of
the curve lies in front of the CoM of the vehicle, the side-slip angle changes signs
(Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
3.6.2 Instationary driving behavior
In order to improve the evaluation of the driving behavior, the vehicle reaction to
instationary, or dynamic steering angle input needs to be analyzed. For instationary
driving behavior it is especially interesting to find out how the dynamic behavior of
a vehicle reacts to dynamic input of steering angles. To investigate the dynamic
transmission behavior, frequency response, and step steering input are suitable pa-
rameters, (see Sections 3.7.2 and 3.7.3).
3.6.2.1 Frequency response

Similar to the analysis of stationary behavior, the instationary behavior relates the
output to the input.
In order to determine the frequency response, the vehicle can be stimulated

using a steering wheel motion in shape of a sinus curve with constant amplitude
and linearly increasing frequency (see Section 3.7.2). By using a harmonious stimu-
lation such as sine steering, the instationary lateral dynamics dependency on the
frequency become apparent.
The parameters of movement of the vehicle react with a sinusoidal behavior as
well. In Figure 3.30, the chronological sequence of the system stimulation (steering
wheel angle δH ) and the system response (yaw rate ψ) _ are represented as an exam-
ple. The change in amplitude and the increasing phase shift of the yaw rate toward
the steering wheel angle become apparent with increasing frequency.
20
15
10
−5
−10 𝛿H/°
−15 𝜓/°/s
−20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time/s
Figure 3.30: Time signal of the frequency response.
The frequency response describes the transmission of the temporal vehicle momen-
tum into the frequency domain, by calculation the transmission function for differ-
ent quantities. Mainly, to describe the instationary vehicle behavior
_
– the yaw velocity frequency response (yaw frequency (GF)) δψ ,
H a
– the lateral acceleration frequency response (lateral frequency (QF)) δ y , or
H
– the roll angle frequency response (roll frequency (WF)) δφ
H
are used. When presenting the amplitude ratio and phase shift from output to input
signal within the frequency range, amplitude and phase responses arise.
Figure 3.31 represents the amplitude and phase response of the yaw velocity
_
transfer ψ=δ (Bode diagram). The yaw velocity transmission shows an amplitude
peak at approx. 0.9 Hz. This frequency corresponds to the yaw velocity eigenfre-
quency. This means that at this point, the yaw reaction of the vehicle to steering
Amplitude / o
0.2
0
Phase / o
-45
0 0.2 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Frequency/Hz
Figure 3.31: Frequency response using the example of the yaw rate (amplitude and phase
progression).
input is at its strongest. The stationary yaw gain (see Section 3.6.1) corresponds to
the amplitude response from 0 Hz. For higher frequencies, the amplitude de-
creases monotonously, corresponding to a low-pass behavior. The phase has a
lower phase shift for lower frequencies, which does however increase for higher
frequencies.
Information about the behavior of the vehicle under the influence of sinusoi-
dal input can be gained using the frequency response. Furthermore it can be de-
termined, at which frequency the reaction of the vehicle to the steering input is
amplified, or dampened, and what the phase shift between both reactions is. The
eigenfrequency at which the maximum elevation of the amplitude response is
reached, and the extent of the elevation compared to the stationary case can be
concluded as well (Meljnikov 2003) and (Zomotor 2002). According to Schindler
(2007) and Zomotor (1987) only the frequency range under 2.0 Hz 13 is of interest
as the frequency spectrum of the steering wheel angle created by the human
driver does not have any considerable use above this frequency. When driving on
a highway, the base frequencies around approx. 0.1 Hz are dominant. For a double
lane change, they are between 0.6 and 1.1 Hz (Schindler 2007).
13 Sports cars up to 4 Hz.

3.6.2.2 Step steer input

For the steering wheel angle step, an abrupt excitation over time is used to examine
the driving behavior. The same maneuver is described in Section 3.7.3. Here, the vehi-
cle drives at a constant velocity on a straight line, before a steering angle of δL0 is
applied at time t0 . This method examines the transition behavior of a vehicle from a
straight line to a steady-state-circular drive. For a step steering input, the output pa-
rameter is correlated with the input parameter and called yaw rate transition for the
yaw rate.
The vehicle reacts to a steering wheel angle step by increasing the movement
parameters (yaw rate, lateral acceleration) and the positional parameters (roll
angle). Those parameters first increase to a higher value than the stationary values
corresponding to the steering angle δLstat (overshoot). The final stationary steady-
state values are reached after some oscillations (Zomotor 1987). In systems dynam-
ics, this corresponds to the step response.
The delayed build-up of the lateral axle forces results in a delayed reaction of
the vehicle, the “two-phase vehicle reaction.” It is described using two points in
time. The first one describes the front axle response time, at which the building of
the yaw rate begins (Figure 3.33). The second point in time marks the response of
the rear axle, at which the build-up of the lateral acceleration begins. Especially for
under-steering vehicles, substantial time differences can occur. Using the differ-
ently timed yaw velocity and lateral acceleration development, the response times
and damping of the vehicle reaction can be determined. To summarize, the vibra-
tion amplitudes and settling time depend on the damping and the eigenfrequency
of the system.
The speed of the driver’s steering ability is limited and thus the step steering
input is closer to a ramp (Figure 3.32). In Figure 3.33, the typical yaw rate response of
a vehicle to the step steering input is presented. Important values are the maximum
reached yaw rate ψ_ max , and the corresponding response time Tψ_ as well as the
max
40
35
Steering wheel angle/ o
30
25
20
𝛿L0
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t0
Figure 3.32: Steering wheel angle step.

9
8
7
6
Yaw rate/(°/s)
5
. .
4 max stat
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 . Time/s
max
Figure 3.33: Vehicle yaw motion after steering wheel angle step.
stationary yaw rate ψ_ stat (Zomotor 1991), (Zomotor and Roenitz 1997). The overshoot
value can be defined as the ratio of maximum and stationary value Uψ_ = ψ_ max =ψ_ stat .
In order to evaluate the transitional behavior, the following parameters are
used primarily:
ψ_
– yaw transition (GU) ,
δH
ay
– lateral transition (QU) ,
δH
φ
– roll transition (WU) .
δH
Those values are additionally normalized by dividing the corresponding transition

behavior by the corresponding stationary end value, for example, GUnorm = GUGU .
stat
3.7 Standard driving maneuvers
In Section 3.6, assessment parameters were defined to qualitatively describe the

stationary and instationary driving behavior. In this section, standardized driving
maneuvers for an evaluation of driving dynamics are presented, which support
the gain of objective, and thus comparable vehicle parameters. The standard driv-
ing maneuvers described here are still predominantly carried out with test ve-
hicles up to today. However, in order not only to save costs but also to shorten
development times, great efforts are also being made to replace them with more
cost-effective procedures. Besides simulations (see Sections 3.8.4 and Section 3.9
and (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018)) this also includes tests in driving simulators
(see, e.g., Chapter 10 and (Ronellenfitsch, Degenhart et al. 2018)) or specific trials on
test benches (Lefevre 2020), often in combination with real driving tests (Düsterloh,
Uselmann et al. 2018).
Basically, a distinction is made between open-loop and closed-loop maneuvers.
In open-loop maneuver, the driver is ignored and thus does not have any influence
on the measuring result. In a closed-loop maneuver, the style of driving has an im-
portant role. Thus, a comparability of results is limited, for example, for cases in
which drivers with a similar driving style, or steering robots are utilized.
Table 3.6 describes three open-loop driving maneuvers that are suitable for the ob-
servation of stationary conditions and instationary transmission behavior of vehicles.
Table 3.6: Open-loop driving maneuver for the determination of vehicle properties.
Driving Standard Evaluation Results

maneuver
Steady-state (ISO Stationary state of Self-steering gradient, stationary yaw

circular drive ) equilibrium gain, and roll angle gradient
Continuous (ISO Instationary behavior in Frequency-dependent amplitude and

sine ) the frequency range phase response
Step steering (ISO Instationary behavior in Response times, transient response

input ) the time domain
With standardized driving maneuvers it is possible to create measurements of dif-

ferent vehicles gained from different test areas that are consistent, reproducible,
and comparable. This creates not only the so-called benchmarks for different ve-
hicles but also the possibility to compare previous models.
For a precise and reproducible measurement it is important to minimize environ-
mental influences for all driving maneuvers, for example, by using a dry and flat
road surface (Meyer-Tuve 2008). An increasingly more important application for stan-
dardized driving behaviors lies in the validation of simulation models with which –
unlike in real test drives – objective data can be determined in early stages of devel-
opment (Kobetz 2004). To increase comparability, the different steering transmissions
of each vehicle need to be considered.
3.7.1 Maneuver steady-state circular drive
The driving maneuver “Steady-State Circular Drive” according to (ISO 2012) is an im-
portant standard testing method both for the real test mode as well as the simulation
technology. It is used to analyze the steering tendency, the driving behavior, and the
stability of motor vehicles up until the threshold using the parameters EG, GV, and
SG, and to make fundamental statements about the driving characteristics (see
Section 3.6.1).
In order to evaluate driving behavior, parameters such as steering wheel angle,
vehicle velocity, side-slip angle, roll angle, lateral acceleration, and yaw angle ve-
locity are recorded.
There are four methods to record the values for the steady-state drive (ISO
2012). Here, the method of a constant radius is described as it is best suited for a
limited test-driving area.
On an circular radius of at least 30 m, a right and left circle are driven at a
slowly and consistently increasing velocity. The steering wheel angle must be
adjusted at the start of the maneuver in a way that the vehicle is within the speci-
fied radius at minimum speed. The lateral acceleration is slowly and monotonously
increased up until the threshold at which it is not possible anymore to maintain the
stationary condition. The driver has to adjust the steering angle in a way that the
vehicle remains on the circular track. As the driver is a part of the control circuit,
this is technically a closed-loop maneuver. However, due to the quasistationary
testing condition, this maneuver is easily reproducible for an experienced driver,
and the driver has little influence on the behavior of the system (Rau 2007). That is
why this steady-state circular drive is defined as an open-loop maneuver.
3.7.2 Frequency response
In order to determine the lateral transmission behavior of a vehicle in the linear

range, the driving maneuver “Frequency Response” is used, which is defined in
DIN/ISO (1989) or ISO/TR 8726 (1988). Here, the vehicle is considered to be a time
invariant system, and the frequency response corresponds to a sine sweep with
which the transmission behavior can be determined. As evaluation criteria, the
zoom function (amplitude ratio) and the phase angle of the centripetal acceleration,
the yaw angle velocity, and the roll angle in relation to the steering wheel angle
within the frequency domain are used.
In this experiment, the sinusoidal steering frequencies, starting with 0.1 Hz and
slowly increased up to 3.0 Hz, are driven through using a constant steering wheel
angle amplitude at a constant velocity (usually 100 km=h). The steering wheel ampli-
tude is chosen depending on the driving velocity in such a way that a lateral acceler-
ation of approx. 4 m=s2 (optionally 2 m=s2 or 6 m=s2 ) is reached for low frequencies
(quasistationary) (Meljnikov 2003).
There are two methods used for increasing the frequency. In the first method,
the frequencies are varied gradually before sorting the measured data into different
frequency classes and observing the resulting distribution. The measurements are
repeated until every frequency class is adequately represented. In the second
method (also called slide sine or sine sweep maneuver), the frequency ranges from
0.1 to 3.0 Hz are driven through at 0.1 Hz increments. To this end, it is necessary to
either offer the driver a frequency clock generator, or to utilize a steering robot. The
advantage compared to the first method lies in the fact that the vehicle is in a
steady state and it can be implemented more quickly.
In order to determine amplitudes and phase angles of the input signals (steer-
ing wheel angle) to the output signals (yaw angle velocity, centripetal acceleration,
and roll angle), for example, the MATLAB-function transfer function estimate (esti-
mation of the linear, time invariant transfer function) can be used. This determines
the relationship of the cross power spectrum density of the input and output signals
and the power density spectrum of the input signal. The transfer of data in the fre-
quency domain can be achieved using the Fourier transformation. Additionally, a
coherence function can be calculated, which allows for a plausibility control of the
measuring signals concerning consistency.
3.7.3 Step-steer input
With the driving maneuver Step-Steer Input according to DIN/ISO (1989), it is possi-
ble to analyze both the stationary and the instationary driving behavior in the linear
and nonlinear range. In the experiment, the steering wheel is moved during a sta-
tionary straight drive at a constant velocity (usually 100 km=h), with a steering
wheel angle velocity that is as high as possible (between 200 and 500 =s) against a
stop value (δL0 ), to reach a curved path (steady-state circular drive). This results in
a ramp-shaped steering excitation (Figure 3.32), as it is not possible to realize a per-
fect step input due to physical constraints.
The amplitude of the change of steering angle is chosen depending on the ve-
locity of the vehicle such that stationary different tire force interactions occur up to
the tire limits.
The evaluation criteria for the step-steer input are based on the chronological
sequence of the lateral acceleration and yaw velocity reactions of the vehicle.
Additionally, side-slip angles and roll angles can be observed.
The reaction of the vehicle to the step-steer input corresponds to the entrance
in a circular path, while the increase of driving dynamics parameters should on the
one hand be sufficiently dampened, but on the other hand be as quickly as possi-
ble. The maneuver is driven for both, left and right steering angle inputs.
3.7.4 Double lane change
The “Double Lane Change” is one of the standard test methods in the instationary
range (ISO 1975) and (ISO 2000). The testing method aims to evaluate the driving
behavior of a motor vehicle in a closed-loop situation relevant in practical driving.
To this end, the test simulates an evasive maneuver including steering back to the
right track. A slightly modified version of this test became famous in 1997 under the
name “Elk Test.” Today, the test is an integral part of the testing program of auto-
motive companies, test magazines, and organizations.
The dimensions of the test track are defined with a length of the track of 110 m
and a lateral offset of 3.5 m. The width is set depending on each test vehicle. Using
light barriers at the beginning and end of the test section, transit time is measured.
The assessment criterion is the transit time mean of at least three clean drives, in
which the pylons must not be touched. In many cases, other driving dynamics pa-
rameters are used next to the measurement of time in order to investigate the insta-
tionary driving characteristics. Those include:
– steering wheel angle,
– steering wheel torque,
– lateral acceleration,
– yaw rate,
– velocity, and
– side-slip and roll angle.
In order to evaluate the quality of the driving behavior of the tested vehicle, the re-
quired steering wheel motion and the resulting lateral acceleration are used among
others (Figure 3.34).
3.8 Chassis systems and suspensions
The interface between the wheels and the vehicle body is realized by the chassis,
which in turn consists of the front and rear wheel suspension. There are various
types of suspension systems available in vehicles. One task of the wheel suspension
is to guide the wheel relative to the vehicle body in a way that the tire–road contact
is optimized in every driving situation. With this, and using additionally body
springs and dampers, it can be ensured that the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical
forces can be redirected to the vehicle body in such a way that all requirements to
driving comfort and safety can be fulfilled. Figure 3.35 shows an overview of the
tasks of the chassis system.
3.8.1 Overview of the characteristics of wheel suspensions
Starting from a single wheel, the first thing necessary is a wheel carrier, which con-
tains the hub and the bearings, as well as the brake, and (for driven axles) a provision
that is connected to the drive shaft. There are three ways of connecting the wheel car-
rier to the body that have prevailed:
125
30 25 25
12.5 12.5
15 15
Pylon
15
7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
7.5 7.5 2
3.5 3.5
3
1
1: 1.1 ∙ vehicle width + 0.25 m

2:1.2 ∙ vehicle width + 0.25 m
3: 1.3 ∙ vehicle width + 0.25 m
Figure 3.34: Double lane change (all dimensions in m) according to ISO (2002); see also
(Reński 2001).
Small vertical body Adapted yaw

accelerations dynamics
Small pitch and roll
accelerations
Deflection
space limited
by packaging
Ground clearance and

Small wheel load vibration behavior load
Reliable transmission of dependent
longitudinal and lateral forces f luctuations
Figure 3.35: Requirements to the chassis system (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
3.8.1.1 Rigid axles

In rigid axles, the wheel carriers are joined together using a rigid axle that essen-
tially allows translational movement along the vertical axis, as well as rotation
around the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. This type of wheel suspension is rarely
used in passenger cars today, and if it is, it is usually used on the rear axle.
3.8.1.2 Twist-beam axles

Twist-beam axles are derived from rigid axles. However, they furthermore allow a
one-sided deflection through an elastic deformation of the axle beam.
3.8.1.3 Individual wheel suspension

In an individual wheel suspension, both wheel carriers are guided in a way that
they can move independently from each other primarily in vertical direction. For all
types, another degree of freedom is added for steered axles, which allows the rota-
tion of the wheel carrier around its vertical axis. An overview of most common
wheel suspensions is shown in Figure 3.36.
Five link Double wishbone Spring-strut

wheel suspension wheel suspension wheel suspension
(Section 3.8.2)
Multilink Trapezoidal link Control-blade

wheel suspension wheel suspension wheel suspension
(Section 3.8.3)
Figure 3.36: Examples of common independent wheel suspensions (schematic diagram) according
to Bosch, Reif et al. (2014).
Of the wheel suspensions shown in the illustration, the MacPherson axle is the
predominant choice for the front axle, followed by the double wishbone axle
(Heißing and Ersoy 2011) and (Kracht, Baum et al. 2016)
While two axle variants play a dominant role on the front axle, the variety of dif-
ferent rear axle types is considerably wider. Here the twist-beam axles as well as the
rigid axles and multilink axles are represented in roughly equal proportions. In 2010,
they accounted for approximately three quarters of all axle types used. The rest is
made up of the other axle variants (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
A MacPherson front axle suspension and a double wishbone rear axle suspen-
sion are exemplarily discussed in more detail below.
3.8.2 MacPherson spring-strut axle suspension
One of the most common suspension types at the front axle is the MacPherson
wheel suspension as a special implementation of the spring-strut wheel suspension
(Figure 3.37). It has since then continuously been improved upon and utilized, and
has become a standard design for many compact and mid-size vehicles (Unterreiner
2013). The MacPherson spring-strut axle suspension is an individual wheel suspen-
sion, at which the spring-damper element partially takes over the guidance of the
wheel (Heißing and Ersoy 2011). As advantages of this design, there are low un-
sprung masses, a wide support base, comparably low forces on the joints, and low
spatial requirements. Due to the space-saving design and the low-cost construction,
this suspension type is very common in cars and light trucks (Heißing and Ersoy
Body spring (4)
Piston rod (5A)
Rack and pinion steering (8)

Damper housing (5B)
Pendulum support (2B)
Steering lever (6)

Steering link (7)
Wheel carrier
(1)
Antiroll bar (2A)

Wheel (10)
Elastic bearing (9)
Wishbone (3)
Figure 3.37: MacPherson wheel suspension of a compact car according to Schramm,

Hiller et al. (2018).
2011). The disadvantage of the MacPherson wheel suspension lies in the inadequate
spatial wheel guidance in dynamically challenging driving situation, as they occur,
for example, in racing. The following model is based mainly on the elaborations
concerning the MacPherson wheel suspension in (Schnelle 1990), (Unterreiner
2013), and (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
In Figure 3.37, a conventional spring-strut suspension is shown. The wheel (10)
is pivoted on the wheel carrier (1). The wheel carrier is firmly connected to the
lower half of the damper, the damper tube (5B). The piston rod (5A), the upper half
of the damper, slides inside the wheel carrier fixed pipe of the damper (5B), and is
mounted to the vehicle body at its upper end. The piston rod (5A), and the damper
tube (5B) together form the damper and kinematically create a slider element. The
components (4), (5A), and (5B) are also called spring-strut. The spring-strut thus is
the connection between wheel carrier and the body of the vehicle and serves as the
guide for the wheel carrier (slide guide). The spring-strut serves to spring the vehi-
cle, to limit the compression and rebound travel (extension stop and compression
stop), and to dampen vibration. The spring (4) is propped up against the body at
the piston rod (5A). At the lower spring plate, the antiroll bar (2A) acts as a further
force element via the pin-ended support (2B). Wishbone (3) and wheel carrier (1) are
connected via a ball joint. The wishbone (3), which is mounted to the body of the
vehicle via two wishbone bearings, also guides the wheel carrier.
The steering motion is initiated via the tie rod (7), which has ball joints on both
sides, to the steering lever (6), which is a part of the wheel carrier (1). The steering
motion is introduced to the tie rod by a shift in the rack steering (8) in the direction
transverse to the vehicle via a ball joint. The steering motion of the wheel is realized
by turning the wheel carrier around the steering axis, which passes through the
connecting line in between the ball joint on the spring-strut, and the wishbone. The
wheel carrier gives in (evasion) longitudinal direction, which leads to a safer and
more comfortable driving behavior. The longitudinal evasion of the front axle is
reached through the comfort lateral bearing (9), which allows for a slight rotation
of the wishbone around a vertical axis.
3.8.3 Multilink wheel suspension
In many vehicles, the rear axle is constructed as a multilink wheel suspension with
each four links (Figures 3.38 and 3.39) (Unterreiner 2013). It is called four-link wheel
suspension, or control-arm wheel suspension (Heißing and Ersoy 2011). Spring (6) and
damper (7) are arranged separately and supply vertical support and vibration damp-
ing. The wheel carrier (1) is connected to the body via a sword-like arm (2) and is
mounted rotatable in longitudinal direction. This mobile trailing arm (2) is firmly con-
nected to the wheel carrier (Figure 3.38). Due to its elastic properties, and depending
Damper (7) Wheel carrier (1)

Body spring (6)
Wheel (9)
Transverse control arm (3)
Spring control arm

Antiroll bar (8)
Driving direction
Tie rod (4)
Trailing link (2)
Figure 3.38: Multilink wheel suspension at the rear axle of a compact car (front view)
(Unterreiner 2013).
Damper (7)
Steering link (4)
Trailing link (2) Transverse control

arm (3)
Body spring (6)
Spring control arm (5)

Wheel (9)
Wheel carrier (1)
Driving direction
Figure 3.39: Multilink wheel suspension at the rear axle of a compact car (rear view)
(Unterreiner 2013).
on the other laterally arranged arms (3, 4, and 5), it allows both for changes of the
track and the camber.
The transverse control arm (3), the tie rod (4), and the spring control arm (5)
absorb the wheel lateral forces. The separation of longitudinal and lateral force
support is characteristic property of the multilink wheel suspension. On the one
hand, its construction leads to a high lateral stiffness in favor of optimized han-
dling; on the other hand, it allows for an elasticity in longitudinal direction,
which improves ride comfort (Heißing and Ersoy 2011). However, larger spatial re-
quirements and more individual components lead to higher costs. This is why this
type of suspension is usually only used in higher quality vehicles of the middle
and premium class. Over time, this wheel suspension has also entered the com-
pact class vehicles due to its good kinetic and kinematic properties (Heißing and
Ersoy 2011).
The MBS14 model of the suspension, as seen in Figure 3.40 using the example
of the left rear wheel, consists of a wheel carrier (1), two underlying transverse con-
trol arms (tie rod (4), and spring control arm (5)), and a transverse control arm at
the top (3). The kinematic substitute model of the flexible longitudinal arm consists
of a rigid trailing arm (2), which is connected to the wheel carrier via a rotational
joint R, and to the body via a spherical joint S. A more accurate model of the flexible
arm can be reached using the initial function that is derived using a static finite-
elements analysis. When limiting to an initial linear function, the joint has one de-
gree of freedom, as shown in Figure 3.40.
Trailing arm (2) Wheel carrier (1)
Transverse control arm (3)

S zc Spring displacement
S S S Spherical joint
S R Rotational joint
R Tie rod (4)
S S
S
Driving direction
Spring control arm (5)
Figure 3.40: Rigid body model of the rear multilink wheel suspension on the left wheel
(Unterreiner 2013).
3.8.4 Examination of the wheel suspension motion
The position and orientation of the wheel relative to the vehicle and the road sig-
nificantly influence the power transmission and thus the driving and steering be-
havior of the vehicle (see also Chapter 4). The wheel center trajectory as well as
the camber and track angle change during wheel deflection describe the position
and orientation of the wheel. These are presented as an example for the MacPherson
14 MBS: Multi-Body-System.
spring-strut axle suspension and the multilink wheel suspension. The pivot points
and the camber and track angle changes of the wheel suspension have been gained
from measuring a typical medium-sized vehicle using a MacPherson front axle and a
multilink rear wheel suspension. Using these measurements, the quality of the simu-
lation of the wheel suspensions should be evaluated. The results of the simulation of
the front and rear axle are now presented successively.
3.8.4.1 Front axle

On the spatial trajectory of the wheel center in a MacPherson wheel suspension with
its projections on the three planes of the axis (xR − zR , zR − yR , and xR − yR ), the wheel
describes a spatial motion and simultaneous rotation during compression and re-
bound. During compression, the trajectory of the wheel goes slightly in the direction
of the positive xR - axis (Figures 3.41 and 3.42). The track width at the front axle is
slightly reduced during compression and rebound (Figure 3.42, middle diagram).
0.04
zR/m
–0.04
0.795
0.01
0.79 0.005
yR / 0
m –0.005
0.785 –0.01 m
x R/
Figure 3.41: Simulated wheel center trajectory of the left MacPherson wheel suspension in space
(Unterreiner 2013).
During compression and rebound, steering is fixed at zero position. It can be seen
that the simulation qualitatively represents the measurements. The average error of
the camber angle is 0.025 and that of the toe angle 0.012 (Figure 3.43).
During compression, the camber angle decreases and partially becomes nega-
tive (Figure 3.43, left). This means that the wheel leans toward the vehicle. This
characteristic is advantageous especially for cornering. While cornering, the vehicle
body is usually leaning outward due to the centrifugal force.15 Here, the wheel on
the outside of the curve is compressed, while the wheel on the inside is rebound at
the same time. The front wheels lean toward the middle of the circular path, which
15 Since the roll center is generally below the center of gravity.

0,008
0.04 0,04
0 0,004
zR/m
zR/m
xR/m
0 0
0
–0.04 – 0,04
–0,004
0,005 0 –0,005 0,792 0,788 0,792 0,79 0,788

xR/m yR/m yR/m
Figure 3.42: Projection of the simulated wheel center trajectory of the left MacPherson wheel
suspension on the plane (Unterreiner 2013).
Compression
Compression
zR/m
zR/m
0.04 0.04
toe-out
toe-in
0 0
–0.04 –0.04
Rebound
Simulation Simulation
Rebound
Measurement Measurement
0 –0.8 –1.6 –0.2 –0.1 0 0.1 0.2

𝛾󰑅/˚ 󰜓R/˚
Figure 3.43: Measured and simulated camber and toe angle progression of the left MacPherson
wheel suspension (Unterreiner 2013).
is facilitated by the kinematics of the wheel in a MacPherson front axle. This leads
to an improved distribution of pressure in the tire contact path and thus a larger
potential to build a lateral force.
During compression, the toe angle becomes negative for the front axle as well
(Figure 3.43, right). Once the wheel rebounds, it turns away from the center of the
vehicle (wheel goes in toe-out). This behavior is desired for powered front axles.
During cornering, the steering angle is slightly influenced at the front axle
(under-steering), regardless of the driver. Overall, the vehicle can be steered in a
curve more calmly and stable (“forgiving”).
3.8.4.2 Rear axle

In Figures 3.44 and 3.45, the wheel traverses a spatial movement with a simultaneous
rotation in the same time. Here, too, the trajectory of the wheel has a positive xR -
component during compression, which is however larger for the multilink wheel sus-
pension compared to the MacPherson wheel suspension. In the rear axle, the average
track slightly decreases during compression (Figure 3.45, middle diagram).
0.05
zR/m
–0.05
0.8
0.79 0.02
yR / 0.01
m 0.78 0
0.77 x R/m
Figure 3.44: Simulated trajectory of the wheel center of the left multilink wheel suspension in
space (Unterreiner 2013).
0.08 0.08
0.04 0.04
0.01
0 0
zR/m
zR/m
xR/m
–0.04 –0.04
0
–0.08 –0.08
–0.01 0 –0.785 –0.775 –0.785 –0.78 –0.775
xR yR yR
Figure 3.45: Projection of the simulated wheel center trajectory of the left multilink wheel
suspension on the plane (Unterreiner 2013).
The simulation qualitatively represents the measurements (Figure 3.46). The aver-
age error of the camber angle is 0.1 and that of the toe angle 0.035 .
During compression of the wheel, the toe angle increases more compared to the
front axis (Figure 3.46, left), which is why the wheel on the outside with a higher
Compress
Compress
0.08 0.08
zR/m
zR/m
Measurement
Simulation
0.04 0.04
toe-out
toe-in
0 0
–0.04 –0.04
Rebound
Rebound
Simulation
–0.08 –0.08
Measurement
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 –0.5 0 0.5
󰛾R/° 󰜓R/°
Figure 3.46: Measured and simulated camber and toe angle progression of the left multilink wheel
suspension (Unterreiner 2013).
load can realize the necessary lateral force for smaller slip angles, and additionally
stabilizes the rear axis (under-steering effect).
The toe angle at the rear axle behaves oppositely to the front axle. During com-
pression of the rear wheel, the toe angle becomes positive (toe-in) (Figure 3.46,
right), which is why the rear wheel turns slightly toward the vehicle during deflec-
tion. During cornering, this effect creates an additional steering angle at the rear
axis (under-steering) independent from the driver, which stabilizes the vehicle at
the rear axis.
The deviation between simulation and measurement at the two axes can be ex-
plained on one hand by inaccuracies in measurements and on the other hand due
to the neglect of elastokinematics in modeling. Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018) took
into account elastokinematics using kinematic replacement mechanisms.
3.9 Three-dimensional modeling of wheel suspensions
In the previous section, simulation results of wheel suspensions were presented as

examples. These are extremely useful for predicting driving comfort, driving dy-
namics, and driving safety and are usually used at an early stage of product devel-
opment. The simulations are based on mathematical models of varying complexity.
The so-called black box models can be derived from measurement data, which,
however, only map the input and output behavior (transmission behavior) of this
wheel suspension. However, as it has already been shown, a wheel suspension con-
sists of a large number of control arms, bearings and other metallic components
with different shapes, lengths, materials, and so on. In addition, elastomer bearings
are used nowadays to further increase ride comfort. A physical model of the wheel
suspension must be created in order to ensure the parameterization of the part-

related properties.
A distinction can be made between kinematic, dynamic, and elastokinematic
models. Kinematic models only describe the movement of the individual compo-
nents, which are compatible with the connecting joints, without taking into account
the required forces and torques. Dynamic models with rigid bodies, on the other
hand, execute their motion on the basis of forces and torques. Since a wheel sus-
pension is a system consisting of many components, it is referred to as a multibody
system (MBS). If elastokinematics is also considered, elastic deformations due to
the forces are also observed. It should be noted that with the increasing complexity
of the models, the computing time for the simulation is also increased. For exam-
ple, there are different requirements for suspension models for chassis predevelop-
ment and optimization than for models for real-time applications, such as the
control of an active chassis. The models should therefore be selected and con-
structed depending on the applications in order to ensure a good compromise be-
tween accuracy and acceptable computing time.
A number of commercial software packages for the modeling and simulation of
wheel suspensions have been well established during the last decades. Among many
others, the software packages Adams/Car and IPG Kinematics are named here. These
include the spatial modeling of wheel suspensions. The modeling of Adams/Car is
based on dynamic MBSs, whereas IPG Kinematics calculates the kinematic motion
possibilities and creates a map model. Both programs offer the advantage that they
already have internal vehicle-specific libraries and are therefore easier to use. In both
cases, the user does not need to know the underlying equations and formalisms,
which are advantageous for simulation evaluation (Adamski 2001).
As this introduction already shows, the modeling of wheel suspensions is a
very extensive area and is only touched on here. Further literature on modeling can
be found in Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018) and Heißing and Ersoy (2011).
3.9.1 Kinematic models
The kinematics of a wheel suspension describes the geometric movement of rigid

bodies. Rotation matrices in connection with the Cardan angles for the individual
joints are often used for the description. The advantage is a concise notation. The de-
scription of this procedure would lead too far in this book, so that reference is again
made to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018). However, in order to gain an understanding of
the modeling method, a flat double wishbone suspension (Figure 3.47) is discussed
as an example.
In kinematics, for example, the motion of the lower (12) and upper wishbone
(34), which are each attached to the chassis or bodywork via a rotary joint, can be
described via two circular paths. Furthermore, the dependence of the two angles α1
2 4
3
3,
2,
1
1
Figure 3.47: Ideal kinematics of a double wishbone
2 1,
suspension in the y–z projection.
and α2 is defined by the length of the wheel carrier 23. This results in a system with
one degree of freedom. The criteria of Kutzbach and Grübler are used to determine the
number of DoF. Similarly, the speed and acceleration of the system can be deter-
mined. However, it becomes clear that implicit equations must be solved depending
on the structure of a wheel suspension. This is called a kinematic loop, which results
from the geometric arrangement of the system. Such equations can be solved by itera-
tive numerical methods. This has the disadvantage that real-time simulation can no
longer be guaranteed. Depending on the configuration of the wheel suspension, how-
ever, an explicit solution of the kinematics can also be found, as Schramm, Hiller
et al. (2018) show. In addition, it is also possible to calculate the kinematic movement
possibilities iteratively in advance and to create a characteristic map from them. Thus,
a real-time capable input and output behavior model of the wheel suspension is cre-
ated. However, if the parameterization is changed, a new map must be determined.
3.9.2 Dynamic models
The dynamics of a wheel suspension depends on the forces and torques acting on it.
The tire forces, on the one hand, and the spring/damper forces and torques of the
spring/damper strut, on the other, are impressed. Within active wheel suspensions, hy-
draulic or electrical forces are also applied to control the chassis. The masses and iner-
tia tensors of the individual components are also taken into account. On the one hand,
this results in the static position of the wheel suspension, where all forces are balanced
and the system rests. On the other hand, the kinetics in which the forces change the
state of motion results from the temporal change of the impressed forces. The basis of
the description of the kinetics is described by NEWTON’s16 and EULER’s17 equations, to
which the d’ALEMBERT18 principle can be applied (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018). A
wheel suspension consists of several rigid bodies between which internal forces and
moments act and external forces and moments attack. This results in an MBS in which
16 Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1726): English naturalist and civil servant.

17 Leonhard Euler (1707–1783): Swiss mathematician and physicist.
18 Jean-Baptiste le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783): Mathematician and physicist.
the global NEWTON–EULER equations are established on the basis of the local equa-
tions of motion of the individual rigid body. The dynamics of a general MBS are
completely described by the kinematic differential equations and the equations of mo-
tion. In addition to the manual setup of these equation systems, the use of Computer
Algebra Systems (CAS) such as Maple is also possible. These programs solve the equa-
tions symbolically and offer the export to other simulation software packages.
3.9.3 Elastokinematic models
Elasticity is the change in the shape of solid bodies under the influence of external
forces (see Figure 3.48). As can be seen from this definition, the deformation results
from the solid bodies of the suspension (geometry and material) under external
forces (amount and direction) that occur during the various driving maneuvers and
trials on test benches. The deformations in turn result in a movement called elasto-
kinematics (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
The extension of the MBS with deformable bodies in the elastic range results in a
flexible MBS. Thus, additional DoF of elasticity are considered by modeling the individ-
ual bodies as finite-element models. The individual linear modes are determined by
Craig–Bampton reduction in a modal analysis and can then be integrated into an MBS
program as elastic components (Schwertassek, Wallrapp et al. 1999).
Figure 3.48: Left: Front axle of the formula student racing car; right: deformation of the elastic
simulation (Kracht, Schramm et al. 2015).
The flexible MBS analysis allows an exact mapping of the elasticity and the occurring
stresses. Furthermore, the individual linear system modes are mapped. By reducing
the modes, the number of DoF is reduced, but there are still several hundred DoF
available, so that real-time capability is not guaranteed. This modeling method is
therefore suitable for the creation of a reference model with very high accuracy,
which must be validated with real measurement data.
3.10 Vertical dynamics
Vertical dynamics of a motor vehicle can both be roadway induced,19 or driver and
vehicle induced20 (Lenthaparambil 2015).
The vertical excitations induced by the driver include excitations caused by
pitch and roll motion (see Section 3.5.5) of the vehicle caused by steering, accelerat-
ing, and braking, as well as inner excitations caused by the powertrain (running
engine) and the tires (e.g., imbalances).
Road-induced vertical motions are caused primarily by unevenness of the road.
These unevenness causes dynamic forces in vertical direction which, in the general
case, influence the vibration behavior of the vehicle in all directions. The vertical
forces on the body arise primarily due to spring and damping forces, which support
the vehicle body relative to the chassis and influence the motion of the body.
3.10.1 Vertical dynamic requirements of the chassis
The requirements to the vehicle in vertical dynamics are varied and partially contra-
dictory (Figure 3.35). On the one hand, the vehicle body acceleration as well as
pitch and roll motions are supposed to be kept as low as possible to ensure a high
level of ride comfort for passengers. On the other hand, in order to ensure a stable
driving behavior and good handling, the wheel load oscillations should be limited
and an even wheel load distribution has to be ensured. Adjusting for those require-
ments is further complicated by the limited space for the wheel suspension and the
fact that both due to road conditions and increased loads in vehicles, their mass
and sharp oscillations are unavoidable.
A central assembly group of the chassis is the wheel suspension (Figure 3.49).
This consists of the wheel bearing, a combination of elastic and damping force ele-
ments, as well as a combination of arms and further rotational and translational guide
elements.
3.10.2 Roadway excitation
Roadway irregularities are responsible for the majority of excitations in the area of
0 − 30 Hz on the vehicle. They stimulate lifting, pitching, and rolling motions of the
vehicle. Due to their irregularity, they can usually only be described using stochastics.
This means that, normally, time variables cannot be stated, but one is rather depen-
dent on values within a frequency range, which allow statements about amplitude and
19 Excitations caused by the shape and unevenness of the road.

20 Excitations caused by driver intervention (steering, braking, accelerating).
Damper
Antiroll bar
Wheel
Spring
Wheel carrier
Wheel bearing
Arms
Wheel
Wheel bearing
Figure 3.49: Five-link rear axle of a Mercedes-Benz E-Class vehicle © Daimler AG and its associated
MBS model according to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
distance of unevenness in the statistical average. In order to determine the fundamen-

tal connections between the temporal and local history of unevenness of the road, first
the case of a harmonious unevenness gradient is considered (Figure 3.50). In this case,
the course of the irregularities as a function of distance can be described as
^ sin Ωx,
up ð x Þ = u (3:86)
= =
2
=
Figure 3.50: Path-dependent unevenness function during sine-shaped road unevenness.
with the path circular frequency

2π
Ω= . (3:87)
L
The transformation x = vt into time domain results in the time-dependent uneven-

ness function:
^ sin Ωvt = u
ut ðtÞ = u ^ sin ωt, (3:88)
ω
with the time circular frequency ω = Ωv = 2π Lv and the time frequency f = 2π mea-
sured in Hz (Figure 3.51).
2
=
Figure 3.51: Time-dependent unevenness function for sine-shaped road unevenness.
For a general periodic unevenness function with the period length of L, the signal
can be decomposed into its frequency components using a Fourier analysis. This
results in the Fourier series:
X
∞
up ðxÞ = ^k eikΩx ,
u (3:89)
k=1
with the Fourier coefficients

L
ð2
Ω
^k =
u uðxÞe − ikΩx dx. (3:90)
2π
− L2
The Fourier coefficients u^k collectively constitute the discrete amplitude spectrum
of the periodic excitation.
In order to describe random (stochastic) road surfaces, the transition L ! ∞
needs to be executed for the period length L. This results in the Fourier integral
ð
∞
1
uðxÞ = ^ðΩÞeiΩx dΩ,
u (3:91)
2π
−∞
with the continuous amplitude spectrum

ð
∞
^ðΩÞ =
u uðxÞe − iΩx dx. (3:92)
−∞
The respective continuous amplitude spectrum for uðtÞ results in

ð
∞
1
^ ð ωÞ =
u uðtÞe − iωx dt = u^ðΩÞ. (3:93)
v
−∞
The root mean square (RMS) then becomes

ðL ð
∞
1 2 ^ðΩÞj2
ju
ð xÞ =
u 2
u ðxÞdx = limL!∞ dΩ
L L
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
ffl}
0 0 (3:94)
Φu ðΩÞ
ðT ð
∞
1 ^ðωÞj2
ju
2
u ðt Þ = u ðtÞdt = limT!∞
2
dω (3:95)
T T
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
0 0
Φu ðωÞ
Finally, the power density spectra Φu ðΩÞ and Φu ðωÞ read as
^ðΩÞj2
ju ^ðωÞj2
ju
Φu ðΩÞ = limL!∞ and Φu ðωÞ = limT!∞ , (3:96)
L T
and the relationship
1
Φu ðωÞ = Φu ðΩÞ (3:97)
v
holds. The characteristics of the spectral power densities are usually represented in
a diagram with double-logarithmic scales (Figure 3.52).
1,000
Фu(Ω)/cm3
w
=
100 Ω –w
2.
―
Spectral power density
Фu(ω) = Фu(Ω0) Ω
2,
0
Фu
(Ω
10
0
)=
w
=
18
2.
cm
1,
1
3
Фu w=
(Ω
0
) = .0,
0.1
1 c Ф u(
2
m Ω0
3
0.01
)=
0.
3
cm
0.001
3
0.001 0.01 0.1

Path circular frequency Ω/cm–1
Figure 3.52: Examples of ideal patterns of spectral power densities of road unevenness.
The spectral power densities are a measure for the distribution of the power of the
excitation spectrum within the entire road unevenness spectrum. The measured
power densities that actually occur can be approximated by the linear function:
− w
Ω
Φu ðωÞ = Φu ðΩ0 Þ . (3:98)
Ω0
The shape of these curves also reflects the fact that the unevenness density decreases
with increasing circular path frequency or with decreasing unevenness wavelength.
In Figure 3.52, Φu ðΩ0 Þ means the spectral power density in a reference circular
velocity of Ω0 . This value is also called bumpiness level or general unevenness level
(GUL) of the roadway. An increase of Φu ðΩ0 Þ corresponds to larger irregularities of
the road. The GUL value ranges between Ω0 = 18 cm3 (very bad) and Ω0 = 0.3 cm3
(very good). The target value for German federal highways, for example, is 1 cm3
(Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
The reference circular velocity Ω0 is determined as Ω0 = 1 rad=m, which corre-
sponds to a reference wavelength of λ0 = Ω2π ≈ 6.28 m. In Figure 3.52, the exponent w
0
corresponds to the slope of the line and is also called waviness of the roadway. A
magnification of w corresponds to a larger proportion of long waves in the bumpiness
spectrum. The waviness varies between the values of 1.7 and 3.3. A value of w = 2 is
chosen as the standard value.
3.10.3 Wheel vertical dynamics
The wheel vertical dynamics arise from the nonlinear force-deflection curve described
in Chapter 2, which however can be linearized around the equilibrium position. The
damping of the tire can be neglected compared to that of the body suspension.
3.10.4 Body springs
3.10.4.1 Coil springs

Due to the unevenness of the road, the wheels of a vehicle need to perform upward
and downward motion that must be dampened and absorbed accordingly. Springs,
as well as the dampers discussed in Section 3.10.5, significantly affect the driving
comfort, the safety, as well as indirectly, via the wheel loads, the cornering behav-
ior of a vehicle.
Body springs are passive components of the wheel suspensions that are in-
stalled in between the wheel suspensions and the body. They react to elastic defor-
mation with applied forces. To this end, they convert kinetic into potential energy,
which is then relieved in the ensuing relaxation of the spring via the damper,
mainly during compression. Suspension springs can be implemented using coil
springs, leaf springs, or torsion bar springs. Passive and active pneumatic or hy-
draulic suspension systems are also possible (Bosch, Reif et al. 2014).
Table 3.7: Important parameters of a coil spring.
Symbol Description
iF Number of turns per unit length
d, D, L Wire diameter, coil diameter, wire length
G, Ip Modulus of shear of the spring material, polar moment

of inertia of the wire
γ Torsion of the coil wire
s Deflection of the spring
cF Resulting spring constant
τ max Maximum shear stress
The spring effect for the mostly utilized coil springs is almost exclusively reached
through the torsion of the spring coil. The curvature is negligible. Usually, the coil
springs utilized as compression springs are made of steel. A coil spring can be approxi-
mated as a helicoidal, wound up torsion bar with iF coils, a length of L, with the diam-
eter of the wire of d, the average diameter of the coil of D, and the modulus of shear G
(see Table 3.7). When deflecting the spring by s, the torsion γ of the torsion bar is
s
γ=2 (3:99)
D
and thus the torque becomes
G IP
Mt = γ. (3:100)
L
With the polar area moment of inertia IP = 32 πd ,
1 4
the length L = DπiF , and the spring
force FF = 2Mt
D , it can be concluded that
2Mt 2 G IP s 4G IP Gd4
FF = = 2 = 2 s= s. (3:101)
D D L D D L 8D3 iF
From this, the spring constant becomes
Gd4
cF = . (3:102)
8D3 iF
An approximation of the maximum shear stress is
Mt d d D2 FF 8D
τmax ≈ = = 3 FF . (3:103)
Ip 2 2 Ip πd
In applications of motor vehicles it is to note that the mass of a vehicle can change
with every drive, which leads to different eigenfrequencies of the body in vertical
direction. When observing, for example, the situation presented in Figure 3.53, the
vertical eigenfrequency for the empty vehicle amounts to
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
cF
ωempty = (3:104)
mempty
Δ =( − )
Figure 3.53: Different loading situations of a motor vehicle.
and for a loaded vehicle

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
cF
ωloaded = . (3:105)
mloaded
That is, the following applies

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ωloaded mempty
= and ωloaded < ωempty . (3:106)
ωempty mloaded
As this is not desirable, springs are created in a way that the spring constant c ad-
justs accordingly. This can be achieved using different constructive measures
(Figure 3.54).
260 mm
50 mm
Figure 3.54: Body spring – different versions.

For the case of exceeding suspension travel, corresponding stops are implemented.
They are mostly stop elements made of elastomer material. Overall, the character-
istics presented in Figure 3.55 emerge.
Spring forces F
End stop
Standard working range
Spring deflection
End stop
Figure 3.55: Vertical spring characteristics of a chassis.
3.10.4.2 Air springs

Additionally to the described passive coil springs, (adaptive) air springs are used
more and more in luxury cars (Figure 3.56). The advantages compared to passive
body springs include the following:
– The height of the vehicle above the road surface can be adjusted by adding or
removing air.
– The vertical eigenfrequency of the body can be adjusted virtually independent
of loading conditions.
– By adding or removing air spring chambers, the spring rate of the air spring
can be adjusted adaptively.
The air spring produces its effect by a change of volume, and thus pressure, of the
encased air. By adding or removing volume (also called chambers), the volume of
the air spring is changed, which leads to a corresponding change of the spring ef-
fect. This makes it possible to mitigate the spread between ride comfort and perfor-
mance. Figure 3.57 shows a three-chamber air spring of the Porsche Panamera. In the
front axis, the damper is integrated in the air spring and the two valves allow a dy-
namic charging or discharging of air chambers (Figure 3.58; Table 3.8).
The spring constant cL of the air spring results from the derivative of the load force
pa
pi
Air sleeve
FL
Figure 3.56: Schematic representation of an

DL air spring.
Air chamber 1
Damper
Air chamber 2 Air spring
Switch valves
Figure 3.57: Air spring of a Porsche Panamera © Dr. h.c. Porsche AG.
3 Chambers active 2 Chambers active 1 Chamber active

small stiffness medium stiffness high stiffness
Figure 3.58: Air spring of a Porsche Panamera; switching positions (Boyraz 2019).
Table 3.8: Important parameters of an air spring

Symbol Description
pa , pi Ambient and internal pressure
DT Diameter of bearing spring

π
AT = DT Airfoil of the air spring
4
V Air capacity
s Deflection of the spring
cL Resulting spring constant
FL Spring force
FL = ðpi − pa ÞAT = ΔpAT (3:107)
with respect to the spring travel s while taking into account the total differential to
dFL dðΔpAT Þ dAT dpi dV dAT dpi

cL = = = Δp − AT = Δp − A2T . (3:108)
ds ds ds dV ds ds dV
Depending on the velocity of the deflection process, and thus the thermodynamic state
change of the air, it can be distinguished between static (isothermal, κ = 1) and dy-
namic (adiabatic, κ = 1.4) spring operation. According to Pelz and Buttenbender (2004),
an adiabatic state change can be assumed in this case, that is, κ = 1.4. This results in
dpi κ dpi Δp
ΔpV κ = const ) V + ΔpκV κ − 1 = 0 ) = −κ . (3:109)
dV dV V
According to eqs. (3.108) and (3.109), the spring constant thus becomes
dAT Δp
cL = Δp + A2T κ . (3:110)
ds V
3.10.5 Body damper
While the body springs absorb shocks from the roadway, the body damper (also
called shock absorber) damps the vertical oscillation of the sprung mass. It is an
indispensable and safety-relevant component in vehicles, which also needs to care
to reduce the normal force oscillation of the wheels, and thus the wheel-load oscil-
lations. The body dampers transform kinetic energy of the masses involved into
heat energy. Body dampers exist in various passive, active, or semiactive versions.
Figure 3.59 shows two common passive versions.
Piston rod
Valves
Gas cushion
Piston Compensating
Oil chamber chamber
Separating piston
Gas cushion Bottom valve
Single tube gas pressure dampers Twin tube gas pressure damper
Figure 3.59: Example of gas pressure absorbers.
In the twin-tube damper, the piston rod is fixed to the body and the cylinders to the
wheel suspension. The cylinder contains an oil-filled working chamber and a ring-
shaped balance chamber, which absorbs the oil extruded from the working chamber,
as well as a gas chamber of nitrogen with a pressure pretensioning of 3–8 bar. The
dampening effect is caused by valves in the piston and the base plate, which restrain
the oil flow depending on the direction of movement. The stronger dampening takes
place in the traction phase in which the oil is pressed through the openings of the
valves. When retracting (compression) the damper, the process occurs in reverse,
though the restriction effect is lower due to the valves being set up differently
(Figure 3.60). It follows that the force action necessary for deflection is mainly pro-
vided by springs and the mechanical energy of the decompression is relieved and
transformed into heat by the damper.
F F F F
Rebound Rebound
. . . .
ẋ ẋ ẋ ẋ
Compress Compress Rebound Compress Compress Rebound
Figure 3.60: Damper characteristics.
In the single-tube gas pressure damper, the outer tube, and thus the compensa-
tion area, is eliminated. Instead, the compensation is achieved with a gas cushion
made of nitrogen, which is under 20–30 bar of pressure and is compressed during
the up and down motion by the oil of the working piston. This way, the risk of cavi-
tation21 is avoided.
3.10.6 Stabilizers
Stabilizers (antiroll bars) are used for axles with single wheel suspensions, on the
one hand, to increase the ride comfort by reducing the roll movement of the vehicle
during cornering. On the other hand, the improvement of driving behavior through
a positive effect of the self-steering behavior of the vehicle, namely, especially the
tendency of the vehicle to under- or over-steer, is just as important (Lenthaparambil
2015, Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
3.10.6.1 Passive stabilizers

The function of a stabilizer is based on an improvement of roll stiffness of the vehi-
cle by coupling the force effects between both wheels of an axle (Section 3.5.5,
Figure 3.19). Here, the coupling is designed by constructing the stabilizer in a way
that the forces can only be coupled in differing ranges of the spring. That way, the
normal force differences at the front and rear axles can be influenced in such a way
that a positive self-steering behavior of the vehicle can be achieved.
Stabilizers are typically created using a U-shaped torsion bar spring, which is
rotatably mounted in rubber sleeves directly to the vehicle body (Figure 3.61). The
ends of the stabilizer are both connected via bearings to the wheel suspension with
the corresponding axles. Only for differing deflections of both wheels do both levers
experience different displacements, which lead to torsion of the torsion bar, and thus
result in the build-up of a corresponding torsion torque. The stabilizer is mounted to
the wheel suspension either via rubber sockets or hinged supports.
21 Cavitation (lat. cavitare “cave out”) is the creation and release of steam-filled cavities (steam
bubbles) in liquids, when the pressure falls below the evaporating pressure of the liquid.
Chassis bearing
Hinged supports
Body supports
Torsion bar
Figure 3.61: Passive stabilizer according to Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
3.10.6.2 Active stabilizers

In order to stabilize, or to mostly suppress the roll motion, and to influence the driving
dynamic actively and adaptable to the situation, active stabilizers are used (Öttgen
2005) and (Sieberg, Schmid et al. 2019). To this end, passive stabilizers are divided up
into two parts and the free ends are then coupled using an electric or hydraulic actua-
tor (Figure 3.62). This actuator then allows the impression of a torsional moment,
which is dependent on the torsion of the stabilizer, and which is propped up via the
hinged support on the wheel carrier. A torsional moment is initiated into the body of
the vehicle using the reaction forces around the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. Thus,
a roll stabilization is possible and the self-steering behavior of a vehicle can directly
be influenced by separating the applied torques to the front and rear axle. Usually,
two active stabilizers are used. There are, however, studies about the realization of a
corresponding, albeit somewhat limited function using only one active stabilizer
(Lenthaparambil 2015).
Torsion
bar Actuator
Hinged support
Passive stabilizer Active stabilizer
Figure 3.62: Active and passive stabilizer function principles according to Öttgen (2005).
3.10.7 Description of vertical dynamics
The analysis of the vibration behavior of motor vehicles requires appropriate substi-
tute models, whose level of detail depend on the desired findings. All of the models
described in the following have in common that they are based on MBS modeling,
(Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018), that is, the elements of the model are rigid bodies with
mass and force elements without mass, which comply with corresponding force laws.
3.10.7.1 Quarter vehicle model

One of the most basic equivalent models, which can however already deliver impor-
tant findings, is the so-called quarter vehicle model (Figure 3.63). Here, the partial
vehicle body is represented as a rigid body of mass mA and the wheel as another
rigid body of mass mR . The elasticity of the wheel is modeled by the spring constant
cR and the body spring by the spring constant cA . The body damper is represented
as a viscous damper with the viscosity constant dA . The damping of the wheels can
generally be neglected compared to the body damper.
Figure 3.63: Quarter vehicle model.
The road surface is described using the corresponding function ^zS ðxÞ = zS ðtÞ.
From NEWTON’s equations for the masses mA and mR , using the generalized
coordinates zA and zR results in the equations of motion:
mA €zA + dA ðz_ A − z_ R Þ + cA ðzA − zR Þ = 0, (3:111)
mR €zR − dA ðz_ A − z_ R Þ − cA ðzA − zR Þ + cR zR = cR zS . (3:112)
These can be represented in matrix notation:

" # " .. # " # " # " # " # " #

mA 0 zA dA − dA z_ A cA − cA zA 0
.. + + = u
0 mR zR − dA dA z_ R − cA cA + cR zR cR
M €z + D z_ + C z = h u
(3:113)
From this, the equations of the quarter vehicle model result to

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
z_ A 0 0 1 0 zA 0
6 7 6 0 0 0 1 7 6 7 607
6 z_ R 7 6 7 6 zR 7 6 7
6 7 = 6 cA cA dA dA 7 6 7 + 6 7 u
6 €z 7 6− m − mA 7 6 z_ 7 607
4 A5 4 A mA mA 5 4 A5 4 5
cA cA + cR dA dA cR
€zR mR − mR mR − mR z_ R mR
x_ = A 2 3 x + B u
zA
" .. # " # 6 7 " #
zA −
cA cA
−
dA
−
dA
6 zR 7 0
= mA mA mA mA 6 7 + u.
6 z_ 7 − cR
Fz 0 cR 0 0 4 A5 (3:114)
z_ R
y = C x + D u
For the measurement vector y with the body acceleration €zA and the wheel load Fz ,
typically interesting parameters have been chosen.
The eigenvalues of the system matrix A in eq. (3.114) supply information about
the eigenfrequencies. These are calculated from the characteristic equation of the
eigenvalue problem:

det C − Mω2 = 0 (3:115)
thus
0 10 1 0 1
cA cA + cR cA + cR cR
c − m ω2 − cA − ω CB
2
− ω C cA B
2
−
A A B C
= @|{z}
mA A@|fflfflfflm
{zfflffl
R
ffl } A− @|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
mR
ffl
mR A = 0
{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
ffl }
− cA c A + c R − mR ω 2 m A
ω2 ω2 ω2
A R AR
(3:116)
or transformed

) ω2A − ω2 ω2R − ω2 − ω2AR ω2 = 0. (3:117)
For cA cR and mR mA is ω2AR ≈ 0. In this case, it is approximately

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
cA cA + cR
ω 1 ≈ ωA = and ω2 ≈ ωR = . (3:118)
mA mR
Quarter vehicle models are used, for example, to calculate the load on chassis com-
ponents on different road surfaces. Here, the road-induced loads are either obtained
directly from data describing the road surface or they are determined indirectly from
stress or acceleration measurements (Putra, Abdullah et al. 2015, Putra, Abdullah
et al. 2016, Kong, Abdullah et al. 2017).
3.10.7.2 Two-axle vehicle model

In order to achieve a higher accuracy of the quarter vehicle model, the proportional
body mass can be determined by separating the body mass into the three point
masses mA, v (front axle), mA, h (rear axle), and mK (coupling mass) (see Figure 3.64).
The following conditional equations result from the requirements for obtaining the
body mass mA, ges , the CoM SA , and the moment of inertia θy = mA, total i2y (radius of
gyration iy )
mA, v + mA, h + mK = mA, total , (3:119)

mA, v lv − mA, h lh = 0, (3:120)
mA, v l2v + mA, h l2h = mA, tota iy ,

2
(3:121)
and from this the equivalent masses
i2y i2y
mA, v = mA, ges , mA, h = mA, total (3:122)
lv l lh l
and
!
i2y
mk = mA, ges 1 − . (3:123)
lh lv
In case mK = 0, the motion of front and rear axles are decoupled.

For the wheel-based, proportionate body mass mA of the quarter vehicle model,
mA = 21 mA, v is put in at the front axle and mA = 21 mA, h on the rear axis, respectively
(Figure 3.64).
Furthermore, it is necessary for a conclusive quarter vehicle model to take into
account the kinematic ratio of the suspension forces, as they are represented in
Figure 3.65. The kinematic ratio λ results from the compression zs at the tire contact
point and the change in length zr of the body spring to
dzr z_ r
λðzs Þ = = . (3:124)
dzs z_ s
The relationship between the forces Fs and Fr can be obtained most effectively by
equating each performed virtual work:
SA , ,
, ,ℎ
Figure 3.64: Two-axle vehicle model (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
Figure 3.65: Kinematic ratio of the wheel suspension forces using the example of a body spring
(Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018).
dzr dzr
Fs δzs = Fr δzr = Fr δzs ! Fs = Fr = λFr . (3:125)
dzs dzs
With this, after short calculation, the equivalent spring constant cA becomes
dFs dðλFr Þ dλ dFr dλ dFr dzr

cA = = = Fr + λ = Fr + λ (3:126)
dzs dzs dzs dzs dzs dzr dzs
|{z} |{z}
cs λ
and finally
dλ
cA = Fr + λ2 cs . (3:127)
dzs
3.10.8 Objectification of vibration comfort
The objectification of vibration comfort attempts to assign the subjective percep-

tion of vehicle occupants with regard to the perceived vibrations to one or more
objective characteristic values, which are calculated from physically measurable
quantities. The great difficulty lies in expressing the distinct comfort sensations of
vibrations, which is dependent on psychophysical and psychological factors, as
one value. Vibration comfort and vehicle acoustics can be seen as a part of driving
comfort, which is influenced by convenience, aesthetics, ambience, and many
other factors. Thereby vehicle vibrations and acoustics are based on the same
physical phenomena. These lie in different frequency ranges and are therefore
perceived differently by occupants.
The different vibration phenomena in a vehicle can basically occur along the six
DoF (translational and rotational) of the vehicle body (see Section 3.1). The root
cause of the oscillations may lie in internal and external vehicle excitations. Internal
excitations are caused by powertrain and wheel excitations (mainly through imbalan-
ces), which are significantly influenced by mass, stiffness, and damping. The vehicle
body, which connects all parts of the car, also has a high influence on the vibration
behavior through its stiffness. External excitations are mainly caused by the road
conditions and the aerodynamics of the vehicle. Figure 3.66 gives an overview of im-
portant vibration phenomena and the associated frequency ranges. It should be
noted that the phenomena can act in one or more dimensions and must therefore be
measured differently.
Vibrations in the range of the natural frequencies of organs are considered partic-
ularly unpleasant. For example, the natural frequency of the stomach is approxi-
mately 4 to 5 Hz (Dupuis and Christ 1966), which can be caused by both the body and
the wheel’s natural frequencies in a vehicle. Body movements (heaving, pitching, and
rolling) can have a significant effect on the perceived vibration comfort. Rolling move-
ments may be perceived as especially unpleasant by the occupants (Enders, Burkhard
et al. 2019).
Vehicle body movements caused by road excitations can be analyzed by means
of substitute models with different degrees of simplification. Consequently, initial
Wheel imbalance
12–18
Start and stop juddering

12–14
Body jittering
12–40
Steering wheel oscillations
10–15
Stuttering
8–12
Ride comfort
8–30
Jerking
3–8
Bouncing
3–6
Body vibrations
1–3
0 10 20 30 40
Frequency/Hz
Figure 3.66: Important vibration phenomena and their frequency ranges.
findings for pure heaving movements can be derived from a simplified quarter-
vehicle model (Figure 3.63). The simplified assumption is that all four wheels are
considered decoupled from each other. For the analysis of a pitch and roll motion,
that is, rotations about the vehicle’s transverse and longitudinal axis, a quarter ve-
hicle is no longer sufficient. In this case, an analysis using a two-axle vehicle model
is necessary (Figure 3.64).
For the creation of mathematical models for the objectification of vibration
comfort, subjective evaluations and objective measurements must be brought to-
gether. The human perception of vibration is determined by empirical studies in the
laboratory or by field trials. Typically the perception of vibrations must be perceived
less as an aspect of the subject’s pleasure (= comfort), but rather as an aspect suf-
fering (= discomfort). For the perception of the comfort sensation different ques-
tioning methods and evaluations are used. Known methods are the multicriteria
evaluation with radar charts according to Heißing and Brandl (2002), the ATZ rat-
ing scale according to Aigner (1982), the CP50 scale according to Shen and
Parsons (1997), or the Likert scale. Depending on the chosen method, the surveys
can be evaluated by statistical methods as interval or ordinal scaled data.
At the same time, acceleration measurements are carried out on the vehicle and
test persons during the test drive. After an appropriate signal analysis, the objective
measurement data are linked to the subjective surveys by a regression analysis.

Numerous methods and adaptations have been developed to determine objective
characteristics for the description of vibration comfort. Known methods are the
procedure according to ISO 2631 (1997), (VDI 2002), (Rericha 1986), (Klingner
1996), (Cucuz 1993), (Jörißen 2012), (Festner, Eicher et al. 2017), (Burkhard, Vos
et al. 2018), and (Hennecke 1995).
The ISO 2631 standard, which was first described in 1974 and has since been
revised several times, is increasingly used in industry. It is usually used to define
target values in specification sheets and to evaluate vibrations in development.
Part 1 of the standard defines methods for the measurement of periodic, random,
and transient whole-body vibrations. The frequency range considered is 0.5 to
80 Hz for health, comfort, and perception as well as 0.1 to 0.5 Hz for kinetosis
(motion sickness). Figure 3.67 describes the procedure for calculating an effective
value for the subsequent categorization of measured accelerations.
Figure 3.67: Sequence of the effective value calculation according to the ISO 2631 standard.
Within the standard, the measured accelerations and rotation rates are differentiated
by frequency-dependent rating functions depending on the respective introduction
points and directions. The rating is performed by multiplying the acceleration signals
with an evaluation function W in the respective frequency domain. The frequency-
weighted accelerations are then calculated using the RMS value of the individual
measurement points. Various methods are defined in the standard for calculating the
weighted vibration intensities, whereby a weighted RMS is used as the standard pro-
cedure. The resulting effective value can then be categorized according to different
discomfort levels.
The influence that the suspension setup has on the vehicles body, on wheel
movements, and on the occupants comfort perception is described in Figure 3.68. It
shows a smoothed (filtered) fast Fourier transformation (FFT) of the accelerations at
the strut mount and at the wheel center point with a soft and hard suspension
setup. The results are from a mid-size car on a straight, severely damaged road and
at a constant speed of 60 km/h. One recognizes the natural frequencies of the vehi-
cle body at 1.5 Hz and the natural frequency of the wheels at 10 Hz. Between these
two frequencies lies a range that is sometimes referred to as the insulation range,
but which nevertheless allows unwanted vibrations to be perceived, which, for ex-
ample, are caused by interactions between the body and the engine. This effect is
0.12
Suspension
0.1
Amplitude /- soft
0.8 Suspension
hard
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency/Hz
1.4
Suspension
1.2 soft
1 Suspension
Amplitude /-
0.8 hard
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency/Hz
Figure 3.68: Frequency analysis of the measured accelerations of a compact car at the strut mount
and wheel center for soft and hard suspension settings.
called spluttering and gives reason to a careful layout of the engine mounts, which
are sometimes even designed as active elements.
The natural frequencies of the vehicle body (strut mount) are between 1 and
3 Hz for a vehicle with soft suspension. With a hard suspension the energy is shifted
into a middle-frequency area and increased in its amplitudes. The road excitations
with a hard suspension are perceived more clearly and unpleasant by the occupant,
but also the low-frequency excitations can lead to discomfort. However, if consider-
ing the FFT at the wheel center point, the wheel load fluctuations are simulta-
neously increasing with a soft suspension. This has a strongly negative impact on
driving safety.
This effect is also referred to as conflict of objectives in vertical dynamics. The
wheel load is thereby influenced by the lifting movement of the wheels. High wheel
load fluctuations lead to a deterioration in driving safety. In contrast, high vehicle
body movements have a negative effect on the driving comfort. Modern adaptive or
(semi-)active chassis systems try to resolve this conflict by influencing the vertical
dynamics and being able to switch between different suspension setups depending
on the drive.
3.10.9 Oscillation frequency of wheel, seat, and body
An overview of usual vertical oscillation frequencies of the wheels, the body, and
the seats is shown in Figure 3.69. It is known that people react especially sensitive
to excitations within a frequency range of 4 − 8 Hz. Among others, it is because the
eigenfrequency of the stomach lies exactly in that area. The body and seat eigenfre-
quencies thus need to be set up in a way that avoids this range.
500
18
0
km
100
/h
36
km
Upper frequency limit

/h
30
Excitation frequency/Hz
10
Wheel
5
Seat
2
Body
1
0.5
Lower frequency limit
0.1
0.1 1 10 100
Wave length/m
Figure 3.69: Overview of the frequency ranges of vertical motion.

4 Vehicle steering
The vehicle steering system allows the driver to keep the vehicle on an almost freely
chosen path. Sideways or lateral motion of modern motorized vehicles is almost
completely achieved by the drivers’ steering input (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017). If auto-
mated safety systems such as ESP1 are left out of consideration and average drivers
are considered, the desired lateral motion of the vehicle is purely achieved through
the steering system. This makes the steering system one of the most crucial parts of
every motorized vehicle.
Independent of the exact mechanical arrangement, the motion of a control
input (usually a steering wheel) is translated to the rotational motion of one or
more steered axles.
This leads to an angle difference between the vehicle’s longitudinal axis and the
steered wheels. Consequently, lateral forces are exerted between the tires and the
road surface, causing the vehicle to follow a curved trajectory. The lateral control of a
vehicle by the driver can be seen as a closed feedback loop. Here the driver influences
the state of the system (vehicle) by applying input on the actuator (through the steer-
ing wheel). The change in vehicle state can then be perceived both visually and
through haptic or force feedback (Figure 4.1). Besides giving the driver control over
the lateral positioning of the vehicle, the steering system therefore also serves as an
important source of information to the driver. The steering feel is essential to obtain a
safe and precise steering of a motorized vehicle. Through the forces exerted by the
steering wheel, to the driver’s hands, the driver can draw valuable information about
the current state of the road–tire contact. Therefore, steering feel can be a decisive
factor regarding driving comfort.
In the recent decades, developments such as electric power steering (EPS) have
led to an increase in possibilities for which the steering system can be used for
safety or assistance purposes.
This chapter provides an overview of functions and tasks for which the steering
system is responsible. In order to do this, the relevance of the chassis is briefly ex-
plained before some basic engineering designs on steering systems are presented.
Furthermore, this chapter contains an elaboration on the topic of power steering,
both in hydraulic implementation as well as EPS, which is standard in today’s auto-
motive industry.
It will also be shown how the steering system can be evaluated with regard to
safety aspects. To conclude, potential future steering systems will be discussed.
1 ESP: Electronic Stability Program, depending on the vehicle manufacturer, different names can
be found.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-004
158 4 Vehicle steering
Vehicle
(controlled system)
Vehicle Steering wheel

Driving course (actuator)
response
(controlled variable)
Driver Haptic response

(controller)
Road course
Optical
haptic Steering wheel input
kinesthetic torque/angle
acoustical
Figure 4.1: Driver–vehicle feedback loop for lateral control (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017).
4.1 Technical requirements of vehicle steering systems
The requirements for contemporary motorized vehicle steering systems can be highly
diverse and sometimes even contradictory. Logically speaking it is of critical impor-
tance that the driver is able to keep the vehicle following the desired trajectory
through use of the steering system. Nonetheless, other factors such as vibrations,
noise levels, steering feel, fuel efficiency, and, as with all other systems in motorized
vehicles, weight, installation space, and costs play key roles.
While the legislative requirements regarding safety and functioning of motor
vehicle steering systems are highly regulated, the steering feel can be assessed
vastly different by competing vehicle manufactures and is therefore often a key dif-
ferentiator between brands. Through steering (usually in conjunction with the chas-
sis) either a comfortable and smooth ride or a sportier performance-oriented ride
experience can be obtained. For the driver’s evaluation of the vehicle, steering is
therefore one of the most significant attributes (see Section 4.2).
The most important characteristics of a modern steering system are according
to Harrer and Pfeffer (2017), Haken (2013)
– precision,
– reliability,
– a mechanical linkage from steering wheel to the steered wheels (also as back-
up system for vehicles equipped with the so-called steer-by-wire),
– an adequately direct translation of input to output motion to guarantee preci-
sion and accuracy in tight roads and during parking maneuvers,
– an adequately low and well interpretable steering wheel torque (without power
steering only achievable with indirect steering),
– a consistent and predictable steering recovery when exiting corners as well as
good straight-line characteristics, and
– the absence of disturbances on the steering wheel (bumps, vibrations, etc.).
4.2 Driver–vehicle interaction and steering feel
4.2.1 Basic requirements for steering systems
On the one hand, the steering wheel is the only input available to the average driver
that allows control over lateral motion of the vehicle. On the other hand, it is an
important source of information to the driver and provides real-time haptic2 feed-
back about the current vehicle state. Especially information on road–tire contact
and road condition can be gained through the steering feel.
The steering feel, as defined by Harrer and Pfeffer (2017), can be described as
“The sum of visual, kinesthetic, and haptic sensation of a driver while steering a
vehicle”. This describes a highly complex and subjective experience.
The interaction between driver and vehicle in a feedback loop where steering is
the main actuator is shown in Figure 4.1.
While the so-called steering feel determines how a driver perceives a specific ve-
hicle steering motion, the steering behavior follows the opposite route. The steering
behavior describes the reaction of the vehicle due to a specific steering input. This
highly personal and difficult to objectify steering feel depends in a decisive manner
on the steering behavior. In order to be able to evaluate the steering feel as positive,
it is necessary that the steering behavior, that is, the vehicles reaction to a steering
input (steering wheel torque and angle) appears consistent and coherent (Harrer and
Pfeffer 2017). For the average driver this requires a linear relationship between steer-
ing wheel angle and vehicle reaction. This behavior may only become nonlinear
when the vehicle is being driven on the edge of its performance capabilities. The av-
erage driver rarely reaches this region of extreme lateral accelerations.
Even though the assessment of steering (feel) can be considered a subjective
task, some clear and concise requirements regarding the steering feel and behavior
of a vehicle can be determined as seen below:
– low steering torque during parking and maneuvering,
– ease of movement, sensitivity, and accuracy,
– good straight-line stability at all speeds,
2 Haptic (from Greek language); by sense of force.

– good response (straight-line stability at high speeds, response to small steering

wheel angles at low speeds),
– sufficiently direct reaction of the steering system,
– road condition feedback and feedback of the driving situation (steering feel, vi-
brations, information on the tire–road contact), and
– comfort requirements such as suppression of uneven roads, noise suppression,
and so on.
In addition, other criteria such as the ones below can be added:

– crash requirements (especially requirements on steering wheel and steering
column),
– ensuring safe steering of the vehicle,
– energy efficiency (power steering),
– performance (power, force, and dynamic of the actuator),
– environment (corrosion, temperature, leakage, fluids, etc.),
– high quality (no mechanical or electrical faults),
– packaging (especially for the steering column),
– weight and cost,
– low friction in the steering system and steering column for a better steering
feel, and
– high stiffness of the steering column for a direct response.
The steering torque is a decisive factor in both steering feel and steering effort.
Besides statutory requirements for the maximum steering torque, significant manu-
facturer-specific differences are noticeable when evaluating vehicle steering.
By tuning the steering assistance (around the center position), the desired
steering wheel torque (steering feel) can be achieved. For this reason, there have
been many different studies on the topic of objectively measuring and improving
steering feel, for example, (Harrer 2007), (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017), (Lunkeit 2014,
Fritzsche 2016).
According to the StVO,3 for example, a safe and “low effort” steering action must
always be guaranteed. This demand is specified in greater detail in the guidelines
(EU 1992) (Alteration of Guideline (EU 1970)). In these documents the maximum al-
lowed values for force exerted by the hands, and thus the maximum steering wheel
torque are defined. The steering system for a passenger car must be designed in a
way that, starting in a straight-line trajectory with a speed of 10 km=h, the car must
be able to reach a circular trajectory with a radius of 12 m within 4 s. When loaded to
the vehicles’ maximum loading capacity, the maximum allowable steering wheel
force required for this maneuver is 150 N. For a vehicle equipped with power steering
3 German Road Traffic Act.

the allowable force after malfunctioning of the power steering system is also defined.
In this case the maneuver is done with a circular trajectory with a radius of 20 m,
where the maximum allowable force is limited to 300 N. During normal driving con-
ditions the torque on the steering wheel is in the range 2 −3 Nm.
Assuming a steering wheel with a radius of 15 −20 cm, this corresponds to less
than 20 N force exerted by the hands.
In extreme situations (emergency evasive maneuvers for instance), much
higher steering wheel forces can be reached.
Since the steering system is rated as ASIL-D (automotive safety integrity level
D, see Chapter 1) regarding ISO26262 (ISO 2011), a safe and reliable functionality
has to be guaranteed in all driving situations. Therefore, a high effort in validation
and verification is necessary.
4.2.2 Assessment criteria for steering systems
Harrer (2007) lists various assessment criteria for steering systems, of which a
selection will be discussed below. First, a short definition of the criterion is
given. Afterwards the respective possible characteristics are listed. According to
Dralle (2016) and Schäfer, Wahl et al. (2006), not only the steering system itself
is relevant for assessing the steering characteristics, but also various vehicle
characteristics (e.g., vehicle mass, suspension, and wheel–tire combination)
like
– steering wheel angle demand: necessary steering wheel angle to generate a
specific wheel steering angle and consequently curve radius (too low/direct ↔
ideal ↔ too high/indirect),
– steering torque: occurring torque on the steering wheel when driving the vehi-
cle (too low ↔ ideal ↔ too high),
– steering precision: vehicle reaction to steering wheel angle variations and cor-
rection needed when driving the vehicle (precise ↔ imprecise),
– steering feedback: transmission of information about the contact between the
tire and the track and the forces acting on the tire (too low ↔ ideal ↔ too
high),
– intermediate layer/directional stability: stability or correction requirement
when driving straight ahead (too slow/indirect ↔ ideal ↔ too nervous /
direct),
– steering responsiveness: reaction of the vehicle to initial variation of the steer-
ing wheel angle (too slow ↔ ideal ↔ too nervous),
– rear steering: system for applying a steering angle to the rear wheels (positive
↔ negative).
4.2.3 Subject study and press analysis
In principle, similar findings regarding the rating of systems or vehicles can be de-
termined with a subject study and a press analysis. However, the methods have dif-
ferent advantages and disadvantages with regard to effort, costs, and the test
persons or testers as well as the possibilities in the evaluation of the properties,
which will be discussed in detail below.
A successful subject study requires a high organizational effort. A sufficient num-
ber of subjects must be acquired and scheduled. In addition, the necessary vehicles
and possibly a test site must be provided. The time required to carry out and super-
vise the candidates must also not be neglected. The preparation and organization ef-
fort for a press analysis, however, is low. In return, the continuous expenditure of
time is significantly higher, since a sufficient number of tests and evaluations re-
quires a press analysis over as long a period as possible.
The cost of a subject study depends on the objective of the study. Driving dy-
namics demanding driving maneuvers cannot be carried out in traffic. In addition
to the vehicles, a test area or a closed test track must be available in this case. As
an alternative to subject studies with real vehicles subject studies with simulators
can be performed (see Chapter 10). Under certain circumstances, a compensation of
the subjects in the projected costs should be included. A press analysis can be car-
ried out at significantly lower costs. Only costs for newspaper articles or other pub-
lications (subscriptions for online publications) incur.
A subject study can document detailed information about the subjects (e.g.,
age, gender, driving experience, driving style, vehicle choice preferences). This doc-
umentation allows to create specific evaluations related to individual attributes. In
contrast, there is almost no information about the testers in a press analysis.
Consequently, only general evaluations are feasible. Conclusions on person-specific
characteristics are not possible. An advantage of the press analysis, however, is that
by considering foreign newspapers and publications an analysis in different markets
requires only little effort.
With the help of a subject study, the targeted analysis of individual properties
of a system or vehicle is possible. The design of evaluation sheets or the targeted
questioning of the subjects allows the specific recording of information, so that the
respective question can be precisely analyzed. In addition, development vehicles
(prototypes) can be inspected to obtain feedback on the new product before they
are introduced to the market. As part of a press analysis, the entire product is usu-
ally evaluated. A targeted analysis of specific properties or driving maneuvers is not
possible here. Only the information can be evaluated, which are addressed by the
testers in the respective articles. There is no possibility to inquire specifically about
certain criteria. It follows that for press tests a significantly larger database is
needed than in a subject study in order to obtain a statistically sufficient number of
assessments.
4.2.4 Results of the press analysis on steering systems
This section addresses a selection of the results of a press analysis for the evalua-
tion of steering systems in actual vehicles of five different series (sports car, sedan,
SUV) of Porsche AG derived by Düsterloh, Bittner et al. (2018). The results presented
and analyzed below result from the evaluations in a total of 684 press reviews from
218 different sources, which were evaluated over a period from 02/2016 to 04/2018.
The number of articles and publications from the trade press is 471 and is therefore
around 68.9%. Figure 4.2 shows the ratings summed up across all series. Above the
respective evaluation criterion, the numbers of the evaluations occurring in the
press tests are plotted.
Number of press tests evaluated: 684

350
too nervous/ˊdirect
too high/in directt
too inert/indirect
too low/direct
too nervous
too inert
unprecise
negative
too high
too high
too low
too low
299
300
250 232
Number of ratings
200
175
150
114 121
107
100
75
50
12 15 18
4 11
1 4 0 0 3 1 1
0
Steering Steering Precision Steering Center feel/ Steering Rear axle
angle torque feedback straight-line response steering
demand correction
effort
Assessment criterion
Figure 4.2: Press analysis on steering systems in actual vehicles of Porsche AG (Düsterloh, Bittner
et al. 2018).
Figure 4.2 shows that the vehicle steering systems are generally rated positively in
all criteria. Most often the criterion of the rear axle steering (310 evaluations) is
evaluated, followed by the feedback (250 evaluations) and the precision (232 evalu-
ations). Steering torque (140 ratings), steering wheel angle demand (127 ratings),
and response ratings (112 reviews) are rated approximately half as often. The center
feel or the straight line (22 ratings) are rated the least.
With regard to the steering wheel angle demand, there is a tendency toward an
high steering wheel angle demand (for indirect steering ratio). The steering torque is
rated as low by the testers. In the evaluated press tests, there are only positive evalua-
tions regarding the precision. The steering feedback is in most cases rated as exact.
However, a clear tendency with the desire for more feedback is identifiable. The feed-
back is rated most critically compared to the other criteria. With regard to the center
feel or the straight-line correction effort, there is only a small number of statements,
which overall reflects a positive rating without a clear tendency. The response of
the vehicles to steering commands is also rated as positive. With regard to the
rear-axle steering systems, most of the evaluations are available, which are al-
most exclusively positive. For detailed analyses and results of the press analysis
(market-specific evaluation according to German-language and English-language ar-
ticles, series-specific evaluation), reference is made to the explanations in Düsterloh,
Bittner et al. (2018).
The presented results of the press analysis show some analogies to the results
of a study of volunteers presented in Pfeffer and Scholz (2010). In the context of
this study, the assessments of regular drivers (subjects without previous training in
the assessment of steering systems) are compared to the evaluations of experts. As
a result, it appears that normal drivers and experts basically give similar ratings re-
garding the criteria of precision, steering wheel torque, and steering wheel angle
requirement. The vehicles tested in the subject study are often rated as imprecise,
unlike the steering precision results presented in Figure 4.2. The steering wheel tor-
que is judged too low by the testers of the subject study compared with to the ten-
dency in the results of the press analysis in Figure 4.2. The steering wheel angle
requirement is often too large, that is, the translation is too indirect, analogous to
Figure 4.2. Regarding the feedback or the steering feel, the evaluations of the experts
are more differentiated and more critical than the evaluations of the normal drivers.
The critical feedback evaluations can also be seen in the press reviews in Figure 4.2.
4.3 Common designs of steering systems
Since the appearance of the first motorized vehicles, the art of steering has under-
gone drastic changes. Besides improvements in kinematics and construction de-
sign, many different forms of power steering have been developed. In recent years,
the main focus in the domain of vehicle steering systems has been with regard to
EPS and the new innovative functions this feature allows. Depending on the vehicle
type different forms of steering can be drawn up. Figure 4.3 shows these signifi-
cantly different ways of steering.
The first motorized vehicles were simply based on existing but nonmotorized ve-
hicles. These were most commonly equipped with the so-called turntable steering sys-
tems, which were also being used for horse carriages. This type of vehicle steering, just
like articulated steering, has the disadvantage that one-sided disturbances are propa-
gated through the large torque arm (half the track width) resulting in large steering
4.3 Common designs of steering systems 165
Turnable steering Articulated steering Stub axle steering

(Ackermann steering)
Figure 4.3: Basic construction forms of a vehicle steering system.
torques (Matschinsky 2007). Both the rotation of the steered axle (turntable-steering)
and the kinking in the vehicles longitudinal axis (articulated steering) lead to a signifi-
cant reduction in the vehicles’ contact area4 (Matschinsky 2007). Therefore, these types
of steering can only be used at low cornering speeds. Nowadays, the articulated steer-
ing mechanism can still be found in construction and agricultural vehicles.
On the contrary, stub-axle steering, which was developed in the nineteenth
century, does not decrease the vehicles’ contact area. Thus, requiring less available
space to fit the steering mechanism. It has therefore become the norm in vehicle
steering systems and made other mechanism mostly obsolete. The stub-axle steer-
ing mechanism was patented in Munich by the inventor and carriage builder Georg
Lankensperger as well as by Rudolph Ackermann in England (Matschinsky 2007). It
can be found in similar forms in nearly all of today’s motorized vehicles. Steering
mechanisms based on varying propulsion speeds of both wheels, as can be found
in chain-driven vehicles, do not play a role in modern day passenger cars anymore.
Nearly all of today’s motorized vehicles are equipped with the so-called rack and
pinion steering mechanism. The rotation movement of the pinion is converted into
an axial, or longitudinal, movement of the rack and results in a pivoting motion in
both steered wheels. This concept is described in detail in Section 4.5. In addition to
this, most commonly used rack and pinion mechanism in combination with the ap-
propriate steering linkages and recirculating ball gears are also used (Figure 4.4).
Since the vehicle moves on a circular path while cornering and both wheels
move around the same point, the steering angle for the inner and outer wheel must
4 Plane on road surface which is span by all tire contact points.

Steering trapezoid
Steering triangle
(with rack and pinion gear)
Steering quadrilateral
(with recirculating ball bearing
and steering column lever)
Figure 4.4: Different types of steering linkages for a stub-axle steering system in motorized vehicles.
be different from one another. The smart arrangement of steering kinematics, for
example, steering triangle in a rack-and-pinion steering mechanism is used to si-
multaneously optimize the steering behavior of the inner and outer wheel.
4.4 Interpreting steering kinematics
When looking into the design of steering systems, a distinction must be made be-
tween a purely kinematic approach or an approach that includes the dynamics of
motion of the vehicle.
4.4.1 Ackermann steering kinematics
Assuming a circular trajectory at low speeds and consequently very limited centrif-
ugal forces and negligible side-slip angles both wheels move in direction of their
center plane. The movement of all wheels in the direction of their center plane
(meaning zero side-slip) results in lower wear and tear on the tires. Moreover, it will
decrease the total rolling resistance caused by the dynamic interaction between the
road and tire surfaces.
Figure 4.5 shows the top view of a vehicle with a stub-axle steering mechanism
during low speed cornering. All four wheels can rotate freely in the direction of their
center plane and move in a circular trajectory around point K. This modeling
δa
δ
δi
b
l
ρ lh
δa
δi δ
K
Figure 4.5: Purely kinematic, semistationary interpretation of Ackermann steering kinematics.
approach is of purely kinematic form. The resulting steering kinematic is known as

Ackermann steering, explained in more detail in Chapter 3. In this geometrically
based description, point K corresponds to the instantaneous center of rotation of the
vehicle and is located in line with the rear-axle of the vehicle. The vehicle’s center of
mass rotates around point K with a radius ρ. In the described situation it is obvious
that the inner and outer wheels must have different steering angles (Figure 4.5).
This simple kinematic approach of vehicle motion following a circular trajec-
tory makes it possible to determine the necessary steering angles for both steered
wheels (Table 4.1). Unlike models using a single track, also known as bicycle mod-
els, there is no uniform steering angle meaning that both left and right wheel must
be considered separately (Figure 4.5), yielding the following equations:
l l
tan δa = and tan δi = , (4:1)
y+ b
2 y − b2
b
cot δi = cot δa − . (4:2)
l
In practice, especially the difference between inner and outer steering angles is of inter-
est. To indicate this the angle δi − δa is shown above δi in Figure 4.6. A typical course
for the steering angle difference corresponding to the Ackermann model is shown here.
The deviation from Ackermann steering can result in an optimized load transmission,
steering precision, and steering guidance as well as advantages in the packaging (see
also Section 4.4.2).
Table 4.1: Steering angle notations (see also Figure 4.5).
Symbol Description
δa Steering angle on (turn) outer wheel
δi Steering angle on (turn) inner wheel
y Distance from center of rear axle to the instantaneous center of rotation
b Vehicle track width

Steering angle difference δi − δa
g
in
er
ste
n
an
rm
ke
Ac
Deviation from
Ackermann steering
g
rin
e
ste
nal
tio
en
onv
C
Parallel steering
Steering angle δi on the inside wheel
Figure 4.6: Comparison of Ackermann steering principle and a traditional steering principle
(Mitschke and Wallentowitz 2014).
4.4.2 Dynamic approach to steering kinematics
The steering kinematic model explained so far does not hold for higher speeds, as
this leads to the introduction of nonzero side-slip angles for both wheels (see
Chapter 2 and 3). These are dependent not only on the vehicles motion, but also on
other factors such as the condition and properties of the tires (see Chapter 2). This
consequently leads to a shift of the vehicle’s center of rotation towards the front
axle (Figure 4.7). In a more dynamic approach to steering kinematics, it must be
kept in mind that the wheels are no longer moving in the direction of their center
plane. This is known as the so-called lateral slip, or side-slip (see Chapter 2).
When dealing with the modeling of high-speed cornering, the vehicles motion
dynamics must be taken into consideration. A centrifugal force is exerted on the
δa
δi
αv,a
αv,i
l
K ρ
lh
αh,i αh,a
Figure 4.7: Dynamic visualization of steering kinematics.
vehicle, located in its center of mass. This force is dependent on vehicle mass,
speed as well as the cornering radius.
The centrifugal force must be counteracted by force interaction between the tire
and road surface. Lateral tire forces result from the side-slip angles as well as from
the normal load on the wheels. When trying to determine the optimum steering
angle of the wheels, it is of crucial importance which side-slip angle generates max-
imum lateral tire force. Due to the unevenly distributed wheel load during corner-
ing, the potential of lateral force on the outside wheels is significantly increased
compared to that on the inside. Additionally, the maximum lateral tire force for the
outside wheels is reached at higher side-slip angles as for the inside wheels. In case
both inner and outer wheels were to be fixed to their respective side-slip angles cor-
responding to their maximum lateral tire force, the outer wheels must obtain a
higher steering angle than would be the case with the kinematic Ackermann ap-
proach. The angular difference between both steering angles will become negative.
Because this goes against the model described by Ackermann, this is also known as
anti-Ackermann steering (Haken 2013).
The approaches to designing the ideal steering for high speed cornering and
semistationary maneuvers, as e.g. parking, are contradictory. This conflict of interest
can partially be solved by taking advantage of another effect. The centrifugal force
exerted during cornering causes a rolling torque, dependent on the height of the ve-
hicles’ center of gravity (see Chapter 3). As a result, the outer wheel compresses while
the inner wheel rebounds. Through a concise connection between the inner and
outer wheel, this rolling motion can be used to bring about a desired change in toe-in
angle. This leads to a decrease in steering angle on the inner wheel and in an in-
crease in steering angle on the outer wheel. A steering system designed as described
will (almost) correspond to the theoretical Ackermann model at low speeds, while
still allowing optimal results during high speed dynamic cornering.
4.5 Components of the steering system
In most modern vehicles, the before mentioned rack and pinion steering mechanism is
used. The rack and pinion, as well as the triangular linkage steering mechanism, are
shown schematically in Figure 4.4. While Figure 4.4 only shows the steering kinemat-
ics of the axle and steering linkages, Figure 4.9 shows the entire steering train: from
the steering wheel to the steered wheels of a typical passenger car. The torsion bar
shown serves to determine the torque exerted on the steering wheel by the driver. In
vehicles equipped with power steering, the torsion bar is used to regulate the amount
of steering assistance aiding the driver. Further explanation regarding power steering
will be omitted in this section, and the reader is instead referred to Section 4.10.
The driver steers the vehicle by a control input on the steering wheel. This
movement of the steering wheel is transferred through the steering column and
steering shaft to the steering rack. In Figure 4.8, an example of a rack and pinion
steering mechanism is shown. The motion of the steering shaft is transferred to the
steering rods through the steering rack, causing the wheels to move in the desired
direction. In the following sections each individual component of the steering sys-
tem is elaborated upon. In the process of product development a steering test
bench can be used to objectify the influence of the separate parts of the steering
system (Düsterloh 2018, Düsterloh, Uselmann et al. 2019) and (Uselmann 2017).
4.5.1 Steering wheel
The steering wheel is the part of the steering system that is controlled directly by the
driver and is also a source of feedback to the driver regarding the dynamic driving
situation. The steering wheel is thus one of the most important control interfaces be-
tween driver and vehicle (Figure 4.1). The construction, haptics, and aesthetics of the
steering wheel determine the driving experience to a certain extent. In addition, vari-
ous vehicle control elements as well as the clock spring and airbag system are incor-
porated in modern day steering wheels.
Due to the development of power steering assistance (see Section 4.10), the di-
ameter of the steering wheel is no longer a decisive factor in the controllability of
the vehicle. Where older vehicles demanded a minimum steering wheel diameter to
keep the required steering wheel torque exerted by the driver to an acceptable
level, nowadays only the criteria regarding aesthetic, haptic, and ergonomic do-
main are decisive (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
Steering wheel
Universal joints
Steering column
Wheel carrier
Intermediate steering shaft
Protective bellow Pinion shaft
Rack Torsion bar
Steering arm Tie rod Axial joint
Radial joint
(Steering) Pinion
Figure 4.8: Basic design of a rack and pinion steering system.
4.5.2 Steering column and intermediate steering shaft
Nowadays, a mechanical steering column and shaft are used in nearly all pas-
senger cars. The steering shaft provides the driver with a mechanical linkage to
the steered wheels so that the wheel angle can be adjusted at any time. In re-
versed order, the forces and torques from the steering rack are transferred to the
driver to provide continuous feedback. Therefore, not only the driving behavior
of the vehicle but also the steering feel depends decisively on the steering col-
umn and shaft.
The upper part of the steering path is usually coupled to the steering column.
Therefore, the steering column must not only provide a stiff linkage but must also
be adjustable as to provide the driver with the option of customizing the steering
wheel position. The so-called fixed steering columns (lacking height adjustability of
the steering wheel) are hard to find in modern-day motor vehicles.
Because the steering column must possess enough stiffness to fulfil its primary
objective, it can be problematic during crashes. In case of an accident, it must be
avoided that the steering column penetrates through to the inside of the vehicle
where it poses a significant danger to the occupants.
In modern vehicles the steering wheel together with the steering column is moved
toward the front of the vehicle during a collision, to ensure the passenger space of the
vehicle is not penetrated. At the same time, the positioning of crash elements such as
the airbag must be safeguarded. The connection between steering column and steering
rack is guaranteed through the steering shaft. Due to limited space in the car front end,
steering shafts must consist of joints to ensure they can be led around the engine.
Often the steering shafts are adjustable in length, which benefits ease of assembly. The
option to adjust the length of the steering shafts can also be utilized to achieve desired
crash characteristics. Another advantage of the steering shafts is that they are capable
of filtering out disturbances and shocks.
In the simplest implementation, the steering shaft exists of a single rigid shaft
with universal joints on either side. Due to the separate shafts and their connecting
joints, a nonuniformity of motion occurs. This nonuniformity is known as the gim-
bal error. Alternatively a constant velocity joint, or CV joint, can be used (Schramm,
Hiller et al. 2018). Compared to universal joints, CV joints tend to have significantly
higher friction values and are known to exhibit more backlash in the vehicles steer-
ing characteristic.
4.5.2.1 Universal joints

As already mentioned, universal joints are used to allow for the necessary bend-
ing points in the steering line. The rotational movement of the input shaft is trans-
ferred to a rotational movement of the output shaft through the universal joint
(Figure 4.9).
φ2 φ1
Figure 4.9: Kinematic relationships at a universal joint.
In case the input and output shaft are not in line with each other (α≠0), the shafts
will rotate at different velocities (Table 4.2). Stating for a single universal joint:
tan φ1
φ2 = arctan . (4:3)
cos α
Table 4.2: Variables in the universal joint

Symbol Description
φ1 Input angle
φ2 Output angle
α Deflection angle
When two separate universal joints are used in conjunction with another, it is
possible to counteract the shaft fluctuation. To achieve this, both joints must have
an identical deflection angle. However, in practice, this arrangement is often not
possible due to space limitations in the engine compartment.
In a simplified manner, it can be assumed that in case of two universal joints
the following equation holds:
cos α2
tan φ2 = tan φ1. (4:4)
cos α1
When designing and constructing a steering system, it is necessary to ensure that

shaft fluctuations are kept to a minimum.
4.5.2.2 Impact of nonuniformity

The nonuniformity of the motion can be used specifically to achieve a variable steering
ratio. For instance, this makes it possible to create a larger translation around the cen-
ter point. This leads to an additional centering. Starting from the center point, the
translation will then drop off slightly, but symmetrically, on either side. Consequently,
a small increase in steering torque is noticeable leading to more direct steering.
4.5.3 Steering rack
The steering rack transfers the rotational motion of the steering shafts to an axial
movement of the steering rods. To achieve this, multiple different types of steering
rack can be utilized.
4.5.3.1 Rack and pinion

The Rack and Pinion mechanism is the most commonly used mechanism in modern
motor vehicle steering systems. The pinion hooks into the gears of the rack, making
it possible to transfer the rotational motion of the steering shaft into an axial move-
ment of the rack. Figure 4.10 shows the setup of a rack and pinion mechanism.
Besides the actual rack and pinion, hydraulic power steering elements are also
Steering shaft
Tie rod
Rack
Pressure piece
Output
Figure 4.10: Rack and pinion steering system in a passenger vehicle. In simple rack and pinion
gears, it can be assumed that there is a constant ratio between pinion angle and lateral rack
displacement according to Fischer, Gscheidle et al. (2013).
present. The torsion rod is located above the pinion, accompanied by the corre-
sponding hydraulic valve. Hydraulic oil flows through this valve to the master cyl-
inder connected to the steering rack. Depending on the rotation of the torsion bar,
different hydraulic pressure tubes can be fully or partially opened.
4.5.3.2 Recirculating ball gear

Besides the well-established rack and pinion gear, some vehicles are fitted with a
steering system using a recirculating ball gear. The basic workings of this type of
gear are illustrated in Figure 4.11.
The rotational motion of the steering spindle is transferred via the balls located
in the housings’ grooves to an axial movement of the ball nut. The teeth between
the ball nut and sector shaft in turn translates this into the typical pivoting move-
ment of the pitman arm. When the balls have passed the area of the ball nut, they
are recirculated through guiding tubes back in the worm housing.
4.6 Parameters of the steered wheels
To the average driver, steering is the only option to influence the lateral dynamics
to a desired state. By turning the steered wheels, a side-slip angle α occurs, result-
ing in a lateral force on the tires (Chapter 2 and 3). These lateral tire forces are the
driving mechanism to ensure the vehicle follows the desired curved trajectory.
Steering worm Steering shaft
Ball guide tubes Steering nut
Tie rod
Steering lever
Figure 4.11: Recirculating ball gear in vehicle steering system according to Fischer, Gscheidle et al.
(2013).
4.6.1 Definition of geometric parameters of the wheel
In this section the geometric parameters of the wheel and their coherence with
forces and torques exerted on the steering system are briefly explained. These pa-
rameters are shown in Figure 4.12 and Table 4.3, based on the most commonly used
stub-axle steering configuration.
During cornering the steered wheel pivots around the steering axis L
(Figure 4.12). This line crosses the vehicle’s trajectory at point D. The distance
between the center contact point A and point D in the longitudinal direction
(side view) is called the trail n. The trail consists of a dynamic part nD and a part
nK , which is due to construction (of the suspension). It functions as the lever
arm for the lateral force acting on the wheel. When looking at normal cornering
situations, the combination of both the lateral force and the trail make up the
steering torque (Matschinsky 2007).
The distance between point D and the center contact point A in the perpendicu-
lar direction to the tire is known as the scrub radius rr . Under braking, the scrub
radius provides the relevant torque arm for cornering. With different braking forces
on both steered wheels, or during simultaneous braking and cornering, the scrub
radius results in a steering torque that can be noticed by the driver.
Driving forces that are transmitted to the driven wheel via the steering shafts,
as is common in today’s vehicles, produce a torque around the steering axis
through the lever arm lσ . This spread offset is also referred to as the disturbance
Figure 4.12: Visualization of geometric parameters on the steered wheel according to Matschinsky
(2007).
Table 4.3: Geometric parameters related to the steered wheel (see also
Figure 4.12).
Symbol Description
L Steering axis
σ Spread angle between steering axis and vertical Z-axis
γ Camber angle
τ Caster angle
rr Scrub radius
n Trail
nl Trail offset
lσ Spread offset
δ0 Toe-in angle
r Wheel radius
lever arm, because not only driving forces but also all disturbing forces on the free-
rolling wheel (e.g., road shocks, friction coefficient changes, etc.) are passed on
over the center of the wheel suspension to the vehicle body. Therefore, these forces
result in a torque corresponding to the disturbance lever arm around the spread
axis (Matschinsky 2007).
The toe-in angle δ0 (not visible in Figure 4.12, but see Chapter 3) denotes the
rotation of the wheel opposite to the vehicle’s longitudinal direction when the steer-
ing wheel is in the center position. The toe-in angle ensures the desired return of
the wheel to a straight-line position and improves straight-line characteristics.
4.6.2 Changes in geometric parameters during cornering
Due to the connection between both steered wheels, the kinematic dependencies
change while cornering. Thus, it can be very useful to steer the inner and outer
wheel separately (see Section 4.4.1). A change in geometric parameters will also
lead to a change in all dynamic dependencies, because the lever arms of different
forces have been altered.
Figure 4.13 shows the change in camber angle of the wheel due to a steering
input. Based on the spread angle σ, as well as the caster angle τ, the center point M
describes a circular trajectory while cornering. The kinematics of the steered wheels
lead to a change in camber during a steering input. This camber change can be uti-
lized to support the vehicle dynamics.
Figure 4.13: Effect of camber changes on the steering angle according to Matschinsky (2007).
During cornering the wheel center M follows a circular trajectory inclined in space.
Because the connection from DM to M is fixed, the caster angle γ changes due to the
described rolling movement of the wheel around the steering axis. The suspension
trail5 n changes similarly due to this rolling movement. It is subject to the trail offset
nτ , in addition to the caster angle τ as a function of the steering angle δ. According
to Mitschke and Wallentowitz (2014) it holds that
nK = n0 + rðtan σ sin δ − ð1 − cos δÞ tan τÞ, (4:5)
where
n0 = nK ðδ = 0Þ = nl + r tan τ. (4:6)
The scrub radius can be calculated with
rr = rs0 + n0 sin δ (4:7)
where
rro = rr ðδ = 0Þ = lσ − rðtan σ + γÞ (4:8)
holds.
While turning the wheel as described, the wheel itself is raised slightly. This
leads to a change in kinematic variables of the wheel. The resulting vertical move-
ment causes an additional steering work since the vehicle front is moved vertically
against the gravitation (see drilling torque). For this movement in vertical direction
it holds that
ΔzðδÞ = rr0 ½ðcos δ − 1Þ tan τ + sin δ tan σ − n0 ½sin δ tan τ − ðcos δ − 1Þ tan τ. (4:9)
In addition, the camber angle of the steered wheel changes as follows:
γðδÞ = γ0 − δ tan τ. (4:10)
When looking at smaller steering angles, the kinematic changes of the wheel and
the corresponding changes in lever arms usually have very limited effects on the
working steering torques/ratios. For larger steering angles, often seen at low speeds
and parking maneuvers they can have considerable effects.
Figure 4.14 shows an example of the variation in kinematic parameters as a
function of the steering angle.
5 A distinction must be made between suspension and pneumatic trail. The suspension trail results
from the kinematics of the wheel suspension. The pneumatic trail describes the shift of center con-
tact point relative to the point where the steering axis crosses the center’s points horizontal plane.
Depending on the working forces, see Chapter 3.
8
Nr σ τ rs n0 7
1 5° 3° 50 16 6
2 12° 3° 0 16 3,4 5
3 12° 9° 15 5 4 𝛾/°
2
4 12° 9° 0 5 3
R = 300, 𝛾0 = 0 2
1
1
0
2 –1
40 3,4
–2
30
–3
20 1
n/mm
10
0
–10 4
–20 3
–30 1 2
–40 1
0 lσ/mm
2 –1
–2
3 –3
4
–4
–40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40

󰛿/°
Figure 4.14: Effects of changes in caster angle and wheel load lever arm on the steering angle
(Matschinsky 2007).
4.7 Steering transmission
The angular rotation of the steering wheel is translated to a pivoting motion of the
steered wheels through the steering system. This is achieved by the steering kine-
matics consisting of the steering column and steering shafts, as well as the steering
rack and steering linkages (see Section 4.5). Of critical importance for the driver in
this case is the steering ratio between the steering wheel and steering angle of the
steered wheels (Table 4.4):
iL, i + iL, o
iL = , (4:11)
2
δH
iL = . (4:12)
δR
The steering ratio describes the dependency between the occurring steering torque
and the hand torque on the steering wheel, linearly related to the steering wheel
angle and the angle of the wheels. Due to the previously shown dependencies on
the wheel kinematics, the steering ratio is not constant. Instead, it is dependent on
the wheel angle and therefore different for the inner and outer wheel.
Table 4.4: Steering angle parameters.
Symbols Description
δH Steering wheel angle
δR Mean angle of the steered wheels
iL Mean steering ratio
iL, i , iL, o Steering ratio of inner and outer wheel
sZS Rack stroke
iLG Ratio of the steering rack (rad/mm)
The steering ratio consists of three components:

– ratio of the steering gears,
– ratio of the steering linkage, and
– nonuniformity of the universal joints.
Because the ratios of the steering gears (rack) and the nonuniformity of the univer-
sal joints are equal for both steered wheels, the (desirable) difference in total steer-
ing ratios between the inner and outer wheel can only be explained as being due to
the steering linkages (see Section 4.4).
In case the desired maximum steering wheel angle is predetermined and the
corresponding mechanical angle of attack of the steered wheels is known, it is pos-
sible to determine the required steering ratio. The maximum angle of attack of the
steered front wheels is normally between 45 and 50 . With these angles it is typi-
cally possible to achieve a turning circle diameter of approximately 8.5 − 13 m (de-
pending on the size of the vehicle). Commonly seen steering ratios tend to be in the
range of 13 − 20, meaning that the maximum angle of the steered wheels can be
achieved at 1.5 − 2.5 full rotations of the steering wheel. The steering gear can be
altered to ensure that the desired ratio is realized with the given steering kinemat-
ics. In addition, a compromise needs to be made to maintain acceptable levels of
comfort and hand forces during parking maneuvers. The choice of a suitable steer-
ing ratio is thus directly associated with the design of the power steering system
(see Section 4.10). The introduction of power steering has made it possible to
achieve relatively direct steering and comfortable hand torques at the same time.
Concepts with variable steering ratios seek to solve these conflicts of interest.
Different steering ratios can be realized depending on the steering wheel angle (for
instance using Wandfluh steering, steering with progressive rack, or the combined
use of the steering linkage and nonuniformities of the universal joints). Active sys-
tems also exist where the driver can freely select a desired ratio depending on the
driving conditions (see Section 4.12.1). In dynamic driving situations, the ratios may
also vary due to the elasticity of the steering components and bearings.
4.7.1 Ratio of the steering gear
The rack and pinion steering mechanism is currently the standard in passenger
motor vehicles. Therefore, in this section the focus will be completely on this type
of steering gear. For the rack and pinion mechanism, the steering ratio as a function
of the steering wheel angle (or pinion rotation) can be defined as
dδH
iLG = , (4:13)
dsZS
As elaborated upon in Section 4.5.3, in some mechanisms of this type the ratio can
be dependent on the absolute position of the rack. Usually, however, the ratio is
constant over the entire range of steering wheel angles.
4.7.2 Ratio of the steering linkages
Based on the selected kinematics of the steering linkages, different leverage ratios
can be present depending on the actual steering angle. This results in a steering
ratio of the linkages that changes with respect to the steering wheel angle. A correct
choice of selected kinematics can be made in such a way as to positively influence
the overall steering ratio. In addition, unequal steering angles for the inner and
outer wheel can be achieved (see Section 4.4).
For the rack and pinion steering mechanism, the steering linkage ratio for the
inner and outer wheels can be specified as the ratio of the movement of the rack
relative to the rotation of the wheel:
dsZS
iLZ i, o = . (4:14)
dδi, o
The considerations in this section assume planar kinematics for the sake of simplic-
ity. If a three-dimensional kinematic model is to be derived for the steering system,
the change in leverage ratios due to vertical compression and extension of the
wheels must also be considered.
As touched upon earlier, the steering angle can be influenced positively by a
specific adjustment of the steering kinematics during compression – as to support
the dynamic driving situation. At this point, the variable dynamic ratio is not dis-
cussed in more detail and the reader is referred to other literature sources
(Matschinsky 2007) and (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017).
When considering the steering linkages and their respective leverage ratios, it
must be taken into account that the components of the steering linkages (compared
to the rack) possess considerable elasticity. This elasticity allows for movement in
the relevant pivotal points, even without the rack itself moving. This can still result
in a change of the steering angle. The steering ratio therefore also depends on the
effective forces (and thus on the dynamic driving situation). Depending on the load
situation of the wheel, relevant kinematic variables of the suspension (steering link-
age) may change (see Chapter 3). Figure 4.15 shows a simplified visualization of
this relationship for the inner steered wheel. The movement of the rack is trans-
ferred through the tie rods to the wheel carrier. This in turn ensures the desired
turning of the wheel, in accordance with the relevant leverage ratios. For the tie rod
a spring stiffness is assumed, which approximates the elasticity of the entire steer-
ing linkage. As an alternative to the rack and pinion mechanism, Figure 4.15 also
shows a control stalk (dashed line). This translates the rotational movement (angle
δKG of the ball screw) around point D in the displacement of the tie rod (Table 4.5).
Figure 4.15: Kinematics (elastokinematics) of the steering linkages for the inner steered wheel as
described by Matschinsky (2007).
Due to the elastic nature of the system, the steering ratio can only be specified kine-
matically when looking at a statically loaded situation (constant tire forces). A spe-
cial case of static load is the unloaded situation (free steering). In this case the
elastic properties of the system can be fully neglected, meaning that a kinematic
approach suffices.
To determine the steering linkage ratio, the length of the tie rod lSt is assumed
to be fixed (rigid body) – contrasting Figure 4.15. Any potential compliance in the
wheel itself is also neglected further. This leads to a simplified depiction, shown
in Figure 4.16. For further derivation of these concepts, only the left wheel is
considered.
Table 4.5: Steering rigidity parameters (see also Figure 4.15).
Symbol Description
βU , βT Transmission angle
lSt Tie rod length
a Length overlap of knuckle arm and tie rod
lSH Length of knuckle arm
e Effective lever arm of the tie rod related to the wheel rotation
cSt Tie rod stiffness
cδ Torsion stiffness of the wheel around the steering axis
Figure 4.16: Planar kinematics of the steering linkages for the left front wheel, without taking into
account elasticity.
The connecting points of the steering linkages form the triangle EUT in Figure 4.16.
The sides EU and UT of the triangle are identified as knuckle arm length lSH and tie
rod length lSt and are both constant. Thus, with the kinematic constraints, the
wheel steering angle δ can be determined based on the rack displacement sZS . To
describe the kinematic relationships, the origin of the coordinate system is placed
in point E.
Point T (connection to the rack) is only free to move along the y-axis in the co-
ordinate system depicted in Figure 4.16. The point is thus described by the rack po-
sition and the constant value h (distance rack to steering axis). Point E is limited to
planar movement.
The knuckle arm and vehicle-fixed y-axis enclose the variable wheel steering
angle δ. This angle is composed of the toe-in angle δ0 and an angle that results
from the axial movement of the rack, symbolized as δZS . The toe-in angle is as-
sumed negative. The wheel steer angle then becomes:
δ = δ0 + δZS . (4:15)
Since the toe-in angle is fixed, only the derivation of the above-mentioned compo-
nent due related to the rack displacement will be discussed below. Applying the co-
sine rule for the shown steering triangle results in the following:
l2St = l2SH + l2 − 2lSH l cos ζ . (4:16)
The angle ζ can also be written in accordance with the relationships shown in
Figure 4.16:
π
ζ= − ðα0 + δZS Þ − θ, (4:17)
2
where the angle α0 describes the constant angle between the knuckle arm and the
x-axis in the initial state. The angle θ as seen in eq. (4.17) can similarly be expressed
in the following kinematic relationship:
h
θ = arctan . (4:18)
yZS
Distance h is constant and denotes the distance in x-direction between the rack and
the wheel carrier (point E). The parameter yZS can vary due to movements of the
steering rack. It defines the position of the rack and is composed of a constant part
yZS, 0 , which describes the position of the rack in center position, and the axial dis-
placement of the rack sZS :
yZS = yZS, 0 + sZS . (4:19)
The length l of the steering triangle from eq. (4.15) can be determined by
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l = y2ZS + h2 = ðyZS, 0 + sZS Þ2 + h2 . (4:20)
Inserting the relationships from (4.18) and (4.20) into (4.16) and algebraically reor-
dering the equation give the required relationship:
π h lSt 2 − lSH 2 − ðyZS, 0 + sZS Þ2 − h2

δZS = − + α0 + arctan + arccos qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (4:21)
2 yZS, 0 + sZS
2lSH ðyZS, 0 + sZS Þ2 + h2
between rack displacement and steering angle.

With these relationships now specified, it is possible to obtain typical steering
linkage ratios for the steered wheels. These ratios vary depending on the steering
kinematics and current position of the steering rack (steering wheel position;
Figure 4.17). In addition, it shows the influence of lateral forces acting on the wheel
itself.
30 3.0
Steering angle/°
Rigid body kinematics, steering angle
Steering ratio °/mm

Rigid body kinematics, steering ratio
Elasto kinematics, steering angle (1 kN)
Elasto kinematics, steering ratio (1 kN)
2.5
15
2.0
0
1.5
–15
–30 1.0
–20 –10 0 10 20
Rack and pinion displacement/ mm
Figure 4.17: Steering linkage ratios with dependency on the rack position (only the parameters
applying to the left wheel are shown; forces shown act in the lateral direction).
To determine the steering angle δ during realistic dynamic loading, a finite-element

model can be used. This type of modeling allows for a detailed approach concern-
ing the kinematic parameters, including the modeling of dynamically loaded situa-
tions. Since the elasticity of the various components in the wheel suspension can
potentially have a significant influence on the relevant kinematic parameters, cur-
rent research activities are focused on making these elasticity-related effects pre-
dictable even without the use of a FE model. This knowledge could be utilized
during vehicle operation in real time; for instance, to adjust the steering feel de-
pending on the road and driving conditions (Kracht, Schramm et al. 2015).
4.8 Steering torques for conventional steering systems
In case the wheel travel (wheel vertical motion) of the vehicle during cornering is
neglected, the resultant steering torque is exclusively due to the longitudinal tire
forces, lateral tire forces, and self-aligning torque.
As mentioned earlier, the acting lever arms usually differ depending on vehicle
braking or acceleration. Therefore, this section will clarify the influence of both sit-
uations on the calculation of the steering torque. For the steering torque in case of
acceleration it holds (Mitschke and Wallentowitz 2014),

MH = ðFx, i iL, i rσi − Fx, o iL, o rσi Þ + Fy, i iL, i ni + Fy, o iL, o no + ðMz, i iL, i + Mz, o iL, o Þ, (4:22)
where the index i stands for inner and o for outer wheel. In the case of vehicle brak-
ing, the lever arms related to the longitudinal tire forces change, resulting in

MH = ðFx, i iL, i rsi − Fx, o iL, o rsi Þ + Fy, i iL, i ni + Fy, o iL, o no + ðMz, i iL, i + Mz, o iL, o Þ. (4:23)
Ignoring the wheel travel when calculating the steering wheel torques is acceptable
when considering normal driving situations. Normally, only slight steering wheel
movements and, related to these, small vertical movements of the vehicle occur.
Therefore, the torque around the wheels’ vertical axis can often be neglected as
well. It should also be noted that the hand torques on the steering wheel calculated
here are only suited for quasistatic steering situations, since the individual masses
of the different components in the steering system have not been considered.
4.8.1 Steering rack forces
The forces acting on the tire are transmitted to the steering system, in accordance
with the steering kinematics. Decisive in many considerations regarding the steer-
ing system (for instance steering assistance) is the steering rack force, as both the
steering wheel forces exerted by the driver, as well as any potential power steering
forces act here. Rack forces in modern day vehicles can reach values in excess of
15kN, especially during parking maneuvers (see also Figure 4.28).
During normal driving conditions, the self-aligning torques acting on the tires
(see Chapter 2) are transferred through the knuckle arm and tie rod to the steering
rack. Because the lever arms can vary depending on the position of the wheels, the
currently acting lever arm must be known to determine the rack force.
4.8.2 Drilling torque
While steering during slow driving, for instance, when parking, but especially
when the vehicle is stationary, extremely high steering forces occur. These can be
explained by the so-called drilling torque. At very low speeds and simultaneous ro-
tation of the wheels around the steering axis (in a simplified case the vertical z-axis
of the wheel), the sideways forces acting on the wheel are of far less importance.
This is because the tire is being rotated on its contact patch with the road surface,
leading to high resistances against rotation due to the absence of a rolling motion
of the wheel. The friction force between the road surface and tire’s contact patch,
with corresponding lever arm from the point of engagement to the axis of rotation,
create the drilling torque. For an ideal rectangular contact patch geometry and after
integration over all engagements points, the drilling torque is defined by Rill (1994)
as (see Table 4.6)
d Fx, patch ωz, wheel d Fx, patch bpatch ωz, wheel

Tdrill = 121 b2patch = 121 bpatch rwheel jω . ð4:24Þ
y, wheel j
d sx rwheel ωy, wheel
j j d sx
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl
ffl} |fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl}
longitudinal stiffness drilling slip
Table 4.6: Physical parameters of the wheel.
Symbol Description
Tdrill Drilling torque
bpatch Width of contact patch
Fx, patch Force acting on the contact patch
sx Longitudinal slip
rwheel Wheel radius
ωz, wheel Angular velocity around the wheel z-axis
ωy, wheel Angular velocity around the wheel y-axis
Related to the longitudinal stiffness, the drilling torque corresponding to the above
equation is coupled to the actual tire–road contact. This points out that the drilling
torque only becomes significant during low speed cornering, as the aligning slip
becomes large. At very low speeds (very low angular velocities ωy, Rad Þ, the drilling
torque takes on implausibly large values rather quickly. Therefore, the drilling tor-
que is limited in accordance with the maximum possible force acting on the contact
patch (Rill 1994).
The maximum drilling torque is reached when the entire contact patch area
slides over the road surface. Integrating over the entire tire contact patch then yields
(see Table 4.7)
Fx, slide
TBohr, max =
1
bpatch |fflffl{zfflffl} (4:25)
4 circumferential force
in the slip aera
Table 4.7: Forces and torques acting on contact patch.
Symbol Description
Tdrill, max Maximum drilling torque
Fx, slide Friction force for slip conditions
Altogether, according to Rill (1994) the drilling torque can be defined as follows:
(
Tdrill with ð4.24Þ for jTdrill j ≤ Tdrill, max
Tdrill = . (4:26)
Tdrill, max otherwise
4.8.3 Drilling torque during stationary steering
Real measurements of steering rack forces during stationary steering show that this
simplified calculation of the drilling torque does not include all significant effects.
Stationary steering, however, can be of decisive importance as it relates to the effort
required by the driver during parking maneuvers. During stationary steering, the
tires will deform elastically before they engage in a slipping motion between the tire
contact patch and road surface. This effect can be included by adjusting the drilling
torque model to account for the torsion stiffness of the tire contact patch (Hesse
2011). Figure 4.18 shows the construction of a model that corresponds to the calcula-
tion of the drilling torque.
When the assumption is made that no rolling motion of the wheel occurs during
stationary steering (braked steered wheels), the tires will initially deform elastically
until the point that slippage occurs between individual points on the tire contact
patch and the road surface. This effect is shown in Figure 4.18 in a simplified man-
ner by considering a torsion spring stiffness cpatch . The tires move inside the plane
of the contact patch, until the maximum rotation without slippage is reached. The
resultant drilling torque increases in accordance with the stiffness of the contact
patch points. The maximum drilling torque is reached when all individual points of
the contact patch are exhibiting slip (see Table 4.8):
(
cpatch δpatch forδpatch ≤ δpatch, max
Tdrill = . (4:27)
Tdrill, max otherwise
Figure 4.18: Drilling torque during stationary steering.

Wheel rotation purely around the vertical axis (Hesse
2011).
Table 4.8: Kinematics of the contact patch (see also Figure 4.18).
Symbol Description
cpatch Torsion stiffness of the tires
δpatch Rotation of the contact patch with respect to the wheel
δpatch, max Maximum rotation of the contact patch with respect to the wheel
When designing a steering system, the steering rack force is often used as a criterion.
To do this, the drilling torque acting on the wheel must be converted to the effective
steering rack force, which can be done using the steering kinematics. Depending on
the position of the wheels, this results in an effective lever arm leff between steering
rack and wheel. This parameter makes it possible to convert the steering rack force to
the steering torque acting on the wheel.
When describing a technical model of the vehicle steering system, methods
such as those explained by Schramm (2014) could be applied. These methods con-
tinuously solve the kinematics through computation. However, it often suffices to
use simpler empirical maps.
4.8.4 Steering rack forces for large steering angles
With larger steering wheel angles, it can often be observed that the front of the ve-
hicle moves up. Due to the axle kinematics of the vehicle a vertical motion is com-
monly seen when cornering. This motion, from a vehicle steering perspective, is
actually quite interesting. When the front of the vehicle is raised during cornering,
it means that mechanical work must have been done to bring about this vertical
displacement. Conversely, this means that the power steering (and thus the rack
force) inevitably increases. This effect is clearly more significant in larger compared
to smaller vehicles. This can logically be explained due to the fact that it requires
more work to raise a heavier vehicle than is required to raise a lighter vehicle.
In most vehicles this additional vertical motion results in a clear increase in
rack force, especially with larger steering angles. However, if the front of the vehicle
drops shortly before the final steering wheel position is reached, it can also cause
the hand torque on the steering wheel to be reversed abruptly.
For the calculation of the rack force, the relationship between rack displacement
and the vertical motion of the vehicle is of decisive importance. This relationship can
be derived, analogous to the effective lever arm, from the axle kinematics. The verti-
cal motion of the vehicle can be expressed as a function of the rack displacement.
The increase in rack force during cornering then behaves as (see Table 4.9)
d zVA
FZS, heave = FVA, z . (4:28)
d qZS
Table 4.9: Parameters of the steering rack.
Symbol Description
FZS, heave Steering rack force due to the vertical motion of the vehicle
zVA Vertical motion on the front axle
qZS Rack displacement
FVA, z Vehicle normal force on the front axle
4.8.5 Steering rack force during parking
The steering rack force during parking (stationary steering) is made up of both con-
tributions due to the drilling torque and vertical motion of the vehicle:
FZS = FZS, drill + FZS, heave . (4:29)

This model for steering rack force can be used to calculate the rack force during
stationary steering. When comparing results from this model and real measured
rack forces, it shows they match extremely well (Figure 4.19).
FZS
Measurement
Simulation
–400 –300 –200 –100 0 100 200 300 400

δL |°
Figure 4.19: Steering rack force during stationary steering (Hesse 2011).
4.9 Simplified model of rack and pinion steering
Figure 4.20 shows a rather simplified model of a rack and pinion steering mecha-
nism, as can be seen in similar form in (Pfeffer and Harrer 2011) or (Bootz 2004).
This mechanism consists, as described before, of the main components:
– steering wheel with steering column (steering shafts),
– steering gear as well as steering rack, and
– steering linkages (tie rod and knuckle arm) and wheels.
Ultimately, the wheel carrier and thus the wheel can be rotated via the knuckle
arm, as explained in the preceding sections. When modeling the steering system, it
is also advisable to include elasticity in the steering column. This serves as a model
for the torsion bar that measures the driver’s hand torque, which is essential for the
power steering assistance (see Section 4.10). The model proposed in this section,
which is based on the rotation of the torsion bar, can be combined with the model
for a power steering system. This would then act as resultant force on the steering
rack or as a resultant torque on the steering column.
Figure 4.20: Model of a rack and pinion steering mechanism as described by Bootz (2004).
As is the case in a real steering system as described in Section 4.7.2, the steering
linkages show elastic properties, similar to those of the steering column. Therefore,
both of these properties will be included in the model described in this section.
This proposed model describes all relationship based on the front right wheel.
If this model is coupled to a bicycle model, another subsystem is added, consisting
of the left front wheel and steering linkage, which in turn is connected to the rack
via an elastic component. The resulting force is then transferred through the rack.
The rack and pinion steering mechanism consists of three main components,
all connected through elastic elements. This elasticity depicts the deformation of
the system under loading. In this case, especially when power steering is integrated
into the model, the rotation of the steering column relative to that of the pinion
gear plays a crucial role. The torsion bar measures the drivers’ hand torque, which
serves as input to the power steering assistance.
The kinematic descriptions of the individual subsegments of the steering sys-
tem can be found in Sections 4.6 and 4.7. The aim of these sections is to derive sim-
plified equations of motion for the steering system. To do this, the steering wheel is
modeled as a separate subsystem, and the steered wheel is modeled as another sep-
arate subsystem. The kinematics of the steering linkages are limited only to in-
plane motion.
The elasticities ensure a kinematic decoupling of the main components of the
steering model. The subsystems can move independent of one another and are
solely linked through their resulting forces. This results in a relatively easy multi-
body model that utilizes the steering wheel as input. Depending on the desired ap-
proach, either the steering wheel torque or steering wheel angle could be chosen as
the model input.
The following equations assume that the driver steers at a constant angle and,
in response, receives a steering torque as feedback. To a large extent, this approach
corresponds to observations from real drivers. Therefore, the steering wheel angle
is selected as system input. On the side of the wheel, the self-aligning torque
(which results from the tire forces; see Chapter 2) is typically assigned as system
input. As described earlier, the support by the power steering assistance could be
chosen as additional system input. All relevant parameters of the steering model
could be chosen as system output. Especially of interest are the steering wheel tor-
que, as it provides feedback to the driver, as well as the wheel angle, which in turn
could be used as input to additional tire or vehicle models.
Figure 4.21 shows a free body diagram of this simplified rack and pinion steer-
ing model. Three decoupled kinematic subsystems are visible.
Steering wheel
󰛿H
MH 󰛿H
cT dT Wheel
󰛿R
󰛿R MS
FRZ
JS
FRZ FZS
sZS FZS 󰛿v,l
mZS
FSL FR
Rack
Figure 4.21: Free body diagram of rack and pinion steering system.
According to the elasticities in the system, three separate kinematic regions can be
identified in the proposed steering system model. The free-body diagram shows this
useful division of the steering system.
The equations of motion can be derived with relative ease for each separate
subsystem. Without counteracting forces, rotating the steering wheel results in a
rotation of the pinion. If the elasticity in the steering column is considered, the mo-
tion of the steering wheel and column is given by
ΘLS €δH = MH − McLS − MdLS , (4:30)
where ΘLS is the moment of inertia of the upper steering column and the steering
wheel. This segment is decoupled from the pinion through the torsion bar with stiff-
ness cLS and damping dLS . The described relationship in this model can be used to
calculate the resulting hand torque, since, as described, the steering wheel angle
(and thus also its temporal derivative) is interpreted as a system input. With this
approach, the pinion torque corresponds to the torsion spring torque (torsion bar,
steering column elasticity), and results from the rotation of the pinion δR , the cur-
rent position of the steering wheel δH , and their temporal derivatives (see Table
4.10):
McLS = ðδH − δR ÞcLS , (4:31)

MdLS = δ_ H − δ_ R dLS . (4:32)
The rack displacement sZS is related to the angular rotation of the pinion δR directly
through the pinion radius rR
sZS = δR rR . (4:33)
When using this approach, the steering rack must be modeled as a dynamic mass
element. A relatively simple solution is to model the rack as a so-called one-mass
oscillator. In this case the displacement of the rack can be described as
McLS MdLS
mZ €sZS = + + FSL − FR − FZS. (4:34)
rR rR
The forces acting on the rack are, in addition to the already described forces on the
pinion, the assisting force of the power steering system FHL (see Section 4.10), a
counteracting friction force FD , and the rack force FZl, r , which is transmitted by the
tie rods on both sides. The force transmitted from the tie rods to the rack depends
on the self-aligning torque on the tires and the kinematic relationships of the steer-
ing linkage (see Section 4.7.2). Additionally, it depends on the inertia of the wheel
(including steering linkage) relative to the steering axis.
At this point, more elaborate modeling techniques are omitted and the reader is
referred to literature, such as Pfeffer and Harrer (2011). It often suffices, especially
when dealing with slow steering inputs, to model the steering linkages in a purely
kinematic manner. In this way the self-aligning torque on the wheel can be con-
verted directly to a force on the steering rack.
Table 4.10: Parameters to describe the steering rack (see also Figure 4.21).
Symbol Description
δH Steering wheel angle
δR Pinion angle
cLS Torsion bar stiffness
dLS Torsion bar damping
sZS Rack displacement
rR Pinion radius
ΘLS Moment of inertia of the steering column
MH Hand torque of the driver
MdLS Damping in torsion bar of the steering column
McLS Torque due to rotation of the torsion bar of the steering column
FZS Rack force due to the tire forces. Sum of forces transferred by left and right steering
linkages
FR Friction forces on the steering rack
FSL Supporting forces from power steering assistance to the steering rack
4.10 Power steering assistance systems
Steering assistance, often referred to as power steering, becomes a necessity when the
hand forces required by the driver to comfortably control the vehicle become too
large. An increase in weight of the vehicle often plays a crucial contribution to the
steering force needed to steer the vehicle. The power steering assistance has a sup-
portive role in controlling the vehicle by providing additional force to the steering
mechanism. Because of this, even heavy vehicles can be controlled with relative
ease, without sacrificing the preferable steering ratio. The first implementations of
hydraulic power steering (HPS) were brought to the market halfway through the
twentieth century. These systems were based on hydraulic pumps driven by the inter-
nal combustion engine of the vehicle. In the end of the 1990s these were replaced by
electrohydraulic pumps for the first time. Using electrohydraulic pumps for the
power steering system had a positive effect on the fuel efficiency of the vehicle,
alongside considerable advantages in terms of packaging (Reimann, Brenner et al.
2012). Furthermore, since the beginning of the 1990s, electromechanical power steer-
ing (EPS) systems were occasionally used as well. Due to the relatively low steering
assistance that was initially possible to generate, it took some time before EPS sys-
tems became the de facto standard in steering assistance (Pfeffer and Harrer 2011).
4.10.1 Hydraulic power steering
Hydraulic power steering utilizes a belt connected to the internal combustion en-
gine of the vehicle to drive the hydraulic pump. A core component of this power
steering system is the steering valve, located on the steering column. Depending on
the driver’s hand torque, it is twisted slightly, opening or closing parts of the con-
nected hydraulic tube.
The pressurized hydraulic fluid can now flow, according to the driver’s hand
torque, toward the double-acting hydraulic cylinder (servo piston) on the rack to
generate the assistance force required by the driver (Figures 4.22 and 4.23).
Steering wheel
Return pipe
Valve input shaft
Servo
valve Control
Torsion spring
edge
Valve sleeve Pressure

Pinion pipe
Load
Pump
Rack Cylinder
Figure 4.22: Basic construction of the hydraulic power steering system (Lunkeit 2014).
In this type of power steering system, the servo pump is active continuously as long
as the engine is running. Usually, the classic power steering pump used is a rotary
vane pump. The pump needs to guarantee a sufficient amount of hydraulic pressure
in the system to ensure the steering assistance delivers satisfactory additional
forces on the steering rack, even when the engine is running at low rpm (less than
1,000 U=min), for instance during slow moving traffic (Reimann, Brenner et al.
2012).
Despite improvements on the hydraulic power steering system, such as the un-
pressurized pumping during steering wheel center position, or of modular steering
valves to adjust the support force curve during operation, this technique has the
disadvantage that the pump requires constant energy.
120
100
Pressure/bar
80
60
40
20
0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Operating torque/Nm
Figure 4.23: Hydraulic valve lines of hydraulic power steering (Heißing and Ersoy 2011).
4.10.2 Electrohydraulic power steering
The electrohydraulic power steering (EHPS) system results from further develop-
ment of the classical, purely hydraulic variant. The engine-driven pump was re-
placed by an electromechanical pump. The basic construction of the hydraulic
system is depicted in Figure 4.24.
Control system Sensor cable
Pressure pipe
Return pipe
Power pack with ecu
to Current supply
Pinion
Rack Cylinder
Figure 4.24: Basic construction of the electrohydraulic power steering system.
However, the EHPS system has two main advantages over the purely hydraulic vari-
ant. The decoupling of the pump and internal combustion engine opens up more
freedom for the “packaging” or positioning inside the engine bay compartment.
The system can be designed and tested in modular fashion, adding to the ease of
implementation in the vehicle.
More important, however, is the fact that the pump can be regulated to fit de-
mand. This leads to an improvement in efficiency as the pump only requires energy
to pump oil if the system is in operation. Secondly, different support characteristics
are possible depending on the vehicle’s speed. In the control unit, a characteristic
curve can be stored that describes the magnitude of supportive steering forces as a
function of the vehicle speed.
This way, even in the case of low speed and exerted hand torque, the maximum
amount of steering assistance can be offered to the driver, leading to a more com-
fortable driving experience. Conversely, during high speed dynamic driving, the
steering assistance can be decreased to achieve a more precise and direct steering
feel (Reimann, Brenner et al. 2012).
The disadvantages of EPHS are a higher complexity due to the use of mechani-
cal, hydraulic, and electrical parts as well as higher costs and weight.
4.10.3 Electromechanical power steering
The EPS system differs from the classic hydraulic and electrohydraulic systems due
to its electric actuator, directly providing supportive forces to the steering system
(Figure 4.25).
Steering column
Torque sensor
BLDC Motor
ECU
Ball screw drive

Torsion bar
Rack
Belt pulley Pinion
Figure 4.25: Basic construction of the electromechanical power steering system (Lunkeit 2014).
Hydraulic transmission elements are now completely obsolete. This brings significant
advantages for the production of vehicles, since the sometimes complex assembly of
the hydraulic system is eliminated from the manufacturing process. The EPS is charac-
terized also in particular by the fact that the actuator only needs power when actively
steering. Due to this power-on-demand system, energy can be saved in comparison to
the classic hydraulic system.
The electromechanical actuation of the steering assistance system has also
opened up the possibility for different assistance systems, such as the active lane
keeping, through the so-called four-quadrant operation (Pfeffer and Harrer 2011).
In the recent years, the EPS has replaced traditional hydraulic or EHPS in most
vehicles, due to the aforementioned advantages.
While the EPS systems could initially only be used in small- and medium-sized
cars, as the systems could not provide the supportive forces needed in heavier top-
of-the-range vehicles, continuous development has led to the EPS system now
being capable of serving the full range of performance necessary for application in
almost all vehicles. Therefore, EPS systems have become the standard for steering
assistance in modern day motor vehicles (Figure 4.26 and Figure 4.27).
Steering gear
Input shaft
Steering torque
sensor
Ball screw drive
Steering pinion
Motor
Hollow shaft
ECU
Rack
Figure 4.26: Electromechanical power steering © Audi AG.
Depending on the expected steering forces, different EPS variants can be fitted to
different types of vehicles. The required supportive forces are clearly lower in ligh-
ter vehicles than in, for instance, an SUV (Figure 4.28). To be able to guarantee a
comfortable steering feel even with heavier upper-class vehicles or SUVs, one has
to resort to the relatively high-performance EPS variants. Figure 4.28 shows this
relation.
Parameters for determining the supportive

force and additional steering assistance for Force flow
additional functions (e.g., lane keeping)
Information flow
MEPS
ECU Electro motor
Steering FZS Steering

Vehicle
gear mechanism
MH Hand torque MH
sensor
Figure 4.27: Block diagram of an EPS system (ZF_Lenksysteme 2014).
Microcars Middle class Upper class SUV

Compact class Upper middle class Luxury class
1,000
Performance/W
°/s
360
800
EPSapa
600
EPSdp
100°/s
400
d still
EPSc at stan
ering speed
Ste
200
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Rack force/kN
Figure 4.28: Guidelines for rack force and mechanical performance for different vehicle classes
according to ZF_Lenksysteme (2014).
The following section provides a quick overview of different EPS variants and
their way of functioning.
4.10.3.1 Design variants for electromechanical steering assistance systems

Various designs of EPS systems are common in vehicles nowadays (Runge, Gaedke
et al. 2010, Pfeffer and Harrer 2011, Reimann, Brenner et al. 2012). The design var-
iants are categorized according to the location of the electromechanical actuator
and its connection to the steering system. The most commonly used EPS variants
are as follows:
– EPSc on the steering column (column type),
– EPS on the pinion gear (pinion type ),
– EPSdp of double-pinion type (dual pinion type ),
– EPSapa with axis-parallel arrangement (APA type), and
– EPS directly on the steering rack (rack (concentric) type).
In the following section these different variants will be briefly explained.
4.10.3.2 EPS column type

Figures 4.29 and 4.30 show exemplary the EPS connected to the steering column.
Figure 4.29: Schematic assembly of EPS system. © Porsche AG.
In this type, the supportive forces of the electromechanical converter are transferred
directly to the steering column. Between the motor and the steering column, a re-
duction gear is located, usually in the form of a worm gear. An advantage of con-
necting the motor directly to the steering column is that this can be done in the
vehicles’ interior, where the effects of dirt and weather-related corrosion are slightly
less than when located in the front compartment.
The lack of acoustic damping of the system, however, leads to an increased sen-
sitivity to noise emission. The design of the electric steering assistance connected
the steering column is particularly suitable for low supportive forces, since the con-
nection to the steering linkages do not possess high rigidity.
Steering wheel gearing
ECU
Drive pinion
(Concealed)
Tie rod
Intermediate steering shaft

Torque sensor
Steering shaft connection
Helical gears
(Concealed)
Pressure piece
Pleated bellows (Concealed)
Rack
(Concealed)
Housing
Figure 4.30: Schematic assembly of EPS column type system. Courtesy of Robert Bosch Automotive
Steering GmbH.
4.10.3.3 EPS pinion type

The variant of EPS where the electric motor is located close to or directly linked to
the pinion gear is known as pinion type. Consequently, a much more compact con-
struction can be achieved in comparison to the column type. In addition, the con-
nection of the motor directly onto the pinion gear offers much more rigidity,
allowing for significantly higher supportive forces.
4.10.3.4 EPS dual pinion type

To further increase the allowable supportive forces an EPS system can provide, the
electric motor can be connected to the steering rack with a second, independently
operated pinion leading to the EPS dual pinion typevariant (Figure 4.31).
Both pinions can now be optimized with regard to comfort, performance, and
durability, independent of one another (Reimann, Brenner et al. 2012).

Sensor cable
Rack Torque sensor
Pressure piece (Concealed)
(Concealed) Housing
Drive pinion
(Concealed)
Tie rod
Steering pinion
(Concealed)
Pleated bellows ECU

Helical gears
Electromotor
Overload protection device
Drive pinion
Fixed bearing Screw gear
Worm gear
Spring-damper element
Housing
Figure 4.31: Schematic assembly of EPS double-pinion type system. Courtesy of Robert Bosch
Automotive Steering GmbH.
4.10.3.5 EPS APA type

The EPS in an APA converts the rotary motion of the electric motor into the desired
axial displacement of the steering rack, by means of a ball screw gear. The ball
screw gear has excellent properties regarding force transmission and precision
(lack backlash in the gears), making it extremely suitable for use in combination
with high-performance electric motors (Figures 4.32 and 4.33).
The ball nut is driven by a toothed belt, where the electric motor is positioned
parallel to the steering rack. When the gear ratios are properly designed, and a suit-
able electric motor is fitted, this type of EPS can also meet the requirements (espe-
cially for required rack force) to be used in upper class vehicles.
4.10.3.6 EPS rack concentric

The EPS rack concentric type distinguishes itself from the EPS APA type, through
direct transmission of the rotary motion of the electric motor to the ball screw gear

Housing
Torque sensor
Steering pinion
Rack
Sensor cable
Servo gear Pressure piece
(Concealed)
Pleated bellows
ECU
Tie rod
Electromotor
Figure 4.32: Schematic assembly of EPS APA type system. Courtesy of Robert Bosch Automotive
Steering GmbH.
Ball chain Return pipe
Toothed belt
Pulley,small
Pulley
Ball nut
Rack
Pulley,small
Figure 4.33: Schematic assembly of EPS APA type system. Construction of servo gear. Courtesy of
Robert Bosch Automotive Steering GmbH.
without additional gearing mechanisms. To achieve this, the electric motor is con-
structed as a hollow shaft. The steering rack with ball screw gear is located inside
the shaft. This direct connection to the steering rack allows for an especially precise
and dynamic force transmission. However, since there are no additional gears as is
the case with the EPS APA type, the motor used in the EPS concentric rack type
must deliver a sufficiently high torque, even in lower rpm ranges (Reimann,
Brenner et al. 2012).
4.10.3.7 Performance increase

The higher supportive forces required in heavier upper-class vehicles and SUVs
have led to EPS systems initially only being fitted to small- and medium-sized cars.
Due to the increase in performance of the available steering systems, they are now
being used in all classes of passenger vehicles. The required mechanical power for
the vehicle steering can vary greatly depending on the required rack force and the
steering speeds. While the rack force is significantly influenced by the vehicle
weight and driving situation, the steering speed is only dependent on the respective
driving maneuver (Figure 4.34).
15
Parking /steering
in state
U-turns 1,400 W
1,40
Rack force / kN
10
1,200 W
1,20
1,000 W
1,00
Lane change
Handling course
5 600 W
400 W
200 W
6
60 120
Rack velocity / (mm/s)
Figure 4.34: Mechanical steering performance, depending on different driving maneuvers (SUV)
(Pfeffer and Harrer 2011).
As opposed to traditional hydraulic power steering systems, the required power is

extracted from the vehicles’ electrical system. The average power consumption of
an EPS system is less than 10W and is thus a negligible electrical load regarding the
total energy balance in the electrical system. However, depending on the situation,
it can increase sharply and can reach values of up to 1 kW during parking maneu-
vers, even in medium-sized vehicles (Pfeffer and Harrer 2011). In case the electrical
system is already under heavy load, this can lead to the EPS not being able to pro-
vide full support in extreme situations. The steering will then become sluggish.
A clear sign for recognizing such a bottleneck in the systems performance is the dim-
ming of the vehicle’s headlights during fast steering action. This is due to the steering
induced lower voltage in the vehicles electrical system. Compared to the traditional
hydraulic power steering systems, the use of EPS can reduce fuel consumption. This
reduction depends primarily on how much steering action is performed and the con-
sumption is therefore higher in real driving situations compared to standard oper-
ation. In standard operation, the cycle measurements (e.g., NEDC,6 see Chapter 6)
are mapped as straight-line driving. Manufacturer specifications vary between 0.3
and 0.4 l=100km, with a corresponding reduction of CO2 emissions of approxi-
mately 7–8 g=km in NEDC and 0.8 l=100km in city driving conditions (TRW 2014,
ZF_Lenksysteme 2014). Real vehicle measurements (Figure 4.35) show an average
reduction in fuel consumption of up to 0.7 l (Pfeffer and Harrer 2011).
0.8
0.7
0.7 0.67
0.6
0.5
0.41 0.39
0.4 0.34
0.3 0.28
0.2
0.1
0
Combined Urban Highway
NEDC Customer
Figure 4.35: Fuel saving potential of EPS when compared to HPS. Based on a BMW320i according to
(Pfeffer and Harrer 2011).
4.10.3.8 Further functionalities due to electromechanical power steering

The EPS can be used in the so-called four-quadrant operation. This means that even
steering torques opposite that of the driver can be applied. This is a decisive advan-
tage compared to EHPS, as it largely extends the choice of supporting actions. In
addition, the magnitude of steering assistance is no longer directly linked with the
6 NEDC: New European Drive Cycle.

4.11 Use of test benches for the development of steering systems 207
driver’s hand torque and can be adjusted by the control unit, in accordance with
current driving conditions. Both of these changes have led to the development of
the following assistance systems:
– lane keeping assistant,
– parking assistant,
– straight-line corrections,
– emergency evasive maneuvers,
– and so on.
For more information on the topic of assistance systems in motor vehicles, the
reader is referred to Chapter 9. The steering system can even act without any driver
input. This is a significant step toward highly automated driving, as well as toward
new steering systems such as steer-by-wire (see Section 4.12.3).
4.11 Use of test benches for the development of steering systems
In the vehicle development process, the use of test benches for almost all compo-
nents as well as for the entire vehicle has been established. The aim of the test
bench investigations is the objective support of the development through the analy-
sis of component and vehicle characteristics. Test bench measurements are not
influenced by external weather conditions or human behavior. The precise execu-
tion of the tests by the test bench actuators as well as defined and constant environ-
mental conditions lead to an optimal comparability of the measurement results. At
this point, the test bench tests establish a link between simulations and idealized
driving tests. The simulation analyzes virtual components and vehicles under opti-
mal fully controlable conditions. At the test bench, real components and vehicles
are examined under optimal conditions. In a driving test, the test of real compo-
nents and vehicles takes place under real conditions. Both the simulation and the
driving test can be supported by the use of test benches. In addition, test benches
allow the characterization and measurement of unknown component properties,
thus a realistic parameterization of the simulation models can be achieved. The
analysis of individual chassis components in early phases of vehicle development
can be performed with the help of the test benches, even if no prototype of the com-
plete vehicle is available yet. Increasing product maturity even before the first use
of the vehicle can reduce the risk during test drives. In particular, the carrying out
of risky road tests or conceptual examinations of new components or technologies
can first be carried out on the test bench, so that the products are already protected
with respect to their basic functionality when first used in the vehicle. The long-
term properties can be assessed by performing endurance tests with specific load
spectra (Düsterloh and Schrage 2016), (Moczala and Maur 2015).
The reduced need for prototypes allows for increased cost efficiency despite the
typically high cost of purchasing and operating a test bench. Test benches can be
used in contrast to prototypes for various vehicle projects, series, and vehicle gener-
ations. The above-mentioned advantages of test bench investigations therefore lead
to a sustained increase in product quality (Schäuffele and Zurawka 2013), (Schimpf
2016).
The test bench actuators must be able to track the loads occurring in real opera-
tion as accurately as possible in order to ensure an efficient and value-adding use
of the test stands. For this purpose, the actuators must be powerful enough to re-
produce the amplitudes and frequencies of the real excitations. The installation po-
sition of the test specimens must also correspond to the real case regarding load
application. Precise measuring equipment is needed to generate reliable and trust-
worthy measurement data. If simulation models for load calculation are used in the
course of the test bench examinations, these must correspond to the real vehicle
with sufficient accuracy. The analysis of an active device under test also requires
communication between the test bench and the test object in order to transmit all
the necessary input variables to the system under test.
4.11.1 Example: test bench for electromechanical steering systems
The steering system operates on a steering test bench in a virtual vehicle environ-
ment (Figure 4.36). The steering system can be excited both in terms of position
Steering actuator
Linear actuator
right
Steering system
Linear actuator
left
Figure 4.36: Steering test rig (Düsterloh 2018).

4.11 Use of test benches for the development of steering systems 209
and force at the interface between the track rod and the wheel carrier as well as on
the steering wheel (in front axle steering systems). The performance of the electrical
test stand actuators is sufficient to represent all relevant test cases. The communi-
cation of the real ECU with the virtual whole vehicle model is dynamically mapped
by a residual bus simulation. The test bench also provides the energy supply of the
steering system.
There are a large number of possible test scenarios. In addition to component
properties, it is also possible to analyze the driving situation-dependent system be-
havior in conjunction with the overall vehicle simulation. With the aid of the steer-
ing system test bench, the quality and performance of the steering systems as well
as the steering feel and driving dynamics can be cost-effectively optimized. The fol-
lowing list is a selection of possible test maneuvers for types of steering systems:
– EPS
– gear ratio between pinion angle as well as motor angle and rack travel,
– stiffness of the steering column (torsion bar and steering column),
– stiffness of the motor transmission (belt drive and ball screw drive),
– friction of steering gear and steering column,
– transmission behavior of the steering system; see also Düsterloh, Uselmann
et al. (2019).
– HAL
– follow-up behavior (system reaction in case of failure/shutdown),
– wandering behavior (behavior when the system is deactivated),
– force jump (step response).
– EPS and HAL
– engine map (power, energy consumption, and efficiency),
– reproduce and descend on real driving maneuvers.
The following explanations introduce different concepts for steering system test
stands. Subsequently, the properties of the test stand presented in Düsterloh and
Schrage (2016) as well as in Uselmann, Preising et al. (2016) and Uselmann (2017)
will be discussed in detail.
Schimpf (2016) dealt with the conceptual design and implementation of a steer-
ing test bench, which is suitable for the characterization and measurement of steer-
ing systems. A full-fledged testing device with an electric steering actuator and two
electric linear actuators are developed. The steering system test bench described in
the following basically has a similar configuration (Figure 4.36). Similar test rigs are
used in Nippold, Küçükay et al. (2017) and Stauder, Plöger et al. (2013). Nippold,
Küçükay et al. (2017) used the test bench for pre-electromechanical steering systems.
Stauder, Plöger et al. (2013) used the bench for subjective assessment of steering in
early stages of development. The test bench concept of Shah and Gijbels (2007) con-
verts the torques of two rotary motors into the tie rod forces via levers.
The steering actuator is used to apply the steering wheel torque or steering
wheel angle. With the help of the linear actuators, the forces and displacements of
the tie rods or the rack can be traced.
The implementation of real driving maneuvers can be achieved on the test
bench by two different methods. First, predefined signals (e.g., from a driving test
measurement) can be transferred to the test bench as test vectors and traced. In
comparison to driving tests this method has the advantage that a test vector (once
recorded) can be used as often as needed without variation. Secondly the steering
system can be brought into a HiL simulation using suitable vehicle models and the
test-bench. With the test bench software, any driving situation can be defined.
Since any vehicle or environment condition as well as the driving scenario can be
chosen freely for the simulation, such a HiL simulation offers a high flexibility.
Figure 4.37 illustrates the relationships between the test bench actuators, the simu-
lation model, and the steering system under test (EPS or HAL) (Düsterloh and
Schrage 2016) and (Uselmann, Preising et al. 2016).
Figure 4.37: Signal correlations on the steering system test bench in HiL mode (Düsterloh and
Schrage 2016).
The test rig is equipped with various sensors to record various parameters during
the test (Düsterloh and Schrage 2016) and (Uselmann, Preising et al. 2016):
– torque and angle of rotation of the steering actuator,
– forces and positions of the linear actuators,
– current consumption,
– tension,
– temperature,
– acceleration, and
– steering system internal sizes.
The steering actuator and the linear actuators are specified so that all relevant
test cases for the development of steering systems can be implemented. The max-
imum torque of the steering actuator is 50 Nm, the maximum rotational speed is
500 1=min or 3, 000 =s. Steering actuator and steering line are connected by a tor-
que coupling. This opens on occurrence of too high torques, so that the steering
actuator is protected from damage. With the help of the linear actuators, the
steering system can be impressed with maximum forces of 20,000 N. The maxi-
mum stroke is 130 mm, and the maximum travel speed is 1,000 mm=s.
In addition, the test bench has a variable tensioning field with various scales,
stops, and alignment aids for the assembly of the individual components. The dif-
ferent steering systems (EPS and HAL) can be integrated on the test bench by
means of specific adapters. The energy and signal transmission take place via de-
fined interfaces between the steering and the test bench.
Another possibility for increasing the test depth results from the expansion of
the test bench by a climatic chamber. This makes it possible to carry out analyses of
the system behavior under special outdoor conditions ( − 40 C to + 70 C).
The steering test bench has a comprehensive safety concept to guarantee the
safety of the test bench users. It consists of various emergency stop switches, visual
and acoustic warning signalers as well as a barrier and light barriers (Düsterloh
and Schrage 2016) and (Uselmann, Preising et al. 2016).
4.12 Innovative approaches to vehicle steering
In addition to the traditional front wheel steering systems seen in almost all passen-
ger vehicles, different driver supporting steering systems and innovative new steer-
ing concepts are under development, or in some cases even in use. Some of these
developments will be discusses in the following section.
4.12.1 Superimposed Steering
A superimposed steering system is characterized by a less rigid connection between

the steering wheel and steering gear. The input angle at the steering gear is the re-
sult of superimposing the steering wheel angle, and an additionally provided angle
determined by the system.
Therefore, the steered wheels can be controlled independent of the driver’s

input (within limits). Superimposed steering is used primarily for two reasons:
– realizing a continuously variable transmission, and
– intervening steering action to maintain vehicle stability during dynamic driv-
ing, independent of the driver.
Often different steering ratios can be favorable, depending on vehicle speed and
the maneuver executed by the driver. While maneuvering at lower speeds, for in-
stance, a direct steering feel is usually preferred. This means that less steering
wheel rotation is required by the driver.
At higher speeds (and usually also lesser road curvature), it is often preferable
to have a more indirect steering feel for better controllability and stability. The
superimposed steering system can, depending on vehicle speed, optimize the total
steering ratio from steering wheel to steering rack by adjusting the additional steer-
ing angle in accordance with the drivers steering input. In dynamic driving situa-
tions where the vehicle is driven on the limit, the additional steering angle can be
used to stabilize the vehicle (even with constant steering wheel angle). A precise
steering intervention, for instance, by the ESP system, can be used to create addi-
tional vehicle yaw torque to support the maneuver. Superimposing the steering
angle is achieved through a specific gear type with corresponding actuator located
on the steering column. From a safety perspective, it is important for a superim-
posed steering system to allow for unhindered conventional steering if the available
electric power is insufficient. This means that the summation gear is locked, and
the driver’s steering input is coupled directly to the steering rack. BMW was the
first manufacturer that brought an active superimposed steering system on the mar-
ket. This type, which was launched in 2003, relied on a planetary gear to superim-
pose the steering angles and was known as active steering. A different construction
type was launched by Audi in 2007, called dynamic steering. Instead of a planetary
gear this system used a harmonic-drive gear.
Disadvantages of superimposed steering systems are high complexity, costs,
weight, and the need to package the extra gearing as well as high inertia in the trans-
mission path of steering feedback from the wheels to the steering wheel. Additionally,
the driver haptic feedback dosen’t always correlate to the actual driving situation.
4.12.2 All-wheel steering
The assumption was made in the previous sections that only the two front wheels
of the vehicle were used in the steering task. Steering concepts as described earlier
are not suitable for application in rear-wheel steering, except for forklifts and other
special purpose vehicles.
The working principle of all-wheel steering is used in both the front and rear wheels
of the vehicle. The idea behind all-wheel steering in passenger cars has been known
since the early 1930s. Although the first series of vehicles equipped with all-wheel steer-
ing was first brought to the market by the end of the 1980s (Harrer and Pfeffer 2017).
Multiple different working principles are known to achieve a steering function
of the rear wheels. From a functional perspective it is important whether the front-
and rear wheels can be steered separately.
Distinguished are systems that use
– a mechanical connection between the front and real wheels,
– an (electro-) hydraulic actuator connected to the rear wheels, and
– an electromechanical actuator connected to the rear wheels.
The purely mechanical connection does not allow for separate steering motion of
the front and rear wheels. This principle can be used to reduce the turning radius of
the vehicle. In case the front and rear wheels can be steered separately, the range
of possible turning radii is once again increased, as well as the ability to stabilize
the vehicle. The steering behavior can be optimized, depending on the current driv-
ing situation. At low speeds, a smaller turning radius is often desired, whereas at
higher speed vehicle stability is usually prioritized. Therefore, no compromises
need to be made regarding this conflict of interest during the design phase. This
principle is especially applicable to systems using electromechanical actuation. In
addition to these more elaborate functionalities, electromechanical actuation of the
rear wheels has the distinct advantage compared to mechanical or hydraulic actu-
ation that its construction is less complex and adds less weight to the vehicle. New
all-wheel steering systems also utilize electromechanical steering assistance on the
rear axle through electromechanical actuators.
As described, all-wheel steering systems can positively affect lateral dynamic
behavior of the vehicle compared to traditional front wheel steering systems. These
positive effects include increased maneuverability at low speeds as well as vehicle
stabilization (for instance through dynamic driving control systems). Both can be
recognized in Figure 4.38.
4.12.3 Steer-by-wire
In steer-by-wire systems, the mechanical connection between the steering wheel

and the wheels has been completely eliminated. The steering wheel angle is mea-
sured by a sensor and analyzed by a control unit. This control unit in turn regulates
a motor so that the desired steering angle at the wheels is achieved. A second motor
that actuates the steering wheel itself provides the necessary hand torque to ensure
an acceptable steering feel. The basic layout of a steer-by-wire system is shown
in Figure 4.39.
Low-velocity range
M2
M1
Conventional steering system
Conventional steering system

with rear-wheel steering
High velocity range
M1
M2
Figure 4.38: Change in turning radius due to all-wheel steering compared to traditional front wheel
steering.
Additional functions
Motor
Sensor
ECU
Motor
Sensor
Figure 4.39: Basic layout of a steer-by-wire system.

Compared to conventional systems, a steer-by-wire system has clear advantages in

terms of functionality, as well as regarding packaging due to the elimination of me-
chanical components:
– The elimination of mechanical components allows for new packaging concepts.
In addition, the differences between left-and right-side steering vehicles are
diminished.
– The elimination of the steering column has considerable advantages with re-
gard to crash behavior safety of the vehicle.
– The steering angle can be controlled completely independent of driver input.
Therefore, similarly to the case of superimposed steering, functions regarding
the driving dynamics can be supported.
– Malfunctions can be suppressed.
– The steering feel (hand torque) can be adjusted independent of actual vehicle
steering.
– The steering behavior of the vehicle can be slightly altered in accordance with
the driving situation. For instance, the steering ratio can be chosen freely.
– Steer-by-wire is necessary for full autonomous driving functionality.
The biggest obstacle in steer-by-wire systems is meeting the safety requirements. In

case the system stops functioning, the vehicle must stay controllable at all times.
While in traditional vehicle steering systems the mechanical coupling between the
steering wheel and the wheels ensure that the driver always has control of the vehi-
cle, steer-by-wire systems must be designed with redundancy in mind. This means
that in case one component fails, a second must guarantee that at least basic func-
tionality of the steering system is maintained. Especially these requirements make
steer-by-wire systems extremely complex.
5 Braking systems
Together with the steering system and longitudinal acceleration by the engine, the
braking system is an indispensable control interface between the driver and the vehi-
cle. The traditional purely mechanically operated braking systems have been further
developed into modern day systems, which integrate sensors and actuators forming a
system based more on mechatronics than mechanics. This chapter describes the
basic mechanical layout and functioning of the braking system. Control systems oper-
ating on the brakes, such as antilock braking and driving stability systems, will be
dealt with in Chapter 9.
5.1 Structure of the braking system
A distinction can be made based upon the different tasks the respective braking system
must be capable of fulfilling. In general, a braking system can be used for the tasks:
– lowering the vehicle speed,
– bringing the vehicle to a full stop,
– preventing undesired acceleration of the vehicle during downhill driving situa-
tions, and
– keeping the vehicle at a standstill.
The typical functional design of a purely mechanical braking system used in pas-
senger cars is shown in Figure 5.1. It consists of:
– the brake pedal, which acts as the control interface between driver and vehicle,
– the master brake cylinder, which transforms force on the pedal into hydraulic
pressure,
– the brake servo, which increases the hydraulic pressure,
– one brake for each wheel,
– a brake pressure reducing system or brake pressure limiter on the rear wheels,
preventing “over-braking,” which could lead to rear wheel lock-up, and
– the parking brake usually in the form of a lever or a foot pedal. In modern ve-
hicles increasingly operated with use of electric buttons or switches.
5.2 Different implementations of braking systems
Braking systems differ both in terms of their functionality as well as in terms of

their construction form, which depends on the desired application area. In addi-
tion, they can offer countless support functions to aid the driver in controlling the
vehicle under difficult driving conditions.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-005
218 5 Braking systems
Brake pressure
reducer / limiter
reduc
Parking
brake
Brake
booster
ooster
Surge tank for
or
brake fluid
Master brake
cylinder
Actuation cable for
parking brake
Brake pedal
Wheel brake with brake disc,
brake caliper, and wheel brake
Figure 5.1: Basic construction form of a traditional passenger car braking system.
5.2.1 Design types
In general, distinctions can be made with respect to passenger car braking systems
(Reif 2011):
– operating braking systems (OBS),
– auxiliary braking systems (XBS),
– standstill braking systems (SBS) or Parking Brakes.
5.2.1.1 Operating braking systems (OBS)

OBS are used during normal operation of the vehicle, either to decelerate the vehicle
or to maintain a certain speed when driving downhill. It is responsible for the decel-
eration of the vehicle down to a complete stop, as well as preventing a rolling motion
when standing on an incline or in vehicles equipped with an automatic transmission
(creep).
The driver controls the OBS by using a right-foot operated pedal in nearly all
motorized vehicles.
5.2.1.2 Auxiliary braking systems (XBS)

XBS serve as an auxiliary braking system in case the OBS does not function prop-
erly, although performance and functionalities are often limited. It is not necessary
to install a third redundancy braking system besides the OBS and SBS. Rather, it is
sufficient to divide the OBS into a two or multiple circuit braking system to estab-
lish a redundant fail-safe system.
5.2.1.3 Standstill braking systems (SBS)

SBS must be able to keep vehicle in a standstill position even on inclined slopes. In
doing so, no driver input force must be required, meaning that the system can keep
the vehicle in a standstill even in the absence of the driver. Operating the SBS is
done directly by means of a lever or pedal, either mechanically, hydraulically, elec-
trically, or electrohydraulically operated. In the case of older passenger cars, the
transmission of SBS usually consisted of a cable.
Disc brakes, as well as drum brakes with shoes either on the inside or outside,
can be used as parking brakes. In the case of drum brakes, parts of the OBS are often
shared in its function as SBS. The system, also referred to as parking brake, usually
works on the OBS of the rear axle. The input force is transmitted from the control ele-
ment through the cable, onto both rear brakes, where either the brake shoes are
pushed outward or the brake pads are pushed together. Alternatively, instead of
using a hand brake, the operation can also be accomplished with the use of a foot
pedal. In newer, and higher-class vehicles, electromechanical parking brakes are be-
coming more and more common. In this case, the brake shoes are pressed against
the disc by actuators located on the rear calipers. These actuators can usually either
be controlled with a parking brake button on the dashboard or are operated automat-
ically without driver intervention via a control unit.
5.2.2 Functionality
Certain distinctions can be made about the function of braking systems, with regard
to the energy source used for operation. Accordingly, it is to be distinguished be-
tween braking systems that are operated by
– the driver muscle force,
– an assistance force, which is generated based on amplifying the driver’s force
input, and
– external force sources.
5.2.2.1 Muscle force braking systems

In muscle force-operated systems, the force applied by the driver’s foot is trans-
ferred through a lever or pedal through either linkage, cables, or hydraulics, to the
wheel brakes.
5.2.2.2 Auxiliary braking systems

In auxiliary braking systems, the muscle force applied by the driver is amplified by
an appropriate pneumatic (vacuum) or hydraulic device and then transmitted hy-
draulically through the brake lines to the wheel brakes.
Some vehicles are equipped with new features, such as electrical power drives
using an energy recovery systems and/or driver assistance systems. In this case the
servo brake, or brake booster, can also rely on electrical principles for operation.
5.2.2.3 Braking systems with external force source

In this type of braking systems, the OBS is operated exclusively by external power.
The intent of the driver is measured using sensors located in the brake pedal and
analyzed in a control unit. Based on that previously generated hydraulic energy is
forwarded to the wheel brakes through hydraulic lines. The brake fluid is stored in
hydraulic accumulators in which gas (e.g., nitrogen) is compressed. Gas and liquid
are separated by an elastic bubble (bladder accumulator) or a piston with rubber
seal (piston accumulator). The fluid pressure is generated by a hydraulic high-
pressure pump and is in equilibrium with the gas pressure. A pressure regulator
switches the hydraulic pump to idle as soon as the maximum pressure is reached.
An example of such a power-assisted braking system is the electrohydraulic
braking system (EHB), also known as sensotronic brake control (SBC). The driver’s
desired course of action is measured electronically through a calibrated sensor.
During normal operation no direct link is present between driver and the wheel
brake. This is effectively a so-called brake-by-wire system. The sensor measures the
deflection of the brake pedal and determines pedal speed and acceleration. In addi-
tion, the pressure profile in the control circuit is recorded via a pressure sensor.
With this information, the control unit derives the driver’s intent and calculates the
pressure required for each separate wheel brake, depending on the current driving
situation.
The control unit actuates the hydraulic system that can build up brake pressure
for each wheel individually. Pressure sensors in each wheel’s brake line determine
the actual pressure, so that the target pressure for each wheel can be readjusted
accordingly. In contrast to traditional braking systems, the driver does not have a
direct sensory link to the wheel brakes. A “simulator” recreates the desired brake
pedal feel, which would normally be caused by counteracting forces in the hydrau-
lic pressure lines.
In case of a failure of the control unit, a direct and nonassisted connection be-
tween the master cylinder and the wheel cylinders is established through a series of
valves. Admittedly, this only actuates the wheel brakes on the front axle.
5.2.3 Ideal brake force distribution
At first, as a special case of the general longitudinal forces dealt with in Chapter 6,
the forces acting on the vehicle’s axles during dynamic braking are investigated
(Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: Relevant parameters during braking action.
Symbol Description
Fx, v , Fx, h , Fz, v , Fz, h Tire forces
Fx, v , Fz, v , Fx, h Fz, h Wheel forces normalized with respect to vehicle weight
lv , lh , l CoM to axle horizontal distances
h CoM height
mV Vehicle mass
b, bdes , bmax , bopt Current, desired, maximum, and optimum deceleration (design point)
μv , μh , μ Friction coefficients – front, rear, and total
bv , bh Maximum deceleration in case front or rear brake circuit fails, respectively
A vehicle with a total mass of mV , distances to the horizontal center of gravity

lv , lh , and the vertical height of the center of mass (CoM) h are measured from the
road surface, which is assumed flat (Figure 5.2).
S
mv g
h
Fx,v Fx,h
Fz,v Fz,h
lv lh
l
Figure 5.2: Forces during braking action.
The forces in the tire contact points are summed up at the front and rear axle, result-
ing in the forces Fx, v , Fx, h acting in the direction of travel, and Fz, v , Fz, h , acting in the
direction of the vertical axis. All other forces will be neglected in this approach.
Yielding the torque equilibrium around the CoM S:
lh Fz, h − lv Fz, v + hðFx, v + Fx, h Þ = 0. (5:1)
Force equilibrium in the vertical direction states
Fz, v + Fz, h − mV g = 0, (5:2)

resulting in the impulse equation for the direction of travel
mV €x = − ðFx, v + Fx, h Þ. (5:3)
Equations (5.1) and (5.3) now yield

1
mV €x = ðlh Fz, h − lv Fz, v Þ. (5:4)
h
With deceleration b = − €x and l = lv + lh , the axle loads now follow from (5.4)
and (5.2)

g b
Fz, v = mV lh + h (5:5)
l g
as well as

g b
Fz, h = mV lv − h . (5:6)
l g
As one would expect, it can be seen that the vehicle’s mass is statically divided over
the front and rear axle according to the position of the CoM. In addition, there is an
increase of force on the front axle and a simultaneous decrease of force on the rear
axle, as a function of the deceleration b and the height h of the CoM. The maximum
deceleration is achieved when the front and rear axle simultaneously reach the fric-
tional limits, with equal friction coefficients μv = μh = μ; thus
Fx, v = μFz, v and Fx, h = μFz, h . (5:7)
In this situation, the highest possible braking force is transferred to the front and
rear axle. This yields a maximum deceleration of
bmax = μg, (5:8)
if no additional contact pressure is generated by aerodynamic measures.

For a prescribed deceleration bdes , it holds that
bdes = ηbmax ≤ bmax = μg, (5:9)
where a safety factor is described by 0 < η < 1. For the front and rear axle together
the following equation holds
Fx, v + Fx, h = mV bdes = mV ηbmax . (5:10)
Resulting from (5.5), the vertical force Fz, v normalized with respect to the vehicle
mass is

Fz, v 1 bdes
Fz, v = = lh + h (5:11)
mV g l g
x, v :=
and by (5.5), (5.7)–(5.10) as well as F Fx, v
mV g

z, v = η bmax F
x, v = ημF
F x, v = bdes 1 lh + bdes h . (5:12)
g g l g
Corresponding to (5.6) for the rear axle

bmax bdes 1 bdes
Fx, h = ημFz, h = η Fz, h = lv − h . (5:13)
g g l g
By elimination of the acceleration bSoll from (5.12), and after some rewriting it holds
that
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
bSoll lh lh l
=− + + F x, v . (5:14)
g 2h 2h h
Filling into (5.13) yields the relationship between the braking forces acting on both
axles
2
bSoll lh lh l
Fx, h = − Fx, v = − + + F x, v − Fx, v . (5:15)
g 2h 2h h
This relationship is shown in Figure 5.3. In this representation, the percentage of

braking force on the rear axle is also plotted.
0.4 80%
– Real brake force distribution – –
Fx,h 0.35 70% Fx,h /Fx,v
0.3 60%
Design for bopt = 0.8
0.25 50%
0.2 40%
0.15 Ideal brake force distribution 30%
0.1 20%
1.0
0.2
0.4
10%
0.6
1.2
0.8
0.05
0 0%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
–
Fx,v
h lh
Figure 5.3: Example for an ideal brake force distribution with = 0.2 and = 0.54.
l l
If the braking forces on both axles according to (5.15) are sufficient and with equal
friction coefficients, the antiblocking assurance is equally high for both axles.
In reality, the ideal brake force distribution shown in Figure 5.3 can only be
achieved with significant effort. It is therefore attempted to approximate the
ideal distribution by means of steps that are easier to implement. A distinction is
made between a rigid, a controlled, and a regulated distribution of the braking
forces.
5.2.3.1 Rigid brake force distribution

A rigid brake force distribution entails a distribution for which the braking forces
on both axles are fixed due to the constant, purely mechanical nature of the design.
This distribution is defined by the intersection between the ideal brake force curve
and the straight-line, real, fixed-ratio brake force distribution. According to current
EU guidelines, the real brake force distribution is defined in such a way that a de-
celeration of bopt = 0.8 is achieved at the intersection with the ideal brake force
curve. This point is called the design point and divides the surface area of the brake
force distribution in two sections. To the left of the intersection, the front axle is
over-braked, and to the right of the intersection, the rear axle is over-braked. When
the rear wheels lock, the vehicle becomes unstable during braking.
Locking rear wheels can provide longitudinal friction forces during wheel
slip, but are unable to achieve any lateral or cornering forces. Other forces, such
as those induced by the road surface, can lead to a yawing movement of the vehi-
cle. Therefore, it is of significant importance to realize maximum braking deceler-
ation with respect to the road condition, while still preventing the rear wheels
from locking. With uncertainties in all parameters in mind, the fine-tuned set-
tings shown in Figure 5.3 are defined in such a way that the rear axle is slightly
under-braked at all times. Usually the braking system of a vehicle is designed
such that the front wheel will lock up first in case of an emergency braking ma-
neuver. In the absence of ABS,1 this leads to loss of steering abilities of the vehi-
cle, but it will remain in a straight-line trajectory due to the lateral forces still
acting on the rear wheels. This will prevent the vehicle from swinging left and
right uncontrollably.
5.2.3.2 Brake force control

Controlling the braking force can be realized by a device that either limits or re-
duces the actual braking force applied. The brake pressure limiter limits the braking
force on the rear axle to a fixed and constant maximum value. The limitation of the
brake pressure is realized by a pressure relief valve, which prevents a further in-
crease of the brake pressure after the specified value is reached.
1 ABS: Antilock Braking System; see Chapter 9.

5.2.3.3 Brake force reduction

With a brake pressure reducer, a closer fit to the ideal brake force distribution can
be achieved for the real brake force distribution. This yields the advantage that the
locking tendency of the front wheels can be reduced. The realization requires a
valve that, after having reached the threshold value, only transfers part of the in-
creased pressure to the brake cylinders on the wheels (Figure 5.4).
– –
Fx,h Ideal brake force distribution Fx,h
Ideal brake force distribution
Changeover point Changeover point
bopt bopt
– –
Fx,v Fx,v
Figure 5.4: Controlling the brake force distribution by using a brake force limiter (left) and a brake
force reducer (right).
5.2.4 Failure of a brake circuit
In case of a two-way division of the braking system (see Section 5.4), it must still be
possible to decelerate the vehicle in case the brakes on one axle fail. For the situa-
tion where the brakes on the front axle fail, it can be stated
Fx, v = 0 and Fx, h ≤ μFz, h , (5:16)
where it holds that
mV bh = Fx, h . (5:17)
So, a deceleration remains of

g bh lv
bh = μ lv − h and thus bh = μg . (5:18)
l g l + hμ
For typical values corresponding to a middle-class vehicle (Bardini 2008),

m
l = 2.5 m, lv = 1.2 m, h = 0.5m, and μ = 1. A value of bh ≈ 3.94 2 is obtained, which is
s m
approximately only 40% of the maximum possible deceleration of μg = 9.81 2 .
s
For the front axle this results in
lh
bv = μg , (5:19)
l − hμ
which leads to bv ≈ 6.38 sm2 , when using the same parameters as before. This means
that at least 65% of deceleration can still be obtained when compared to the non-
failure situation.
5.3 Assembly components of the braking system
Braking systems in passenger vehicles are composed of assemblies consisting of

multiple components, functioning of which usually relies on hydraulic working
principles. Over time, these assemblies have been expanded to allow for the intro-
duction of additional driver-support systems.
5.3.1 Overview and functionality
The conventional construction of the braking system in a passenger car is shown in

Figure 5.1. The division into two classes – operating brakes and parking brakes –
and the manner how all functionalities of the braking system can be structured
(Figure 5.5).
The brake actuating system is composed of all components involved in initiat-
ing and controlling the braking process of the vehicle. Within the boundaries of the
actuating system, the control signals are forwarded through either mechanical or
electrical components. The amplitude of these signals is often magnified by an ex-
ternal energy source, usually obtained through a vacuum created by the combus-
tion engine or through the vehicle’s electrical system. Input for the braking system
is usually done through a calibrated control element, generally in the form of a foot
pedal actuated by the driver. In special cases, this control element can also be
hand-controlled instead of a foot pedal.
In conventional braking systems, the brake signal is either transmitted directly to
the wheel brakes or modulated by a lock-up preventing control system (see Chapter 9).
For driver assistance systems, such as dynamic drive settings and adaptive
cruise control, separate driver interfaces are present to provide control over the cor-
responding systems (see Chapter 9). The vehicle’s energy system must supply a sig-
nificant amount of energy to actuate and control the wheel brakes. Passenger car
braking systems exist where the actuating force is initially supplied by the driver,
but then amplified by the system (auxiliary braking systems).
The transmission system is composed of all components and fluids responsible
for transmitting the actuating force from the actuating system to the wheel brakes.
These components generally consist of hydraulic pipes and brake lines, as well as
the accompanying hydraulic fluid.
In most cases, there is an additional device that divides the braking pressure
between the front and rear axles and redirects it accordingly. Often the braking
Initiation of the braking operation

Driver – muscle strength, switch operation
Vehicle system – electronics
Brake Parking brake
Actuation device Actuation device

Brake pedal Hand lever
Master cylinder Pedal
Brake booster Switch
Control unit Control unit
Power supply
Muscle strength (driver)
Electrical (vehicle power)
Power transmission
Mechanics (rods, pistons, ets.)
Hydraulic
Electrical
Wheel brakes
Disc brake
Drum brake
Figure 5.5: Typical structure of the braking system in a passenger car.
pressure to the rear axle is reduced to guarantee that the rear wheels, under no cir-
cumstance, lock up before the front wheels do. This is done through the before
mentioned brake pressure reducer. These requirements result from the driving dy-
namic requirements as dealt with in Chapter 3. The wheel brakes provide a torque
that counteracts the wheels’ rotational motion. Under braking, the kinetic energy of
the vehicle is converted into heat energy due to friction between the brake pads
and the drums/discs. Here it is temporarily stored before the heat is released to the
surrounding air. Friction brakes are used for most conventionally powered vehicles.
For electric vehicles (see Chapter 6), the electric motor can additionally be used to
recover energy from the brakes. This is known as energy recuperation (Table 5.2).
The foot force FF applied by the driver on the brake pedal is first converted into
the actuating force FB , through the transmission ratio of the foot pedal iPED
(Figures 5.6 and 5.7):
FB = iPED FF . (5:20)
Table 5.2: Relevant parameters during braking.
Symbol Description
FF , FB , FH , FA Foot force, actuating brake cylinder force, aux. force of servo

brake, amplified actuating force
FB0, FH0 Saturation point, actuating force until an auxiliary force is

generated, maximum auxiliary force
iPED Transmission ratio foot pedal
iV , V * Constant of proportionality, magnification factor of the servo

brake
FSp Tensile force
iH Transmission ratio of brake hydraulics
re , rstat , rdyn Brake radius, static and dynamic tire radius
p Brake pressure
*
C Inner ratio
Wheel brake cylinder brake pipe
Surge tank
fsp
Brake fluid
Foot force
Master cylinder FF
Brake shoe Brake pad
Abutment Wheel brake

Brake pedal
Figure 5.6: Layout of a drum brake.
In the servo brake (booster), which is powered either through a vacuum or hydrau-
lically, the actuating force FB is increased by an auxiliary force FH :
FA = FB + FH = iPED FF + FH . (5:21)
The auxiliary force (FH ) characteristics are fully dependent on the servo brake
booster (Breuer and Bill 2012). Since the foot force to be applied by the driver must
not exceed a certain value even if the brake booster fails, the auxiliary force FH
must reach a specified value.
re FSP
ARZ
FSP ABKV
FA
p=
AHZ AHZ AHZ FF
FB
FA = FB + FH
FA
p=
AHZ
Figure 5.7: Force flow diagram of a braking system.
Up until the saturation point FB0 , meaning in the range of FB < FB0 , it holds
with the constant of proportionality iV
FH = i V FB (5:22)
and therefore
FA = ð1 + iV ÞFB = V * FB (5:23)
with the amplification factor V * = 1 + iV (Figure 5.8).

Auxiliary force FH
Saturation point
iV
Actuation force FB Figure 5.8: Saturation point.
For the region FB > FB0 and the corresponding auxiliary force FH0 , the magnification
factor is limited to
FH0
V* = 1 + . (5:24)
FB
In the design phase of the braking system, the brake saturation point is defined in
such a way that with a fully loaded vehicle, the actuating force FB0 will lead to the
wheels just reaching the friction limits and locking occurs. Due to the hydraulic
transmission, a tensile force FSp is reached acting on brake pads for each wheel.
FSp is dependent on the brake booster output force FA and the hydraulic transmis-
sion of the braking cylinders iH :
FSp = iH FA = iH V * FB = iH V * iPED FF . (5:25)
With the effective surface area AHZ corresponding to the master braking cylinder
and the effective surface area ARZ corresponding to the wheel braking cylinder, and
when neglecting compliance and frictional effects in the system, the relationship
becomes
ARZ
iH = . (5:26)
AHZ
A tangential force FU is generated by the tensile force FSp in combination with an

effective braking radius re . This yields a braking force of Fwheel at the tire contact
point:
re
Fwheel = FU (5:27)
rstat
(Figure 5.9).
re
Fsp
FU
rstat
Fwheel Figure 5.9: Forces on the wheel.

The relationship between tensile force FSp and tangential force FU is also known as
the inner transmission ratio C* of the wheel brake. Among other things, the inner
transmission ratio is dependent on the friction coefficient μpad between brake pad
and drum/disc (see Sections 5.3.4 and 5.3.5). Using this ratio, the relationship be-
tween actuating force FF on the brake pedal and the braking force at the wheel
FWheel can be formulated as
re re ARZ re
FWheel ¼ FU ¼ C FSp ¼ iPED V · · C FF : ð5:28Þ
rstat rstat |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} AHZ rstat
actuation |{z} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
mechanism hydraulics wheel brake
gear ratio gear ratio
The inner transmission ratio C* is described in DIN/ISO (1997–2001) for most indi-
vidual construction forms of braking systems. Examples of calculations for both
drum and disc brakes can be found in Sections 5.3.4 and 5.3.5.
The described relationships only consider pure mechanical braking systems. In
most modern-day vehicles further functionalities have been incorporated into the
braking system, especially functionalities that support the driver in situations where
the vehicle is driven on its frictional limits. These interventions can either be exe-
cuted by the brake booster directly or by modulating the brake pressure inside the
hydraulic lines. Examples of such systems are (see Chapter 9 as well) as follows:
– brake assist, which ensures the maximum possible deceleration in case the sys-
tem detects an emergency braking maneuver by the driver (through high pedal
force and acceleration),
– antilock braking (ABS2) and traction control (TCS3),
– dynamic driving control (ESP4),
– adaptive cruise control (ACC5).
5.3.2 Brake pedal and master brake cylinder
The brake pedal’s primary task is to transfer the foot force exerted by the driver to a
piston rod, which, after being enforced by a brake booster, builds up the hydraulic
pressure in the master brake cylinder. A sensitive and responsive reaction to the
input force exerted by the foot is of great importance. In case of an auxiliary brak-
ing system, this mechanism must be replaced by a brake-feel simulator to recreate
the conventional feel of a braking system. In general, the brake pedal, brake booster,
2 ABS: Antilock Braking System; see Chapter 9.

3 TCS: Traction Control System; see Chapter 9.
4 ESP: Electronic Stability Program; see Chapter 9.
5 ACC: Adaptive Cruise Control; see Chapter 9.
and master cylinder are integrated into a single unit due to packaging and cost-
related benefits. After amplification by the brake booster, the master cylinder converts
the foot force applied by the driver into a hydraulic pressure that passes through the
brake lines, where it is converted to force that presses the brake pads against the
brake drums or brake discs, depending on the type of brake.
For example, Figure 5.10 shows a tandem master brake cylinder with central
valve. After actuation of the brake pedal, the push rod piston is translated to the
left. As a result, the intermediate piston also displaces to the left, thereby closing
the central valve, causing the pressure chamber to be sealed. That increases the
pressure in both the pressure chambers. In case the foot force is reduced, both pis-
tons move to the right. The right piston then releases the compensation bore and
the central valve opens, after which the hydraulic braking fluid can once again flow
back into the expansion tank.
Expansion tank
Compensating bore
Central valve
Primary sleeve Primary sleeve
Piston spring
Replenishing bore
Secondary sleeve
Cylinder
housing
Push rod piston
Stop pin Piston spring

1. Brake circuit 2. Brake circuit
Separating sleeve Intermediate piston
Valve pin
Figure 5.10: Main or master braking cylinder (schematic visualization).
5.3.3 Brake booster
In most contemporary vehicles, the foot force applied by the driver is insufficient to
achieve and sustain the required brake pressure for all driving situations. Therefore,
the driver’s foot force must be amplified accordingly. The primary objective of the
brake booster is to keep the required foot force to a minimum, to allow for comfort-
able and safe braking at all times.
At the same time, the brake booster must not hinder the sensitive and precise ad-
ministering of the brake and ensure that it responds as expected. Brake boosters are
very common in modern-day motorized vehicles. The required energy is extracted ei-
ther from the partial vacuum at the intake manifold of the combustion engine or from
a hydraulic pump, which generates the required hydraulic pressure in case the partial
vacuum does not suffice. This is often the case in vehicles with DIESEL or turbo-
charged engines, as well as in electric vehicles. Figure 5.11 shows a vacuum pressure
brake booster with a single chamber configuration. For vehicles that have a higher
need of braking support, four chamber configurations also exist (Reif 2010).
Piston return spring Rolling diaphragm

Vacuum port
Working piston
Vacuum valve
Valve piston
Piston rod
Rubber
reaction Brake pedal
disc
Push rod
Filter
Pressure spring
Outside-air valve
Poppet valve
Working pressure chamber
Vacuum chamber
Figure 5.11: Vacuum brake booster according to Fischer, Gscheidle et al. (2013).
The brake booster shown in Figure 5.11 utilizes either the intake manifold or suction
pipe of the petrol engine or a hydraulic pump, to create a partial vacuum of 0.5–0.9
bar, which in turn is used to generate the auxiliary braking force.
This auxiliary braking force has a positive linear relationship to the applied
foot force, up until the saturation point, after which the auxiliary force does not in-
crease further (see Section 5.3.1). The saturation point is defined in such a way that
it is close to the pressure required to lock up the front wheels.
The brake booster in Figure 5.11 shows an essential component in the form of a
working piston with rolling diaphragm. This separates the vacuum chamber from the
working chamber. The foot force transferred by the piston rod is led through the
working piston onto the push rod and is simultaneously increased by the compres-
sive force resulting from the working pressure chamber on the separation membrane.
When no brakes are applied, the vacuum chamber and working pressure cham-
ber are connected to one another, and in both chambers, and therefore also on both
side of the working piston, the same partial vacuum is present. In this baseline posi-
tion, the working piston is kept in place by the piston return spring. When the brakes
are applied, the piston rod from Figure 5.11 moves to the left, closing the poppet
valve and thus the connection between the two chambers. Once again both chambers
are separated from each other. When the valve piston moves further to the left, the
valve that shields the working chamber against atmospheric pressure opens, leading
to an inflow of atmospheric pressure via the filter and outside-air valve.
The build-up of pressure is transferred through the membrane to the diaphragm
plate which pushes the compressive spring and thus the push rod to the left, increas-
ing the original foot force exerted by the driver. At the same time the rubber reaction
disc is compressed. As soon as the push rod stops moving, the reaction disc expands
again and exerts pressure on the valve piston. This closes the outside-air valve and a
constant force amplification is provided. The resulting auxiliary force can be formu-
lated as
FH = AM Δp, (5:29)
where AM is the effective cross-sectional area of the working piston and Δp the pres-
sure gradient between the working chamber and vacuum chamber.
In case the pedal force is reduced again, the valve piston moves back to the
right, opening the connection between vacuum and working chamber and therefore
equalizing the pressure.
When the brakes are fully applied, the reaction disc remains compressed and
the outside-air valve stays open. This results in the maximum possible pressure gra-
dient of Δp ≈ 0.8 bar.
Vehicles in which the partial vacuum supply is insufficient, such as DIESEL or
electric vehicles, are typically provided with hydraulically operated brake boosters
(Fischer, Gscheidle et al. 2013).
5.3.4 Drum brakes
For a simplex drum brake, a torque equilibrium for the brake pad with respect to
the supporting point A results in (Figure 5.12)
2aFSp − aFN + rFU = 0. (5:30)
If the assumption of dry friction between the normal force FN and tangential force
FU is made, the following relationship applies
FU = μpad FN (5:31)
and therefore
Rotating direction
Brake
pressure Piston
FSP
Brake lining
FN
r r
FU Brake drum
a
A
Abutment
Figure 5.12: Principal working principle of a drum brake.

2FSp
μpad
FU μpad FN 1 − ar μpad 2
C* = = = = . (5:32)
FSp FSp FSp 1
μpad − r
a
In this case, the inner transmission ratio C* is nonlinearly related to the friction co-
efficient of the brake pad. Therefore, it can vary strongly depending on the age and
potential wear of the brakes, as well as on environmental conditions. One of the
advantages of the drum brake is its built-in self-amplification. However, due to sen-
sitivity to changing parameters as mentioned before, this self-amplification is not
constant. This is a major disadvantage, as moisture and extreme temperature under
heavy braking can lead to a significant reduction of the friction coefficient, which
results in decreased braking performance. This phenomenon is known as brake
fading.
Due to their simple design and relatively straightforward construction, drum
brakes are considerably less costly compared to disc brakes. A variety of designs
have been developed over the course of history. Main forms are the simplex, du-
plex, and servo brakes, where the simplex design is most commonly used.
5.3.5 Disc brakes
For a disc brake (Figure 5.13), it holds:
FU FU, left + FU, right FSp μpad + FSp μpad

C* = = = = 2 μpad : (5:33)
FSp FSp FSp
Brake pads Brake piston

Brake piston Brake pads
Hydraulic
port
Hydraulic port Hydraulic port
Brake disc Brake disc
Fixed caliper brake Fist-caliper brake
Figure 5.13: Principal functioning of disc brakes.
Disc brakes provide the braking force by pressing two brake pads onto either side of
a disc, which is attached to the wheel in a concentric manner. The brake pads are
fitted inside an U-shaped brake caliper, which encompasses part of the disc. The cali-
per itself is attached to a nonrotating part of the vehicle (Figure 5.13). Disc brakes are
almost exclusively actuated by means of a hydraulic system. The most commonly
seen types of disc brakes mainly differ in the way the brake calipers are mounted.
In case of a fixed-caliper disc brake, two pistons are required that press the brake
pads onto either side of the disc (Figure 5.13, left ). In this case the brake calipers and
pistons are firmly connected to the wheel suspension. In case of a floating-caliper
disc brake, the actual brake caliper is guided (floating) by a fixed brake carrier. With
this construction type, only one piston is necessary to press the inner brake pads
onto the disc. The outer brake pad is pressed against the disc indirectly due to reac-
tive forces, thus sliding the brake caliper and brake pad along.
Continued development leads to the fist-caliper disc brake (Figure 5.13, right), in
which the brake carrier is not necessary anymore. The brake caliper encompasses
the disc like a half-opened fist. This form of disc brake has largely prevailed in pas-
senger cars because of their simple construction, lower temperature sensitivity, and
greater ease of maintenance even compared to fixed-caliper brakes. Disc brakes have
replaced drum brakes for most passenger cars, especially when considering the front
axle. Reasons behind this can largely be found in their increased braking stability
and better thermal loading capacity. When exposed to higher loads, the brake force
losses are considerably smaller when compared to drum brakes. In particular, the
dreaded “fading” phenomenon only occurs to far lesser extent.
The disadvantages of disc brakes lie in the lack of self-amplification, and in
their significant higher cost compared to drum brakes. Due to the higher cost for
disc brakes, even modern vehicles, albeit the smaller and less expensive models,
are still often fitted with drum brakes at the rear axle. This is possible because the
rear axle is usually only responsible for 25–30% of the total braking force, therefore
exposing the brakes to a much lower thermal loading.
An additional reason why the use of drum brakes is often preferred on the rear
axle is because disc brakes provide far greater construction difficulties when imple-
mentation the parking brake.
5.3.6 Brake discs
Brake discs are normally made of gray cast iron or cast steel and are composed of a
flat friction ring and a brake disc hub, at which they are fixed to the wheel hub
using screws, so that they rotate together with the wheel. The contact forces are
considerably higher compared to drum brakes. This results in higher heat develop-
ment, which is compensated for by placing the brake discs directly in the airflow
around the vehicle. Difficulties arise when the vehicle is driving slowly while simul-
taneously requiring a high braking force, for instance, during downhill driving.
Internally ventilated brake discs are constructed with, in contrast to solid brake
discs, radially arranged air-flow cooling channels, which provide a ventilating effect
while driving. They are usually used on the front axle due to the higher braking load.
5.3.7 Brake pads
During braking, the brake pads are pressed against a friction partner that rotates
synchronously with the wheel. This causes a friction force in the opposite direction
that slows down the wheel’s rotational motion, thus braking the vehicle. For disc
brakes the friction pairs usually consist of two separate brake pads per disc. In
drum brakes, the brake pads work in conjunction with the drum itself. An impor-
tant characteristic of the brake pads is that they should be made of material for
which the friction coefficient varies as little as possible with fluctuations in temper-
ature and wear. They must be temperature resistant up to approx. 800 °C without
vitrification and arising mechanical loads. Commercially available brake pads con-
sist of a support plate made of steel or cast iron, a friction lining made of a complex
composite of different materials and an intermediate layer, the so-called under-

layer. The friction coefficient between brake pad and brake disc are usually be-
tween 0.35 and 0.4. Variations in this friction coefficient should be kept as small as
possible. Nevertheless, the friction coefficient tends to fluctuate depending on
speed, braking pressure, and temperature. In particular, the friction coefficient de-
creases disproportionately from above 700 °C, which significantly lengthens the
braking distance. This is known as fading (Breuer and Bill 2012).
5.3.8 Thermal behavior of brakes
The power required by the brakes of an ordinary passenger car significantly exceeds
that produced by its engine. About 90% of the heat generated under braking is tem-
porarily stored in the brake disc. The remaining 10% flows into the brake pads. The
stored heat must be discharged to the surrounding air as quickly as possible,
through radiation and conduction. This inevitably leads to heating of the adjacent
components, such as the caliper, rim, and vehicle suspension.
A critical temperature is reached when the brake pads and fluid reach over
700 C. The braking fluid heats up due to conduction from the discs to the wheel
brake cylinder, which in extreme cases could lead to the build-up of vapor in the
hydraulic fluid and potentially a complete failure of the brake circuit (Breuer and
Bill 2012).
Furthermore, the temperature has a significant influence on the friction coeffi-
cient μpad between brake pad and brake disc. Taking this into account, the follow-
ing relationship for the braking torque, with a given braking pressure pB , can be
formulated as follows:
MB = pB AK rB μpad ðpB , TB Þ, (5:34)
where AK is the effective contact area between the brake pad and brake disc, and
rB is the distance between the axle and the center of the brake pad. The sliding
friction coefficient μpad between brake pad and brake disc depends on the effec-
tive braking pressure pB and brake pad temperature TB . This relationship can be
approximated (Burckhardt 1991) and (Schuster 1999). If the sliding velocity is ne-
glected, the friction coefficient will increase with rising temperature TB , until a
maximum value is reached at the optimum temperature TB, opt , after which it starts
declining again.
Mathematically this relationship can be approximated by the parabola
" #
TB − TB, opt 2
μpad ðTB Þ = μpad, max 1 − cP . (5:35)
TB, opt
5.4 Brake circuit layout 239
The parameter cP is a dimensionless material constant that maps the temperature

behavior of the interaction between brake disc and pad. Similarly, the dependence
of the friction coefficient on the brake pressure can be approximated by
" 2 #
pB
μpad ðpB Þ = μpad, pB = 0 1 − cT * , (5:36)
pB
where cT is another dimensionless material constant, μpad, pB = 0 is the friction coeffi-

cient at zero pressure, and p*B the maximum braking pressure.
As a first approximation, the equation for the friction coefficient thus results
from eqs. (5.35) and (5.36) and is formulated as follows:
" 2 # " #
pB TB − TB, opt 2
μpad ðpB , TB Þ = μpad, pB = 0 1 − cT * · μG, max 1 − cP . (5:37)
pB TB, opt
5.4 Brake circuit layout
Due to the safety aspect related to braking systems, legal regulations stipulate that
the transmission between the actuator and wheel brakes must be of at least two-
circuit design. There are five possible brake circuit splittings that split both brake
circuits in separate segments, all specified in DIN 74000 (DIN 1992). Figure 5.14
shows the two most common mappings:
– One of these brake circuit splittings used today is the II-splitting, that is, the
splitting of the brake system into a brake circuit on the front axle and a further
brake circuit on the rear axle (front-/rear-axle mapping). In this case, each
brake circuit of the main brake cylinder acts on one axle. This type of brake
II-mapping
(rear/front axle mapping)
1 2
X-mapping
1 2
Figure 5.14: Most common brake circuit mappings (Reif 2011).

circuit splitting is primarily used for vehicles with high rear axle loads, since if
the brake circuit on the front axle fails, there must still be sufficient braking
effect on the rear axle to meet the legal requirements.
– The most commonly used variant of brake circuit splitting today is diagonal split-
ting (X-mapping). Here, one of the brake circuits acts on a front wheel and the
respective diagonally opposite rear wheel. The diagonal distribution can be ap-
plied today to almost all vehicle constellations. A disadvantage is the yaw torque
that acts when a brake circuit fails due to the higher proportion of front axle
braking force. Today, however, this disadvantage is at least mitigated, if not
compensated, by the effect of the negative steering roll radius (see Chapter 3).
Furthermore, basically possible, subdivisions are the HI, LL, and HH brake circuit
layouts (not shown in Figure 5.14):
– In an HI brake circuit splitting, one brake circuit acts on the front axle and on
the rear axle, while the other brake circuit acts only on the front axle.
– With the LL brake circuit splitting, each brake circuit acts on the front axle and
on one of the rear wheels.
– Finally, there is the HH brake circuit splitting, where each brake circuit acts on
both the front axle and the rear axle.
However, these variants are less common in passenger cars and are more likely to
be used in light to heavy commercial vehicles. These distributions make use of
wheel brakes with double brake pistons and separate brake circuit distribution per
brake piston necessary. This type of wheel brake is rarely used in passenger cars for
cost reasons.
5.5 Braking process
The entire braking process includes all operations that take place between initiation
of the actuator, including reaction times, and the end of the braking action (DIN/
ISO 1997–2001).
5.5.1 Reaction and response times
When studying brake reaction times, a distinction should be made between the
driver’s individual reaction time and the technical and/or mechanical delay caused
by the vehicle’s systems.
The driver’s reaction time tR is dependent on the state of mind and ability to
react of each individual driver. It encompasses not only the time it takes to recognize
and analyze a particular situation (danger recognition), but also the time it takes to
5.5 Braking process 241
actuate the brake pedals with the appropriate foot force. This duration, which is also
dependent on the circumstances, lies between 0.3 and 1.0 seconds. During this time,
the vehicle keeps moving without braking action applied.
A short time span passes after the brakes have been actuated by the driver. This
time span can be divided into two separate parts, one being the threshold time tS ,
during which the deceleration of the vehicle increases, and a time span tAS − tS ,
during which any delays in the system are overcome but no actual braking force is
active. The remaining time tBmax indicates the time span during which the vehicle
is subject to the maximum braking force resulting in the deceleration amax .
Therefore, the total braking process consists of the sum of the total time:
tA = tR + ðtAS − tS Þ + tS + tBmax . (5:38)
Figure 5.15 shows an example of the relevant kinematic parameters changing over
time during braking action. It shows a maximum braking maneuver from a constant
velocity of v0 = 25 m=s, with typical time spans of tS = 0.2 s, tAS = 0.25 s, tR = 0.5 s (see
Figure 5.16). This results in a total stopping distance sA of 55.3 m over a total time
span of tA = 3.78 s. In this case, the effective braking time (neglecting the drivers reac-
tion time) equals tBmax = 3.03 s.
Figure 5.15: Relevant times during the braking process.
Figure 5.16: Stopping distance.

5.5.2 Braking distances
Braking distances have improved dramatically over the past decades, especially in
poor road and weather conditions. On the one hand, this is due to the introduction
of active driver assistance systems, such as brake assist or ABS (see Chapter 9), and
also due to technical improvements to the brakes (brake pads and discs) and the
significant advancements in tire quality.
The importance of keeping the stopping distance as short as possible is shown
in Figure 5.17. It shows the stopping distances in meters at different, but quite aver-
age, vehicle decelerations under braking and an initial speed of v0=100 km/h.
Assuming an average braking deceleration of 12 m=s2 and a theoretical stopping dis-
tance of 32.15 m, the remaining impact velocities corresponding to lower braking
decelerations and thus longer stopping distances are also plotted.
70 70
60 Stopping distance 57.74 60

54.01
Residual speed/(km/h)
50 50.00 48.23 50
Stopping distance/m
Residual speed at impact on 45.39

45.64
obstacle after 32.15 m 42.87
40.82 40.61
40 36.74 38.58 40
33.55 35.07
32.15 35.36
30 28.87
30
20 20.41 20
10 10
0 0
0.00 12 11.5 11 10.5 10 9.5 9 8.5 8
Braking deceleration/(m/s2)
Figure 5.17: Stopping distances and remaining impact velocities.
The diagram shows that a vehicle with an average braking deceleration of 8 m=s2
will still be travelling at a velocity of 57.74 km=h upon hitting the obstacle located
at the 32.15 m mark.
Based on the assumptions made in Section 5.5.1, as well a new assumption that
the braking deceleration a increases linearly over the duration of tS , and remains
constant after reaching the maximum value of amax , the stopping distance can be
approximated by

1 1 1
sA = v0 ðtR + tAS Þ + amax tS2 + amax ts + v0 tBmax + amax tB2 max . (5:39)
6 2 2
Thus, the stopping distance not only depends on the maximum braking deceleration
(approximately 8 m=s2 with dry road conditions) but also on the driver’s individual re-
action time and the inherent response time of the braking system. Furthermore, in this
case it is assumed that the driver immediately fully applies the brakes, which is usually
not the case. This explains the use of so-called brake assist systems (BAS), which,
based on the pedal acceleration due to the driver’s input, detects an emergency brak-
ing situation and immediately generates maximum braking pressure. In the exemplary
emergency braking situation with an initial velocity of v0 = 100 km=h shown in
Figure 5.15, the total stopping distance is sA = 57.72 m. Here 18.70 m accounts for the
reaction and response time, and sR = 12.50 m is solely due to the driver’s reaction time.
5.6 Servo brakes
Unlike in the case of trucks, the braking system of passenger cars still relies on the
driver’s muscular force as input, which is usually amplified by additional modules.
It is therefore quite obvious to replace the muscular force input of the driver entirely
by a corresponding actuator and to capture the driver’s intent by a sensor. An ad-
vantage of this procedure is the possibility to integrate additional assistance sys-
tems with relative ease when compared to conventional braking systems.
5.6.1 Electrohydraulic brakes (EHB)
The electrohydraulic braking system is a form of servo brake and is completely de-
coupled mechanically from the brake pedal unless in redundancy mode during sys-
tem failure. The required braking pressure is generated by a high-pressure pump in a
gas pressure accumulator and is available to all parts of the braking system through
a series of direction specific valves.
The braking system consists of three clearly separate modules:
– An electronic brake pedal, which houses a movement sensor that captures the
driver’s intent, and a brake feedback actuator.
– Four hydraulic wheel brakes.
– An electrohydraulic control unit consisting of the high-pressure pump, a valve
block, and an electronic control system.
From the measured pedal pressure and displacement, the desired braking force is
computed. The sensor signals from the brake pedal unit are transmitted to the con-
trol unit through a cable connection. There, considering other vehicle parameters
such as wheel speeds, yaw rate, lateral acceleration, and so on, wheel-specific
brake pressures are determined. The electrohydraulic control unit generates the
required brake pressures by the appropriate actuation of the control valves. The
pressurized hydraulic fluid itself is drawn from the gas pressure accumulator. Due
to the separation of brake hydraulics and pedal unit during normal operation, auto-
mated assistance systems such as ABS and ESP are free from feedback.
Therefore, the feedback given to the driver by the pedal unit can be freely con-
figured. The construction and design of this type of system allows for easy integra-
tion of brake assistance systems such as ABS, ASR, and ESP without significant
additional hardware modifications.
Furthermore, apart from the mechanical fallback system present in an EHB, it
highly resembles a brake-by-wire system that shares some of the advantages of the
EMB systems (see Section 5.6.2).
Advantages of the system are as follows:
– excellent braking dynamics,
– easy integration of driver assistance systems such as Hill Holder6, dry braking
of the brake discs,7
– fundamental freedom in brake pedal feedback,
– freely chosen feedback design of brake pedal,
– simple implementation of auxiliary power braking system, and
– independent of partial vacuum of the engine.
However, the system also has certain disadvantages that have prevented widespread
use:
– the need to provide a mechanical or other fallback condition in the event of
system failure, for example due to an electrical issue,
– high costs,
– because of cost-related arguments, only one brake circuit is available during
emergency fallback operation, making it more difficult for weaker drivers to ini-
tiate sharp braking.
5.6.2 Electromechanical brakes (EMB) and brake-by-wire systems
Electromechanical brakes operate without using a hydraulic system; therefore, no

brake fluid is required. These are also referred to as dry brakes. Similar to EHB, the
system consists of a brake pedal sensor with integrated control unit, regulating the
four-wheel brakes. These wheel brakes are actuated purely electrically, whereas EHB
uses hydraulic actuation.
6 Hillclimb Assist: Automated support system that prevents the vehicle from rolling backward dur-
ing steep hill ascents.
7 Dry braking: Light application of brake pads onto brake discs to achieve optimum brake response
in dry conditions.
Therefore, the high-pressure pump and valve block are made redundant. Instead,
four separate electromechanical brake actuators are used. The EMB has multiple ad-
vantages compared to EHB. The system consists of a smaller number of separate com-
ponents, is more environmental friendly due to the absence of hydraulic fluid, and
requires far less maintenance.
Another big advantage is the fundamental independency on the existence of a
mechanical transmission linkage between the brake pedal and the wheels, creating
new packaging possibilities in passenger cars. A disadvantage is that to ensure two
independent brake circuits, both a redundant signal as well as a redundant power
grid are required. This vastly increases the demand on the vehicle’s electrical sys-
tem, which makes using the conventional 12 V electrical system insufficient. These
serious disadvantages, as well as the significant additional effort required to realize
a mechanical fallback system usually required in safety-sensitive vehicle modules,
have so far prevented large-scale usage of this braking system.
However, there have been many attempts in recent years to introduce such a
system, often using novel actuation principles such as the electronically controlled
wedge brake (Gombert and Hartmann 2006). Further advantages and disadvantages
of EMB are mostly identical to those of the EHB.
Figure 5.18 shows a comparison between the aforementioned braking systems.
Master brake Pedal module with Pedal module with

ECU
cylinder with brake pedal travel sensor pedal travel sensor
booster and reservoir and force feedback and force feedback
Hydraulic Electro hydraulic

unit with actuator
delivery pump with pressure
and control accumulator
unit and control
unit
Battery 1 Battery 2
Actuator
Front axle Rear axle Front axle Rear axle Front axle Rear axle
Conventional Electrohydraulic Electromechanical
braking system braking system braking system
Figure 5.18: Comparison of braking systems, partly according to Reif (2010).

6 Propulsion systems
Establishing a suitable propulsion system was one of the main prerequisites that
eventually led to the success story that is the automobile industry. While Electric
Motors (EM) and Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) where equally represented as
forms of propulsion since the start of the twentieth century, the internal combus-
tion engine became the industry standard in the long period to follow. The reason
behind this was the low achievable energy density in electric batteries. It was not
until recent years that a paradigm shift began, triggered by a significant increase in
electric drive efficiency, the looming depletion of fossil fuels, and far higher energy
densities in the electric energy storage systems and last but not least the discussion
about climate change. Nonetheless, the internal combustion engine will continue to
play a dominant role for at least another 20 years, though expectedly more and
more as part of a hybrid propulsion system (Schramm and Koppers 2013).
6.1 Basic types of powertrains
A principal distinction must be made between the driven axles on the one hand,
and the location of the drive unit on the other. Both factors together describe the
topology of the power train. An overview of the most commonly seen powertrain
structures, as well as an estimate of their respective market shares in Germany is
given in Table 6.1.
Nearly 99% of all vehicles have the combustion engine located in the front, with
the rare exception of rear or middle placed engines as seen in some vehicle types.
In 75% of all vehicles, the combustion engine is transversely mounted in the front
end while the front axle is driven. This layout is a popular platform strategy due to the
significant integration benefits it provides. An example of this is given by the so-called
Modular Transverse Matrix1 designed by the VW-Group (Szengel, Middendorf et al.
2012). Positioning the engine directly above the driven axle results in the particular de-
sign advantage that no additional drive shafts are required. Approximately 16% of ve-
hicles display the traditional configuration in which the engine is front mounted
longitudinally and drives the rear axle. A disadvantage of this configuration is the
need for additional drive shafts (cardan shafts), to transfer the engine torque from the
front end of the vehicle to the rear axle; however, advantages are also present, namely
the often-preferred driving dynamics and the possibility to install larger engines. All-
wheel drive versions of the before mentioned configurations take up 3% and 4% re-
spectively. The drive topologies described so far solely consider the use of internal
combustion engines. The integration of electric drives into the powertrain considerably
1 German: Modularer Querbaukasten (MQB).
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-006
248 6 Propulsion systems
Table 6.1: Powertrain topologies in combustion engine-driven vehicles with their respective market
share (Grote and Feldhusen 2012, Ried 2014).
front-lateral front-longitudinal
front all-wheel front rear All-wheel
75% 3% 1% 16% 4%
Values have been rounded off.
increases the range of possible and meaningful topologies. An up-to-date overview of

the most frequently used versions in combination with a front-mounted internal com-
bustion engine is shown in Table 6.2.
An exemplary visualization of a hybrid propulsion system is shown in Figure 6.1.
In the case of parallel hybrid versions, it is possible to drive either purely elec-
tric or purely using the combustion engine, see Section 6.4.4. In a power-split ar-
rangement, the electric motor is required to operate while the vehicle is powered by
the internal combustion engine. In a serial structure, only electric drives can be
used. The combined arrangement allows for both serial and parallel operations.
6.2 Propulsion requirements for motorized vehicles
The propulsion requirements on motorized vehicles initially result predominantly

from the acting forces that hinder vehicle motion. Additionally, there are power
requirements on secondary vehicle systems. These include, among others, and de-
pending on the drive type:
– the oil-and water pumps of the engine,
– support systems for vehicle control, such as power steering,
– heating and climate control systems, and
– the alternator,
where the alternator supplies the required electric energy to ensure proper func-
tioning of all electric components and systems in the vehicle, see Chapter 8.
Table 6.2: Hybrid drive topologies (Ried, Karspeck et al. 2013).
parallel
Performance-
P-2 P-Axle Split Serial Combined
P-DCT Split
Integration EM Connection EM Drive ICE Hybrid EM 1 (motor) Combination

between ICE to transmission and EM on transmission connected to of serial and
and two gears of the different axes with two EM & axle; ICE and parallel
clutches double clutch planetary gears. EM 2 (generator) topology
transmission Variable mechanically
(DCT) transmission linked
(eCVT4)
DCT: Double Clutch Transmission (Gearbox).
eCVT: Continuous Variable Transmission realized through electronic components.
A schematic visualization of energy flows in a typical passenger car powered by

an internal combustion engine is shown in Figure 6.2.
6.2.1 Driving resistance
Driving resistance in its totality is the sum of all forces a vehicle must overcome in
order to obtain and maintain a desired velocity and acceleration on either a flat or
inclined road. The physical interpretation of driving resistances is the forces that
act in the opposite direction of vehicle longitudinal motion. A division of the driv-
ing resistances is given by:
– Rolling resistance,
– frictional forces on the drivetrain,
– air resistance,
– gravitational resistance on inclines, and
– inertial forces.
Resistance forces caused by the air and the tire-road contact as well as friction
forces in the drivetrain convert part of the vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat, most
Audi A3 Sportback e-tron Audi

Antriebsstrang-Hybridkomponenten
Drivetrain-hybrid components
06/13
E-Bremskraftverstärker Hochvolt-Batteriemodul Kraftstofftank
electric brake booster high voltage battery module fuel tank
Leistungselektronik 12V-Batterie
Batteriekühlung
power electronics 12 volt battery
Battery cooling
1.4 TFSI Motor
1.4 TFSI engine
110 kW (150 PS)
250 Nm
Ladeanschluss
charging point
Hochvolt-Leitungen
high voltage
wiring harness
E-Maschine 6-Gang e-S tronic Getriebe

electric motor 6 speed e-S tronic gearbox
75 kW/330 Nm
Figure 6.1: Hybrid-Powertrain © Audi.
Supply Internal combustion Drivetrain Vehicle and wheel

extraction and engine
refinery
Transport and gas
station
Exhaust
Cooling water
and radiation
Water, oil Auxiliary
aggre-
gates Gear
differen-
tial Air resistance
Roll resistance
Rotational
movement
Translational
Well to tank Tank to wheel
movement
Brake
Figure 6.2: Energy flows in a motorized ICE vehicle (schematic illustration) (Sankey Diagram).
of which is released to the surrounding air. When driving on an inclined slope, ki-
netic energy is converted to potential energy, part of which is converted back into
kinetic energy during downhill driving. Inertial resistance results from the accelera-
tion of translational as well as rotational moving parts of the vehicle.
In the following section the driving resistances will be represented by their re-
spective forces; Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Driving resistance forces on the motor vehicle.
Symbol Description
FR Wheel resistance
FS Gravitational resistance (inclines)
FB Inertia
FL Air resistance
The total driving resistance becomes
FW = FR + FS + FB + FL . (6:1)
6.2.2 Wheel resistance
The wheel resistance is composed of forces that result in a torque on the wheels
acting in the direction opposite of vehicle motion.
6.2.2.1 Rolling resistance force

The rolling resistance force results from damping properties of the tires, which causes
a shift in the point of application of the tire-road normal force, placing it outside the
theoretical contact point in the direction of travel; see Chapter 2. On paved roads the
rolling resistance is mostly determined by the loss of work because of deformation
processes of the tire. The most influential factor is the travel amplitude, which de-
pends on the tire deflection, wheel load FN and tire pressure p, as well as on the ve-
hicle’s velocity v dependent travel frequency. To simplify the consideration regarding
rolling resistance, the so-called rolling resistance coefficient fRL is introduced. This
yields the rolling resistance force
FRL = fRL FN . (6:2)
The rolling resistance coefficient is generally not a constant parameter. It depends

on tire size, structure, and materials used, as well as a non-linear relation to the
normal force FN . Other dependencies are current vehicle speed v, tire pressure p
and the road conditions (Table 6.4).
The dependency on tire pressure can be approximated by the relationship:
1
FRL ⁓ pffiffiffi . (6:3)
p
Table 6.4: Values for rolling resistance coefficients of

passenger car tires on different road surfaces.
Road surface Rolling resistance coefficient fRL
Asphalt .–.
Concrete .–.
Cobblestones .–.
Gravel .
6.2.2.2 Surge resistance

In case of water on the road surface, the tires need to force water away to the side
that has accumulated in front of the tire. This creates a surge resistance force FRS ,
which is dependent on the current vehicle speed and the volume of water that is
displaced per unit of time. In turn, the volume to be displaced depends on the tire
width b as well as the water height. The relationship can be described by
FRS ⁓ b · vn , (6:4)
where b is the tire width and n is a coefficient which takes a value of approximately
1.6 when assuming a water height of 0.5 mm (Wallentowitz and Mitschke 2006). In
case the water height and velocity exceed a limit, the surge resistance becomes in-
dependent of water height and velocity resulting in the tires’ ‘float up’, which is
commonly known as aquaplaning.
6.2.2.3 Frictional resistances in bearing and wheel brakes
FRR = fRR FN . (6:5)
6.2.2.4 Toe-in resistance
FRV = fRV FN . (6:6)

6.2.2.5 Cornering resistance

The cornering resistance essentially arises from the tire slip angles, which lead to a
force counteracting vehicle longitudinal motion. It is approximately proportional to the
2
square of the centripetal force during cornering rv (Wallentowitz and Mitschke 2006):
K
2 2
v
FRK = fRK FN . (6:7)
rK
6.2.2.6 Spring resistance

The spring resistance FRF is caused by the deflection of the wheels, as well as
through conversion of kinetic energy into heat through the suspension dampers,
longitudinal slip and changes in the wheels’ circumference, and dynamic axle kine-
matics (Haken 2013).
6.2.2.7 Total wheel resistances

When all the before mentioned components that contribute to the wheels’ resis-
tance are added up it leads to the total wheel resistance
FR = FRL + FRS + FRR + FRV + FRK + FRF . (6:8)
In real life, the rolling resistance is by far the largest contributor and is responsible
for more than 80% of the total wheel resistance forces. Therefore, in further consider-
ations the total wheel resistance is set equal to the rolling resistance (Haken 2013):
FR ≈ FRL = fRL · FN = fRL · mg · cosα ≈ fRL mg. (6:9)
6.2.3 Air resistance (Drag)
The air resistance, also known as drag, is caused by motion of the vehicle resulting in
a displacement of the surrounding air on the one hand, and by naturally occurring
wind conditions on the other. The overall resulting force FL depends quadratically
on the relative velocity between the vehicle and ambient air, the specific density of
air ρL , the cross-sectional area of the vehicle A, and the drag coefficient cW :
ρL
FL = cW A ðv + vW Þ2 . (6:10)
2
The wind velocity vW is highly dependent on weather conditions and is usually far
smaller than the vehicle’s speed. Therefore, it will be neglected from here onwards.
The drag coefficient cW is dependent on the vehicle shape as it determines how air
flows around the vehicle, resulting in frictional and compressive forces. Besides
how air flows around the vehicle, airflow through air intakes and cooling vents also
plays a role (Figure 6.3).
Friction forces
Pressure forces
Figure 6.3: Emergence of air resistance.
6.2.4 Gravitational resistance (inclines)
When driving uphill on an inclined road with inclination angle α, the gravitational
force caused by the vehicle’s weight mg is split into a normal force
FN = m · g · cos α (6:11)
perpendicular to the road surface and a downhill force
FS = m · g · sin α (6:12)
in the opposite direction of vehicle motion (Figure 6.4).

The road inclination is usually not described as an angle, but as a gradient q
per 100 m of horizontal distance:
q
sin α ≈ α ≈ tan α = . (6:13)
100
Figure 6.4: Gravitational resistance.

In eq. (6.13) it is considered that the maximum road inclination, apart from few ex-
ceptions in mountainous terrain, is normally not larger than 10o (corresponding to
a 17.6 % gradient). Therefore, sin α can be approximated by α.
6.2.5 Inertial resistance
During vehicle acceleration not only translational inertia resistance FT = mV €x has to

be overcome, but all rotational inertias of masses located in the drivetrain of the
vehicle need to be included. These rotational masses are (Figure 6.5):
– The resulting moments of inertia of the front and rear wheels together with
their respective brakes JR, v und JR, h ,
– the resulting moment of inertia of the drive shafts and the wheel gears JA , and
– the resulting moment of inertia of the engine JM together with the correspond-
ing gears.
From the calculation of kinetic energy for each individual axle

1
Ekin, i = JR, i ’_ 2i + JA, i ’_ 2A, i + JM, i ’_ 2M, i =
2
0 1
(6:14)
1@
= JR, i + JA, i i2A + JM, i i2A i2G A’_ 2i , i = v, h,
2 |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
Ji
the total moments of inertia for the front and rear axles can be computed as
Ji = JR, i + JA, i i2A + JM, i i2A i2G . (6:15)
Combining this result and NEWTON’s second law, the effect of rotational masses on
the inertial force can be stated as
!
1 X Ji
FB = 1 + mV €x = λmV €x, (6:16)
mV i = v, h rstat, i rdyn, i
where λ is a rotational mass load factor which depends on the gear that is engaged
and on the overall design of the drivetrain. Typical values for λ are in the range of
1.05 . . . 1.5.
6.2.6 The traction force equation
To determine the required driving force for a motorized vehicle an equation regard-
ing impulses on the vehicle body can be used (Figure 6.6):
1 1
, ,ℎ
2 2
. .
. .
, ,
1 1
, ,ℎ
2 2
Figure 6.5: Rotating masses in the drivetrain.
1/2 3/4
,1/2 ,3/4 1/2 3/4

ℎ
Figure 6.6: Free body diagram of a vehicle.
X
4 X
4
mV − mRi €x = − FL − mV g sin α + Xi (6:17)
i=1 i=1
where Xi are the axle forces in longitudinal direction. Accordingly, one obtains the
impulse and rotational equations for a single wheel (Figure 6.7):
mRi €x = − Xi + Fx, i , (6:18)
€x
€ i = Ji
Ji ’ = Mi − rstat, i Fx, i − ei Fz, i
rdyn, i
Ji Mi ei
) €x = − Fx, i − Fz, i (6:19)
rstat, i rdyn, i rstat, i rstat, i
, ̈
, ,
,
Figure 6.7: Free body diagram of a wheel.
where Mi are the wheel driving torques, Fx, i are the wheel forces in Xi direction,
and Fz, i are the wheel normal forces. Furthermore, rstat indicates the static wheel
radius and rdyn the dynamic wheel radius, see Chapter 2.
By combining the eqs. (6.17)–(6.19), the set of impulses for a single wheel can
be written as:
X 4
Ji
mV + €x
r r
i = 1 stat, i dyn, i
(6:20)
X 4
Mi X 4
ei
= − FL − mV g sin α + − Fz, i .
r
i = 1 stat, i
r
i = 1 stat, i
From eq. (6.20) the traction force equation that summarizes the sum of all road re-
sistance forces is obtained by solving the sum of the driving wheel forces in the lon-
gitudinal direction and the rotational load factor λ from eq. (6.16):
X 4
MRi
Fdrive = = FR + FL + FSt + FB =
r
i = 1 stat, i
1
= fr mV g + cW AρL v2 + mV gα + mV λ€x = (6:21)
2

λ€x ρ
= fr + α + mV g + cW A L v2 .
g 2
The force Fdrive describes the resulting driving force on the vehicle to maintain the
current driving condition. This force can either be positive (driving) or negative
(braking). Accordingly, the sum of the required driving or braking power to the
driven wheels can be stated as:
X
4 X 4
MRi rstat, i MR rstat rstat
PA = MRi ’_ Ri = v= v=Z v ≈ Zv
r r r r rdyn
i=1 i = 1 stat, i dyn, i |{z}
stat dyn
Z (6:22)

λ€x ρ
= fr + α + mV gv + cW A L v3 .
g 2
Because no significant wheel slip occurs during normal driving conditions, the
static wheel radius from eq. (6.16) can be considered equal to the dynamic wheel
radius rdyn .
The power PA to the driven wheels is the effective mechanical power to be
applied to the wheels to maintain the desired driving conditions defined by the
driving velocity and current vehicle acceleration €x. At this point it should be
noted that this is not necessarily the full power available from the drive unit
(engine).
Additionally, the power output from the drive unit has to regulate secondary
vehicle systems and must also overcome internal drivetrain resistances in com-
ponents subject to friction such as bearings. This can most suitably be repre-
sented with the efficiency ηA of the drivetrain de-coupled from the engine, see
Section 6.6.1.
From eq. (6.22), it is already possible to make simple statements about the perfor-
mance and drivability of a vehicle. This includes, for example, the maximum achiev-
able speed of a vehicle considering a flat road. This can be estimated if one assumes
that for very high and constant speed, the air resistance dominates the total driving
resistance of the vehicle. Equation (6.22) can then be simplified when α = €x = 0 and
fr 1 to
ρL 3
PA = cW A v . (6:23)
2
In case PA is taken as the maximum available engine power Pmax and all occurring
drivetrain losses are considered using the before mentioned factor ηA , an approxi-
mation of the maximum achievable vehicle speed can be defined using the formula
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 2ηA Pmax
vmax ≈ . (6:24)
cW AρL
In a similar manner, the maximum achievable acceleration can be estimated. A

somewhat standardized measure of vehicle acceleration is the duration to speed the
vehicle from 0 to 100 km/h. This can be approximated when realizing that the driv-
ing energy of the vehicle is essentially converted into kinetic energy. For example,
the kinetic energy required to reach a target velocity of vtarget is
1
Ekintarget = mV v2target . (6:25)
2
The kinetic energy in eq. (6.25) is essentially derived from the average power P R
that the engine is able to provide during acceleration. Therefore, to achieve a veloc-
R ≈ Etarget is required. If one
ity of vtarget in a timespan of ttarget , an average power of P
ttarget
1
R ≈ η Pmax , a rough estimate can be obtained for the time re-
now approximates P
2 A
quired to reach the target speed
1 mV
ttarget ≈ v2target · . (6:26)
2 ηA Pmax
6.2.7 Ideal drive- and output mapping
In case the acceleration is set to zero in eq. (6.22), the result is a progressively increas-
ing driving curve that describes the traction force required to maintain a constant ve-
hicle velocity. Figure 6.8 shows the relation between target speed and traction force
needed, that is, the ideal drive output mapping. Either during acceleration or deceler-
ation using the drivetrain, which is common in downhill driving situations, addi-
tional traction force components are required. For this purpose, two extra lines have
been drawn in Figure 6.8 that are parallel to the stationary driving curve. The shaded
area describes the desired range of the to be provided traction force.
Traction force 󰛧
Max. acceleration/inclination Stationary force w/o inclination
Velocity 󰜈
Figure 6.8: Ideal drive output mapping (Mitschke and Wallentowitz 2014).
In real life however, not all of the shaded area is realizable. It must be taken into
account that the shown available tractive force can usually not be applied in full
while driving off from a standstill due to the tires not having the required amount of
friction. Furthermore, the total transferable driving force is of course limited by the
maximum performance output of the engine. The latter leads to a hyperbolical force
PA
curve due to the relationship Z⁓ between traction force Z and engine power PA .
v
Overall, this results in the area shown in Figure 6.9. A drive unit should therefore be
able to cover this area as much as possible.
Traction force 󰛧 Traction limit

Power limit
Stationary force w/o inclination
Velocity 󰜈
Figure 6.9: Ideal drive mapping taking into account traction-and engine performance (Mitschke and
Wallentowitz 2014).
6.3 Tangential force transfer tire-road contact
Using similar methods that led to the optimum brake force distribution, the drive
force distribution can also be determined. The corresponding distribution can be
combined with the brake force distribution from Chapter 5 to obtain a more general
representation. In this section the general representation will be discussed, and a sin-
gle line corresponding to both cases will be determined. Using NEWTON’s second
law in the direction of travel, one obtains the relationship
€x x, h ,
b= = Fx, v + F (6:27)
g
and, from Chapter 5, the normalized dynamic wheel loads
z, v = lh − h · €x , F
F z, h = lv + h · €x , (6:28)
l l g l l g
including the boundary condition

€x
= μ. (6:29)
g
After some algebraic computations, this yields

2
x, h = l h lh l
F − − F x, v − Fx, v , (6:30)
2h 2h h
6.3 Tangential force transfer tire-road contact 261
2
x, v = − lv +
F
lv
+ F
l
x, h − Fx, h , (6:31)
2h 2h h
Figure 6.11. Interesting in this relationship are the cases for which F x, v · F
x, h > 0,
meaning that the longitudinal forces on both axles have the same sign. It is now
possible to visualize the divisions of tire force on the rear and front axle in one
diagram by evaluating eq. (6.31) for F x, h < 0. Additionally,
x, h < 0 and eq. (6.30) for F
Figure 6.11 shows the graph of the straight-line eq. (6.27), which represents constant
acceleration.
Figure 6.10: Tangential force transmission between tire-road contact surfaces.
– 0.5
Fx,v
0.8 Drive
0.3
0.6 A
0.0
0.4
–0.3
0.2
–0.5
–0.2
–0.8
0.1
–1.0
Brake
–0.6
–1.3 –0.8
B
–1.5
–0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 ̅
Fx,h 2.0
Figure 6.11: Tangential force diagram.

The extreme values A and B are also marked and represent the conditions for which
‘lifting’ of the front axle under acceleration (A,F x, v = 0), and respectively the rear
axle under braking (B, F x, h = 0) occurs. These conditions are generally not seen for
passenger cars in real-life situations, although these conditions can be of impor-
tance when considering motorcycles (Breuer and Bill 2012).
6.4 Power sources
Nearly since the start of the motorized age, the internal combustion engine has
dominated as a power source in motorized vehicles. In the next few years a shift
toward at least partially electrically powered vehicles will take place. For this rea-
son, both power sources as well as hybrid systems will be discussed in the follow-
ing section. In order to not exceed the scope of this book, only the basic topics are
dealt with in brief. For more background literature, the reader is referred to the
works of van Basshuysen and Schäfer (2012) and Todsen (2012) for combustion en-
gines as well as Keichel and Schwedes (2013) for electric drives.
6.4.1 Combustion engines
Since the conception of motorized vehicles, the piston-driven internal combustion en-
gine (ICE) has dominated as the power unit of choice. Although, due to the specifica-
tions and physical constraints related to this engine type, additional components are
required to obtain a useful working engine for use in motorized vehicles. These in-
clude a speed and torque converter, as well as a clutch to enable start-up and gear
changes. Both of these components are found in most manual or automatic variants.
Internal combustion engines belong to the overarching class of combustion engines.
The basic working principle of combustion engines is the conversion of chemical en-
ergy into mechanical energy through the combustion of an air and fuel mixture.
To achieve a controlled combustion a combustion chamber is required, of
which many different designs are possible depending on the desired specifications
of the engine.
The explosion of the air-fuel mixture that occurs during combustion inside the
combustion chamber produces hot pressurized gases, which in turn move the pis-
ton which is located inside the cylinder. Figure 6.12 shows a representation of the
moving parts (crankshaft, crank mechanism, pistons, camshafts, and valves) with-
out the engine housing and other assembly parts.
The engine housing (Figure 6.13) contains the cylinder, in which the piston
moves up and down. Via the connecting rods, the pistons’ translational movement is
converted into rotational motion of the crankshaft. The cylinder head is mounted on
top of the engine housing, or case, and contains the combustion chamber as well as
Camshaft
Piston
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Figure 6.12: Piston engine without housing and auxiliary aggregates.
the inlet and outlet ports and valves. The inlet port is connected to the intake system.
The preparation of the air-fuel mixture takes place either in the carburetor or directly
in the intake manifold/combustion chamber (fuel injection).
The outlet ports lead to the exhaust pipes and the catalyst as well as additional
exhaust aftertreatment systems where toxic components of the exhaust fumes are fil-
tered out. The inlet and outlet valves open and close the connection to the combustion
chamber. The valves are controlled by either a rigid or adjustable camshaft, which ro-
tates at half the crankshaft speed.
Different types of internal combustion engines (such as the WANKEL2 Engine)
have not been able to compete in the open market and will therefore not be consid-
ered further in this book.
One can distinguish internal combustion engines by the way the air-fuel mix-
ture is prepared, injected, and ignited, and thus also by the underlying thermal pro-
cesses that take place. The most commonly seen engine types are the OTTO3 or
Petrol Engine and the DIESEL4 engines. Other engine types that rely on the princi-
ples of a heat power process have also been conceived, such as steam engines or
STIRLING5 engines. However, the heat production does not necessarily need to be
generated by combustion. These engine types as well as continuous combustion en-
gines such as rockets, and gas turbines will not be dealt with in this book.
2 Felix Wankel (1902–1988): German businessman and self-taught mechanical engineer and inven-
tor of the Wankel engine named after him.
3 Nicolaus August Otto (1832–1891): German inventor, who was engaged in the development of en-
gine components. The OTTO cycle was named in his honor.
4 Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913): German Engineer and Inventor of the DIESEL engine.
5 Robert Stirling (1790–1878): Scottish pastor and inventor of the STIRLING engine named after him.
Exhaust camshaft
Intake camshaft
and exhaust valve
and intake valve
Inlet duct Outlet duct
Piston
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Figure 6.13: Cross-section of the cylinder head of a reciprocating engine (schematic

representation).
6.4.1.1 Basic operation

Typical in piston engines is the repetitive nature of the process cycle. See Figure 6.14
for an example of the Petrol Engine:
1. Aspirating the air or mixture (Stroke 1):
When the intake valve is opened, and the outlet valve is closed, the piston
moves downwards, sucking in the air-fuel mixture.
2. Compressing and possibly injecting the fuel (Stroke 2):
Shortly after reaching the bottom dead center (BDC), the inlet valve is closed.
After which the piston starts moving upwards and compresses the mixture.
3. Ignition and power stroke (Stroke 3):
Shortly before reaching the top dead center (TDC), the air-fuel mixture is ig-
nited by a sparkplug (Petrol Engine) or ignites due to the high pressure (DIESEL
Engine). This exerts a force on the top of the piston, which thereby moves
downwards and transmits the force to the connecting rod and generates the
driving torque to the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust (Stroke 4) Opening outlet valve:
Shortly before reaching bottom dead center the outlet valve is again opened. After
reaching the top dead center the outlet, or exhaust valve is closed. In between is
the so-called valve overlap, which allows an increase in the amount of mixture
sucked in. The optimum timings are both speed-, as well as load-dependent and
can be optimized by appropriately adjusting the camshaft.
󰑝
󰑝󰑧
IV OV BDC: bottom dead center Combustion
Pressure Profile
TDC: top bottom dead center Pressure curve without

IV: inlet valve combustion
OV: outlet valve
IO: IV opens Ignition point Ignition delay
󰛾 IC: IV closes
OO: OV opens
OC: OV closes
󰑝󰑧 : maximum pressure IC OO IO
IO OC
󰑝󰑢 󰛾 /°
OC
󰑕EV TDC BDC TDC 󰑕AV BDC TDC

Valve lift
󰛾 /°
Intake Compress Expand Exhaust
0 180 360 540 720
Figure 6.14: Basic working principle of the Petrol Engine.
The detailed characteristics of each individual stroke depend on the design and
construction of the engine. Much progress has been made in this field in recent
years (Reiff 2016).
6.4.1.2 Combustion processes

The most important combustion processes occurring in piston engines can funda-
mentally be described by the SEILIGER6 process. This can be understood as an ide-
alized thermodynamic comparison process. It describes the work done by the
piston engine under ideal conditions, during which the assumption is made that an
ideal gas with constant specific heat is used as working medium and no flow losses
occur during the gas exchange.
When applied to the DIESEL engine – the SEILIGER process includes the follow-
ing idealized process steps; Figure 6.15:
– 1–2: Isotropic compression. The gas in the cylinder is isotropically compressed
without the occurrence of heat exchanging with the environment.
6 Miron Pavlovich Seiliger (1874–1952): Russian physicist and university lecturer.

– 2–3: Isochoric7 heat supply. The mixture is ignited and combusts under con-
stant volume (isochoric) and increasing pressure.
– 3–4: Isobaric8 heat supply. Additional heat supply happens under constant
pressure (isobaric), as the piston moves downwards and volume increases.
– 4–5: Isotropic Expansion. The piston continues to move downwards without
further heat supply, whereby the pressure decreases as the volume increases.
– 5–1: Isochoric heat removal. The unused residual heat created during the gas
exchange is removed. This process takes place arbitrarily fast at a constant vol-
ume, after which the next cycle begins.
Pressure / Pa
3= 4 3 4
2
2
5 5
1 1
2= 3 4 1
3
Specific volume / ( )
Figure 6.15: p − V Diagram of the SEILIGER cyclic process.
The most important occurrences that happen during this process are the constant
volume processes and constant pressure processes. The isochoric process describes,
in a strongly idealized manner, the combustion process in the Petrol Engine,
whereas the isobaric process fundamentally depicts the processes that occur in the
DIESEL engine. Both processes are shown according to their respective p − V dia-
gram in Figure 6.16.
The realistic process for a Four-stroke petrol engine is schematically shown
in Figure 6.17. The area enclosed below the upper curve corresponds to the work
done by the pistons. The area enclosed by the lower curve corresponds to the
7 Isochoric: State change at constant volume.

8 Isobaric: State change at constant pressure.
Pressure / Pa Pressure / Pa
3 = 2 3
3 2 3
2
2
4 4 4
4
1
2 = 3 4 = 1 4 = 1
Specific volume Specific volume
Figure 6.16: p − V Diagram of the SEILIGER processes for OTTO (left) and DIESEL combustion (right).
3
p
Combustion
2 Expansion
Ignition
Compression 4 Gas exchange

5
0 1
Vc VH V
UDC LDC
Piston travel
Figure 6.17: Real combustion process (Four-stroke petrol process).
losses due to gas movement, for example, the work required for the necessary
replacement of the mixture.
One of the most widespread combustion processes is the Four-stroke petrol pro-
cess, which is characterized by the following process steps (Figure 6.18):
– 0→1: Suction of fuel-air mixture (1st stroke)
– 1→2: Compression of the mixture (2nd stroke)
– 2→3: Igniting the mixture (≈ isochoric heat supply)
– 3→4: Expansion (3rd stroke)
– 4→5: Exhaust ≈ isochoric pressure reduction
– 5→0: Removing the exhaust gases (4th stroke)
1. Cycle
EV AV p p
V V
Stroke 1: Intake 2. Cycle Stroke 2: Compress
p p
V V
Stroke 3: Ignite and work Stroke 4: Exhaust
Figure 6.18: Working process of a Four-Stroke Petrol Engine.
The implementation of the combustion process can be differentiated according

to the time sequence of the individual strokes. There are both Two stroke and Four
stroke combustion processes:
– In a Four-stroke process, the before mentioned strokes are carried out in 4 cycles.
A stroke can therefore be defined as either an upward or downward motion of the
piston. This means that during each cycle, the crankshaft rotates twice ði = 0.5Þ.
– In a Two-stroke process, all four steps are carried out in only two movements of
the piston. This means a part of the process step decompression must take place
outside the cylinder. The crankshaft will rotate once during each cycle. (i=1).
6.4.1.3 Comparison between Petrol- and DIESEL engines

Some characteristics for the Petrol and DIESEL engines are shown in Table 6.5. Other
fundamental differences between the Petrol and DIESEL engines are stated below:
– DIESEL engines generally deliver higher maximum torque levels compared to
petrol engines. Although in modern Petrol engines this difference is often re-
duced due to the addition of turbochargers.
– The specific fuel consumption be (see eq. (6.53)) is usually considerably higher
for petrol engines than for DIESEL engines. This is especially true during low
rpms and during idling.
– The rpms the engine makes are considerably higher for Petrol engines than for
DIESEL engines.
Table 6.5: Comparison Petrol and DIESEL engine.
Properties Petrol engine DIESEL engine
Mixture formation External and internal (direct Internal mixture formation

injection) mixture formation
Ignition Spark plug Self-ignition
Air-fuel ratio / Compression :–: / – bar :–: / – bar
Temperature during – °C – °C

compression
Thermal comparison process Constant volume Constant pressure
6.4.1.4 Determination and assessment of engine power and efficiency

Determining the performance of the engine and all the additional components is
usually done according to standardized conditions, which have been defined in the
industry standard (DIN 1997). Measuring of performance numbers must take place
under strictly specified environmental conditions:
– Environmental temperature TU = 298 K,
– Environmental air pressure pU = 990 mbar.
The power rating delivered to the crankshaft PM is computed by using the rotational
torque MM and the angular velocity ωM of the crankshaft
PM = MM ωM = 2πMM nM . (6:32)
The total cylinder volume VH is used to describe engine size

π 2
VH = nZ D hZ . (6:33)
4 Z
In eq. (6.33), nZ indicates the number of cylinders, DZ denotes their individual di-
ameter, and hZ is the piston stroke. To enable accurate comparisons of different en-
gines, the specific parameters of the engine are related to its displacement. This
yields the specific engine performance
PM
PMe = . (6:34)
VH
With the so-called effective mean pressure peff , which is a proportionality constant,
and the total engine volume VH of the engine the total engine performance results in
PM = i nM peff VH . (6:35)
The maximum performance Pmax of the engine is referred to as rated power and the
corresponding revolutions per minute nmax is known as the rated rpm.9
The performance calculated by eq. (6.32) clearly has a direct relationship to the
cylinder size of the engine. Therefore, this engine characteristic is often used to
compare differently sized engines.
One measure of work delivered by the engine is the before mentioned mean
pressure, which is defined as the (assumed) constant pressure inside the combus-
tion chamber. It performs the same work as the actual combustion chamber pres-
sure, which varies in time.
When considering the torque applied to the clutch, the effective mean pressure
is used. It can be calculated as follows:
PM 2π MM
peff = = · . (6:36)
iVH nM i Vh
To determine the efficiency of the internal combustion engine the efficiency of the
engine itself is used:
PM
ηM = , (6:37)
PE
where PM is the mechanical net power delivered by the engine and PE is the energy
per time unit extracted from the fuel. The achievable efficiency depends on the tem-
perature at which combustion takes place and thus also on the compression ratio.
The total effective engine efficiency ηM is comprised of multiple other efficiency
factors:
ηM = ηth ηg ηb ηm , (6:38)
where ηth is the thermal efficiency of the SEILIGER process, ηg is the quality grade,
ηb is the loss of efficiency due to imperfect combustion and ηm describes the me-
chanical losses.
Due to the thermal efficiency (process efficiency) ηth , the heat losses that occur
in the ideal process are already considered. Therefore, it holds that
Qin − Qout Qout

ηth = =1− , (6:39)
Qin Qin
during the combustion 2 ! 3 amount of heat is supplied
Qin = m cV ðT3 − T2 Þ (6:40)
9 Not to be confused with the maximum engine rpm.

and during the gas extraction 4 ! 1 removed amount of heat
Qout = m cV ðT1 − T4 Þ. (6:41)
In (6.40) and (6.41) the specific heat capacity is indicated with cV . With (6.40) and
(6.41) inserted into (6.39) one obtains
T1 − T4
ηth = 1 + . (6:42)
T3 − T2
Here the assumption is made that the cylinder pressures are not too large, and the
ideal gas law is still in effect. Since the state changes 2 ! 3 and 4 ! 1 are isochoric,
the specific volume is
V2 = V3 and V4 = V1 . (6:43)
For the isentropic state changes 1 ! 2 and 3 ! 4 it holds

κ − 1 κ − 1 κ − 1
V3 V2 T1 V4 T3
= = and = . (6:44)
V4 V1 T2 V3 T4
With the isentropic coefficient κ from (6.44) this yields
T4 T3
= (6:45)
T1 T2
and therefore,
0 1
T4
T4 − T1 T1 @ T1 − 1A T1
ηth = 1 − =1− =1− . (6:46)
T3 − T2 T2 T3 − 1 T2
T 2
With (6.44) this results in

κ − 1
V2 1
ηth = 1 − = 1 − κ−1 , (6:47)
V1 ε
using the compression ratio
V1 VH + VC
ε= = , (6:48)
V2 VC
with the stroke volume VH and the compressed volume VC in the top dead center po-
sition of the piston (Figure 6.17). It can therefore be said that the efficiency of the
Petrol Engine processes increases with increasing compression ratio ε. On the one
hand, the increase in ε places greater demands on the mechanics of the engine and
on the other hand, it is limited by the flammability of the fuel itself. Besides its impor-
tance on fuel economy, the compression ratio has a significant impact on
– the torque delivered,

– the pollution and noise emission behavior of the engine, and
– other parameters that may influence use of the power source, such as cold start
behavior and general drivability.
During the constant pressure process which is used as the ideal comparison process
for the DIESEL engine, the following relationship is given instead of the one shown
in eq. (6.47), see Todsen (2012) or Labuhn and Romberg (2009):
1 ’κ − 1
ηth = 1 − · , (6:49)
εκ − 1 κð’ − 1Þ
with the strain ratio
V3
’= . (6:50)
V2
Again, it is immediately apparent that an increase in the compression ratio in-

creases the efficiency. However, in these considerations the strain ratio ’ is now
included. The efficiency of the constant pressure process increases with increased
compression and decreases with increasing injection ratio. A high compression
ratio is also favorable in this case. Additionally, the smallest possible injection ratio
will lead to the fastest combustion. The quality grade ηg of the process describes
the power delivered in the real thermal process with respect to the theoretical
power delivery determined by the SEILIGER process.
Reasons behind the deviations between the two methods are the results from
the workings of a real gas, its finite speed of heat supply and discharge, heat losses
through the walls and flow losses during the charge cycles. The fuel conversion effi-
ciency ηb describes the power losses due to incomplete combustion of the fuel.
The mechanical efficiency ηm summarizes the mechanical losses of the engine
and the additionally required components for operating the engine (oil and coolant
pump, valve train, injection pump, and the friction of the bearings and piston rings).
The efficiencies ηth , ηg , ηb are added and combined to form the efficiency ηi ,
which indicates the ratio of power delivered by the pistons Pi and the calorific
value of the fuel used. Therefore, for the delivered engine power this yields
PM = ηm Pi = ηm ηi PE . (6:51)
The connecting rods convert the translational movement of the pistons into a rota-
tional motion of the crankshaft. The torque MM delivered by the engine can be con-
sidered to be generated by a mean pressure pe in the cylinder, which is assumed to
be constant during a power stroke
2π MM MM
peff = · = 4π · . (6:52)
i VH VH
The mean pressures reached in DIESEL Engines are usually found between 8 and
32 bar, compared to 7 to 13 bar for naturally aspirated Petrol Engines and up to
29 bar for turbocharged engines.
Since the energy content is specific to the fuel type used, they must be related
to either their mass or volume. The so-called calorific value Hi is a parameter that is
used in this case and describes the usable heat released during complete combus-
tion of the respective fuel. It is shown for different types of fuel in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Indicative values of the calorific value Hi for different fuel types.
kWh
Fuel type Calorific value Hi kWh Calorific value Hi l
kg
Petrol .–. .
DIESEL . .
LPG .
CNG .
LiOn Batterya .–. .–.

a
Correspond to the specific energy and energy density of the battery.
The efficiency of an internal combustion engine is not a constant. Rather, it de-

pends heavily on the operating state of the engine, which is characterized by the
current speed at the crankshaft nM and the engine’s torque delivery MM . Every load
condition ðnM , MM Þ is coupled to a specific fuel consumption
_K
m
be = . (6:53)
PM
If this specific consumption be is plotted over the engine’s rpm range nM and the
torque MM , one obtains the consumption map of the specific engine.
This map is also referred to as a shell map diagram due to its characteristic
shape (Figure 6.19).
From this consumption map it is possible to extract the specific consumption be
for each possible combination of rpm nM and torque MM , and therefore also the cor-
responding power delivered PM = 2π nM MM . The map is limited by the maximum
achievable engine rpm range on the one hand and by the maximum torque curve
on the other hand, which is also referred to as the full load curve (Figure 6.20).
There exists a relationship between the specific consumption and the engine’s
efficiency
Full load curve Optimum (sweet spot)
pe MM
~
bar Nm
225 g
be /( )
kWh
230
240
250
270
290
325
350
400
430
450
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500
60 nM
Min
Figure 6.19: Example of the consumption map for a combustion engine.
Max. engine torque

Full load curve
Max. power
Mean effective Optimal
pressure, effective efficiency
engine torque
Engine torque at
Torque course max. speed
on flat road
Engine torque at
idle speed
rpm
Idle speed Max. rpm
Figure 6.20: Characteristics of engine parameters (Schreiner 2011).
PM PM 1
ηM = = = . (6:54)
_ K Hi be
PE Hi m
6.4.2 Electric traction drives
There is a large number of electric drive types available for used in motorized ve-
hicles, each of which has its own specific advantages and disadvantages (Reif,
Noreikat et al. 2012).
The advantages of an electric drive are briefly summarized:

– Their energy efficiency can exceed 90%, which is far superior to even the most
efficient combustion engines, which struggle to reach 40% at best.
– Electrically powered vehicles offer the possibility to drive emission free (at
least locally). They are therefore classified as Zero-Emission Vehicles (ZEV) by
the California Air Resources Board (CARB), which plays a pioneering role in the
regulating emissions.
– They offer the possibility of energy recuperation, meaning that they can con-
vert kinetic energy back into electric energy during braking. Afterwards it is
available again to drive the vehicle.
– They have extremely low noise emissions compared to combustion engine
driven vehicles. This holds mainly for low speed driving as at higher speed the
other noises will start to dominate.
– They allow for a simpler design of the electric drivetrain and are often easier to
control. This enables the implementation of novel and advantageous vehicle
designs (purpose design, see Section 6.4.5).
– The large possible rpm range combined with high torque levels even at lower
rpms. In general, a multistage transmission can be discarded of.
– A whole range of components, such as the fuel tank, exhaust gas catalyst, oil,
fuel, and water pumps as well as the starter motor are eliminated. Some other
components, like the brakes, are under lower stresses.
However, these advantages are partly offset by considerable disadvantages, such as

the high cost of the batteries needed to store the energy required for the drive unit
and the resulting short range.
For automotive requirements, for example, the hybrid synchronous motor is an
attractive solution. This is especially true when a small battery already suffices to
achieve a high level of electrical coverage (Ried 2014).
6.4.2.1 Type, structure, and functionality

Contrastingly to the internal combustion engine, in an electric traction motor the
energy flow direction works both ways with equally high efficiency, making it suit-
able as both a drive unit and a generator that produces electrical energy. It can
therefore be used to accelerate as well as decelerate the vehicle (Reif, Noreikat et al.
2012). During acceleration, the electrical machine converts most of its electrical en-
ergy into mechanical energy. In the case of deceleration, conversely, mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy which can be stored in the battery pack
(Figure 6.21). This process is known as recuperation.
Electric motors can be run in an overload operation for a limited period of time.
The limitation of this operating state results from the respective thermal load capacity
and the available cooling. This characteristic of an electric motor must be considered
Inter-
mediate Drive
shaft
Energy Circuit Power
storage electronics E-motor
Control
pulses Current flow
RPM
Rotation angle
Intended signals
Regulation
control
Signal
ENERGY
Figure 6.21: Fundamental structure of an electric motor in an electrically driven vehicle, according
to Reif, Noreikat et al. 2012.
when specifying the power output during the design phase. Unlike internal combus-
tion engines, the maximum power is only available for a limited amount of time. To
allow longer overload operation, most electric motors used in electrically driven ve-
hicles are liquid-cooled (Wallentowitz and Freialdenhoven 2011).
When comparing the automotive industry to other branches of industry, a con-
siderable amount of additional demands exist regarding reliability, robustness, di-
mensioning, weight, cooling and last but not least, noise emissions (El Khawly and
Schramm 2010, El Khawly 2013). In electrically driven vehicles, three-phase motors
are almost exclusively used, as they offer advantages in terms of efficiency and per-
formance compared to DC motors (Leidhold 2012). Three-phase motors can be
divided into the following classes based on their structure and torque generation
(Figure 6.22):
– Hybrid-excited synchronous machines (HSM),
– permanently excited synchronous machines (PSM),
– current-excited synchronous machines (SSM),
– asynchronized or induction machines (ASM).
Hybrid-excited synchronous machines fundamentally use the same working prin-

ciples as permanent-magnet synchronous machines, but additionally utilize reluc-
tance effect in order to generate torque. The reluctance describes the alignment of
a magnetizable body within a magnetic field. Therefore, the magnets are “buried”
in the rotor of the hybrid-excited synchronous machine instead of being located
on the surface as is the case in permanent-magnet synchronous machines. In
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 6.22: Essential types of E-machines and cross sections of the rotors as schematic
representation: a) HSM, b) PSM, c) SSM, d) ASM (Jung and Hofer 2011, Ried 2014).
permanent-magnet synchronous machines the circulating magnetic field is gener-

ated by controlling the stator windings accordingly. On the surface of the rotors
permanent magnets are placed. Due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of
stator and rotor, the rotor rotates synchronously to the rotating magnetic field
generated by the stator. The torque is generated by the so-called LORENTZ10 force
generated by the current-carrying conductor and the magnetic field. When gener-
ating electricity on the other hand, the current is induced in the coils of the stator
through the rotation of the rotor. Asynchronous or induction machines generate a
circulating magnetic field due to the (ideally) sinusoidal energization of the stator
windings. The rotor is designed as a cage-rotor, whose electrodes are connected
via short-circuit rings. Due to the different rotational speeds of the rotating field
and rotor (due to slip), a voltage is induced in the rotor. On the current-carrying
conductor in the rotor’s magnetic field acts the LORENTZ force, which generates
the desired torque. The working principles of current-excited synchronous ma-
chines and permanent-magnet synchronous machines are very similar, but in the
former the field is generated in the rotor windings instead of using a permanent
magnet.
These are supplied with direct current, with which the magnetic field is created.
Due to the interaction with the magnetic field inside the stator windings, the torque
is generated through the LORENTZ force as well as the reluctance effect.
6.4.2.2 Characteristics
The permanent-magnet synchronous machine is often used as the electric drive sys-
tem in electrically driven vehicles. A general advantage of synchronous machines
compared to asynchronous machines is their higher power density resulting in
10 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928): Dutch mathematician and physicist.

more compact design possibilities. The permanently available torque per rotor vol-
ume of synchronous machines can reach approximately 40 − 50 Nm=l, which is al-
most twice as high as is the case for asynchronous machines. A major disadvantage
of E-machines with permanent magnets is the high material costs caused by the use
of the magnets. In a hybrid-excited synchronous machine it is possible to signifi-
cantly reduce the magnet mass required to deliver a certain amount of power,
whereas in asynchronous- or current-excited machines magnets are completely dis-
pensed with. In terms of efficiency, the hybrid- and current excited synchronous
machines achieve highest values in the range of slightly over 90% on average.
Contrastingly, the permanent-magnet excited synchronous machine reaches just
short of 90% and the asynchronous working principle achieves around 85% effi-
ciency (Jung and Hofer 2011).
The manufacturing process of synchronous machines is more complex compared
to that of an asynchronous machine, due to the magnets or windings that have to be
installed in the rotor. What all electric motors have in common, however, is that their
efficiency is significantly higher than that of internal combustion engines. This is
clearly visible in the consumption curve (Figure 6.23). In addition, the specific con-
sumption is much less dependent on the engine speed and torque desired by the
driver.
Engine torque / (Nm)
250
76 %
200 80 %
150 86 %
90 %
100
50
0 70 %
–50
–100
90 %
–150 86 %
–200 80 %
76 %
–250
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Rotation speed /( U )
Min
Figure 6.23: Typical consumption curve for an asynchronous machine (exemplary representation).
6.4.2.3 Prospects
Research is currently being conducted on transversal flux machines that deliver higher
torque density and efficiencies surpassing 95% (Blissenbach 2002). Contrastingly to the
above-mentioned types of electric motors, these machines have windings mounted on
the rim of the rotor, thus concentrically arranged with respect to the shaft. As a result,
the winding head can be removed as it does not contribute to the torque generation.
6.4.3 Power electronics
Besides the HV-storage and the E-machine, the power electronics can be regarded as
the third main components of the entire E-system. These performance electrics partly
consist of the inverter and DC/DC converter. For use in BEVs and PHEVs, IGBTs
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) are widely used as semiconductor circuits.
6.4.3.1 Type, structure, and functionality

The inverter’s task is to control the current and voltages over variable amplitudes
and frequencies between the HV-storage and E-machine (Cebulski 2011). During op-
eration, the DC voltage from the HV-storage is inverted into AC voltage which can
then be used to operate the electric motor. When energy is being led back to the
HV-storage during energy recuperation, the inverter converts the AC voltage in-
duced in the electric motor into DC voltage which can be contained in the HV-
storage pack. The HV-battery is then being charged. The voltage inside the HV trac-
tion system can range up to 1000 V for electric and hybrid vehicles. To still operate
the standard 12/14 V components in the vehicle such as lighting, entertainment sys-
tems etc. (as also used for any other automotive power net) the voltage level has to
be converted to that lower level. DC/DC converters have to be used to link the HV
system to the LV system (12/14 V). The DC/DC converters transfer electric energy
either way but are generally used to provide electric energy for the low voltage sys-
tems (see also Chapter 8). (Reif 2010, Lindemann 2012).
The core elements of the inverter are controlled semiconductor switches, linked
together into a power module. In current hybrid and electric vehicles, a B6 bridge
circuit is commonly used as the preferred switch topology. These consist of six circuit
breakers arranged in three-bridge circuits (Figure 6.24). Due to the voltage levels and
the high switching frequencies, silicon semiconductor IGBTs are typically used in
PHEVs. During pulse modulation, the switches are controlled in such a way that a
three-phase AC voltage is generated from DC voltage. To smoothen out the voltage a
film capacitor is usually added. Due to the voltage and capacitance, the film ca-
pacitor, together with the semiconductor switches, determines the essential char-
acteristics of the entire inverter. In addition, a sufficiently strong cooling system
is required to dissipate the heat that is generated during the current-switching
S1 S3 S5
uz
S2 S4 S6
uL12 uL23
uL31
iL1 iL2 iL3
M
3~
Figure 6.24: Power electronics of the BMW ActiveE (Jung and Hofer 2011), and a diagram of a
three-phase bridge circuit with six semiconductor switches (Lindemann 2012).
process. Additional components include control electronics, housings, connec-

tors, sensor, and small miscellaneous parts (Cebulski 2011).
The DC/DC converter consists of electronic performance parts that have been
combined into an electrical circuit. To determine the exact design and topology of
these switches, the amplitudes and quality of the input and output voltages and
current are of crucial importance (Cebulski 2011). The integration of the DC/DC con-
verter takes place in a separate housing or is located in the housing of other elec-
tronics such as the inverter (Spath, Rothfuss et al. 2011).
6.4.3.2 Characteristics
In hybrid and electric vehicles, IGBTs with blocking voltages of 600 V or 1,200 V are
used (Lindemann 2012). Modern converters are highly suitable with efficiencies of over
95 % and a relatively large operating range. This allows for optimal utilization of the
electric motor in terms of dynamics, torque, and speed. In addition to the costs, of sig-
nificant importance in performance electronics are their required installation space
and their weight. Both properties are also influenced by the required component
cooling.
6.4.3.3 Prospects
The development goal of performance electronics used in electric drive vehicles is a
more compact, lighter construction with lowered costs. A possible approach is to
integrate the inverter on or into the E-machine itself. In addition, the durability of
the semiconductor switches is being investigated as the high temperatures and con-
siderable temperature swings lead to high loads, which has a negative effect on the
lifespan of the components. Furthermore, new manufacturing methods and materi-
als, such as silicon carbide (SiC) are being studied (Cebulski 2011).
6.4.4 Hybrid drives
Hybrid drives are usually defined as drive systems that combine a combustion en-
gine and an electric motor. However, there have been, and still are, sporadic at-
tempts to go beyond this confined definition.
6.4.4.1 Topology
Combined internal combustion engine and electric drive hybrid vehicles can be
classified according to two schemes. These are based on the drive topology on the
one hand, and the degree of hybridization of the system on the other hand.
Regarding the topology, three main types can be identified:
– In parallel hybrid drives, both types of drive units output their power directly
onto the same drive shaft. Or in case of hybrid road-mounted drives, indirectly
through the road surface as connecting element. This can be done either simulta-
neously or individually (Figure 6.25). The advantage of a parallel hybrid is the
simple integration of this principle into existing vehicle structures.
– In series hybrid drives, the wheels are driven solely by the electric motor(s). The
internal combustion engine is used as generator to recharge the electrical storage
pack and/or to supply the electric motor with electricity (Figure 6.26).
– Power split hybrid powertrains typically combine the power of the combustion
engine and electric motors via a mechanical gear box that combines both in-
puts (Figure 6.27).
In reality, combinations of the above-mentioned drive topologies are seen as well.
Power Power
electronics Battery electronics Battery
+ – + –
Combustion engine
Combustion engine
Differential gear
Differential gear
E-motor
M
M
Gear transmission
E-motor
Differential gear
Fuel tank Fuel tank
Figure 6.25: Parallel hybrid drives.
6.4.4.2 Degree of hybridization

Another way of categorizing hybrid powertrains relates to the characteristics
of their electrification (Table 6.7). A distinction is made between the following
concepts.
Power
electronics Battery
+ –
Combustion engine
Differential gear
Alternator E-Motor
M
Fuel tank
Figure 6.26: Series hybrid drive.
Power
electronics
Battery
+ –
Combustion engine
E-generator
M
Differential gear
M
Planetary E-Motor
drive
Fuel tank
Figure 6.27: Power-split hybrid drive.
Table 6.7: Drive concepts sorted to increasing degree of electrification, from the ICEV to the BEV as
well as exemplary functions and properties (Ried 2014).
ICEV HEV PHEV REX BEV
Conv Micro Mild Full Plugin Range E-veh

Veh. hybrid hybrid hybrid hybrid Extender
E-power – <  kW <  kW <  kW <  kW > kW > kW
Emission-free – – – <  km <  km > km > km

driving
CO-advantage Reference % % –% –% –% %

(NEDC)
 V socket – – – – Yes Yes Yes

required
Range >  km Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Concept- –

dependent
– ICEV: Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle – Internal combustion engine driven

vehicle with partially electrified drive
– HEV: Hybrid Electric Vehicle
– PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
– REX: Electric Vehicle with Range Extender
– BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle
It should be noted that in the case of most powertrain structures possible today,
one or more energy conversions are required. An overview of the energy chain of
operation in a hybrid vehicle is shown in Figure 6.28.
Fuel tank Combustion engine Converter Torque

output
C
C→W→M
M↔M
M↔M
Traction Power E-motor
battery electronics
ICS E↔M
EC ↔ E
Symbols Form of energy
Charging C Chemic
unit EC Electro-chemic
W Thermic
E Electric
M Mechanic
Figure 6.28: Scheme of an internal combustion engine – electric hybrid drive with energy
conversion.
6.4.4.3 Operating strategies

Hybrid drive trains add additional degrees of freedom due to the availability of the
electric drive unit, which leads to a variety of operating strategies:
– The different drive systems can be used in a coordinated manner. Meaning that
under certain circumstances, the use of the internal combustion engine is
completely dispensed in order to allow for local emission-free driving.
– It creates the possibility to decrease the considerable disadvantages of the in-
ternal combustion engine in certain unfavorable operating conditions, for ex-
ample, in the partial load and during stop-and-go traffic situations.
– Due to the reduced requirements on the dynamics of the internal combustion

engine as a part of a hybrid system, the internal combustion engine can be op-
erated with alternative thermal processes, which have been prohibited for use
in purely combustion driven vehicles for emission/efficiency reasons. The
MILLER Cycle11 process (which is based on the ATKINSON12 principle), during
which the inlet valve is already closed during the intake stroke, can be utilized
again (van Basshuysen and Schäfer 2012). This principle is, for example, used
in the Toyota Prius along with other Toyota models, as well as in the Mercedes
S400 hybrid and Ford C-Max Energi. The principle is realized using a variable
valve timing (Reiff 2016).
The choice of the optimal operating point and the implementation in the overall
operating strategy directly influence important properties of the vehicle, such as
fuel consumption, response behavior, emissions, service life, and the acceptance
of the vehicle by potential customers. For this purpose, a comprehensive operat-
ing strategy is required with which the energy flows in the vehicle is organized
optimally. The operating strategy of a hybrid vehicle involves the timing and con-
trol of operating points of the subsystems and of each individual component. It
defines the operating states of the powertrain based on the planned route which
significantly influences energy consumption and emission behavior of the vehicle.
Along with the thermal and electrical management, it is a considerable part of the
overall vehicle management program. The operating strategies are composed of
different modes, which have been illustrated in Figure 6.29, based on the example
of a Mercedes Benz E-class.
The operating strategies can be assigned to multiple categories, which have a
significant effect on the driving behavior of the vehicle. If a method-oriented differ-
entiation is used, optimization and rule-based strategies can be identified.
6.4.4.4 Optimization-based operating strategies

In these strategies, control of the components is based on the optimization of a
target function, which is a result of individual driving requirements (Figure 6.30).
The target function normally includes fuel and energy consumption, as well as
pollutant emission targets. However, other target variables such as acceleration
capacity and drivability can also be included. In addition, boundary conditions
are implemented which arise mostly from the vehicle’s performance limits, as
well as from regulatory requirements.
11 Ralph Miller: American Engineer, inventor of the MILLER cycle.

12 James Atkinson (1846–1914): American Engineer, inventor of the ATKINSON cycle.
Hybrid E-mode E-save Charge
→ Electric operation or driving with → Pure electirc operation → The current charge status is → The HV battery is charged via
the combustion engine is possible → Metering of electirc output via maintained the combustion engine
→ Automatic selection of drive type the haptic accelerator pedal → Limited electric operation is → Electric operation is not
(variable pressure point) possible possible
→ Optimum use of combustion → Maximum availability of electric → Preservation of the HV battery → Charging of the HV battery
engine and electric motor motoring capacity for future electric for future electric motoring
motoring
Figure 6.29: Operating modes of a hybrid drive © Daimler AG.

6.4 Power sources
285
Targets Constraints Actions

Power consumption Performance limits of Driving mode
– Fuel components – Electrical
– Electrical power – IC engine
Legal requirements Size energy storage Recuperation

– General – Brake
Time horizon
– Local – Sailing
– Currently
Emissions
– Long time Boost with EM
– Global
– Local Lack of information
Load point selection
– Drive history for ICV
General OS
– Traffic situation
– Residual charge of – Increase
energy storage Driver’s request – Lowering
– Travel time
minimization Computational cost
– Efficiency
OPTIMIZATION
Vehicle-based Cross-vehicle Cloud-based
DRIVE
Figure 6.30: Optimization-based operating strategies for hybrid drives.
6.4.4.5 Rule-based operating strategies

Rule-based operating strategies rely on a set of pre-defined rules, which in turn de-
termine characteristic parameters during driving. The rules are usually realized via
mapping, as is the case for the internal combustion engine. The input consists of a
large variety of parameters that are constantly being measured by sensors, or that
have been ordered through driver control. Another embodiment is state machines
in which the response to an object in a particular state determines further action.
For a more in-depth consideration of similar operating strategies the reader is re-
ferred to (Görke 2016).
An example of a rule-based operating strategy for the 2016 E-Class is shown
in Figure 6.31.
100 50 70 30
Without
Route guidance
Reduction of charge status Partial electric urban motoring Charge status passive Limited electric motoring possible
With
Route guidance
Navigation + “Hybrid” + “E+” Preparation of charge status Electric urban motoring Preparation of charge status Electric motoring to destination
Figure 6.31: Mercedes-Benz “Intelligent drive-management” route-based operating strategy © Daimler AG.
6.4 Power sources
287
6.4.5 Implementing powertrains in the vehicle
To give shape to concept designs for electrical vehicles two different developmental
approaches can be utilized. In Conversion Design, a vehicle that was originally de-
veloped with an IC engine is converted to an electric drive vehicle, while the Purpose
Design approach requires designing a completely new vehicle during which all new
possibilities can be exploited.
6.4.5.1 Conversion design

For automotive manufactures, transforming existing vehicles into an electric vehi-
cle (Conversion Design) is a cost-effective and low-risk way to market an electric
drive variant due to the significant synergy during development, design, and pro-
duction. Another important factor is that current investments in existing production
facilities remain useful. The vehicle’s structure and essential dimensions, as well as
the body, remains unchanged even though the vehicle was originally designed to
house an internal combustion engine-driven powertrain. However, during integra-
tion of additional components, design spaces are often limited as these added fea-
tures had not been considered in the original design. Nonetheless, developing
electric vehicles using the Conversion Design approach is still a widespread practice
in the current transitional phase.
6.4.5.2 Purpose design

The development based on “Purpose Design” relies on the notion of completely re-
designing a vehicle to house an electric drive and thus being able to implement all
new features from the start, see as an example Figure 6.32. This method, however,
requires much more effort than the “Conversion Design” approach.
This means that the business-risk associated with a non-optimal product mar-
ket placement can be significant, although these vehicles are often trademarked by
a high-quality integration of the electric components into a tailor-made vehicle con-
struction. Especially the space required to fit the battery cells and modules can be
allocated optimally.
6.5 Transmissions and shafts
6.5.1 Gears
Transmissions are vehicle components which convert mechanical energy of a drive

unit from one operating point ðωM , MM Þ to a different, more suitable operating point
ðωA , MA Þ. For internal combustion engines, transmissions are indispensable for two
reasons. First of which is because torque delivered by a combustion engine is only
6.5 Transmissions and shafts 289
Figure 6.32: Example of packaging in Electric Vehicle (Purpose Design) for a BMW i3, © BMW AG.
available from a certain minimum speed and secondly, it is not possible to cover the
desired speed range of a vehicle with the speed range of an internal combustion en-
gine, see Section 6.2.7. Rather, it is necessary to adjust the speed and torque the engine
delivers depending on the driving conditions (Figures 6.33 and 6.34). This is done by a
specially designed gear that provides the required mechanical translation ratio.
In the following, ω refers to the rotational velocity and M refers to the corre-
sponding torque. For the relationship between these parameters on the engine-side
(before the transmission) and on the drive-side (after the transmission), the follow-
ing applies with the gear ratio iG :
1
ωA = ωM , MA = iG MM . (6:55)
iG
In internal combustion engines, a device must be present that allows the temporary
disengagement of the drive unit and drivetrain. In the case of vehicles with a man-
ual gear box, a clutch is generally used and in the case of vehicles with an auto-
matic gear box, hydraulic torque converters are used.
An example of a currently used automatic gear box is shown in Figure 6.35. As
the gear box is installed in a vehicle with hybrid drive, an electric motor including
clutch is additionally added. In this case, the electric drive is linked to the regular
transmission.
Traction hyperbola
20,000
N
Traction force /
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000 1
8,000
6,000
2
4,000 3
2,000 4 5 6 Drive resistance
on flat road
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Velocity / (km/h)
Figure 6.33: Gear ratios of a passenger car with a six-speed gear box (example).
Prop Gear Axle Drive

Engine Gear
shaft shaft shaft wheels
Clutch
Figure 6.34: Powertrain components for power and torque transmission.
6.5.2 Power losses in the drivetrain
Besides the losses caused by the conversion of fuel or electricity into mechanical
power via the engine, further losses occur in the transmission as well as in the
shafts. As a result, not the power PA determined in Section 6.2.6 is responsible for
the vehicles propulsion, but the power
1
PE = PA , (6:56)
ηA ηM
that must be covered by the power supply from the energy storage (Figure 6.36). In
eq. (6.56) the efficiency of the drive unit ηM , which varies over the engine range, is
considered as well as the total efficiency of the powertrain, excluding power re-
quired to operate auxiliary equipment.
Figure 6.35: Automatic gear box with built-in hybrid drive © Daimler AG.
Transmission
Power Drive
PE PM = ηMPE and PA = ηAηMPE
unit wheels
Powertrain
losses losses
(1−ηM) (1−ηA) ∙ PM
(1−ηM) ∙ PE = ∙ PM
ηM
Figure 6.36: Power flow and efficiency in the powertrain of an ICEV.
An overview of the occurring power flow in the powertrain of an ICEV along with
the corresponding efficiencies and other exemplary values are shown in Figure 6.37.
In addition to the consumption for the propulsion of the vehicle, the real con-
sumption must also depend on the energy required for the operation of the auxiliary
equipment, which is not addressed here in any further detail. Instead, reference is
made, for example, to Hesse, Hiesgen et al. (2012).
6.6 Energy consumption
The fuel consumption levels of ICE vehicles have become considerably more important
in recent years, particularly due to rising fuel prices and regulatory requirements. As
the consumption of a motorized vehicle to a large extent depends on the driving style
of the driver, it is necessary to define standardized test routes, so-called driving cycles,
Energy contained
ideal process
5294 J
in the fuel
Thermodynamic in-
Efficiency
evitable loss 𝜂󰑡󰑕
Internal efficiency
(waste heat)
Effective efficiency
Thermodynami- 𝜂󰑖
3203 J
Quality grade
cally usable energy
(ideal process)
𝜂󰑔𝜂󰑏
Non-ideal combustion
(wall heat transfer/charge change) 𝜂󰑀
Real usable energy
at the piston 2024 J
Mechanical
(internal work)
efficiency
𝜂󰑚
Real usable energy 1606 J

at the crankshaft
(effective work) Friction in the engine
Figure 6.37: Efficiencies and exemplary distribution of losses in the internal combustion engine,
(Schreiner 2011).
which make it possible to compare between different vehicles. This is discussed in

more detail in Section 6.6.4.
6.6.1 Determining energy consumption
The fuel consumption of an internal combustion engine driven vehicle required to

achieve the desired longitudinal motion can be described by the following equa-
tion, in relation to distance travelled and by applying eq. (6.22)
Ð tE
0 be · ηA · PA · dt
1
Be = Ð tE . (6:57)
0 v · dt
The energy required per unit of distance Be (unit g/m) can be calculated by integrat-
ing the product of the specific fuel consumption be (unit g/kWh) of the drive unit,
the reciprocal of the transmission efficiency of the drivetrain ηA , and the driving
resistance power PA , divided by the distance travelled.
Equation (6.57) can now be applied in case the vehicle’s velocity profile, drive
power PA , drive efficiency ηA and specific consumption be related to the trajectory
consumption Be are all known. Depending on the engine speed and torque delivery,
the specific fuel consumption can now be retrieved from the engine characteristic
map, of which an example is shown in Figure 6.19.
6.6.2 WILLANS curves
Determining the specific consumption as a function of engine speed and torque de-
livery based on the engine characteristic map is a relatively ornate process. It
would be better to directly specify the efficiency curve of an engine around the
point of work related to the demanded power. In order to achieve this, the
WILLANS curves can be used (Rizzoni, Guzzella et al. 1999).
WILLANS curves describe the dependency of the power usage of an energy con-
verter as a function of the supplied power at constant speeds. When looking at an
internal combustion engine, this means the demanded power’s dependency on the
energy supplied by the fuel. This results in an approximately linear profile for all
speeds:
PM = ePE − PV , (6:58)
(Figure 6.38).
PE
PV Arctan e
PM
Figure 6.38: Fundamental profile of a linear WILLANS
curve.
This allows for a representation of net power based on the power delivered from the
combustion engine PM to the crankshaft, with a dependency on the supplied
power PE and power losses of PV . The parameter e describes the internal efficiency
of the drive unit. The drive unit’s basic consumption PV is dependent on the rota-
tional velocity and corresponds to the consumption during idling. In essence, it is
the result of friction losses. Below a supplied power value of PE = e1 PV , no useful
power is delivered.
Using eq. (6.58), the efficiency of the drive unit can now be formulated as
PM ePM
ηM = = , (6:59)
PE PM + PV
(Figure 6.39).
G
e
Figure 6.39: Efficiency profile as calculated by

PM eq. (6.59).
A consumption map represented by WILLANS curves is shown in Figure 6.40.
15
𝜇𝑀 = 20% 𝜇𝑀 = 30%
Fuel mass f low / g/s
𝜇𝑀= 10% 5,600

10 𝜇𝑀 = 40%
n
𝜇𝑀= 50%
4,400
5
Curves with
3,200 constant rpm
2,000 in 1/min
800
0
0 50 100 150 200
Engine power / kW
Figure 6.40: Consumption map in Williams-curves representation, according to Diegelmann (2008).
6.6.3 Identification of different driving states
To identify different driving states, such as acceleration, braking, and coasting, eq.
(6.21) can be applied to calculate the current acceleration
1 1
€x = v_ = Ftraction − ðfr + αÞmV g + cW AρL v2 . (6:60)
λmV 2
Three different cases are to be distinguished:

– When Ftraction > 0, the vehicle is accelerating. If the vehicle’s driving forces and
resistance forces are balanced, the vehicle is moving at constant speed.
– When Ftraction = 0, the vehicle is coasting (disengaged).
– When Ftraction < 0, the vehicle is decelerating. Meaning that either the brakes are
actuated, and/or the vehicle is decelerated using the drivetrain itself. When
considering an internal combustion engine, the motion resistance is a direct
result from the cylinder compression. In case of an electric motor, the motion
resistance can be actively influenced to a near vehicle standstill. In addition,
kinetic energy can be recovered (recuperation).
6.6.4 Driving cycles
In vehicle technology, a driving cycle is considered vehicle motion in which the lon-
gitudinal velocityv, as well as the geographical location of the vehicle for a pre-
defined length of time, along with other time-dependent variables are described.
Two types of driving cycles can be distinguished:
– Driving cycles within the framework of legally required test cycles or those de-
termined by other organizations and the media.
– Surveys of real driving trips, for example, in the context of fleet tests.
6.6.4.1 Standardized test cycles

The first case involves driving cycles within the framework of statutory test cycles,
which are relevant to ensure a comparable measurement of fuel consumption and
pollutant emissions for different vehicles. For these test cycles the boundary condi-
tions such as surrounding and start-up temperatures, gear change points (for man-
ual transmissions), vehicle conditioning, loading and the start of the exhaust gas,
and consumption measurements are all pre-determined. Test cycles are typically
performed in controlled environments that allow for well defined, although ideal-
ized, test conditions. Often the tests are carried out on a dynamometer. Therefore,
the driving resistances of each individual vehicle on the road must be determined
in advance. These can then be simulated on the dynamometer test bench by corre-
sponding actuators. There are a few test cycles that vary significantly from region to
region. Table 6.8 provides an overview of some of the key test cycles used in differ-
ent regions, along with certain characteristics such as average speed, phases, dura-
tion as well as other information. In Europe until 2018, the so-called New European
Driving Cycle (NEDC) was used for both pure internal combustion engine driven ve-
hicles or purely electric vehicles. For vehicles powered by combustion engines, the
fuel consumption is calculated from the exhaust emissions, while the power con-
sumption for an electric vehicle is deduced from the battery. For hybrid vehicles,
fuel consumption is determined using the formula.
De · C1 + Dav · C2
C= , (6:61)
De + Dav
where
C: Total consumption in 100lkm
C1 : Consumption with fully charged battery
Table 6.8: Test cycles.
km
Driving cycle Region Distance / km v∅ / h
vmax / (m/s) amax / m/s2 Idling time / s
NEDC Europe . .  . 
WLTC Europe . . . . 
CADC Europe . . . . 
HYZEM Europe . . . . 
FTP  USA . . . . 
SFTP US USA . . . . 
SFTP SC USA . . . . 
NYCC USA . . . . 
HWFET USA . . . . 
JC Japan . .  . 
Vehicle-dependent modifications are possible.
C2 : Consumption with empty battery

De : Pure electric range
Dav : 25 km assuming an average distance between two charges
However, because the electrical consumption is ignored this can lead to unrealisti-
cally low consumption making this method highly controversial. In order to im-
prove this situation, the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure
(WLTP), in conjunction with the guidelines set by the UNECE-World forum‚ for
harmonization of vehicle regulations was proposed as a new testing method to de-
termine the pollutant and CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of motorized ve-
hicles (Tutuianu, Marotta et al. 2013). This has already been introduced in the
European Union, Switzerland, Iceland, Norway, Israel, Japan, and Turkey and in
the near future also in China. It will apply to passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles. Other countries like Russia and Australia still use the NEDC. Three differ-
ent WLTC test cycles were used for vehicles of different performance classes. The
method is based on the power to weight ratio – engine power/empty vehicle weight
in kW / t. Most current vehicles are assigned to performance class 3, for which the
velocity profile shown in Figure 6.41 has been determined.
In order to make statements about vehicle behavior in actually occurring driv-
ing situations however, for instance in the context of fleet testing (see, for example,
Schüller, Tewiele et al. 2015, Tewiele, Schüller et al. 2015, Schramm, Dudenhöffer
et al. 2017, Koppers, Driesch et al. 2017) and by magazine editors or reviewers, nor-
mal driving tests are also performed.
140
120
100
Velocity/(km/h)
80
60
40
20
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Time/s
Figure 6.41: WLTC Cycle (V. 5.3).
6.6.4.2 Real driving cycles for fleet testing

More meaningful when judging actual driving scenarios are driving cycles that are
obtained in fleet tests. In this case, a certain number of vehicles are equipped with
special data loggers that capture driving data, or the required data is taken directly
from the vehicle-bus system (Tewiele, Schüller et al. 2017), (Koppers 2018). Another
possibility to investigate the behavior of electrified vehicles is the application of
HiL-simulation methods (Jeschke, Hirsch et al. 2012), (Jeschke, Hirsch et al. 2014).
These methods in addition allow to track the energy consumption of secondary con-
sumers in electrified vehicles (Hesse, Hiesgen et al. 2012) (Figure 6.42).
When considering electric mobility, the special features of electric vehicles
must be considered, especially with regard to the possibility of regenerative braking
and a different driving behavior compared to an ICEV. Driving cycles are therefore
particularly important for electric vehicles but have not always been used to date
(Berzi, Delogu et al. 2016), (Pfriem 2016).
The basic methods for determining driving cycles, which can map the special
properties of different vehicle concepts, will therefore be briefly discussed here.
6.6.4.3 Microtrip-based method

One of the most commonly used methods is the microtrip-based method. A microtrip
describes a journey between two stopping phases and includes the preceding idling
phase. The microtrips are selected on the basis of statistical evaluation parameters.
This involves comparing the parameters of a microtrip with the target parameters re-
sulting from the entire data basis. A selection of representative microtrips is then
5.0
Moers 40 Essen
Energy consumption/kWh 4.5 Duisburg
59
4.0
288
3.5 524
3
F2 Acceleration
3.0 8
44
44
2.5
Wheel
2.0 Düsseldorf
1.5
1.0
Air
0.5
0.0
50
40
Velocity/(m/s)
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 Time/s
Urban Motorway Urban

Rural
Figure 6.42: Example of a real driving cycle including speed profile (lower) and the energy
consumption regarding air, rolling- and inertial resistances (upper).
made either randomly or using the best incremental method (Galgamuwa, Perera
et al. 2015). A microtrip can contain different road types, traffic situations or traffic
qualities. Since there is no differentiation, this method is less suitable for traffic plan-
ning purposes. There is also the danger of a bias toward city journeys, as motorway
journeys are often carried out for a long time without a stopover, (Giakoumis 2017).
With this method a certain region with its characteristics can be represented. This
method is also suitable for determining emissions.
6.6.4.4 Segment based method

A subdivision into journey sections can also be made according to road segments or
traffic quality. The initial and final speeds of a segment are not necessarily in a
standstill phase. This results in the challenge to connect selected segments with the
right speed and acceleration when combining several segments. Since the segments
represent real traffic conditions and physical characteristics of a road as well as
traffic quality, the method is suitable for the development of driving cycles in traffic
planning and management. It is less suitable for determining consumption or emis-
sions (Dai, Niemeier et al. 2008). One application is the driving cycle formation of
pure motorway trips, in which the micro-trip method is not an option due to miss-
ing stopping phases (Galgamuwa, Perera et al. 2015). The segment-based method
was used, for example, in the Australian Composite Urban Emissions Drive Cycle
(CUEDC) (Galgamuwa, Perera et al. 2015).
6.6.4.5 Classification according to patterns

Another method is classification according to patterns. Here, driving sequences are
subdivided into heterogeneous classes using statistical methods. The driving se-
quences, also called kinematic segments, are defined with a homogeneous size.
The driving sequences are then put together in random order, whereby the proba-
bility of a subsequent event occurring is calculated, (André 2004), (Galgamuwa,
Perera et al. 2015), and (Giakoumis 2017).
6.6.4.6 Stochastic methods

Furthermore, stochastic methods are also used for a driving cycle composition. The
driving data are divided into driving sequences (“snippets”) according to the driving
states acceleration, deceleration and constant driving (Dai, Niemeier et al. 2008),
(Ashtari, Bibeau et al. 2012), and (Lin and Niemeier 2002). It is also possible to use
the driving speed and acceleration (Nyberg, Frisk et al. 2014), (Gong, Midlam-Mohler
et al. 2011), (Lee, Adornato et al. 2011), or additionally the gradient (Souffran,
Miègeville et al. 2012) as a condition. With these methods, the probability with which
a state changes into a subsequent state is mapped in a transition matrix. Using
Markov chains, the sequences are then linked to form a driving cycle, see, for exam-
ple, Tewiele, Driesch et al. (2018).
Following the explanations in Schüller (2019), the microtrip-based method is
described in more detail below.
The representativeness and accuracy of a driving cycle generated by microtrips is
largely determined by the evaluation parameters used to select suitable microtrips. For
a targeted selection of evaluation parameters, the target parameters are therefore de-
fined first. Subsequently, the parameters influencing the respective target parameters
are identified, which flow into the driving cycle generation as evaluation parameters.
The method presented, for example, in Schüller (2019) is characterized by the dif-
ferentiation according to the target of the driving cycle, which enables an optimization
of the driving cycle to be generated to corresponding evaluation parameters in focus.
The majority of the transient driving cycles used are based exclusively on evaluation
parameters, which in turn are derived from speed and acceleration data. With regard
to electric vehicles, it is interesting to consider not only the speed profile but also the
current profile, which provides information on the amount of energy extracted and
charged. Furthermore, driving cycles can be derived that are optimized for the repre-
sentation of parameters that define battery aging effects during driving. In Schüller
(2019), for example, three variants with different target parameters are examined, each
of which allows different areas of investigation. These include
– Speed behavior,
– depiction of consumption and thus of emissions, and the
– illustration of the performance.
In addition to the speed, the current strength is also plotted over time in a cycle.
Such a power cycle can serve as a basis for investigations of temporally changed
power-based variables such as battery ageing. A typical procedure for driving cycle
generation is depicted in Figure 6.43.
Recording of real Splitting into Removal

driving data Microtrips of outliers
Clustering Definition of Combination of

data target parameters driving sequences
Evaluation of the Classification into Evaluation and

potential cycle candidate cycles choice
Figure 6.43: Typical procedure for cycle generation (Schüller 2019).
This approach can be used, for example, to set up driving cycles for different re-
gions. It enables, among other things, the determination of optimized storage con-
cepts for electric vehicles with different application areas and for different regions.
In Schüller, Tewiele et al. (2017), Schüller (2019), for example, this procedure is
used for a comparison between Germany and China.
First, the real driving data is subdivided into driving sequences. A driving se-
quence describes a travel section between two points in time when the speed
is zero (Figure 6.44). In order to represent a realistic driving behavior, stopping
phases in a microtrip are also included. This is at the beginning of a microtrip.
Figure 6.45 shows one of the driving cycles generated by Schüller (2019) using
the example of a driving cycle that has been optimized for detecting battery ageing.
14
Microtrip 1 Microtrip 2 Microtrip 3
12
Velocity/(m/s)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time/s
Figure 6.44: Drive history split into microtrips (Schüller 2019).
30
Velocity/(m/s)
20
10
0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Time/s
400
300
Current /A
200
100
0
–100
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Time/s
Figure 6.45: Driving cycle battery aging for Germany, based on data from Schramm, Dudenhöffer
et al. (2017).
A descriptive interpretation of driving cycles can, for example, be provided by

displays in which driving behavior is recorded on the basis of speed and accelera-
tion data. Figure 6.46 illustrates this using driving data collected in the PREMIUM
project (Schramm, Dudenhöffer et al. 2017) as an example. The corresponding dia-
grams for the NEDC and a WLTP driving cycle are also shown for comparison. One
recognizes the strongly different scattering of the data point. In particular, the
strong concentration of data in the NEDC can be seen.
Schüller Germany WLTC NEDC
Figure 6.46: Acceleration/speed distribution of the driving cycles generated in Schüller (2019) as
well as of the WLTC and NEDC.
When presenting the average values of different driving cycles from Schüller
(2019) and other published synthetic and transient driving cycles, the large variance
of the characteristics of these cycles becomes clear only when comparing the average
speed and positive acceleration (Figure 6.47). In addition to the cycle generation
method, the driving data used for a particular region can lead to very different re-
sults, even if vehicles with a comparable drive concept (BEV, PHEV, ICEV) were used.
14
Average velocity / (m/s)
12
ICEVs
10
8
6
4
BEVs
2
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Average positive acceleration / (m/s²)
Winnipeg Amman Lin

Dai C1 Dai C2 Shahidinejad weekday
Shahidinejad weekend Tong US 75
Perth 14.2 MPC Sydney Cycle
IECa Wuhan Germany
Beijing Pfriem
Figure 6.47: Comparison of different transient driving cycles in their average speed and
acceleration (Schüller 2019).
6.7 Energy sources and storage
6.7.1 Fossil fuels
6.7.1.1 Overview of the most important fuel types

The large majority of vehicles use today the internal combustion engine as the driv-
ing unit. They operate based on fuel combustion, of which the main types can be
distinguished as:
– Petrol: conventional fuel based on petroleum.
– Diesel: conventional fuel based on petroleum.
– LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas): in Germany also called “Autogas.” It is a by-
product of the refining process of petrol and diesel fuels. Storage takes place at
room temperature and under low pressure.
– NG (Natural Gas): Combustion produces significantly less hydrocarbons and
the emission of particles is also considerably lower compared to the combus-
tion of petrol. Due to its low energy density, natural gas is either stored at high
pressure (up to 200 bar) as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), or liquified at a
temperature around -160 °C as LNG (Liquified Natural Gas).
Petrol and diesel fuels are obtained through distillation of crude oil and consist of a
complex mixture of various hydrocarbons. Together they form the majority of fuel
used today. The temporal evolution of their respective overall market shares is
shown in Figure 6.48.
6.7.1.2 Petrol
Petrol can be obtained in different forms. Most commonly seen are the Super (oc-
tane number 95) and Super Plus (octane number 98). The octane number indicates
the anti-knock properties of a petrol fuel, meaning the absence of uncontrolled self-
ignition. This effect is particularly noticeable in engines that operate with high com-
pression ratios, although in modern day fuel injection vehicles it can be controlled
by appropriate intervention of the engine control unit.
Petrol has a boiling range between 30 and 210 C, and will ignite at an average
temperature of 500 C.
The Super and Super-plus fuels may contain (2016) 5% Ethanol and 10% Ethanol
(Super E10) respectively. Individual suppliers also market other variants offering im-
proved properties and additions.
6.7.1.3 Diesel
Diesel has a slightly higher specific calorific value compared to petrol and is also
available in various quality grades, as well as in the form of Biodiesel (up to 7%).
100% 1% 1%
1% 1% 4%
2% 6%
304
1% 3% 2% 7% 8% 10%
2% 12% 14%
2% 3%
7% 3%
8% 4%
14% 9% 10% 5%
8% 6%
80% 8% 11%
10% 12%
10% 11% 13%
9% Petrol
8% 12%
7% 13%
60% 6% Diesel
15%
6%
MHEV
5%
40% 79% HEV

76%
69% 67% 63% 61% PHEG
57%
52%
47%
20% BEV
0%
2017 2020 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Figure 6.48: Forecast of the shares of powertrain types in the worldwide production of automobiles in the years 2017 to 2030 (BCG 2017).
Diesel fuel has a boiling range between 180 and 360 °C and ignites at an aver-
age temperature of 250 C.
In recent decades, the share of diesel-powered vehicles in Germany has steadily
risen due to the higher efficiency of DIESEL engines, their comfortable torque
curve, and a favorable tax advantages compared to petrol fuel. One exception could
be seen in the year 2009, when a large number of smaller vehicles were registered
due to the scrapping premium. These smaller vehicles are often powered by petrol
engines instead of DIESEL engines. However, in response to the public debate on
the pollutant emissions of vehicles with DIESEL engines and the resulting driving
bans in parts of large cities in Germany, the proportion of newly registered diesel
vehicles has fallen sharply in recent years (Figure 6.48).
6.7.1.4 Natural Gas (NG)

Natural gas is 83–98% Methane (CH4). It is marketed either as gaseous compressed
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) or as liquified LNG (Liquified Natural Gas). LNG re-
quires a storage volume that is a third less than that required for CNG, but the stor-
age process itself requires more energy. Due to this reason, CNG is the most
commonly seen form today.
The CO2 emissions of natural gas are also significantly lower than those of pet-
rol due to its more favorable chemical structure. The hydrocarbon ratio of natural
gas is approximately 4:1, whereas that of petrol is around 2.3:1.
Therefore, burning natural gas produces less CO2 and more H2 O compared to
burning petrol. Consequently, a Petrol engine adapted to run on natural gas, even
without further optimization, will already emit approximately 25% less CO2 emis-
sions compared to a regular petrol-running engine at comparable power output.
Natural gas-powered vehicles are usually bivalent,13 meaning that they can run
on both CNG and petrol.
6.7.1.5 Liquified petroleum gas

LPG is often marketed as Autogas and is obtained during the extraction process of crude
oil. Its main components are propane and butane. The carbon content of LPG is also con-
siderably lower, as burning it produces around 10% less CO2 compared to petrol.
6.7.2 Alternative fuels
Due to the inherent scarcity of fossil fuels, attempts have long been made to replace
fossil fuels with alternative fuels source derived from renewable processes.
13 Double-valued.
6.7.2.1 Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be based on both fossil fuels such as natural gas or be obtained
through electrolysis of water. Similar to natural gas, hydrogen can be stored either at
very low temperature ð− 253 CÞ or under very high pressure ð700 barÞ (Reif, Noreikat
et al. 2012). Other storage procedures are currently still in the research and develop-
ment phase. Hydrogen can be combusted in traditional internal combustion engines
or be used in fuel cells to generate electrical energy.
6.7.2.2 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is obtained by splitting oils and fats followed by a subsequent conversion
with methanol or ethanol. However, since methanol is derived from coal, the result-
ing fuel is not fully renewable in this case (Reif, Noreikat et al. 2012).
6.7.2.3 Biogas
Biogas is obtained through a fermentation process of biomass, and can be used as nat-
ural gas after separate cleaning and CO2 removal processes (Reif, Noreikat et al. 2012).
6.7.2.4 Synthetic fuels

During the production of gas (GTL – Gas to liquid), coal (CTL – Coal to Liquid), or
based on biomass (BTL – Biomass to Liquid), individual molecular chains are
newly formed using the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. As a result, combustion gases of
the resulting fuel are almost completely free of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and
carbon monoxide (Reif, Noreikat et al. 2012).
6.7.3 Electrical energy storage
6.7.3.1 Requirements on electrical energy storage

In EV, HEV, and PHEV, the electrical energy storage device is by far the bulkiest,
heaviest, and most expensive component in the scope of electrification.
The main purpose of the battery pack is firstly to store electrical energy and sec-
ondly to supply the required energy to the electric motors to enable pure electric
driving. Additionally, other functions also benefit from the higher voltage. For
PHEVs, the battery pack can be charged directly using the main power grid.
The battery pack must fulfill several requirements in order to be used in a mo-
torized vehicle. To provide the electric drive unit with the required power input of
60–180 kW, a voltage of between 300–400 V is generally required.
To ensure a sufficient range, a battery pack capacity of 15–30 kWh or more for fully
electric vehicles is required. For hybrid vehicles this capacity is usually in the range of
2–15 kWh, depending on their design. The number of charging cycles before battery
degradation has made recharging useless must be more than 1,000 cycles.14 Battery
Packs are made up of cells that store energy chemically before converting it back into
electricity when required, for instance in Lithium-Ion batteries by intercalation15 of
Lithium.
The battery cells are placed in a housing together with the necessary contacts
and wiring. Additionally, the operating electronics and if possible an air condition-
ing system are added. With current battery pack technology for PHEVs, the battery
pack itself consists of multiple Lithium-Ion cells. The actual number depends on
the required capacity and voltage.
Different cell designs are possible, along with various material options. Although
all are rechargeable, their properties depend heavily on the materials used. Lithium-
Ion Batteries offer an unrivaled level of performance and energy density when com-
pared to other battery types.
Additionally, they do not show memory effects, have a low self-discharge rate,
and their internal resistance is relatively low resulting in a high level of efficiency.
A disadvantage is the comparatively high cost of construction. Furthermore,
Lithium-Ion Cells are subject to both cyclic and calendar degradation processes.
These lead to decreased nominal capacity after a certain number of charging cycles
and after the cells have reached a certain lifespan in general.
Damaging processes are responsible for these phenomena that depend heavily
on the application range of the cells themselves. Currently, the limit to which the
cells can be used without issue is assumed to be around 80% of the remaining
capacity.
Further problems arise when the temperature limits are reached to which the
Lithium-Ion cells can be used. For this reason, the cells are usually cooled when
used in motorized vehicle applications. Lead-based batteries and nickel-metal hy-
brid (NiMH) batteries are far less expensive in production and have long been used
as a power source in special vehicles. However, their energy density is too low for
application as power source in electrically driven motorized vehicles. For current
and most likely also future vehicle concepts, nearly all manufacturers rely solely on
Lithium-Ion Technology as the energy storage solution (Vezzini 2009).
6.7.3.2 Layout of the Lithium-Ion battery

The typical layout of the Lithium-Ion Battery is shown schematically in Figure 6.49.
In particular, one recognizes the essential modules found in nearly all electrical en-
ergy storage systems:
14 This is based on the option that the energy storage can still be used as stationary storage, for
example, as part of a home solar system.
15 Storing
cooling water
HV-interface
308
port
Module 1
Vehicle
DC/DC
cell
power net
converter Voltage
12 V
Battery Module 2
Management-System
Current level
BMS
Cooling
– SOC management
system
–cell monitoring
housing
–thermal management SOC
–operating algorithm
–fault management
Module n
Temperature
Vehicle Communication
bussystem interface
Cooling temperature
Figure 6.49: Modular layout of the Lithium-Ion battery pack.

– The Lithium-Ion Cells, which are all connected to form a module,

– the Battery management system (BMS),
– the cooling system,
– the electrical wiring and communications interface to the vehicle.
A fully functioning battery system is shown in Figure 6.50.
Powertrain Cell modules

harness Cell current rail
Current sensor
Master switch
module
Electronics
slave module
Cell
Fuse
Vehicle interface Housing
Electronics
Internal harness
main module
Figure 6.50: Battery system, © Johnson Matthey Battery Systems.
The total voltage delivered by a battery pack results from the series connection of
each individual cell into modules.16 These exact voltages supplied by each module
are the sum of voltages of all of the connected cells. Thus, for a total voltage of, for
example, 360 V, the module could consist of a hundred cells of 3.6 V each. The re-
quired amount of charge is achieved through parallel connections between the
modules or cells (Figure 6.51).
6.7.3.3 Cell functioning

Multiple different design types and materials can be used to form Lithium-Ion Cells,
all of which rely on the same principle of operation.
Each cell consists of two electrodes, a separator, and an electrolyte (Figure 6.52).
During the charging and discharging processes, lithium ions are discharged onto an
electrode, migrate through the electrolyte, and are consequently stored in the crystal
16 Also known as pack.

Cell
Cell Module
Figure 6.51: Series and parallel connection of cells and modules.
Separator Electrolyte solution

Metal oxide
O2 Graphite
Co Charge C
Li+
Al Cu
Li+
Li+
Discharge
Cathode foil SEI - layer Anode foil
Figure 6.52: Basic structure of a lithium-ion cell.
lattice of the other electrode. Referring to the positive and negative electrodes is done
analogous to the discharge process as the cathode and anode.
The cathode is usually constructed of a metal oxide, whereas the anode is made
of a carbon structure such as graphite. The highly porous electrode materials are
applied onto thin metal foils by means of binding and conductive materials. The
metal foils also function as a conductor. Aluminum foil is often used for the cath-
ode, whereas the anode is usually made of copper.
The electrodes are separated by the separator, through which the lithium ions
can move, but not the electrons. This prevents short-circuiting the system. The ability
of the electrons to move between the two electrodes is warranted using an electrolyte.
This is usually made up of a non-aqueous solution, or, as is the case in novel lithium
polymer cells, a gel-like polymer.
At the interface between the anode and the electrolyte, a passive boundary
layer (SEI – Solid Electrolyte Interface) is formed, which results from the decompo-
sition of the electrolyte. The SEI increases the internal resistance of the cell.
Two coated electrodes combined with one separator form one layer, of which
multiple are joined together into one cell. The designs of lithium-ion cells range
from cells with high energy densities and moderate amperages to cells with smaller
energy densities and higher amperages, thus higher power density. The coating
thickness also varies. Generally, a thinner coating increases the achievable power
density while at the same time decreasing energy density (Ecker and Sauer 2013).
Today’s cells reach voltages of 2.2 to 4.2 V each, depending on the materials
used as the active components. A typical voltage seen often in commercially avail-
able cells is 3.6 V.
Currently, three different formats are used for lithium-ion cells (Figure 6.53):
– Prismatic and cylindrical cells have a solid shell. The layers of electrodes and
separators are wound into either cylindrical or prismatic cells.
– Pouch cells, also referred to as foil cells or “coffee bags,” have the electrodes
and separators stacked on top of each other.
Terminals And
Pressure Relief Value Terminals Terminals
Anode
Pressure Relief
Value
Separator
Metal Housing Anode
Cathode Cathode
Metal Housing Separator
Cylindrical Cell Prismatic Cell Pouch Cell
Figure 6.53: Construction forms of battery cells © Johnson Matthey Battery Systems.
The dimensions of the prismatic and pouch cells are standardized in accordance
with (DIN 2011), whereas the dimensions of the cylindrical cells are standardized by
the American National Standards Institute, also known as ANSI, (www.varta-
microbattery.com 2013). Table 6.9 contains the names and dimensions of these
standardized cells. Additionally, each cell can be designed with or adapted to
Table 6.9: Types of cells and their standardized dimensions. Source: © Johnson Matthey Battery
Systems.
DIN: PHEV1 PHEV2 BEV1 BEV2
Prismatic
85 x 173 x 21 91 x 148 x 26,5 115 x 173 x 32 115 x 173 x 45
L x B x D /mm
DIN: PHEV BEV

Pouch
L x B / mm 165 x 227 162 x 330
ANSI: 18650
Cylindric 18 x 65
D x H / mm
different dimensions to fit the installation space inside a certain vehicle. However,
these cells do not achieve the indicated values of the standardized components.
Another disadvantage is the effort it takes to adapt the manufacturing equipment to
meet the specific dimensional requirements.
– Cylindrical cells are commonly found in electronics used in entertainment,
household, or industrial appliances (Ecker and Sauer 2013). However, their rel-
atively large cooling requirements and the often poor vehicle-placement possi-
bilities have made them rare in electrical vehicles.
– Prismatic cells tend to be very stable as well as protected from any mechanical
damage due to their solid housing. A clear downside of this housing is the fact
that it adds more weight and thus limits the energy density of the cell.
– The Pouch cell displays similar but opposite advantages and disadvantages
compared to the prismatic cell due to its lack of a solid housing.
6.7.3.4 Cathode materials

The various lithium-ion cells distinguish themselves by the active material used at the
cathode side. Each material will result in a cell with specific advantages and disad-
vantages. Each material combination can lead to significant differences in terms of
energy density, power density, safety, stability, lifespan, and costs (Dinger, Martin
et al. 2010). A single material that exhibits advantages in all disciplines does not exist.
The material choice is therefore highly dependent on each individual application and
the corresponding requirements, most of which can only be partially met. Table 6.10
shows an overview of properties of the most used cathode materials. These properties
are also influenced by the respective mixing ratio and the cell design. Because of this,
value ranges are given for some parameters, such as for energy density.
Table 6.10: Essential cathode materials for lithium-ion cells, according to Vezzini (2009) and Ecker
and Sauer (2013).
Lithium Lithium Lithium Lithium nickel Lithium iron

cobalt oxide manganese- nickel oxide mangnese cobalt phosphate
oxide
Abbreviation LCO LMO LNO NMC LFP
Chemical LiCoO LiMnO LiNiO LiNiMnCoO LiFePO

Structure
Advantage High energy High High energy Depends on the Safe

density thermal density mixing ratio of
stability LCO, LMO, and
LNO
Disadvantage High costs Dissolves Low thermal Low energy

partially in stability density
electrolyte
Voltage / V . . n. A. . .
Energy density / – – n. A. – –

Wh/kg
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) is often used in consumer and household electronics,
where the safety and durability requirements are usually lower compared to those for
vehicle applications. This material combination allows a high energy density but is
also quite costly due to the high cobalt content. Other commonly used cathode material
combinations are Lithium nickel oxide (LNO) and Lithium Mmanganese oxide (LMO),
of which the respective advantages and disadvantages are listed in Table 6.10. In
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt cells (NMC), the three added materials are mixed in
such a way as to optimize the resulting properties of the cell. These cells can thus be
tailor-made for each application. Depending on the mix, the energy density of LCO, the
safety of LMO, and the performance of LNO can be combined. Another cathode mate-
rial combination is Lithium iron phosphate (LFP), which provides a low energy density
but is considerably safer in operation (Ecker and Sauer 2013).
In the battery pack of the BMW ActiveE, NMC cells are used providing an energy
density of about110 Wh=kg (Jung and Hofer 2011). The volumetric energy density of
these cells generally lies between 190 and 250 kWh=l (Howell 2012). Due to the prop-
erties mentioned in this section, NMC cells are frequently applied in current day ap-
plications (Zschech 2010).
Data found in literature gives values for power densities between 500 W=kg for
electric vehicles and 3, 000 W=kg for hybrid vehicles. In between are values for
PHEVs. The reason for this broad variation can be attributed to different cell designs
in terms of power and energy on the one hand, and a dependence on other operating
conditions on the other. These include, for example, the amount of charge, as a full
battery pack allows a higher power output than an empty pack. In addition, the out-
put may drop significantly after expiration of the battery’s service life as well as out-
side the advised temperature range of 20 to 40 C (Ecker and Sauer 2013).
The cells are connected either in parallel or in series and are joined together
with the required mechanical and electrical components, such as contact points
and the housing, to form a complete module. These modules are then connected in
series or in parallel to form a battery pack, as shown in Figure 6.54. The intercon-
nection between the cells and modules defines the battery pack’s characteristics,
such as its capacitance and maximum current and voltage outputs.
6.7.3.5 Battery management system (BMS)

Controlling and protecting electrical energy storage systems requires additional
components. A cell monitoring system, often abbreviated as CSC (Cell supervision
circuit), monitors the cell’s voltage and temperature. It also compensates for differ-
ent charge states of the cells. The cell monitoring system is connected via a bus to
the Battery Management System (BMS). The BMS controls all processes inside the
energy storage system, for example, the circuit of relays, but also provides security
and diagnostic functions. Additionally, it controls the cooling system and estimates
the current state of the cells in terms of performance, charge state, and degree of
age-induced degradation. In the case of safety-related malfunctions, during service,
or when the battery is not being used, the electric energy storage is disconnected
from the vehicle’s electrical system via fuses and relays in the switchbox (Auto/
Manual-Disconnect). Various concepts exist to cool down these types of electric en-
ergy storage systems. The BMW ActiveE is fitted with a water-glycol cooling system,
which is connected to the vehicle’s cooling circuit via a heat exchanger (Jung and
Hofer 2011).
6.7.3.6 Structure of the sub-assemblies

Besides the components required to control and protect the system, the cells contribute
most to the electric energy storage systems in terms of weight and volume. Empirical
analysis on existing PHEVs has provided volume and mass fractions of the storage
cells with respect to the entire storage system, as shown in Figure 6.55 (Ried 2014). The
mass fraction is around 60 % and the volume fraction ranges between 30 and 40 %,
corresponding to a minimal and maximum use of space respectively.
a) b) c)
Figure 6.54: Lay-out of an electrical energy storage system: a) Cell, b) Module, c) Pack or electrical
energy storage system. Source: (Ried 2014).
70
Mass share
60 Volume share
Mass and volume share cells/%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
A B C D E
Figure 6.55: Mass and volume fractions of cells with respect to the total electric storage in existing
PHEVs in liquid-cooled conversion design, but with different topologies and cell types (Ried,
Wittchen et al. 2013).
6.7.3.7 Prospects
Battery cells now account for a very large proportion of the total cost of an electri-
cally powered vehicle. For the coming years and decades, however, technical prog-
ress in both the materials used and the production methods is expected to lead to a
significant reduction in costs per kWh of stored charge (Figure 6.56). In theory, fur-
ther cost reductions could also be achieved in the longer term if batteries could be
made smaller again in the future, if extended fast-charging options were available
on a widespread basis. In fact, however, the trend tends to be toward larger battery
packs today.
500
400 €
400 360 €
Price/€/kWh)
300 275 €
225 €
200 171 €
135 €
107 €
100 84 €
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Figure 6.56: Worldwide price evolution for Lithium-Ion Batteries from 2013 to 2020 (in Euro/kWh).
Years 2018 to 2020 projected target values (Horváth&Partners 2018).
In addition to lithium-ion cells, researchers are looking into lithium air (Li-O2 )
and lithium-sulfur (Li-S) cells. These combinations achieve specific energy densities
with a factor seven to nine higher than conventional cells, although they still pose
problems in terms of safety and lifespan. In fact, Li-O2 cells currently only reach a
few hundred cycles. Research on Anode materials is also being conducted, where
silicon fractions could achieve higher energy densities compared to graphite.
Theoretically, energy densities could be increased by a factor eleven, were it not for
the biggest issue being the volume change of almost 400% during a single cycle. It
is still unclear whether one of the above mentioned technologies will eventually
meet the standards required for automotive application (Ecker and Sauer 2013).
Further development of the well-established Lithium-Ion Technology will allow for
energy density increases of about 50% by 2020 and an additional 40% by 2025
(Howell 2012).
The reader is referred to Ried (2014) and Ried, Karspeck et al. (2013) for a more
in-depth analysis and prognosis on electric drive systems, in particular with regard
to the costs and achievable range related to hybrid vehicle.
7 Vehicle safety
In complex systems like road traffic, risks cannot be fully avoided. Therefore, the
global increase of traffic density and the constantly growing complexity of traffic cre-
ate ever greater challenges for all traffic participants. While the number of vehicles in
1950 was at 2.4 million vehicles, six decades later, there were 52.3 million vehicles on
the roads in Germany alone (Destatis 2011). With approximately 79% passenger ve-
hicles hold the largest share of this rapid increase. The quick development of motori-
zation has also massively driven the expansion of the road network. However, the
infrastructure did not expand to the same extent as the amount of traffic. While the
share of motor vehicles between 1950 and 2010 increased by more than 1,000 %,
the federal road network (including federal highways and roadways) only increased
by 200 % (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen) (Heide 2014). Similar trends can be ob-
served globally. The result was a continuous increase of traffic density and thus a
steadily growing general risk of collision in traffic. The accident statistics of the
German Institute for Transport Research thus shows a nearly parallel increase of
traffic accidents and the respective amount of motor vehicles (Figure 7.1).
7.1 Areas of vehicle safety
7.1.1 Definitions
First, it is useful to clarify what safety is in the context of traffic. (Absolute) safety is
commonly understood to be the absence of danger. According to Kramer (2013), “the
accident (as a synonym for the not-normal case, and thus the incident)” can be de-
fined as follows:
“An accident is an event in which the difference between given driving task and its fulfilment
exceeds a permissible value (unmastered control task), which immediately results in damage
that is determined both in kind and severity”.
According to DIN/VDE (1987), damage is a disadvantage due to the violation of legally

protected interest of a particular technical operation or condition. The damage is to be
differentiated according to its extent. Here, both property damage to the motor vehicles
involved and other affected goods and personal injuries can occur. Risk is the expected
frequency of an event creating damage, and the extent of losses occurred in case of
that event. With this, a definition can also be formulated according to DIN/VDE (1987)
for the term “danger”: Danger is a situation in which the risk is greater than the largest
acceptable risk of a certain technical operation or state. Using this, the term safety can
now be described according to DIN/VDE (1987) as a situation in which the risk is
smaller than the largest acceptable risk of a certain technical operation or state.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-007
318 7 Vehicle safety
Number of motor vehicles × 1,000,000

70 30
Number of accidents × 100,000

60 Number of motor vehicles 25
50 Number of accidents registered by police
20
40
15
30
10
20
10 5
0 0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Figure 7.1: Development of the amount of motor vehicles and the number of police recorded traffic
accidents in Germany between 1906 and 2010.
When designing a new vehicle, measurements ensuring maximum safety of all

traffic participants are of utmost importance. With this, the development of safety
components is one of the most important stages in the development process of new
vehicles both for people involved in development and the quality control accompa-
nying production.
A distinction is made between active and passive safety systems. The measures
of active and passive safety can, for example, be classified using the temporal se-
quence (Figure 7.2). In normal driving conditions, the driver is supported in his driv-
ing by supplying information. This is followed by the phase of accident prevention
while the driver assistance systems support the driver (see Chapter 9). Once an acci-
dent becomes inevitable, measures are taken in the pre-rash phase that are aimed at
reducing the severity of accident and injury. This is followed by measures of passive
Normal
Accident
driving Precrash In-crash Postcrash
prevention
Accident
condition
Warning Intervention
Information and and Retention Rescue
support conditioning
Active safety Passive safety Rescue
Figure 7.2: Classification of active and passive safety.

safety. These include not only constructive measures of the vehicle structure but also
furthermore passive and active restraint systems such as belts with tensioners and a
multitude of airbags. In the developments of the recent years, both passive and active
systems have grown together more and more, so that, today, safety concepts are usu-
ally called integral safety concepts.
Active safety systems help the driver in critical situations to avoid an accident.
They are thus also called accident avoidance measures. They can furthermore be im-
plemented to decrease the severity of accident consequences by intervention right
before the accident (see, e.g., (Maurer 2013)), or a preconditioning of the vehicle and
its passengers. Among others, these include the driver assistance systems described
in Chapter 9, for example, ABS, ESP, adaptive light control, LDW, as well as the so-
called precrash systems (Kurutas 2011), (Kurutas, Claas et al. 2006).
The passive systems contain all systems and components that reduce the conse-
quences of an occurring accident. They have an especially protective effect in colli-
sions. Here, more and more not only the self-protection (protection of the own
vehicle and its passengers) but also the protection of other road users (partner and
counterparty protection) are crucial. The measures implemented do not include
only the vehicle structure, which is supposed to protect passengers during an acci-
dent, but also the so-called restraint systems, which are supposed to decelerate the
forward motion of a passenger in such a way that the severity of injuries is as low
as possible. This includes the earliest possible participation of passengers in the de-
celeration of the vehicle.
The construction measures of today’s vehicles include, for example, the separa-
tion of the vehicle structure into a deformation-rigid passenger compartment, as well
as selectively chosen deformation zones in the front and back of the vehicle, which
are supposed to reduce the impact energy during a collision in a controlled manner.
Today, the restraint systems mainly consist of belts with pretensioners and a
multitude of airbags in the interior of the vehicle.
7.1.2 Systems of active safety
Systems of active safety actively intervene in the driving to alleviate critical situa-
tions or avoid them altogether. They thus mainly serve in accident prevention.
Systems of active safety are furthermore, for example, the driver assistance systems
such as vehicle dynamics control, brake assist, and lane monitoring systems.
The most important aspects of active safety are as follows:
– Driving stability that includes the driving behavior and the controllability of the
vehicle, for example, in curves, as well as its reaction to steering, braking, and
acceleration maneuvers of the driver.
– Driver-fitness safety describes the protection of passengers, as well as the driver,
against vibrations, noise, and other interference.
– Perceptual safety describes safeguarding and improving the perception of the

surrounding traffic, environment, and the behavior of the vehicle.
– Operating safety describes the possibility of a simple and error-free operation of
the vehicle before and during driving, without distracting the attention of the
driver. It is primarily ensured using a clear and intuitive design of the control
elements of the vehicle.
7.1.3 Systems of passive safety
As a reaction to the increase in the number of serious traffic accidents, especially re-
sulting in death in the 1950s and 1960s, massive efforts were made in the develop-
ment of passive safety systems. The primary goal was the reduction of the risk of
injury of passengers in the event of a collision. Significant milestones in these efforts
were the development of the security passenger compartment by Mercedes in 1951
and the first standard installation of the three-point safety belt by Volvo in 1956. Due
to the slow and hesitant use of seat belts by passengers, only the intervention of
legislators in 1976, who implemented the requirement to wear a seat belt, resulted in
a sustained decline in the number of severe traffic accidents with fatalities
(Figure 7.3). As a result of the technical and legislative measures taken, the number
Killed/1,000 inhabitants in Germany

1973
0.8 ‰ BAC
1973/74 Oil crisis
1972 1974
25 100 km/h in rocommended
country roads speed on
1957
motorways
20 50 km/h in 1980 obligation
towns to wear crash
helmets
ABS
15 Seat belts
1980 obligation to
wear seatbels
Cruise control Airbag 1998
10 system 0.5 ‰ BAC
ASR ESP
BAS
ACC
5 Emergency brake assistant Lane
3,307 Tire pressure keeping Adaptive
monitoring system assist high beam
0
53 55 60 65 75 80 85 90 95 2,000 05 10 14
Figure 7.3: Fatal traffic accidents in Germany 1953–2014; data source: German Federal Office for
Statistics.
Filled circles refer to the introduction of new technical systems to prevent accidents; empty circles
mark introduction of new legal requirements.
BAC: Blood alcohol content.
of deaths in Germany fell to 3,177 in 2014 (Destatis 2018) and to approximately 25,300
in the EU in 2017 (European_Parliament 2019).
The peak of accidents involving serious personal injuries had already been
passed in the 1970s (Figure 7.4). What followed was a stabilization of accidents
with personal injuries and a rapid, steady decrease of traffic accidents with serious
personal injuries and deaths.
2,500
Number of accidents and personal
Number of personal injuries
2,000 Number of accidents registered

by police
injuries × 1,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Figure 7.4: Personal injuries in traffic accidents in Germany 1950–2010.
Interesting is the constant distribution of fatal accidents across the individual road
types over the years. Here, at least regarding Germany, a uniform decrease in the
numbers can be observed, as Figure 7.5 shows.
The introduction of airbags in 1980 further improved this favorable develop-
ment. A further and indispensable part in this development was the continuous
advancement of vehicle structures, which allowed for a dissipation of the kinetic
energy that occurs during a collision. To reach this, an optimal distribution of the de-
formation energy to the vehicle structure is necessary. At the same time the deforma-
tion of the passenger compartment is to be prevented, or at least reduced. With this,
the body structure of the vehicle plays an important role in passenger protection for
the first time (Kramer 2013).
In the years following 1980, there were no decisive improvements in passive
safety at first. The Euro NCAP crash test 1997 (European New Car Assessment Program)
(NCAP 2013, NCAP 2016) triggered strong efforts of manufacturers to increase the
levels of safety in new vehicles. The result was a targeted design of the vehicle
structures according to the new and challenging crash disciplines. Today, these in-
terpretations determine the body, and following this, the function of the frame
during a crash.
8,000 7,503
Highways
6,977
6,842 Federal roads
7,000 6,613
Country roads
5,842
6,000 District roads
5,361
5,091 Urban roads
4,949
5,000 4,477 Total
4,152 4,009
4,000 3,648 3,600
3,339 3,377 3,4593,206 3,180
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Figure 7.5: Killed traffic participants by road type 2000–2017; data source: (Radke 2018).
7.1.4 Legal rules and regulations
Vehicles are, of course, not only subjected to the worldwide NCAP crash tests relevant
for consumer protection. Rather, each vehicle series needs to achieve a variety of reg-
ulatory approvals to achieve road legality. The approval processes as well as the as-
sessment criteria used are based on the country-specific safety regulations. In Europe,
these test procedures are determined by the so-called ECE1 regulations (EWG). This is
a catalogue of regulations that summarizes the uniform technical regulations for
wheeled vehicles in the EU. In passive safety, there are predefined objectives for fron-
tal, lateral, or rear crashes as well as pedestrian protection, which must be demon-
strated using predetermined test procedures. This either results in the fulfillment of
requirements, or the exposure of deficits. These results are not required to be pub-
lished. The NCAP consumer protection tests typically significantly go beyond the reg-
ulatory requirements. The NCAP awards the well-known safety stars for passing the
tests, which are often well covered by the media, and thus promotes competition be-
tween manufacturers. As a result, new vehicles are built not only to meet the criteria
relevant for approval but also to pass the crash tests relevant to consumer protection.
Internationally, there is a multitude of other rules and requirements; for exam-
ple, the American “Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS),” which defines
1 ECE: Economic Commission for Europe; ECE regulations are internationally agreed upon, uni-
form technological requirements for motor vehicles, as well as parts and equipment for them.
the minimum requirements of vehicle components, or the crash tests according to

the “US NCAP” or “J NCAP” requirements (Companion 2016). Figure 7.6 shows an
excerpt from the crash disciplines specific to organization and regulation.
Consumer protection OBD FF

Europe Euro-NCAP 64 km/h –
US-NCAP – 56 km/h
USA
IIHS 64 km/h –
Japan JNCAP – 55 km/h
China C-NCAP – 50 km/h
Legal regulations OBD FF

Europe ECE-R94;96/79/EC 56 km/h –
USA FMVSS 208 40 km/h 56 km/h
Japan TRIAS 56 km/h 50 km/h
China GB 11551–2003 56 km/h 50 km/h
Figure 7.6: Examples for laws about passenger protection and tests by consumer protection
organizations.
OBD: Offset deformable barrier test; see Section 7.24
FF: full frontal test; see Section 7.2.3
For a vehicle to be registerd in different countries it needs to be able to pass each of the
country specific crash tests (Figure 7.7). This is linked to a significant overhead due to
the multitude of different regulations. The influence of crash disciplines on the design
of the vehicle structure can be shown, for example, using the small-overlap test, which
has been performed by the American organization IIHS since 2012 (IIHS 2014). In this
not-yet determined by law test procedure, the vehicle collides with a rigid barrier
going 64 km=h with a 25% overlap. The new testing procedure hit the German vehi-
cle manufacturers among others unprepared and at first resulted in unexpectedly bad
performance of the German premium vehicles, which are otherwise deemed espe-
cially safe (IIHS 2012). Following this, the crash discipline was promptly included in
the test portfolio of the manufacturers and the measures derived from it were swiftly
implemented.
Due to the aforementioned reasons, the development of the car body in terms
of its structural stiffness depends largely on the requirements resulting from the ac-
tual accident. For example, this can be recognized by a kind of accident that often
occurs in the United States and was thus responsible for the establishment of a spe-
cial testing procedure. In parts of the United States, there have been many acci-
dents recorded with roll-overs at roads without planks in embankments close to the
Euro NCAP US NCAP IIHS
0° 0°
50 56
km/h km/h
Hybrid III Hybrid III Hybrid III Hybrid III

5% 5% 50% 5%
Hybrid III
5%
ODB ODB Flat 150

40% 40% SOB 25%
R=150 mm
0° 0° 0°
64 64 64
km/h km/h km/h
Hybrid III Hybrid III Hybrid Hybrid

50% 50% III III
Q3 Q1.5 50% 50%
Q6 Q10
WS
50% 62 ES=2 re SID IIs
km
/h/
27
°
50 km/h 90°
ØR+150 mm 50 km/h
55 km/h 90°
AE-MDB, 1300 kg
MDB, 1358 kg MDB IIHS, 1500 kg
Q1.5 Q10
Q3 Q6 SID IIs SID IIs
Far side occupant protection
32 km/h 32 km/h
WS SID IIS
75° 75°
50%
Rigid 254 mm Pole Rigid 254 mm Pole
Figure 7.7: Schematic illustration of a few international crash disciplines (Companion 2016).
road. Thus, the test procedures relevant to registration were supplemented by roof
impression tests and roll-over tests. In Europe, those tests are not used as these
kinds of accidents are statistically rarer. The respective requirement catalogues
thus are primarily focused on present and actual accident statistics. The necessary
categorization is done by first roughly separating the accident scenarios in frontal,
lateral, and rear impacts. In Germany, the frontal crash is by far the most common
type of collision (Figure 7.8).
The seemingly obvious assumption that this kind of accident also causes the
most fatalities can however not be confirmed by statistics, as shown in Figure 7.9.
Roll-over
Side crash 2%
23 %
Frontal crash
51%
Rear crash
24%
Figure 7.8: Distribution of types of accidents in Germany (Destatis 2012).
Rear crash
4%
Roll-over
11 %
Under tunneling
12 % Side crash
45 %
Frontal crash
28 %
Figure 7.9: Distribution of fatalities per type of accident (Destatis 2012).
The actually biggest risk results from lateral collisions. Here, the passengers are
exposed to especially high loads because the missing deformation path (crumple
zone) makes it hard to protect them (see Section 7.2).
7.2 The role of the vehicle structure
The design of a vehicle structure with regard to the reduction of the ramifications of
accidents is extremely difficult. As in different areas of the vehicle body, the difficulty
results from the fact that the requirements are often in conflict with other require-
ments. In this case, these are, for example, packaging, design, or other criteria. Even
in the area of passive and active safety, such as the partner protection (especially the
protection of pedestrians), conflicting demands arise. This leads to different develop-
ment goals that need to be consolidated:
– At least parts of the structure need to be so rigid that passengers have sufficient
survival space available.
– On the other hand, the structure needs to be able to absorb a great amount of
energy in a given period of time such that the deceleration load can be kept
sufficiently small for passengers.
– The requirements of insurance companies, which have an interest to minimize
repair cost resulting from smaller collisions, need to be taken into consider-
ation as well (RCAR 2011).
The latter requirement, for example, leads to designs in which frontal structural ele-
ments are cascaded with increasing stiffness. This increasing longitudinal stiffness
ensures that deformations only occur in the outer area, which can be repaired cost
effectively. In large collision velocities, this design however wastes deformation path,
as the front elements with the necessary low stiffness succumb to smaller forces than
would otherwise be possible. Furthermore, this design also makes the recognition of
the severity of a collision more difficult for the airbag control unit (Heide 2014).
Additionally, starting in the early 1970s with the first oil crisis, the demand for
a reduction of vehicle mass to reduce fuel consumption arose. Since the 1990s, this
demand has further been strengthened by legislators with limits for CO2 emissions
(see Chapter 6). The emission of CO2 is directly related to fuel consumption, which
is decisively impacted by vehicle mass. Comfort and safety systems, on the other
hand, increase the fuel consumption due to their weight and energy consumption.
Therefore, all vehicle manufacturers are eager to reduce vehicle mass if possible.
Depending on vehicle mass and features, a weight saving of 100 kg, the consump-
tion can be decreased by up to 0.5l per 100 km (Schramm and Koppers 2014). What
follows is a trend towards the so-called lightweight design. The implementation of
further reducing vehicle mass can, on the one hand, be achieved by modern con-
struction, and, on the other hand, by using alternative materials such as aluminum,
high-strength lightweight steel, or carbon fiber-reinforced plastics. The material
lightweight design offers the bigger potential of the two measures. Today, signifi-
cant weight reductions of the body can be achieved using the measures mentioned.
Materials such as carbon are comparatively expensive and are thus only de-
ployed hesitantly. Next to the expensive primary materials, the primary cost driver is
the high cost of production. The use of aluminum, plastics, and magnesium is also
possible, though it also comes with the disadvantage of a much costlier production.
There is thus a different constructive way, which opts for a reduction of materials by
optimizing the structural topology. Here, massive castings are replaced by load-
oriented rib structures and hollow core profiles where possible. Furthermore, wall
thickness is reduced in low-stress areas and stress-free sectors are omitted entirely if
possible. These measures are based on structural or constructive lightweight design
(Friedrich 2013). The measures realized in this regard however must under no cir-
cumstances reduce the passive safety and thus each require a careful mechanical
structure analysis to rule out structural failure. The passenger compartment there-
fore must
– provide a survival space for passengers and thus exhibit a high stiffness in se-
vere accidents, and
– have crumple zones, which break down the kinetic energy uniformly and pas-
senger-friendly by deformation.
Even with the mentioned tensions between different design requirements, modern
vehicle bodies today have reached a level of development, which allows for a direc-
tion of the forces of a crash in a way that the protection for passengers is as good as
possible. Figure 7.10 shows this for a frontal and a lateral crash using the example
of the E-Class introduced in 2016 (W213).
Figure 7.10: The flow of forces (light arrows) in the body during a frontal collision (left) and a lateral
collision (right) © Daimler AG.
Next to the optimal deformation of the body to deflect the energy in collisions, the
use and the correct deployment of the restraint systems such as airbag and belt pre-
tensions are important. Here, on the one hand the optimal placement of crash sen-
sors and, on the other hand, the signal transmission characteristics of the structural
elements play a significant role. The structure of the body thus should provide ac-
celeration signals that are easy to interpret to definitely distinguish a park bump
from a critical accident.
Next to a statement about the deformation behavior of the vehicle structure,
the deformation behavior and the crash signal transmission must be analyzed. In
the prototype phase, cost- and time-intensive crash tests are carried out, and during
the construction phase, simulations with finite elements are run.
On the other hand, during the concept phase or the predevelopment, neither
hardware nor CAD data (Computer Aided Design) are regularly available to design
simulations or component tests that are adequately detailed. That is why other ap-
proaches have been suggested.
During the concept phase, it is often necessary to quickly gain insights about
the signal curve and to derive from it design criteria for new structures. To this end,
a multibody model was developed in Heide (2014), which describes the essential
elements of the vehicle front sufficiently accurate to credibly simulate signal curves
depending on the type of crash. The choice of abstraction level here depends on the
physical requirements based on the findings of a data analysis. To this end, at first,
a typical (filtered) acceleration progression is considered over time (Figure 7.11). In
the figure, there are points of time marked during with the deformation of single
body parts begins (change of event).
1 2 Event change
am am
Acceleration
m l be l be Crash signal
bea bo
x ina ina
ss ud ud
Cro
sh git git
Cra Lon Lon
Time
Figure 7.11: Typical course of acceleration during a frontal crash (Heide 2014).
During collisions, different kinds of typical impact are distinguished:

– frontal crash,
– lateral impact,
– rear impact, and
– roll-over.
7.2.1 Example frontal crash
In the following example of a frontal crash, some typical kinds of crash are de-
scribed that are to be represented by the crash tests (Figure 7.12).
7.2.2 AZT/RCAR test
The AZT/RCAR test is an “insurance” test established by the “Allianz-Zentrum für

Technik,” in order to estimate the repair required for light rear-end collisions and to
thus better classify them. This type of damage test, also called repair crash, is exe-
cuted with a collision velocity of approximately 15 km=h against a hard barrier with
a degree of coverage of 40% (Figure 7.12). In such light collisions, there must not be
AZT ODB FF
10o
Figure 7.12: Typical accident scenarios for the frontal structure.
any costly damage to the carriage or the restraint systems. One consequence of this
requirement is that restraint systems must not be activated. Thus, the minimum
trigger level must be above the deceleration curve of this repair test. Despite the
unilateral load, there must not be any damage to the longitudinal structure to the
body and the parts in the forebody. In 2006, the repair test requirements have been
tightened further by adding an additional 10 barrier.
7.2.3 FF (full frontal)
In a full-frontal crash, a vehicle hits a rigid obstacle with the entire front. Depending
on the respective regulations, this high-speed crash is operated at collision velocities
between 50 and 56km=h. In the United States, Japan, and China, this crash scenario
is part of the standard portfolio, while it is not tested in Europe.
7.2.4 ODB (offset deformable barrier)
The offset deformable barrier (ODB) test with a deformable barrier is both part of the
European frontal collision regulations and an integral part of international test proce-
dures. The frontal part of the barrier used consists of a soft aluminum honeycomb
structure. The rear part consists of a massive block of concrete. This crash structure
imitates the deformation behavior of a second vehicle as a collision partner. The cov-
erage ratio of 40% initiates an offset crash as the offset frontal crash is the most often
recorded traffic accident with personal injury according to accident statistics.
This and further standardized procedures make it possible to gain insights dur-
ing early stages of development of a vehicle into the deformation behavior and the
signal transmission of the vehicle structure in different load situations. That way,
potential vulnerabilities can be recognized early on and corrected if necessary.
7.3 Basic course of a frontal collision
Fundamentally, three distinct and consecutive phases can be distinguished in a col-

lision crash:
– the initiation of impact (precrash),
– the collision, and
– the crash consequences (postcrash).
7.3.1 Physical considerations concerning the frontal crash
In the following, only the frontal crash is subject of a fundamental physical analy-
sis. The lateral crash is subject of different rules due to the completely different con-
ditions of the deformation behavior. First, it is assumed that the kinetic energy
existing before the collision is completely dissipated during the collision. In this
case, the existing kinetic energy at the start of the crash is completely converted
into deformation energy during the crash. In the following, the collision is viewed
as a classic shock operation according to NEWTON’s law of impact and the state at
the start of the collision in t = 0 is compared to the state after the collision in t = tend .
In this case, the state can each be described by the impulse I = mv. One has
ð
tend
ΔI = I ðtend Þ − I ð0Þ = a
FDef ðτÞ + F a ðτÞ dτ (7:1)
t=0
a
with the deformation force FDef and all other external forces F a , which are tempo-
rally variable during
the crash, and which therefore need to be integrated over
a
time. Assuming FDef F a and a crash duration Δt approaching zero, as well as
neglecting the temporal development of the deformation force, eq. (7.1) can thus be
formulated to
ΔI = I ðtend Þ − I ð0Þ = m1 ðvend − v0 Þ, (7:2)
with m1 being the mass of the first crash partner.

When now considering two crash partners that move with the velocities
0
v1 and 0 v2 before the crash and e v1 and e v2 after (Figure 7.13), the conservation
of momentum ensures
ΔI1 = ΔI2 ) m1 e v1 + m2 e v2 = m1 0 v1 + m2 0 v2 (7:3)

7.3 Basic course of a frontal collision 331
!1 !2
1 2
Figure 7.13: Frontal collision of two vehicles.
as well as from NEWTON’s law of impact for the partially elastic crash with the coef-
ficient of impact2 ε:

e
v1 − e v2 = − ε 0 v1 − 0 v2 . (7:4)
Equations (7.3) and (7.4) are two linear equations with the two unknown factors of
e
v1 and e v2 . After several transformations to solve for the first crash partner, the
equation
m2 0
e
v1 = 0 v1 − v1 − 0 v2 ð1 + εÞ (7:5)
m1 + m2
arises and correspondingly for the second crash partner

m 1 0
e
v2 = 0 v2 − v2 − 0 v1 ð1 + εÞ. (7:6)
m1 + m2
From this relationship, each velocity changes can be derived during the collision.
One has
m 2 0
Δv1 = e v1 − 0 v1 = − v1 − 0 v2 ð1 + εÞ (7:7)
m1 + m2
and
m 1 0
Δv2 = e v2 − 0 v2 = − v2 − 0 v1 ð1 + εÞ. (7:8)
m1 + m2
For the loss of kinetic energy during the impact arises

1 1 1 0 2 1
ΔE = e E − 0 E = m1 e v12 + m2 e v22 − m1 v1 + m2 0 v22 (7:9)
2 2 2 2
and with eqs. (7.5) and (7.6) the relationship

1 m1 m2 0 2
ΔE = v1 − 0 v2 1 − ε 2 . (7:10)
2 m1 + m2
2 Also called the coefficient of restitution.

In a collision with a rigid barrier, for example, in eq. (7.5) m1 = m, m2 ! ∞, e v1 = v,

and e v2 = 0. This results in
1
e
v1 = − vε and ΔE = mv 2 1 − ε 2 . (7:11)
2
The calculated loss ΔE of kinetic energy in both vehicles is transformed during the
collision in form of conversion work at the vehicles and heat. The latter can be ne-
glected below, that is, it is
ð
tend
ΔE ≈ − Wdef = − a
Fdef ðτÞdτ. (7:12)
t=0
For the temporal force development Fdef a

ðtÞ, only qualitative statements can be
made at this time (see also Figure 7.11).
7.3.2 Parameters for accident severity
In order to assess the accident severity, a series of benchmarks can be utilized that
can be determined using the parameters calculated in Section 7.3.1. Here, it is hy-
pothesized that for each of the chosen indicators, the damage presented is similar.
7.3.2.1 EBS (equivalent barrier speed)

In the criterion of the equivalent barrier speed (EBS), the impact velocity to a flat,
rigid barrier is used for comparison, in which the same change of form work Wdef is
done as in the real accident.
7.3.2.2 ETS (equivalent test speed)

The measure equivalent test speed (ETS) corresponds to the impact velocity to a
suitable, fixed or movable, barrier, in which the same change of form work is done
as in the real accident. Here, it is assumed that the damages arising can represent
those created in the real accident.
7.3.2.3 EES (energy equivalent speed)

The criterion energy equivalent speed (EES) is based on the impact velocity to an
arbitrary fixed obstacle in which the same change of form work is done as in the
real accident. The velocity vEES is then calculated as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Wdef
vEES = 2 . (7:13)
m
7.3.2.4 Change of velocity Δv

The change of velocity criterion is based on the difference between collision and
discharge velocity.
7.3.2.5 Ride-down effect

The ride-down effect allows a statement about the extent in which the passenger
protection systems are effective during an accident (see Section 7.4.1).
Using the maximum deformation path smax of the vehicle, the deformation path
of the vehicle sRD at time tRD from when the restraint of the passengers comes into
effect it is calculated to
smax − sRD
RDE = 100%. (7:14)
smax
A value of 100% means that the deceleration of the passengers begins at the same
time as the deceleration of the vehicle at t = 0. Correspondingly, a value of 0% means
that the passenger has not experienced any deceleration due to the restraint systems
until the time of maximum vehicle deformation.
7.4 Restraint systems
Restraint systems are used with the objective to keep the forces acting on the pas-
sengers during an accident as low as possible. This is achieved by controlling the
depletion of the passengers’ kinetic energy. In modern vehicles several different
passenger protection systems are used (Figure 7.14):
Data
Roof airbag leads Side airbag
Out-of-position
sensor
Front passenger’s
airbag
Belt
Precrash Pretensioner
sensor
Driver’s
airbag
Side airbag
sensors
Up-front- Control
sensors unit
Figure 7.14: Typical equipment of restraint systems in a motor vehicle.

– seat belts with pretensioners and force limiters,

– front, side, and roof airbags, and
– roll-over protection systems.
The greatest protection is offered by the seat belts as they alone take on approxi-
mately 50 − 60 % of the passenger’s kinetic energy (Bosch, Reif et al. 2014) and fur-
thermore prevent the ejection of passengers during a roll-over.
Optimal results can be reached using a suitable combination of the effect of belt
and airbag systems. This requires a network of the individual protection systems
(Figure 7.15), as well as a careful coordination of the trigger times for each protection
system (Figure 7.16).
Airbag system
Igniter Airbag
Crash Micro
sensors controller
Vehicle
occupants
Belt system Belt
tensioner
Seat belts
Limiter
Figure 7.15: Fundamental function and network scheme of a restraint system.
7.4.1 Seat belts and pretensioners
Seat belts protect passengers by letting them take part in the deceleration of a vehicle
during an accident as soon as possible. By doing this, the forward motion of the pas-
sengers is supposed to be limited as much as possible to avoid a collision with parts
of the interior or the windshield. The basic sequence of passengers’ forward velocity
and displacement during a frontal collision is shown in Figure 7.16. Without interfer-
ence of the seat belts, the passengers would move forward unabated and subsequently
hit parts of the interior of the vehicle (dotted line). With seat belt and airbag, the
movement of the passenger is decelerated early, and the forward movement is thus
inhibited (solid line).
A B C D
A impact 100
50
B actuation of belt tensioner and airbag
Occupant forward displacement s/cm

C belt tightened
40 D airbag filled 80
)
km
h
s
Occupant velocity 󰜈 /(
30 60
󰜈
Without
20 restraint system 40
s
10 With restraint 20
system
0 20 40 60 80
Time t / ms
Figure 7.16: Delay and forward movement of a passenger during a frontal crash.
Today’s vehicles are usually supplied with three-point belts with automatic retrac-
tor. The buckle is attached to the seat in adjustable seats; the retractor is connected to
the B- or C-pillar (Figure 7.14). Belt pretensioners support the protective effect of belts
by largely eliminating the usually existing belt slack. Some of the belt slack is caused
by the passenger. Especially winter clothing but also other circumstances that prevent
the belt from lying flat on the passenger’s body are typical reasons. Additional belt
slack arises due to the so-called film reel effect and stretch of the belts (Kurutas 2011).
During the impact, the pretensioners pull the belts closer around the body of the pas-
senger and thus keep the upper body as close to the seat back as possible. The maxi-
mum forward movement with tightened belts is at approximately 2 cm; the procedure
of tightening takes between 5 and 10 ms (Bosch, Reif et al. 2014).
Belt pretensioners are used not only for frontal impact but also increasingly for
side impacts. Shoulder pretensioners and/or belt buckle pretensioners are used.
The combined and coordinated use of both systems offers the best protection.
Shoulder pretensioners are activated pyrotechnically. Here, a propelling charge is
electronically ignited whose released gas load turns the belt roller via a piston and
a steel cable (Figure 7.17). Today’s belt pretensioners allow a pull-back of the belt
of 12 cm in 10 ms. The ignition of the belt pretensioners is irreversible due to the
pyrotechnical release and thus must be safeguarded using an appropriate algo-
rithm in order to distinguish between, for example, running over a curb and crashing
into a rigid obstacle. Before an accident (precrash), reversible, electronically powered

belt tensioners have been used for a few years, which can be triggered, for example,
by a recognized skidding of the vehicle (Kurutas, Elsäßer et al. 2006, Kurutas 2011).
Belt
Piston
Squib Cylinder
Ignition lead
Propellant
charge Steel cable
Belt reel Figure 7.17: Shoulder belt tensioners

according to Bosch, Reif et al. (2014).
To avoid injuries of passengers caused by belts and tensioners, excessive accelera-

tion peaks must be avoided. To this end, a belt force limiter is used that increases
the length of the belt once a predetermined force of the belt is reached. This is
reached by either implementing appropriate deformation elements into the reels or
by implementing tear seems into the belts.
7.4.2 Airbag systems
7.4.2.1 Front airbag

Above a certain speed, even a seat belt in combination with a tensioner cannot pre-
vent the passenger from hitting, for example, his/her head on the dashboard or the
steering wheel. Therefore, the effect of seat belts is complemented by front airbags.
These are usually combined and coordinated with the belt systems and ensure an ab-
sorption of passenger movement, so that even at higher velocities, the probability of
fatal injuries can be reduced.
The airbags are generally controlled by a central control unit. The ignition sig-
nal is triggered based on the acceleration signals measured by crash sensors. Then,
pyrotechnically operated gas generators blow up the driver and passenger airbag
within few milliseconds. The airbag is controlled so that it is fully inflated before
the passenger gets in contact with it. In the ongoing course of the crash, the airbag
partially deflates, thus absorbing the kinetic energy of the passenger with noncriti-
cal acceleration and force figures.
The airbag has to be fully inflated before the driver’s displacement reaches ap-
proximately 12.5 cm. Given an impact at 50 km/h onto a rigid obstacle, this leads to
a total time of about 40 ms after impact. The decision whether the ignition of an air-
bag is necessary or not needs to be taken within 10 − 15 ms after the impact. Until
then, the crash needs to be recognized and analyzed by the algorithm. This leaves
another approximately 30 − 35 ms for the airbag to fully unfold. After another
80 − 100 ms, the airbag has emptied through the outlet openings. The entire process
from impact to standstill of the vehicle thus only takes approximately 120 150 ms.
The mentioned values are an example for the driver’s airbag. For the passenger side,
the values concerning the ignition decision are comparable, while the filling time for
the (larger) airbag on the passenger side is slightly higher with approximately 50 ms.
To prevent injuries of passengers that are “out of position” (e.g., are leaning
too far forward or infants in rear-facing child seats), the ignition of the frontal air-
bag and its inflation take place in situation-dependent manner. To this end, meas-
ures of interior observation and seat occupancy detection are used (see Section 7.5).
7.4.2.2 Side airbag

Side airbags protect against the consequences of a side crash. They inflate, for ex-
ample, for head protection along the roof section (e.g., inflatable tubular systems,
window bags, inflatable curtains), the front door, or the backrest (thorax bags,
upper body protection). The timely release of the side airbags is even more difficult
than in the front part due to the missing crumple zone and the small distance be-
tween the passenger and the side parts of the vehicle structure. In lateral crashes
there is thus only a time of approximately 5 − 10 ms for the activation of the protec-
tive measures. The inflation time of the approximately 12 l thorax bags may not ex-
ceed 10 ms.
7.4.2.3 Airbag control unit

In addition to sensors (acceleration, pressure, and sound sensors) and actuators (gas
generators), the airbag control unit is an indispensable component of a restraint sys-
tem. Typical functions may include:
– collision or roll-over detection by analyzing the sensor signals,
– control of the restraint systems,
– separation of the battery, and
– turning off the fuel supply and triggering of an emergency call.
Besides to the typical design using a central control unit, networked systems are
used that are distributed onto multiple devices with different functions.
The main components of a central control unit are as follows (Figure 7.18):
– microcontroller with operating system, trigger algorithm, diagnosis, and so on,
– a redundant backup path (e.g., implemented as a logic circuit or microcontroller),
– internal sensors,
– energy supply,
Energy
Energy supply Redundant safety path Mechanic
reserve
switches
Power net
Amplifiers
Microcontroller for
External ignition
crash Input stages Operating system
Trigger algorithm circuits
sensors and
ETC
actuators
Other Ignition circuits

sensors Internal sensors and actuators
Communication
interface
Bus system Crash Roll-over
Figure 7.18: Basic construction of a central airbag control unit according to Reif (2014).
– energy reserve,
– bus coupling unit,
– redundant power amplifiers for ignition circuits and actuators, and
– inputs for external sensors and switches.
Furthermore, a communication interface allows the propagation of the event of an

accident to other vehicle systems. With this, further measures can be initiated, such
as the control of displays in the electronic instrument cluster, the transmission of
diagnostic information, warning lights, and so on. Modern vehicles also use auto-
matic crash notification signals to initiate an automatic emergency call.
7.4.2.4 Gas generators

The gas generator is responsible for producing of gas and for filling the airbag
within only a few milliseconds (Schlott 1996). The gas generators are usually con-
structed cylindrically and contain pyrotechnical propellants to create the blowing
agent for the airbags, which are activated by an electrical ignition element (firing
pellet (Figure 7.19). The driver’s airbag, for example, which is built into the wheel,
has a volume of approximately 60 l and the passenger airbag built into the glove
box has a volume of 120 l. Both are fully filled within approximately 30 ms after the
ignition by the gas generator. However, there are also other sizes of airbags that
vary depending on different criteria; see Section 7.4.2.5.
The gas generator consists of a combustion chamber made of aluminum or
steel that absorbs the pyrotechnical propellant. The propellant is inserted in the
shape of pressed pellets in order to offer a surface area that is as large as possible.
The gas generated during the burn is led into the cushion through corresponding
Airbag
Metal housing
Discharge
openings Ignition mixture
Propellant in Igniter with

pill form squib
Figure 7.19: Cylindrical gas generator (schematic diagram).
holes. The propellant is ignited by means of resistance wire that is coated with a
pyrotechnical primary charge.
The ignition of the propellants in the seat belt pretensioners works similarly.
The gas generators fill each respective gas cylinder.
Next to the classic gas generators, there are also concepts for hybrid gas gener-
ators. These consist of a combination of propellant and pressure cylinder. For this,
a pressure cylinder filled with a gas mixture, which is under 250 bar of pressure, is
opened with a propellant. The escaping gas that is cooled due to the loss of pres-
sure is then heated by the ignited propellant during the transition into the airbag
(Schlott 1996).
7.4.2.5 Airbags
The airbag or air sack is the actual namesake of the airbag system. Airbags are
available in various shapes and sizes. Next to circular shapes on the driver and rect-
angular shapes on the passenger side (Figure 7.21), there is a variety of different
shapes used in the side and head area (Figure 7.20).
Besides various geometric designs, there are also very different sizes of air-
bags. In the front area, the size classes “Euro-size,” “Mid-size,” and “Full-size”
have emerged. These terms describe the size of the airbags that are dependent on
the constructive conditions of the vehicle body, the power, and design of the gas
generator and especially the protection objective. Historically, the differences in
the volume of the airbags used are based on different regulations and protection
philosophies of the manufacturers, especially in the United States and Europe. In
the United States, airbags have been used as standalone restraint systems (“Full-
size” airbag), while the airbag (“Euro-size” airbag) in Europe has been imple-
mented as a supplement to the safety belt. Thus, airbag volumes from 25 to 35 l on
the driver’s and approximately 60 l on the passenger’s side were common. This
Front passenger's airbag
Driver's airbag Head airbags
Side airbags
Figure 7.20: Airbag system with front, side, and head airbags © BMW AG.
Cover passenger
Ignition leads airbag
Airbag control
unit
Figure 7.21: Driver’s and front passenger’s airbag.
development seems to be moving toward a state in which airbag volumes (mid-size

airbags) from 45 to 60 l on the driver and 80 to 120 l on the passenger side are
used (Kramer 2013).
7.4.2.6 Airbag cover

The interface between the airbag module with gas generator and airbag, and the
passenger compartment is the airbag cover panel. The challenges in creating this
interface lay in the requirement for a light and defined ripping during the ignition
of the airbag, on the one hand, and the fit of the cover to the individual design of
the interior of the vehicle (Schlott 1996).
7.4.3 Trigger sensors and algorithms
The accelerations during an accident are measured using one or more longitudinal
and lateral measuring sensors, called trigger sensors. The total change in velocity is
then calculated from the acceleration values. The evaluation of lateral acceleration is
also helpful in a frontal crash to recognize, for example, angular and offset crashes.
Today, micromechanical acceleration sensors are generally used that are either
built directly into the airbag control unit or a sensor module. These sensors, how-
ever, detect a collision at a certain delay because an acceleration of the passenger
compartment is delayed due to the deformation of the front of the vehicle.
Therefore, satellite sensors are furthermore partially implemented in the front of
the car (the so-called up-front sensors) and thus enable a trigger decision at a very
early point in time (Figure 7.14).
Satellite sensors are also implemented in the side, which can be based on dif-
ferent physical principles. In addition to acceleration sensors, there are sensors that
recognize, for example, pressure changes in the cavity of the doors, or recently also
measure body sound changes.
Figure 7.22: Airbag control unit with crash sensors © BMW AG.
The detection of the time of a collision must be supplemented by an evaluation of

the type and severity of an accident. This means that, for example, edge climbs,
curb crossings, or potholes must not trigger the restraint systems. To this end, the
signals collected by the sensors are first prepared and processed by interpreting
algorithms (Figure 7.23) that are parameterized using the data from corresponding
crash tests and simulations.
Filtered crash signal

t
Threshold t
a t
Lookup table dv dv Signal balance

Crash signal
t t
a
a dv
Integrated crash signal

t
dv
Figure 7.23: General sequence of crash detection (Heide, Schramm et al. 2009, Heide 2014).
The algorithms for front and lateral impacts generally differ. For vehicles with roll-
over recognition, an additional roll-over algorithm is run.
The inputs for the front crash algorithm mainly consist of the signals of the cen-
tral acceleration sensors in longitudinal direction, which are generally integrated
into the control unit (see Figure 7.22), and the satellite sensors, which are possibly
mounted to the front of the vehicle. The signals placed in the interior capture the de-
lays that the passenger compartment and thus the passengers are exposed to. The
signal of the satellite sensors3 detects the acceleration of the front of the vehicle. The
severity of the accident and possibly the direction of the impact as well as the cover-
age of the impact area can be calculated using the difference of intensity and time of
the different sensor signals.
Algorithms for the recognition of a lateral impact use the signals of the internal
sensors that measure lateral acceleration and the signals of the pressure sensors in
the doors and the acceleration sensors placed in the area of the crumple zones.
Due to the much smaller crumple zones at the side of the vehicle, the requirements
for shorter trigger times are much higher here than in the front. Generally, the
preparation and evaluation of the signals correspond to the approach of the front.
Depending on the kind of crash, typical trigger times for a lateral crash are within
4−15 ms (Reif 2014).
The fact that the trigger decision needs to be made as early as possible during
the accident is valid for all kinds of accidents. One challenge in this is that during
the early phase of an accident, the acceleration shows only low numbers of g forces.
3 Also known as up-front sensors.

Over the course of the accident however, accelerations between 100 g (in the central
control unit) or 500 g in satellite sensors are possible. In so-called no-fire situations
such as driving over high curbs at higher velocities, there are however larger accel-
eration peaks during which the systems must not be triggered (Reif 2014). For this
reason, further criteria are included in the trigger decision.
The triggering of the components of the restraint systems are described here
using the example of a frontal crash. The decision of whether the restraint systems
are triggered generally has to be made within approximately 10 − 20 ms. The deci-
sion needs to be made using the signals available from the built-in sensors. One
example of such a signal is shown in Figure 7.23. The acceleration course mirrors
the main load paths and the collaboration of the individual structural components
as shown in Figure 7.24.
Passenger
Rear part compartment
100 longitudinal
Deformation force/kN
Front part beam

80 longitudinal
Panel and foam
beam
60 Crash-
absorber
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Deformation/mm
Figure 7.24: Deformation sequence of the main load paths (Heide 2014).
The acceleration signal first needs to be filtered to remove nonrelated vibration fre-
quencies. The crash signal is integrated to calculate the reduction in velocity.
In a side crash, the conditions are fundamentally different from those in a frontal
crash due to the missing crumple zone. Therefore, other measures are required here.
To this end, the lateral structures are designed to be especially robust. Additionally,
for example, pressure sensors are built into the doors that send a signal to the airbag
control unit once a certain threshold is exceeded. This direct crash recognition in the
outer side structure allows for an activation of all required restraint and safety sys-
tems, such as side and head airbags as well as belt pretensioners as quickly as possi-
ble. Doing this, the time between the start of the collision and any contact to
passengers is used optimally.
7.5 Passenger detection
In order to avoid the dangers resulting from bad positioning of passengers, on the
one hand, and unnecessary damages to the vehicle due to the ignition of an airbag,
on the other hand, modern vehicles are equipped with sensors that, for example,
recognize the occupancy status of a seat. To this end, the ignition of an airbag de-
pends on whether a seat is occupied by a passenger. Modern vehicles measure the
weight of each passenger to determine whether each seat is occupied. Beyond the
recognition of occupancy, settings of the airbag ignition are changed depending on
the weight classification. Figure 7.25 shows an example of a sensor mat that is di-
rectly integrated into the seat and that allows a corresponding recognition.
Furthermore, there are other transponder-based techniques for the recognition of
child seats, which also recognize the direction of installation of the seat. For further
information, refer to corresponding specialized literature; see, for example, Kramer
(2013).
Sensor pad
Figure 7.25: Seat occupancy recognition (source: BMW).
7.6 Vehicle roll-over
Besides the protective measures taken for front and lateral impacts, the protection for
roll-over accidents is very important. On the one hand, the protective and supportive
roof structure during roll-overs is missing, for example, in convertibles, which must
be compensated by safety bars or similar mechanisms in this vehicle type. On the
other hand, for example, SUVs show a greater tendency for roll-overs than conven-
tional vehicles due to the higher center of gravity. For this kind of accident, recogni-
tion concepts are used that measure the rotation around the longitudinal axis using a
yaw rate sensor, and additionally measure the acceleration in lateral and vertical di-
rection in order to check the plausibility of the ignition decision as well as help recog-
nize the kind of roll-over (embankment, slope, curb impact, or soil trip roll-over)
(Bardini, Hiller et al. 1996, Bardini, Hiller et al. 1997, Bardini 2008, Schramm, Hiller
et al. 2018).
Depending on the roll-over situation, rotation rate, and lateral acceleration, the
protective measures need to be adapted to the situation. The ignition is triggered
after 30–3,000 ms. The roll-over plays a special role compared to other kinds of acci-
dents in some respects. This is especially valid concerning the safe and timely detec-
tion of the vehicle roll-over event. For frontal or lateral collisions, the recognition of
the accident can be based on the measured high acceleration of the vehicle. The rec-
ognition of a crash is then almost exclusively based on the significant decelerations
of the vehicle resulting from the abrupt slow-down. The situation is different however
in the timely recognition of an impending roll-over. During the time in which the
ignition decision for restraint systems needs to be made, except in the case of a com-
bined accident, there is generally no plastic vehicle deformation information avail-
able. During this time, only dynamic sequences for the recognition of a vehicle roll-
over are available. To this end, an equipment with corresponding sensors is neces-
sary, which has only been available in large-scale production since the late 1980s.
Simulations can be used efficiently and extensively (Bardini 2008).
The first more detailed description of an active roll-over protection system has
been created by Daimler AG (Baumann, Matthias et al. 1989, Bossenmaier and
Brambilla 1989). Shortly afterward, the vehicle manufacturers BMW and Audi have
introduced comparable reversible protection systems in their vehicles. One of the
reasons for the reluctant distribution was the already mentioned fact that sensors
first needed to be made available that were able to reliably and timely detect roll-
over accidents. In 1996, the Robert Bosch GmbH was the first automotive supplier
of a novel sensor concept, that was based on the rotation rate measurement, which
had already been used by ESP systems (Groesch, Mattes et al. 1996).
To analyze the emergence of roll-over accidents, detailed accident data are nec-
essary. The NHTSA4 offers a multitude of different roll-over scenarios, which can be
utilized to identify the circumstances and types of roll-over accidents, which are
consulted in the gathering of field data in the CDS database (Crashworthiness5 Data
System) (Bardini 2008):
– Trip-over occurs when the lateral movement of a vehicle is abruptly slowed or
stopped. This can be caused, for example, by a curb, a pothole, or soft soil that
a wheel is dug in.
4 NHTSA: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

5 Crash consistency: Ability of a vehicle structure to protect passengers during an accident.
– Turn-over occurs when a vehicle rolls over without any outside impact due to
centrifugal forces and without changes in the surface friction of the road. This
type of roll-over is more likely in vehicles with a higher center of gravity than in
common passenger vehicles. It can occur on surfaces such as asphalt, gravel, or
grass.
– Fall-over occurs when a vehicle drives on a sloping surface and the center of
gravity moves outside of the wheel contact points. The main difference to the
turn-over is the existence of a sloping road surface, for example, an embank-
ment or a ditch.
– Flip-over occurs when a vehicle experiences angular momentum along its lon-
gitudinal axis due to contact with a ramp-like object such as a barrier or a
boundary wall.
– Climb-over occurs when a vehicle rises due to a collision with a rigid object
such as a concrete barrier and comes to rest behind it. In contrast to the trip-
over on a curb, the collision object in this kind of accident has a greater height,
which is at least as high as the diameter of the wheel.
– Bounce-over occurs when a vehicle bounces off a rigid object after a collision
and rolls over due to this impact immediately. In contrast to the climb-over, the
vehicle does not surpass the collision object and comes to rest in front of it.
– A collision occurs when a vehicle rolls over directly due to a collision with an-
other vehicle (e.g., in a crossing accident in which a vehicle is rammed laterally
by another).
– End-over-end always occurs when a vehicle primarily rolls over its lateral axis
(pitching movement prevails).
7.6.1 Physical considerations concerning the tipping of vehicles
The roll-over process involves complex interactions of forces both in and to the ve-
hicle. Within the scope of this book, these processes can only be explained using
simple analytical models. To this end, the fundamental mechanical processes are
observed for the quasistatic state of tilting. For a more detailed analysis of the roll-
over process, see Bardini (2008) and Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018).
The simplest approach to analyzing tilting processes is modeling the vehicle as
a rigid body neglecting deformations of the wheels or suspension.
At the moment of the beginning of the side roll-over, the resulting forces are
shown in Figure 7.26, assuming φ = 0. When creating the equilibrium of moments
around the supporting tire contact point A, it follows
bV
mg − hS may = 0. (7:15)
2
S W
ℎ
ℎ
/2
Figure 7.26: Forces during the tipping process of a vehicle.
Assuming that there is no lateral slipping between tire and road surface, the start of
a roll-over can occur when the torque of the lateral force Fy is surpassed by the
aligning torque of the weight force. When assuming a maximum value of g for the
lateral acceleration ay , it is found
bV
SSF = = 1. (7:16)
2hS
The quantity SSF is also called state stability factor. The stability concerning lateral
roll-overs increases with SSF. An SSF < 1 can already lead to a roll-over at a lateral
acceleration of g once a correspondingly large lateral force Fy can be established.
This can occur either due to friction of the tires or due to an obstacle, such as the
edge of a sidewalk.
The SSF underestimates the roll-over potential. Especially rolling of the vehicle
and tire suspension are not considered in this case. This leads to the situation
shown in Figure 7.26. Here, the equilibrium of moments around the outside and,
thus supporting, tire contact point reveals
bV
mg − sinφ ðhS − hr Þ − may ½hr + cosφðhS − hr Þ = 0. (7:17)
2
For a small roll angle φ at the start of the roll-over, the following relationship can
be approximated
bV
g − φ ðhS − hr Þ − ay hS = 0. (7:18)
2
When replacing the roll angle φ by the quotient of the torque of the lateral force
around the tire contact point and the roll elasticity cφ (see Chapter 3), the following
condition arises:
ay bV cφ cφ
= = SSF · . (7:19)
g 2hS mgðhS − hR Þ + cφ mgðhS − hR Þ + cφ
The SSF is decreased by the second factor. Another reduction results from the lat-
eral deformation of the tires due to the corresponding reduction of the track width
(Bardini 2008).
By balancing the kinetic energy that is available for a roll-over, a further ap-
proximation of the roll-over potential of vehicles can be made. When the observed
vehicle has the lateral velocity vy , the following relationship results from the con-
servation of angular motion concerning the tire contact point at the beginning of
the roll-over:
mvy hS = ΘxA ωx . (7:20)
Here, ΘxA describes the moment of inertia around the tire contact point and ωx the
roll angle velocity. For a roll-over to be possible at all, the rotational energy must at
least suffice to move the center of gravity of the vehicle beyond the tire contact
point. Therefore, the condition
0sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
b 2
1
mg@ h2S + V − hS A = ΘxA ω2x . (7:21)
4 2
must be met.
Inserting eq. (7.20) in (7.21) results in
0sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
b 2
1 m2
mg@ h2S + V
− hS A = vy2 h2S (7:22)
4 2 ΘxA
and finally solving for the lateral velocity, the following condition arises:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1ffi
u 2 2
u2gΘ
u @ bV
− 1A .
xA
vy = CSV = t 1+ (7:23)
mhS 2hS
The acronym CSV stands for critical sliding velocity. If the lateral velocity of the ve-
hicle exceeds this value, a rollover can occur, for example, when hitting a curb.
Typical values for passenger cars are between 17 and 25 km/h (Bardini 2008).
8 Automotive electrical system
The electrical system of a motor vehicle consists of a variety of electrical and elec-
tronic components. The first electrical powernets in automobile history only con-
sisted of the generator (alternator), battery, electrical starter, lighting, as well as the
necessary wiring harness. Even today the most common assumption of the defini-
tion “electrical powernet” is only connected to the pure power supply of a vehicle.
Since modern vehicles are built of a variety of electronic components in addition to
the electrical ones, the classic terminology is no longer sufficient. On the contrary,
it is generally necessary to differentiate between the electrical powernet (for the
power supply of the electrical components) and the information wiring system (for
the communication between different components). For communication between
individual components and electronic control units (ECUs), a variety of different
bus systems are now used for motor vehicles.
As early as 2003, the share of electrical and electronic components in relation to
the total manufacturing costs of a vehicle was around 30% (Otterbach and Schütte
2004). In addition to that the allocated development costs for the software required in
the vehicle have to be included as well. All in all, these figures add up to more than
one-third of the total cost of a vehicle. Especially in recent years, not least due to the
discussion about electric mobility and the significant enhancements of driver assis-
tance systems, the area of the vehicle’s electrical powernet has become even more in
focus of automotive development. Electrical and electronic components are the main
carriers of the innovations made by the automotive sector today. Frequently, electrifi-
cation forms the foundation to be able to realize the scope of operation we see today.
The requirements of a modern motor vehicle are much more diverse than they were
just a few decades ago. In particular, the demands in terms of comfort and infotain-
ment but also the economy and safety are strong drivers for the further development
of electrical and electronic vehicle systems.
The increase in electrical components in the vehicle has led to the fact that the
entire electrical system of a motor vehicle now has a very high complexity. For ex-
ample, in 1949, the electrical wiring of the Mercedes model 170 V had 40 circuits
with 60 contacts. Due to the many electrical components today’s vehicles have be-
tween 1,000 and 4,000 wires (circuits) with a total length of 2–4 km and a weight of
up to 60 kg (Heuermann and Ernst 2014). Depending on the vehicle condition, re-
peated situations of energy shortage take place. In addition to providing energy for
individual components, the vehicle-wide provision of information (e.g., sensor data)
also comes into focus. Overall, the high complexity and importance of electrical sys-
tems for modern motor vehicles can also be deduced from the fact that more than
one-third of all vehicle breakdowns are caused directly or indirectly by the electrical
system. In addition, if start-up problems are taken into consideration of this statistic
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-008
350 8 Automotive electrical system
as well (Figure 8.1), which are often caused by a discharged battery, 50% of all vehi-
cle breakdowns at least involve electrical or electronic components (ADAC 2009).
Exhaust system Others

2% 14% Other electrics
38%
Clutch/ transmission
5%
Cooling and heating
6%
Fuel injection
system
7%
Wheels and tires

7% Engine Ignition system
8% 13%
Figure 8.1: Statistics on the causes of vehicle failures from the ADAC breakdown statistics 2009
(ADAC 2009).
8.1 Energy powernet
The energy powernet includes all components for the provision, storage, and distribu-
tion of electrical power as well as the electrical consumers in the vehicle. With the
advancing electrification of vehicle systems and their components as well as the intro-
duction of new electrical systems into the motor vehicle, the supply of individual com-
ponents with electrical power in today’s vehicles has become a highly complex task.
8.1.1 History
Until the middle of the last century, the provision of electrical power in motor ve-
hicles was a rather minor function. The average power consumption was only a few
watts and the primary task of the powernet was to supply the starter. During a jour-
ney, only a few consumers, such as headlights, signal lights, or spark plugs, had to
be operated. It was possible to provide the electric power for the starting process
with a 6 V battery. This battery then was recharged while driving by relatively low-
power (DC) generators.
However, 6 V battery used until the 1960s soon proved to be too weak to also
supply any additional consumers in the vehicle. Since then, the 12 V battery (24 V
for trucks) is the dominant powernet source in the car sector. Today’s batteries and
the corresponding alternators can supply a large number of different, sometimes
very powerful, consumers with electrical energy.
By the end of the twentieth century, however, the demand for electrical power
supply had changed dramatically. The introduction of a wide variety of electrical
consumers, some of which have very high-power requirements, into the powernet
has meanwhile led to an average power consumption of up to 3 kW for the opera-
tion of the electrical vehicle components (Figure 8.2).
4.0
Average power requirement / kW
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Figure 8.2: Average electrical power requirement in the motor vehicle according to values of
Wallentowitz and Reif (2008).
If the power peaks are taken into consideration, the very high requirement in terms
of power supply can be recognized more clearly. For some systems, a short-term
power requirement of up to 14 kW may occur (Figure 8.3).
When taking those short-term power peaks into consideration and comparing
them with the power provided by the alternator to the electrical system, it becomes
very clear that the still in use 12 V powernet reaches its limits. The battery must in-
creasingly serve as a power source even while driving, as the alternator cannot pro-
vide all the power. Consistently there are power shortages that can even not be
supplied by the battery and the alternator together. In addition, unfavorable driving
profiles can lead to a negative charge balance, which would mean that the starting
capability of the vehicle cannot be guaranteed in the long term. It has therefore
been observed for quite some time that the electrical consumers in the motor vehi-
cle are regulated by an energy management system in such a way that the function-
ality of the essential components is assured.
Therefore, in the 1990s, an increase in the electrical powernet voltage from 12 to
42 V was discussed (Schöttle, Schramm et al. 1996). The purpose of this new voltage
level was to solve the issue of power shortages of consumers with a very high-power
level. Due to various problems, however, the defined standard of 42 V has never be-
come a standard in worldwide series production.
16
14
Short-term peak power battery
12
Short-term peak power generator
Electrical power / kw
10
0
Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High Equipment rate
2000 2005 2010 Year
Figure 8.3: Accumulating peak power in motor vehicles according to the values of Schöttle and
Threin (2000) and Fabis (2006).
Meanwhile, a standard of 48 V for electrical systems of motor vehicles was in-

troduced. The 48 V powernets are also based on the experience with the (failed) in-
troduction of the 42 V powernets and will probably find themselves in mass
production in the medium term.
In addition to the installed power performance increase, there are also thoughts
about keeping the electrical consumption of electrics/electronics as low as possible in
order to cover the required performance. This is also based on the demand for more
energy-efficient vehicles. An additional consumer with the continuous power con-
sumption of 100 W causes an additional consumption of approximately 0.1 l=100 km
and thus has roughly the same influence as an additional weight of the vehicle of
50 kg (Schramm 2012, Schramm and Koppers 2014).
The powernet is now one of the most expensive parts purchased by the manu-
facturer of a modern motor vehicle. In particular, the many different components
that supply the vehicle’s powernet with electrical power and connect information
technology drive the complexity of the vehicle’s electrical system in modern ve-
hicles. For reasons of efficiency, it has not been useful for some time to use a single
powernet variant per vehicle that supplies all possible components. For a vehicle,
there are often varieties of different powernet variants, which vary widely depend-
ing on how the vehicle is equipped. For example, a vehicle without electric seat
heating does not need the wiring for such a heater. If the corresponding wiring is
not installed, both costs and weight are saved. With the extremely high number of
possible combinations of electrical consumers defined by the customer who has or-
dered the vehicle, it is no longer possible to design a small number of predefined
powernets that ideally cover all possibilities. The latest developments are that a so-
called custom cable harness (CCH) is used. The supplier of the powernet thus sup-
plies the exactly fitting wiring harness for an ordered vehicle configuration. This
configuration could be unique (even for very large vehicle programs). The produc-
tion and logistics of such CCH places very high demands on both the vehicle manu-
facturer and the supplier.
8.1.2 Structure and mode of operation of today’s powernets
The basic structure of the energy powernet has changed little with the introduction
of different voltage levels. Basic components are the energy source (alternator), en-
ergy storage (battery(s)), and a variety of consumers. The basic steps of the energy
flow in the electrical system are shown in Figure 8.4.
Combustion engine Alternartor Cable harness Consumer

ηCE ͌ 10 – 30% ηAl ͌ 40 – 65% ηCH ͌ 90 – 98% ηCH ͌ 10 – 100%
Wme Wel Wel Wef Effective

Fuel
Wch Wme Wel Wel energy
Losses Wel Wel

Wth
Usable energy
Battery
ηBatt ͌ 60 – 85%
Figure 8.4: Energy conversion and flow in the electrical system according to Büchner and
Bäker (2005).
The energy of the motor vehicle1 is still carried predominantly in form of liquid fuel
and is converted inside the internal combustion engine mainly for the purpose of
1 For the purposes of this chapter, vehicles powered by internal combustion engines are regarded
as standard. In the case of electrically powered vehicles, the structure of the vehicle electrical
powernet and thus the energy supply changes in such a way that the conversion of the energy
bound in the fuel into electrical energy by the generator is eliminated.
driving into mechanical energy. The alternator is used to convert this energy for
electrical power requirements into electrical energy. This is then used to supply the
components of the electrical system and to charge the battery sufficiently. Since the
conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy is directly dependent on en-
gine speed, different supply states occur in the vehicle electrical powernet system
depending on the driving condition (Figure 8.5).
Current
Idle rpm speed
Load current
(current on-board
network load)
Supply only by alternator -
battery is charging
Supply only from bat- Supply by alternator and
tery-battery is dis- battery-battery is dis-
charging charging
Alternator rpm
Figure 8.5: Electrical supply conditions in the motor vehicle according to Büchner and Bäker (2005)
and Bosch (2007).
The alternator speed and the required power demand are decisive for the state of
supply in the electrical system. Depending on its speed, the alternator can supply a
maximum current (at a constant voltage of approx. 14 V). If this power is sufficient
to operate at least all consumers, the power surplus that may be present will ensure
that the battery is charged. If the demand for power exceeds the supply of the alter-
nator, the powernet voltage drops to the battery voltage and the battery serves the
difference between the required power demand and the maximum alternator
power. When the engine is at standstill or below a minimum speed (depending on
the alternator control), the battery is the sole source of energy in the electrical sys-
tem (especially the case during starting). This results in the basic conditions of the
powernet, as summarized in Table 8.1.
With the 12 V vehicle electrical system used today, there are sometimes signifi-
cant fluctuations in the vehicle powernet voltage depending on these conditions.
An overview of the different voltage levels is shown in Figure 8.6
Regarding the function of various powernet components, the starting process
(especially when using start–stop systems) often represents an extreme situation,
as the battery terminal voltage is significantly reduced. The starter, which is powered
Table 8.1: Powernet supply states in response to the driving operation.
Vehicle state Alternator Battery mode Charge balance
Standby current (alarm Off Discharge capacity crucial PL > 0

system, access systems, . . .)
Standstill consumers Off Discharge capacity crucial PL > 0

(fan, radio, . . . )
Start Off Discharge internal resistance PL > 0

decisive (maximum battery power)
Idling (small consumers only) Active Load PL < PG
Idling Active Discharge (depending on active PL > PG

electrical consumers)
Driving mode Active Charging PL < PG
Driving with high power Active Discharge PL > PG

(e.g., EPS)
Typical charging
voltage range
Typical discharge
voltage range 14 15 16
12
11
Minimum voltage 9
while driving
6
Maximum voltage in
normal operation
Minimum voltage
at engine start
0 34
Maximum dynamic voltage
peak (load dump)
No polarity reversal
Figure 8.6: Powernet voltage in the 12 V electrical powernet according to the values from
Henneberger (2013).
exclusively by the battery, has such high powers that the first voltage drop in the start-
ing process leads to values of approximately 6 V in the powernet supply. Normally,
this first voltage drop during the starting process only takes a few hundredths of
a second, but in unfavorable vehicle conditions, the battery terminal voltage can drop
to a level that in extreme cases leads to individual components coming out of their
functional voltage range. The flickering of display devices or lighting is just an example
of the effects perceivable by the customer. To prevent such a scenario, voltage support-
ing measures are used in some cases. However, these are avoided as often as possible
for cost reasons.
Depending on the scenario, very different powernet supply voltages (battery
terminal voltage) may occur. Figure 8.6 shows areas of the terminal voltage with
the corresponding operating states. During normal vehicle operation, voltages of
11–12 V usually occur when the engine (alternator) is not running. Usual voltages
during charging (running alternator) are approximately 14 V. However, conditions
of other voltage levels can also occur again and again, usually very briefly. This is
especially the case when high-performance consumers are active.
8.1.2.1 The classic 12 V electrical powernet

As with all common vehicle electrical powernet variants, the alternator (G) is the
only energy source that supplies the electrical current for the consumers (R)
(Figure 8.7). In addition to the required load current, a sufficient charging current
must also be provided for the battery to enable a positive charging balance via a
drive cycle. This ensures sufficient battery charge regardless of driving operation. A
suitable voltage regulation of the alternator reacts to fluctuations in the consump-
tion of electrical power. This keeps the powernet system voltage almost constant.
This ideally constant voltage of approximately 14 V ensures both battery charging
and maximum functional availability of all electrical components.
Line resistance Line resistance
Consumers (R)
Alternator Battery
(G) (B)
…
Figure 8.7: Structure of a classic single-battery electrical powernet, as it occurs in the current
standard 12 V battery form.
If all consumers are considered together, this results in a very simple structure.
According to the node rule, the following applies in a simple single-battery vehicle
powernet (Table 8.2):
Table 8.2: Designations of the currents in the simple

single-battery powernet.
Formula symbol Description
IG Alternator current
IB Battery current (charging current)
IV Sum of all consumer currents
IG = IB + IV (8:1)
If the maximum alternator power is not sufficient to supply all consumers with the
required power, the powernet voltage automatically drops to the level of the battery
voltage. In this case, the battery now acts as an additional energy supplier in the
vehicle electrical system. The battery current (charging current) is then negative
and the battery is getting discharged.
8.1.2.2 Positioning of the battery in the vehicle

Since the battery only needs to be connected to the alternator through the wiring
harness, the position in the vehicle can be freely selected. In passenger vehicles,
the battery can usually be installed in the engine compartment or in the boot. The
choice of suitable positioning is based on various criteria. Some of the criteria are
explained in Table 8.3.
8.1.2.3 A 42 V electrical powernet

In the 1990s, the 42 V powernet power supply system seemed to be a possible suc-
cessor to the still used 12 V system seen as standard (Schöttle, Schramm et al.
1996). As early as the end of the last century, the focus was increasingly shifted to
electrified consumers to be used in motor vehicles and with newly developed elec-
trical systems a large number of new electrical consumers were integrated into the
vehicle’s electrical system. This meant that the limits of the 12 V powernet power
supply seemed to have been reached. The introduction of the significantly higher
voltage level should improve the power supply and thus ensure the functionality of
the electrical systems. In addition, various systems were discussed, which would
inevitably have required an increased voltage level.
Table 8.3: Positioning the battery according to Fabis (2006).
Engine compartment Trunk
Advantages Small cable lengths (alternator to More constant ambient temperatures

battery) ensure good battery charging. lead to a reduction in battery aging
The arrangement ensures a stabilization Additional options for packaging in the
of the powernet system voltage, since engine compartment (space saving)
all consumers are arranged “behind” Improved protection against
the battery. The battery thus smooths environmental influences such as
voltage peaks. contamination and moisture
Optimum starter voltage due to the Potential for optimized weight
short cable lengths from battery to distribution. Axle load optimization
starter (optimized starting capability). particularly useful for heavy engines
In winter operation, the engine waste
heat heats the battery. This has a
positive effect on charging efficiency at
cold temperatures.
Disadvantages High temperatures possible in summer Significantly increased cable lengths

operation. This may lead to outgassing. lead to an increase in cable weight
Reduction in service life due to changing (approx.  kg) and cable losses (both
and unfavorable environmental when charging the battery and
conditions. especially when starting)
Contamination with operating media,
e.g., oil and moisture.
The increased powernet system voltage allows a current that is four times lower
while providing the same power (Figure 8.9). This results in significantly reduced
cable cross sections and higher efficiency. Significantly higher outputs can be
achieved with the same currents. This enables new functionalities.
The continuous further development of the 12 V powernet with the increase of
the available energy (more powerful alternators) and improved energy storage
systems (batteries) as well as the implementation of targeted measures to limit
power consumption have meant that the 12 V power supply systems are still in
use today. With the optimization of the 12 V system additional costs, which would
have been caused by a switch to 42 V systems were not justified, especially since
an application that could not have been operated without a higher voltage level
was not present.2 With a few exceptions, the 42 V system, therefore, has not been
applied to this day.
2 This would have been the case, for example, with the introduction of electromagnetic valve con-
trol. Other applications that require a higher voltage level, such as Xenon headlamps, are supplied
by locally higher voltages.
8.1.2.4 A 48 V electrical powernet

In recent years, discussion about increasing the powernet system voltage came up
again. With the 48 V powernet system, another standard for the vehicle electrical
system has been defined. As with the discussion about the 42 V powernet supply
system, ensuring the functions of innovative and powerful electrical consumers in
the vehicle plays a decisive role here. However, unlike 15 years ago, the reduction
of CO2 emissions is another important aspect and a decisive driver for the develop-
ment of the powernet power supply (Figure 8.8).
40
Percent of the answers given
30
20
10
0
Stricter legislation on Stricter legislation on Meeting new OEM Increased demands on
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide standards the E / E functionality
emissions worldwide emissions in EU in vehicles
Figure 8.8: Drivers for the development of a 48 V powernet (Hornick 2013).
The possibilities of CO2 savings through a more efficient electrical powernet system
and the needs-oriented use of electrical loads are manifold in conjunction with an in-
creased powernet voltage. On the one hand, the new powernet supply voltage allows
the power supply system to be weight-optimized, as the required cable cross sections
can be adapted. On the other hand, systems such as the automatic start–stop system
can be improved even further, thereby the introduction of the 48 V standards play an
important role in complying with the CO2 regulations (ZVEI 2015). The discussion on
electric mobility in particular has also raised public awareness (customer awareness)
of issues such as energy-efficient driving and electrical systems in vehicles.
The definition of a further voltage standard for electrical systems in motor ve-
hicles below 60 V (still permissible contact voltage) has the purpose of achieving
the greatest possible electrical system performance without additional protective
measures. Today’s hybrid vehicles (mild hybrid, see Chapter 6) often use voltages
above the 60 V limit, which makes the entire electrical system expensive. At the
same time, it must be assumed that at approximately 200–300 A via one conductor
the maximum possible current is reached. Figure 8.9 shows the simplified relation-
ship between available system performance for 12 and 48 V system.
1,600
Current / A 1,400
12 V
1,200
48 V
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Power net performance / kW
Figure 8.9: Reduction of the load current with constant powernet power supply.
The significant increase in available system power can be used both for increas-
ing the recuperation power and for boosting (support during acceleration with the
electric motor). The 48 V technology will therefore be used in hybrid systems and
make a considerable contribution to the required CO2 reduction (ZVEI 2015).
The conversion from the current 12 V electrical system to a 48 V electrical sys-
tem will only be possible successively. For this reason, powernet systems with dif-
ferent voltage levels will be available in the medium term. Such systems (as they
also occur in every electrically or partially electrically driven vehicle) already allow
the integration of new components and the associated functionality without de-
manding the completely new development of all (very established and mature)
components. The core of a powernet power system with two voltage levels is a DC/
DC converter that allows energy to be transmitted from one voltage level to the
other and vice versa (Figure 8.10).
The consumers at 48 V level can, as already described, have a significantly
higher power than those at the classic 12 V level. This is particularly interesting
for heating systems but also for systems in the field of driving dynamics (electric
steering, roll stabilization, etc.). Due to the higher performance, these can offer an
extended functional range. However, central components in the 48 V system are
the 48 V battery and the so-called starter generator. The electrical machine in the
48 V system can be used both to start the vehicle and as an alternator (Table 8.4).
The increased power enables very good starting capability, significant power
braking (recuperation) via the alternator and “boosting“ (support during accelera-
tion) (ZVEI 2015).
DC/DC
12 V Consumers
SG 48 V … 12 V
Starter- …
alternator
48 V Consumers
E.G. EPS, heating
Figure 8.10: Structure of a powernet power supply system with two voltage levels.
Table 8.4: Opportunities and risks of a 48 V powernet power supply compared to the usual 12 V
powernet power supply (ZVEI 2015).
Chances Risks
Possibility of CO2 and consumption reduction Initially higher costs due to new components
and a more complex structure
Higher recuperation and powernet power output Increased risk of arcing due to higher voltage
of up to  kW level
Implementation of new functionalities, e.g., in Work with two voltage levels. Risk of short
the area of driver assistance or for energy circuits need for wiring and coordination of both
saving (integration of high-performance voltage levels
consumers)
Potential for weight reduction (even with inertial Additional DC/DC converter with medium to high
extra weight due to the second battery and a power necessary for dual voltage powernet
DC/DC converter) power supply
Integration of established architectures can be Electromagnetic compatibility

used with regard to cost efficiency
No contact protection necessary
8.1.2.5 Electrical powernets in electromobility

The structure of the powernets of electrically powered vehicles is very similar to
those in the previous section. A general distinction is made between the high-voltage
and low-voltage ranges. Both areas are connected by a DC/DC converter. Compared
to the 48 V powernet supply system, the electric drives are operated at significantly
higher voltages. The voltage level therefore is also much higher. The used traction
batteries have voltages of around 400 V. More detailed information to this can be
found in Chapter 6. This high voltage level is required for the high power required to
propel the vehicle.
8.2 Energy storage
Energy storage is one of the central functions of the vehicle’s energy powernet. The
energy storage has the task to supplying all electrical consumers with electrical
power during vehicle standstill (combustion engine off). Furthermore, it has to sup-
ply the starter during the starting process. Very high currents occur for that short
time. Especially in modern motor vehicles, however, the energy storage (battery)
must also serve as a buffer in order to counteract bottlenecks in the supply of con-
sumers with electrical power. The demands on the energy storage system due to the
starting process are fundamentally different from those that come with the supply
of electrical components at standstill. Two parameters are of decisive importance
for the selection of a suitable energy storage system:
– The power density indicates the maximum power that the storage medium can
deliver.
– The energy density of the storage is a measure for the duration of the power
output, which means how much energy can be stored.
In principle, various systems can be used to store the electrical energy (Figure 8.11).
The selection of the energy storage (or a combination of different storages) is there-
fore always based on the function and the system costs.
Systems that require very high short-term power in the powernet require a very
high-power density. This is the case with today’s hybrid vehicles, for example,
when the braking energy is fed back into the battery and is needed again for start-
ing. If a constant power is applied for a longer period, the energy density is deci-
sive. For traction batteries (see Chapter 6), both criteria are equally in focus.
Therefore, lithium-based batteries have established themselves here. A comparison
of different storage media is shown in Figure 8.12.
Despite the comparatively low performance of lead-acid batteries, they can be
found in all standard vehicle electrical systems. Their still widespread use can be ex-
plained by the very mature and mastered technology, the established recycling sys-
tem and the comparatively low system costs. The lead-acid batteries used are very
inexpensive and at the same time very robust. With the recent development of electri-
cally powered vehicles the desire for power-intensive consumers in the powernet and
the adjustment of the voltage level, various types of storage are now being discussed
for the supply of the classic powernet.
In the case of electric storage devices in motor vehicles, a distinction is often
made between so-called starter batteries and traction batteries (storage devices for
driving electric or hybrid vehicles) (Reif 2011). Particularly in the area of traction
Electrochemical storage
600 Mechanical storage

System Cost / (€/kW)
Electrical storage
500 Double-
layer
capacitors
400
Fast
flywheels
300
Li, NiMh, NiCd batteries
200
Superconducting
magnetic energy Lead batteries
storage devices
100
Slow flywheels
Water and compressed air
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Buffering time / h
Figure 8.11: Comparison of the system costs of different selected storage systems (Benger 2007).
batteries, rapid further development is currently taking place, driven by the de-
velopment of new drive technologies. In some areas, energy storage technologies,
so-called ultracapacitors, can also be found. These offer interesting possibilities
especially in combination with other systems for energy storage.
It can be assumed that the costs for Li-ion systems, which are often used in elec-
tric vehicles, and their performance will be significantly optimized in the coming
years. Figure 8.13 shows the expected development of various industrial nations; see
also Chapter 6.
Even if these forecasts for both the energy density of the storage media and the
expected costs differ considerably in some cases, it can be assumed that both will
develop positively. The different characteristics of individual storage materials are
listed in Table 8.5.
8.2.1 Starter batteries
The term starter battery is based on the original function of the battery in the ve-
hicle’s electrical system. In the early powernet power supplies, a battery was required
100,000
10,000 DSK
Gravimetric power density/(W/kg)
Li-Ion
1,000 LiM-polymer
Lead
100
10
Ni-MH
Ni-Cd NaNiCl
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Gravimetric energy density/(Wh/kg)
Figure 8.12: Comparison of the performance of current energy storage systems in motor vehicles
according to Wallentowitz and Freialdenhoven (2011).
1000
900 Japan
350
800 USA (DOE)
Germany (BMBF/ISI) 300
700
Cost in €/kWh
Energy density in Wh/kg
China (MOST/MIIT)
600 South Korea (MKE) 250
500 200
400
150
300
100
200
50
100
0 0
2010 2015 2020 2010 2015 2020
Figure 8.13: Forecast development of the system costs of Li-ion batteries and their performance
(Thielmann 2012).
Table 8.5: Characteristic values of various storage media (Heinemann 2007).
Energy storages Pb/PbO Ni/Cd NiMH Li-ion Na/NiCl UCap
Energy density (at  h discharge)  Wh/kg  Wh/kg  Wh/kg  Wh/kg  Wh/kg . Wh/kg
 Wh/l  Wh/l  Wh/l  Wh/l  Wh/l . Wh/l
Power density  W/kg  W/kg  W/kg  W/kg  W/kg , W/kg
 W/l  W/l  W/l  W/l  W/l , W/l
Cell voltage . V . V . V . V . V . V
Charge cut-off voltage . V . V . V . V . V . V
End-point voltage . V . V . V . V . V . V
Operating temperature  to  °C − to  °C − to  °C − to  °C  to  °C − to  °C
Efficiency –% –% % –%
Self-discharge –%/month –%/month –%/month %/month %/month
Lifetime in cycles of the cells/the module – ,/– <,/, >/ >/ , k/k
Calendar life in years of the cell/module /– /– >/ >/>

8.2 Energy storage
365
to operate the electric starter. After the starting process, the alternator was then able
to supply the few available electrical consumers. The starter battery chemically stores
the electrical energy supplied by the alternator during the journey. If necessary, the
energy can be released again. As already explained in Section 8.1.2 this is necessary
both when the vehicle is stationary and in some driving conditions.
The battery in the vehicle’s electrical system always has to be designed accord-
ing to certain criteria. The installed consumer power (in particular the power of the
starter) and the alternator power during operation are decisive for this. The compo-
nents battery, starter, and alternator must be harmonized regarding
– consumer output,
– alternator current output at engine speed in driving mode,
– charging voltage and starting temperature (Reif 2011).
Problem-free starting of the vehicle represents a great challenge for the battery espe-
cially at low temperatures. It is therefore important that the battery maintains the
high performance even during the starting process at temperatures as low as − 25 C
(Reif 2011).
Since the battery is the sole energy supplier for the powernet during vehicle
standstill and a discharged battery directly impairs vehicle availability (starting capa-
bility), it is particularly considered in the design of the powernet power supply. In
particular, various standardized tests are carried out to ensure the appropriate di-
mensioning of the battery. The following criteria must be observed when designing
the battery (Reif 2011):
– rush hour traffic in winter with day and night rides for 1 week at 0 C and a
week at 20 C (remaining battery capacity of at least 50% after these driving
cycles),
– start at −20 C,
– the running time of the parking lights (12 h),
– the flashing of the hazard warning light (3 h),
– it must be possible to operate loads that operate with the ignition key removed
(standby current loads) and to then start the engine.
More information on the prescribed battery tests and the battery design procedures
can be found in the relevant standards of the individual manufacturers.
So-called lead-acid batteries are still the predominant technology for energy
storage in the electrical powernet of motor vehicles. Although there are now some
further developments such as the so-called AGM battery or gel batteries, the basic
mode of operation has remained the same.
A lead-acid battery consists of two electrodes, which are made of lead (Pb), lead
sulfate (PbSO4 ), or lead dioxide (PbO2 ) depending on the charge state. The two lead
electrodes are immersed into the electrolyte. The electrolyte used in the classic lead-
acid battery is sulfuric acid (Figure 8.14).
– +
Pb PbSO4 PbO2
PbSO4
Crystallization Crystallization
Pb2+ 2− 2−
4
Pb2+ 4
−
Diffusion −
Diffusion
− 2+
2 + 4+ −
Pb2+ +2
Transfer reaction Transfer reaction
Pb 2H2O 4H+ + 2O2− PbO2
Figure 8.14: Schematic discharge process of a lead accumulator according to Heinemann (2007).
When fully charged, the negative electrode of the battery consists of a porous
spongy lead and the positive electrode of lead dioxide. The electrochemical pro-
cesses in a battery cell during discharge can be described using the following reac-
tion equations:
Positive pole:
PbO2 + SO24 − + 4H3 O + + 2e − ! PbSO4 + 6H2 O, (8:2)
Negative pole:
Pb + SO24 − ! PbSO4 + 2e − (8:3)
This results in an overall reaction of
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2 SO4 ! 2PbSO4 + 2H2 O + electric energy: (8:4)
For the charging process, the equations are shown reverse under the supply of elec-
trical energy. In eq. (8.4) it is easy to see that when the battery cell is discharged, part
of the sulfuric acid is converted to water. This changes the concentration of the acid
(electrolyte) with the state of charge (SoC) of the battery. When discharged, the elec-
trolyte consists of a 17% sulphuric acid solution with a density of 1.12 kg=l. In the
fully charged state, the proportion of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte is approximately
37%, which increases the density of the electrolyte to 1.28 kg=l. By measuring the
acid density, the SoC of a battery can be determined on the basis of this relationship
(Reif 2011).
The arrangement of two lead electrodes and electrolyte shown above results in
a nominal voltage of 2.12 V per battery cell. To receive the batteries used in vehicles
with a nominal voltage of 12 V (previously 6 and 24 V in commercial vehicles), sev-
eral cells (e.g., 6 in a 12 V battery) must be connected in series.
8.2.2 Characteristics and guidelines for lead-acid batteries
The concept for accumulators (batteries in motor vehicles) is defined according to

DIN (1985). In addition, the parameters for lead-acid batteries in motor vehicles
are defined in IEC (2000). New starter batteries can be described in defined load
cases based on the variables described in the regulations. However, the values
can only be transferred to batteries in operation to a limited extent. As already
mentioned, the capacity of a battery depends on both temperature and battery
current and consequently cannot be described by a fixed value. Comparable meas-
urements must therefore be based on fixed load cases. Especially regarding the
(cold) starting capability of a motor vehicle, the influence of temperature on bat-
tery performance plays a decisive role. Figure 8.15 shows the dependence of the
terminal voltage and the degree of battery discharge depending on the ambient
temperature.
Discharge voltage / V
12
–18 °C 27 °C
6
End-of-discharge voltage
Discharging time
Figure 8.15: Discharging of a 12 V battery with the cold test current ICC at −18 and 27 C
according to Reif (2011).
It can clearly be seen that low temperatures have a negative influence on the perfor-
mance of a vehicle battery. On the one hand, the terminal voltage decreases while
applying the same discharge current with the temperature. This is because the elec-
trochemical processes in the battery are slowed down. Second, the final discharge
voltage is also reached much sooner. This means that the battery has a significantly
reduced capacity at low temperatures. It can be clearly seen that characteristic quan-
tities describe a battery change depending on the ambient conditions (Reif 2011). The
detailed (standardized) descriptions for
– cell voltage,
– nominal voltage,
– idle and open-circuit voltage,
– internal resistance,
– terminal voltage,
– gassing voltage,
– (nominal) capacity, and the
– (cold) test current
can be taken from technical literature (Reif 2011), or directly from standardiza-
tion literature. The capacity and charging of a battery are described in more de-
tail below.
8.2.2.1 Capacity definitions

The capacity K of a battery refers to the amount of charge that can be taken from a
charged battery. However, the capacity of a battery is by no means constant. It de-
pends on the ambient conditions (especially the temperature, see above) and the
aging state (SoH).3 Battery capacity is also significantly dependent on battery cur-
rent (PEUKERT effect).
The actual removable capacity of a battery can only be determined exactly by
completely discharging the battery. Battery manufacturers therefore work with a nom-
inal capacity of KN , which represents a minimum capacity. This value is guaranteed
under standardized conditions (25 C and a new battery) and is used to design the
vehicle electrical powernet. In practice, nominal capacities are specified for different
discharge durations (different discharge current). The nominal current IN represents
the discharge current, which completely discharges the battery of the nominal capac-
ity in a certain time (N-hours). The most common values for nominal capacities can
be found in Table 8.6.
The respective nominal current for the individual capacitances can very easily
be determined by the relationship of
3 SoH: State of Health.

Table 8.6: Designations for the nominal capacity at different

discharge durations (Heinemann 2007).
Designation Application Discharge time/h
K2 Electric road vehicles 
K5 Industrial traction operation 
K10 Stationary applications 
K20 Automotive applications 
KN
IN = with t0 = 1 h. (8:5)
N t0
Since the respective capacitances are only defined for the special discharge current
and in a normalized environment, normalized capacitances K are also used in some
applications. These indicate the ratio of the current capacity of a battery, consider-
ing the discharge current, the temperature, and the State of Health (SoH) to the
nominal capacity
Kact
K= , (8:6)
KN
(Heinemann 2007).
The capacity describes, as defined before, the “size” of the battery. In contrast
to the capacity, the charge of a battery describes the energy that can still be drawn
from that same battery. The degree of discharge qðtÞ describes the ratio of the
amount of charge withdrawn since the last full charge QðtÞ to nominal charge Qnom
of the battery at a certain discharge current I . The degree of discharge is defined as
Qð t Þ
qðtÞ = . (8:7)
Qnom
This means that the battery is fully charged when the degree of discharge qðtÞ = 0.
When the degree of discharge equals 1, this means that the battery is completely
discharged. It should be noted that in practice values for q could also match num-
bers above 1. This is always the case when either low discharge currents or higher
temperatures are used. As explained in the previous chapter, this increases capac-
ity. This means that more charge can be withdrawn than nominally available. The
dependence of the capacity/degree of discharge of a battery on the discharge cur-
rent was discovered by PEUKERT4 in 1897 and has been known as the PEUKERT
effect ever since.
4 Wilhelm Peukert (1855–1932).

8.2.2.2 Definition and determination of the state of charge

While the degree of discharge is a measure of the amount of charge already removed
from a battery, in practice it is rather decisive to know how large the remaining
amount of charge in a battery is. This allows a statement about the further operation
(e.g., how long different consumers can still be operated) by the battery (Figure 8.16).
The State of Charge (SoC) is used as a measure for how much charge still remains in
the battery. The SoC thereby describes the ratio of currently removable electrical
charge to maximum charge with a full battery
State of function
sof battery status
SoC SoH
Reversible Irreversible
changes changes
Battery conditions
available capacity
internal resistance
(Quiescent) voltage
gas development
acid density
Figure 8.16: Schematic representation of the
temperature
… influence of the battery parameters according
to Heinemann (2007).
QRest ðT Þ
SoC = . (8:8)
KN ðT Þ
Since both the capacity of the battery (maximum charge) and the amount of charge
that can be removed depend on the temperature, the SoC of an otherwise un-
changed battery varies with the temperature. If all values are set to the nominal
temperature Tnom , the nominal charge status can be determined.
According to DIN (1985) the SoC is defined as follows:
– The SoC is the ratio of a current stored amount of electricity compared to an
allocated capacity KN of a battery.
– The definition is based on the quantity of charge stored and not on the quantity
that can be removed.
– Specifying the removable charge would require knowledge of both the dis-
charge conditions and the battery history.
– As a first approximation, the SoC can be determined relatively reliably via the
time integral of the current and a normalization to the nominal capacity (with
estimation of the secondary reaction current).
Knowledge of the actual SoC of the battery is of great importance for many modern
systems in motor vehicles. It must be ensured that all relevant systems can be oper-
ated continuously. If the battery charge is insufficient, start–stop systems, for exam-
ple, are deactivated to prevent further discharge of the battery. Depending on the
SoC, an energy management system can be operated in the vehicle. For this purpose,
either loads can be switched off (load shedding) or the alternator voltage (only possi-
ble during operation) can be increased, which leads to improved battery charging. To
determine the battery charge, the energy management (battery management) is of de-
cisive importance in the vehicle. Load balancing procedures have become established
in practical applications but require constant recalibration of the parameters. The
reason for this is the change in battery behavior due to self-discharge and aging.
During a charge and discharge cycle, there are always losses within the battery.
Depending on the operating state, part of the charge or discharge current is con-
verted into heat. Therefore, the battery charge absorbed and the charge available
after charging differ. The ratio of both quantities is called the charging factor. It can
be interpreted as the electrical efficiency of the battery.
8.2.2.3 Aging state of a battery SoH

The SoC of the battery describes the current SoC of the battery in relation to the bat-
tery capacity. However, the nominal capacity of a battery is not constant over its
lifetime. The capacity KNcurrent then differs significantly from the nominal capacity
KNnom due to battery aging. The quotient of both variables is defined as the SoH
KNcurrent ðTnom Þ
SoHN = . (8:9)
KNnom ðTnom Þ
The determination of the SoC requires a recalibration of the nominal capacity at reg-
ular intervals due to the unavoidable battery aging, since the maximum removable
charge also changes with it. Determining the current nominal capacity is a difficult
task in practice. The determination of the current charge state (e.g., for an energy
management system) can therefore only be displayed with limited accuracy.
Main causes for typical aging of lead-acid batteries are (Hönes 1994):
– Cycling of the battery with the consequence of grid corrosion,
– frequent overcharging of the battery,
– deep discharge, and
– long-lasting partial cycling.
Both during cycling and deep discharge, lead sulfate crystals are formed, which are
significantly larger than the usual ones. These very large crystals are inactive in the
electrochemical reaction. They are therefore not converted back into lead during
the usual battery charging process. The “large” crystals attach themselves to the
electrodes, which leads to a reduction of the active electrode surface and thus to a
deterioration of the reactivity. This process is known as sulfation. Under certain cir-
cumstances, the “large” crystals formed by sulfation may become detached from
the electrodes. These then sink to the bottom of the battery and form a conductive
connection between the electrodes. In extreme cases, this can destroy the battery.
In modern gel or Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) batteries the detachment and sinking
of sulfates is prevented. In principle, however, aging and the associated reduction
in capacity must also be considered here.
8.3 Modeling of the battery behavior
Depending on the intended use of a battery modeling, there are very different ver-
sions of numerical models. These range from models that provide information about
the electrochemical processes to very simple models that alone reflect the course of
the terminal voltage. In vehicles usually, battery models are used that describe the
electrical (terminal) behavior of batteries. In particular, such models can be used to
map the different energy flows in the vehicle electrical system. Therefore, it must be
possible to make a reliable statement about the terminal voltage depending on the
time, load profile, the SoC, and the aging state of the battery.
The SoC is, as explained in Section 8.2.2, a measure of the reversible changes in
the battery during charging and discharging. An SoC of 1 (100 %) corresponds to a
fully charged battery. On the other hand, the aging state SoH of the battery de-
scribes irreversible changes (damages) of the battery. Both variables together make
it possible to determine the current battery condition and should be considered in a
suitable way within a battery model.
If a battery model is to be used to simulate the electrical energy flows in the
vehicle electrical powernet, there are several variables that such a model must in-
clude. The following values must be reliably determined for different operating con-
ditions (such as varying temperature and different power requirements) both for
charging and discharging the battery (Heinemann 2007):
– Current SoC,
– time of full discharge,
– time of full charging (charging process),
– available charge QðtÞ and energy EðtÞ,
– terminal voltage curve uðtÞ, and
– temperature profile (of the electrolyte).
In addition, for the use of a battery model in practice, it is often decisive that the
aging state of the battery is included in the simulated behavior. This means there is
the possibility of adapting the battery behavior specifically to the behavior of a no
longer new battery. Implementing battery aging as part of the dynamic battery
model is often an unjustifiable effort in practice. In most cases, relatively short time
spans are considered in vehicle system simulations. By contrast, battery aging is a
very slow process and it is therefore usually sufficient to adapt the battery model to
the current SoH by means of suitable parameterization.
Numerous different battery models can be found in the literature. Some of
these differ considerably in their requirements and can be used for a wide variety of
applications. In the following, a simplified battery model is derived, which aims to
determine the terminal voltage depending on the battery charge and the battery
current. In addition, temperature effects during loading and unloading are in-
cluded. Such a model should always be used when power supply and, if necessary,
energy management in the vehicle electrical system are to be simulated. Neither in-
ternal battery effects nor very fast transient processes can be simulated.
The equivalent circuit diagram shown in Figure 8.17 is suitable for modeling
the terminal voltage curve of a lead-acid battery in operation. While the main
branch defines the voltage during battery discharge, further charge losses occur
during charging, which can be mapped via the parasitic branch. This allows differ-
ent behavior in case of charging and discharging.
2 0
Main branch Parasitic

branch
Figure 8.17: Equivalent circuit diagram for modeling of a lead-acid battery (Jackey 2007).
The core of the model is the cell voltage UH (Jackey 2007). The cell voltage depends
on both the temperature and the current charge state (Table 8.7):

UH, 0 = UH,
100
0 − KE ð273 C − ΘE Þð1 − SoCÞ. (8:10)
Table 8.7: Formula symbols for modeling the battery behavior.
Formula Description
symbols
UH, 0 Open circuit voltage of the battery cell

100
UH, 0 Open circuit voltage of the battery cell in fully charged state
KE Temperature constant for voltage adjustment
ΘE Electrolyte temperature
SoC State of charge of the battery
R0 Terminal resistance
R0100 Terminal resistance in fully charged state (SoC = )
A0 Absolute term
R1 Main branch resistor RC element
C1 Branch capacity
τ1 Time constant RC element
R2 Main branch resistance
A21 , A22 Absolute terms
Im Principal branch current
Inom Nominal current of the battery
IP Loss current through the parasitic branch
UPN Voltage across the parasitic branch
GP0 Absolute term
τP Time constant of the parasitic branch
UP0 Constant voltage for calculation of parasitic currents
AP Absolute term
ΘE Electrolyte temperature
ΘEF Freezing temperature of the electrolyte
CB Battery capacity during operation (current maximum charge that can be stored)
KC0, 1 , 2 Absolute term
C0* Idle capacity at 0 °C in As. Depends, among other things, on the aging state of the
battery
ΘU Ambient temperature
Table 8.7 (continued )
Formula Description
symbols
Θ t0 Initial temperature
PS Power loss over R0 and RP
CΘ Thermal capacity
RΘ Thermal resistance
In the load case, the terminal voltage of the battery is reduced depending on the
load current. This is caused by the so-called internal resistance of the battery. In
the simplest case, the internal resistance R0 can be assumed to be constant. For a
more exact description of the real terminal voltage of a battery, a resistance depend-
ing on the SoC is used here:
R0 = R100
0 ½1 + A0 ð1 − SoCÞ (8:11)
In addition to the terminal resistance, other components are located in the electrical
circuit diagram of the battery as well. If a battery current flows, an RC element and
another resistor act in series in the main branch of the battery. That RC-element con-
sisting of R1 and C1 is used to determine the transient behavior of the battery (at very
fast changes in battery current). The behavior thereby is allowed by approximately
equaling the value of a PT1 element. The resistance R1 is proportional to the logarithm
of the discharge depth DoC ; see eq. (8.12). By determining the absolute term of time of
a real battery (e.g., by measurements), the value of the capacity C1 can be determined:
R1 = − R1, 0 lnðDoCÞ, (8:12)
τ1 = R1 C1 . (8:13)
The second main branch resistor R2 serves to further reduce the terminal voltage
depending on the battery current (especially when the battery is low charged). This
effect is also important for the battery charging process:
efA21 ð1 − SoCÞg
R2 = R2, 0 . (8:14)
1 + eA22 Im =Inom
It is clear to see that the resistance R2 increases disproportionately with large battery
currents and discharged batteries. The terminal voltage then drops significantly.
Besides the main branch of the battery model, the battery model presented here
contains a so-called parasitic branch according to Jackey (2007). This branch is
only active when the battery is charging and makes it possible to map the charge
losses of the battery in a suitable manner. These losses depend on the current elec-
trolyte temperature and also cause further heating of the battery (see thermal
model of the battery):

UPN Θ
+ AP 1 − Θ E
IP = UPN GP0 e½ðτP + 1ÞUP0 EF . (8:15)
The loss current described here is very low in normal battery operation. As it can
also be seen from the equation, only with high SoC (almost fully charged battery)
and high charging voltages (high voltage across the branch) there are significant
leakage currents.
The previous descriptions are suitable for determining the corresponding val-
ues; for example, the terminal voltage for a known battery charge depending on an
applied load or charging current. But in order to assure that the battery model can
also be used for simulations over longer periods of time, it is necessary to change
the charge state accordingly over time. The charging and capacity model described
below serves this purpose. The battery charge can be determined relatively easily
from the initial battery charge and the integral of the main branch current over
time:
ðt
QB ðtÞ = QB, t0 − Im ðτÞdτ. (8:16)
t0
The maximum charge of the battery is called battery capacity. It is also not a con-
stant value, but depends on the battery current and the temperature:
KC1
ΘE
KC0 C0* 1 + − ΘEF
CB ðI, ΘE Þ = KC2
. (8:17)
1 + ðKC0 − 1Þ I
I*
From the present battery capacity (maximum battery charge) and the battery charge
determined via the integral QB , the present value of the battery SoC can be deter-
mined very easily:
QB
SoC = . (8:18)
CB ð0, ΘE Þ
Compared to the SoC, which determines the capacity of a battery at idle (without
load), the battery charging depth DoC (Depth of Charge) indicates this value for a me-
dium load:
QB
DoC = . (8:19)
CB Iavg , ΘE
Finally, the interactions of the power losses in the battery during charging and dis-
charging with the battery temperature are considered. The electrolyte temperature
of the battery depends not only on the losses in the battery but also on the ambient
temperature. For the temperature ΘE the following context can be written:
ðt P − ΘE − ΘU
S RΘ
ΘE ðtÞ = Θt0 + dτ. (8:20)
CΘ
t0
The model presented can be used to simulate the terminal voltage curve of a vehicle
battery using suitable parameters. Electrochemical effects cannot be considered. It
can be used to simulate batteries of different parameterization (states). However, it
does not cover aging in a long-term simulation.
8.4 Alternators in motor vehicles
The alternator supplies the electrical powernet of a vehicle with the required electri-
cal power. Together with the battery, which supplies the loads during the starting
process and in vehicle standstill, the alternator must guarantee a reliable power
supply. The alternator output and battery capacity must therefore be well matched
to each other and to the power requirements in the energy powernet. In typical ve-
hicle usage cycles, the alternator must be able to maintain a positive charge bal-
ance. This is the only way to guarantee the function/startability of the vehicle.
The alternator discussed in this section represents the claw pole alternator typi-
cal for the usual 12 V system. This is a synchronous machine with excitation wind-
ing. If the powernet system voltage is increased (see Section 8.1.2, 48 V powernet
supply), other electrical machines are also used. Here, however, the considerations
should be limited to the classic vehicle alternator.
The continuing trend toward electrification of components has led to a signifi-
cant increase in number and individual power demand of the consumers. Alternators
used today already have a maximum output of over 3 kW (more than 200A at 14 V).
In addition to the maximum power output of an alternator, it is also important for the
optimum supply of all electrical components in the powernet power supply system
that the required electrical power is available in the broadest possible speed range.
Even at idling speed, current alternators therefore deliver a third of their rated power.
An important parameter of alternators in motor vehicles is the electrical energy
generated per weight. This size shows the importance of powerful components
while striving to make optimum use of resources. As Figure 8.18 shows, the maxi-
mum alternator current or maximum alternator power depends on the respective
speed. To ensure that the alternator can provide enough power even at low engine
speeds, such as idling, transmission ratios between crankshaft and alternator in the
range of 1:2 to 1:3 are used.
8.4 Alternators in motor vehicles 379
Alternator current/
alternator power
Increasing
temperature
0
0 rpm
Figure 8.18: Qualitative representation of the current characteristic of a three-phase alternator.

Inscribed in the illustration nL names the idle speed and nmax the maximum speed of the motor/
alternator. The dependence of the maximum alternator current on engine speed and temperature
can be seen.
In addition to the speed, the temperature also limits the maximum alternator
output. At high temperatures, there are greater losses, so that the maximum output
of the alternators decreases as the temperature rises (Figure 8.18).
To keep the output voltage of the alternator constant (so that an optimal func-
tion of the electrical components can be guaranteed), a suitable control is used.
Depending on speed, load, and temperature, the excitation current is controlled
in such a way that the output voltage remains constant. However, in the event of
large load jumps in the vehicle electrical system, the voltage may briefly deviate
from the set point. This is the case either when suddenly connecting or discon-
necting (especially powerful) components. In this case, the control must first react
to the new powernet status and readjust the alternator accordingly. This can lead
to a voltage hole or a voltage peak. The alternator control is also used to set differ-
ent powernet supply voltages depending on weather conditions. At low tempera-
tures, for example, it may be necessary to slightly increase the voltage so that the
battery is optimally charged. At high temperatures, the voltage may be lowered to
prevent overcharging of the battery.
8.4.1 Design of vehicle alternators
Due to the high complexity of the electrical powernet system, the role of the alternator
in the vehicle has also changed. As already mentioned, the first alternators (dynamos)
were only necessary to operate the electric lights (and signals) and to recharge the
battery after a start. In particular, the requirements for maximum power and constant
voltage in different (transient) states have increased significantly. According to Reif

(2011), today’s vehicle alternators must meet the following requirements:
– Ensuring a positive track record over different driving cycles,
– realization of a positive charge balance of the battery to ensure start ability,
– power supply for all consumers in driving operation (only possible for high-
performance consumers and highly transient consumers in cooperation with
the battery),
– supply fluctuation-free, load-condition-independent voltage over the entire speed
range,
– robust design regarding temperature, humidity, dirt, vibrations, and so on,
– minimized component weight (high power density),
– small installation space and inexpensive packaging,
– low operating noise, and
– low losses (optimized efficiency).
The design or selection of an alternator for a special vehicle must therefore be car-
ried out against the background of the power requirements. Battery, alternator, and
installed consumers must be well matched to each other.
8.4.2 Efficiencies of vehicle alternators
The efficiency of the alternator plays a decisive role, in particular due to the de-
mand for resource-saving mobility and the simultaneous increased demands on the
powernet power supply. The degree of efficiency is generally a very good measure
of the efficiency of an alternator as an energy converter. It indicates the ratio of
power output to power consumed. The vehicle alternator converts mechanical
power into the electrical power required in the vehicle powernet. The alternator effi-
ciency is thus defined as
Pelec
η= . (8:21)
Pmech
Of course, the efficiency of an alternator is not constant over the entire operating
range. Depending on the speed and load, the various sources of loss occur to vary-
ing degrees. Figure 8.19 breaks down the sources of loss of an alternator as a func-
tion of the speed.
The losses are divided into two groups. Some of the losses depend on the speed
of the alternator. These increase with increasing speed due to mechanical friction
and hysteresis during magnetization. On the other hand, there are losses that are
dependent on the alternator current. These do not increase further at high speeds.
Iron and copper losses and mechanical losses caused by friction account for
the largest share of losses. Copper losses are the power dissipation due to the
Alternator power P
: consumed mechanical
Losses V
power
: mechanical losses
+
: copper losses in the stator
+ : iron and additional losses
: rectifier losses
: excitation losses
: delivered electrical power
rpm
Figure 8.19: Overview of power losses in the alternator according to Reif (2011).
ohmic resistance in the conductor loops. The iron losses are caused by hysteresis
due to the constantly changing magnetic field in the stator and rotor. Mechanical
losses are caused by friction in bearings as well as by flow resistances (air friction),
for example, in fans.
The maximum efficiencies of vehicle alternators are in the range of approxi-
mately 65%. Under normal operating conditions, the efficiency of 55 − 60% on aver-
age in driving operation is not exceeded (Büchner and Bäker 2005).
8.5 Simplified model of a vehicle alternator
In this section, the alternator is modeled to obtain a simplified mathematical repre-

sentation that makes it possible to represent the coupling with the powernet and
with the mechanics of the internal combustion engine. In the simplest case, the al-
ternator can be described as a regulated voltage source. In normal driving opera-
tion, the voltage regulation of the alternator has the task of keeping the alternator
voltage almost constant at 14 V independent of the respective vehicle electrical sys-
tem loads. If the applied load exceeds the maximum power available from the alter-
nator, the alternator voltage drops. Depending on the maximum alternator current
(in the current state), a voltage results in the vehicle powernet. In this case, the
alternator can be described as a constant current source. This very simplified view
of the alternator as a constant voltage or current source (depending on the load)

already provides a first, albeit very simplified alternator model. However, this can
only describe the electrical side of the alternator and also this is only in strongly
reduced form.
According to Reif (2012), a vehicle alternator consists of four parts:
– The magnetic circuit of the excitation field,
– voltage generation in the three-phase winding (stator coils),
– rectification of the rotary phase alternating voltage, and
– voltage regulation (see also Figure 8.20).
ALTERNATOR
Stator
, coil
Voltage Excitation Rectifier
regulator coil
Electrical machine
Figure 8.20: Block diagram of the function of a alternator model according to Hesse (2011).
The rotor of the alternator is coupled with the rotational movement of the combus-
tion engine. The rotary movement of the rotor (with the exciter coil) induces a volt-
age in the three stator coils. This produces a three-phase alternating voltage. A
simple diode circuit (rectifier) is then used to generate the DC voltage required in
the vehicle from this alternating voltage. Since the magnitude of the induced volt-
age in the stator coils depends on the change in the effective magnetic flux over
time, they are defined by the rotational speed of the rotor and the magnetic flux
density of the excitation field. The exciter field is influenced by the voltage regula-
tor in such a way that the alternator voltage corresponds to the current set point
(normally approx. 14 V). The following describes a simple model of an alternator
according to the block diagram shown in Figure 8.20.
8.5.1 Electrical machine
The electrical machine consists of the exciter and stator coils. The excitation coils are
used to generate a magnetic field of the desired size. For this purpose, the regulated
excitation voltage UF is applied, which is then converted to the excitation current IF .

This flows through the coils and a magnetic field is formed. For the current through
the coil as a function of the applied voltage applies (Büchner and Bäker 2005):
dIF
UF = URF + ULF = RF IF + LF , (8:22)
ð dt
1
IF = ðUF − RF IF Þdt. (8:23)
LF
The symbols used here and in the continuous part of the section are defined in
Table 8.8 . The current IF that flows through the exciter coil determines the de-
sired magnetic field strength HF . According to Böge (2007) for HF approximately,
the expression
Table 8.8: Formula symbols of the models for the electrical machine of a vehicle
alternator set.
Formula Description
symbol
IF Exciter coil current
LF Inductance of the excitation coil
URF Voltage drop across the ohmic resistance of the excitation coil
UF Voltage applied to excitation coil
HF Magnetic field strength
lF Mean magnetic path length
N Winding number
nG Alternator speed
ωint Theoretical internal angular velocity of the alternator
p Number of pool pairs (typically  or )
Φeff Effective magnetic flux
ΦF Magnetic flux due to the excitation field
Φk Partial compensation of the excitation field by current in the stator

coils
u, v, w Coil windings of the considered pool pair
A Cross-sectional area of a coil
θj Angle of rotation of the coil j

Table 8.8 (continued )
Formula Description
symbol
Lj Inductance of the stator coil j
N Winding number of the coil
ij Alternating current in the stator coil j
uind Induced alternating voltage
kind Coefficient of induction
N
HF = IF (8:24)
lF
can be used. The magnetic flux density BF required for further calculations results
as a function of the field strength BF = f ðHF Þ via the magnetizing characteristic.
A relative movement occurs between the exciter coil and the stator coil. This
changes the effective field of excitation through the stator coils. The relative movement
is proportional to the rotation frequency of the alternator. The following applies:
ωG = 2πnG . (8:25)
By using several arrangements of coils, each of them consisting of three coils ro-
tated by 120 (pole pairs) in the alternator, a theoretical internal rotation frequency
is used for the calculation in this alternator model. This is greater by the factor of
the number of pole pairs than the actual physical quantity. Thus, it is possible to
calculate with only one coil arrangement leading to:
ωint = pωG . (8:26)
As a further simplification of the notation, the following indices u, v, w are used

for the three coils of a pole pair. The induction of a voltage into the coils of the pole
pairs results in a (desired) current flow. However, this weakens the effective mag-
netic field (and thus the effect). This results in the effective magnetic flux (Fuest
and Döring 2015):
Φeff , j = ΦF, j − Φk, j , j = u, v, w. (8:27)
During operation, a relative movement (rotation) occurs between the exciter coils and
the stator coils, as already described. Also under the assumption that the magnetic
flux density in the exciter coils is not adjustable by the exciter coil BF , the variable
magnetic flux acts on the three coils of the stator winding depending on the current
angle of rotation (Böge 2007):
ΦF, j = BF A sin Φj , j = u, v, w. (8:28)
Since the three coils (u, v, w) have a fixed arrangement (rotation of 120 ) to each
other, the following relationship can be established:
R
Θu = ΘG = ωG dt,
Θv = Θu − 32 π and (8:29)
Θw = Θu + 32 π.
The partial compensation of the excitation field by the currents flowing in the stator
coils (self-induction) described above results in (Böge 2007):
Lj
Φk, j = ij . (8:30)
N
This allows the AC voltage at the respective stator coils to be determined at idle
speed, (Fuest and Döring 2015):
uj, ind = ωint pkind Φeff , j . (8:31)
Under load, that is, while an alternator current flows, the voltage at the individual
coils is further reduced by the ohmic resistance and the inductance of the coil.
8.5.2 Rectifier
To obtain the DC voltage required in the vehicle electrical powernet (alternator ter-
minal voltage), the AC voltage quantities derived in the previous section must be
interconnected and rectified in a suitable manner. Both are done with the help of a
simple rectifier circuit (Figure 8.21).
The rectifier is constructed with six diodes. The diodes limit the current flow so
that the desired DC voltage is applied to the alternator terminal. The alternator ter-
minal voltage results from (Table 8.9):
UG = UPos − UNeg . (8:32)
The voltages UPos and UNeg result from the shown rectifier circuit as follows:
UPos = max uPos, j , UNeg = min uNeg, j , j = u, v, w. (8:33)
The quantities uPos, j and uNeg, j represent only the positive or negative half-waves of
the associated coil voltage. The half-waves are separated by the diode circuit. In ad-
dition, the diodes cause a voltage drop:
UJQ/
UX Y !
Z
UTU
Figure 8.21: Rectifier circuit according to Henneberger (2013). The three coil voltages of the coils
u, v, w are connected in a star configuration. The six diodes shown here align the sizes equally.
Table 8.9: Symbols for modeling the rectifier circuit.
Formula symbol Description
UPos Potential between coils and positive alternator terminal
UNeg Potential between coils and negative alternator terminal
8
<u −U dij
j durch, K sign ij − ij RD + dt LD sign ij for uPos, j ≥ 0
uPos, j =
:
0 else
8
<u +U dij
j durch, K sign ij + ij RD + dt LD sign ij for uNeg, j ≤ 0
uNeg, j =
:
0 else
j = u, v, w (8:34)
The quantities UPos respectively UNeg are already DC voltage quantities. This results
in a slightly oscillating voltage curve at the alternator terminals (Figure 8.22).
8.5.3 Voltage regulators
The voltage regulator of a motor vehicle alternator has the task of reducing the al-
ternator terminal voltage UG to the desired setpoint. This is normally around 14 V;
however, it can also be shifted depending on, for example, the weather conditions.
8.6 Electrical consumers of the powernet 387
Figure 8.22: Voltage curves on a rectifier circuit according to Büchner and Bäker (2005).
To control the alternator voltage, the excitation voltage UF is controlled so that the
terminal voltage corresponds to the setpoint.
When the alternator ramps up, for a stable excitation voltage (at the required
level) the battery voltage UB is used. If the alternator is in a stable operating point,
the excitation voltage can be formed from the terminal voltage of the alternator.
8.5.4 Alternator load torque
Due to the effective electromagnetic interactions, a force acts on a current carrying

moving conductor in a magnetic field. With the alternator (rotating coils in a mag-
netic field) this results in a torque against the rotary movement, which is called al-
ternator load torque. The mechanical power (speed at torque) is converted by the
alternator into the required electrical power (voltage at current).
For the modeling of the interactions, it is advisable to use a corresponding char-
acteristic diagram. This can either be based on measurements or the required me-
chanical input power of the alternator can be determined using the alternator
efficiency and the current electrical output power (Figure 8.23).
8.6 Electrical consumers of the powernet
The electrical loads in the vehicle powernet can be classified in different ways. First,
a distinction must be made between those consumers who are necessary for the oper-
ation of the vehicle and those who are operated for functional or comfort reasons.
Due to the constantly active consumers (control units, ignition, fuel pumps, etc.), a
modern vehicle already has a substantial basic requirement of approximately 500 W
after starting the vehicle. A distinction must be made between this and the so-called
Maximum current
15
Alternator torque/ Num
TG
250
10 IG
A
200
t/
ren
5 150
cur
tor
100
rna
Alte
0
50
0 2,000 4,000
6,000 8,000 0
10,000 12,000
14,000 16,000
18,000
Alternator speed / (rpm) nG
Figure 8.23: Alternator load torque as a function of the alternator speed and the alternator current
(at assumed constant 14 V alternator voltage).
quiescent current requirement (power that is permanently required even when

parked). This is significantly below the base load during operation. Depending on the
vehicle, the quiescent current should be at maximum of approximately 20mA so that
even long parking periods (over several weeks) can be realized with a fully charged
battery without jeopardizing the startability.
Another way of classifying the electrical consumers in the motor vehicle is the
duration of their activity. In addition to the base load, there are numerous consumers
who, although not necessarily operated, continue to operate normally for a longer
period of time. Ideal examples are lighting and electric heating elements (windows,
seats). On the other hand, there are various systems that are only active for a rela-
tively short period of time. In normal operation, this is the case, for example, for elec-
tric seat adjustments.
The electrical powernet is tuned with the aid of the average power requirement.
The average power requirement defines the size of the alternator and the battery.
The power of the installed consumers should therefore be on average less than the
available alternator power. This ensures a balanced charging balance (full battery)
on the one hand and ensures that the powernet system voltage remains almost con-
stant at approximately 14 V (alternator voltage). With modern motor vehicles, how-
ever, depending on the usage scenario (especially with highly equipped vehicles),
the loading balance may quickly become imbalanced. In these cases, the alternator
8.7 Approaches for an energy management 389
power is not sufficient to supply all consumers and the battery is also discharged
during driving. The powernet system voltage then drops to the level of the battery
voltage. This is not critical for a load balance over a journey. As a rule, the average
charging power over a journey is positive. However, if the battery has to absorb
very high-power peaks while driving, this has a considerable influence on the
powernet system voltage during these periods. As described in Section 8.2.1, the ter-
minal voltage of the battery decreases depending on the battery current. At very
high loads, the battery voltage (and thus the powernet system voltage) can drop so
significantly that the function of some components is impaired. This is particularly
critical for components that have an influence on vehicle safety. From the manufac-
turers’ point of view, however, such a case is also extremely critical because this
voltage drop affects also, for example, the flickering of monitors, the lighting or
even a changed sound experience in the vehicle and is directly perceptible by the
customer. The electrification of various components (especially from the field of
driving dynamics, e.g., steering) or new electric suspension components (e.g., ac-
tive roll stabilization but also stop–start systems) have led to the fact that the bat-
tery has to absorb short-term power peaks in many cases.
8.7 Approaches for an energy management
While the electrical system initially only had the task of supplying the ignition of
the engine and the lighting system in the vehicle with power, this task has funda-
mentally changed in modern motor vehicles. The battery must not only enable the
vehicle to start. It is also used to supply various so-called quiescent current consum-
ers. This applies both to consumers such as the radio, which are actively switched by
the user, and to a large number of control units which, due to their function, also
have a permanent low power requirement in parking mode. The consideration of a
long-term parking situation with subsequent start procedure has therefore been a
fixed part of the manufacturers’ standard test catalogue for some time. The first en-
ergy management systems have the task of ensuring the vehicle’s ability to start.
Depending on the SoC of the battery, individual functions (consumers) are therefore
temporarily deactivated (or power limited) to enable start ability. The basic princi-
ple of such an energy management can be described very well with the image of the
scale (Figure 8.24).
With the electrical powernet, the requirements for possible energy management
systems have also changed dramatically. The battery in the powernet has to buffer
more power peaks especially given the background of the increasing number of
highly dynamic consumers with a relatively high-power requirement (often directly
coupled to vehicle dynamics/safety). Among other things, today’s energy manage-
ment system has to ensure that (Schöllmann 2010, Schmidt 2008, Wallentowitz and
Freialdenhoven 2011):
– starting capability is guaranteed at all times,

– all consumers are sufficiently supplied with energy,
– the powernet system voltage is kept stable so that optimum function of the compo-
nents can be guaranteed,
– comfort losses are avoided, and the driver does not experience any loss of
function,
– safety-relevant consumers (e.g., electric power steering) are always fully
functional, and
– load changes in the powernet can be safely controlled.
Battery
Empty Full
Consumer Energy sources

- Infotainment - Alternator
- Heating, AC - Solar cells
- Light - Fuel cells
- Electromotors - Charging station
Figure 8.24: Basic principle of energy management according to Reif (2012).
Depending on the wiring system structure, various approaches are available for
this. Theoretically, it is possible to intervene in all areas of the powernet power sup-
ply system in order to achieve the optimum powernet status. This allows split en-
ergy management in groups for
– producer management,
– storage management, and
– consumer management.
Within the limits of the alternator, energy management is already operated by the
alternator controller. The “generated” corresponds to the energy required so that a
constant powernet system voltage is available. Depending on the weather and other
parameters (e.g., the SoC of the battery), the alternator voltage is also specifically
influenced. However, strategies for load reduction are increasingly being discussed
in the event of bottlenecks in the electrical supply. Some consumers are deactivated
(temporarily) to maintain the full functionality of the other components. This con-
sumer management approach can be implemented in many ways. Various algo-
rithms can be found in the literature. What they all have in common is the “value”
for each individual function (component), based on this “value” it is decided which
systems are active and which are inactive. For further information on energy man-
agement, please refer to the relevant literature.
8.8 Electrical signal transmission
In addition to the power supply of electrical components, communication between

individual components or with the operator is also ensured by the electrical system.
In recent years, IT networking in this case has become increasingly important due to
the increased “mechatronization5” of vehicles, particularly in the powertrain area,
but also due to innovative assistance and infotainment systems. Modern vehicle func-
tions use a large number of different sensors, control units, or operating elements,
which have to transmit data and operating inputs to the intended components in a
safe way. This area of the electrical system is described by the term electrical signal
transmission. While the decisive factor for the power supply is the electrical power,
this plays a subordinate role for the automotive information transmission system.
Methods of signal processing and coding are primarily used there.
When components are linked in terms of information technology, a distinction
must be made between the use of analog signal technology and digital data trans-
mission. With the use of increasingly complex mechatronic systems in motor ve-
hicles, the importance of analog point-to-point connections has declined since the
early 1980s and digital systems (bus systems) had to be increasingly used due to
the high demands on data transmission. The CAN6 bus introduced by Robert Bosch
GmbH in 1990 laid the foundation for the spread of digital on-board communication
between various participants (control units, sensors, actuators, etc.). The increasing
electrification of systems then led to the urgently needed adaptation of data trans-
mission to the challenges of the various domains.
5 Mechatronics: artificial word from the terms mechanics, electronics, and computer science. The
term describes the merging of these domains combined with the replacement of mechanics by elec-
tronics and software
6 CAN: Controler Area Network.
This section first briefly describes the basics of bus systems and concludes with
an overview of the systems used in motor vehicles today. In most cases, the most
widespread CAN bus in vehicle technology is used as an example (Schramm 2014,
Zimmermann and Schmidgall 2011).
8.8.1 Overview of bus systems in motor vehicles
After the CAN bus7 system developed by Bosch first introduced at Mercedes in se-
ries production vehicles in 1991, the LIN,8 MOST,9 and FlexRay bus systems were
gradually introduced in the automotive sector as the number of electrical and
electronic components increased and data exchange became necessary. CAN is
still used today in various forms in all domains (powertrain, chassis, body)
(Zimmermann and Schmidgall 2011). In today’s vehicles, however, different bus
systems are used simultaneously, depending on the application. This also ac-
counts for the different requirements with regard to the necessary performance of
different bus devices while at the same time striving to optimize costs. Systems
with similar requirements and functional areas are therefore linked to different
bus systems.
There is usually a separate bus system for the power train. This (usually CAN)
bus enables communication for and between engine and transmission as well as
brakes and all directly linked control units and sensors (e.g., ESP and ABS). Due to
the high data transfer rates required, a high-speed CAN is used for this purpose.
Comfort components such as window regulators, seat adjustment, or various sen-
sors are connected to a so-called comfort CAN (or body CAN).
For simple applications, the LIN bus is often used. This single-wire bus system
can be used, for example, for basic switches or sensors such as those used in air
conditioning control or windscreen wipers.
When very large amounts of data must be transmitted, as it is the case in info-
tainment, a MOST-bus system is often used. These fiber-optic-based bus systems
use one or more central modules in which the information converges and from
where it is distributed to the different nodes.
So-called gateways (special nodes that connect computer networks that can be
based on completely different network protocols) also enable communication be-
tween different bus systems (Figure 8.25).
7 BUS: Binary Unit System

8 LIN: Local Interconnect Network
9 MOST: Media Oriented Systems Transport
GPS
Airbag GSM/UMTS
Brake/
(PSI5) Engine Transmission
chassis
control control
... control Radio
Navigation CD/DVD
... video ...
Powertrain and chassis-Buss(es)
(high-speed CAN and/or FlexRay)
Infotainment-bus
Dashboard
Body bus (Low-speed CAN) (MOST)
Gateway module
Head
unit +
Bluetooth display
Door Climate Light WLAN
control control ... control USB
Steering wheel
(LIN)
Door Busses Lights/ Carry on Mobile MP3
On-board (LIN) switches device phone player
Diagnosis bus
(CAN /ethernet)
systems (LIN)
Off-board
systems
Exhaust
Workshop Manufacturing Application
gas
tester tester tool
tester ...
8.8 Electrical signal transmission
Figure 8.25: Simplified representation of bus systems used in motor vehicles according to Zimmermann and Schmidgall (2011).
393
8.8.1.1 Comparison of vehicle bus systems

This section provides a brief tabular overview (Table 8.10) of the various bus sys-
tems used in motor vehicles.
Table 8.10: Classification of bus systems in motor vehicles according to their bit rates
(Zimmermann and Schmidgall (2011).
Class Bit rate Typical representative Automotive application
Diagnosis < kbit/s ISO -K-Line Workshop and exhaust gas tester
A < kbit/s LIN, SAE J/ Body electronics
B – kbit/s CAN (low speed) Body electronics
C – Mbit/s CAN (high speed) Powertrain, chassis, diagnostics
D < Mbit/s FlexRay, TTP, ethernet X by wire, backbone network
Infotainment > Mbit/s MOST, ethernet Multimedia (audio, video)
8.8.2 Fundamental terms
A (computer) bus is a system for data or message transmission between several par-
ticipants (functional units) via a common transmission path in which the partici-
pants are not involved in data transmission between other participants. There are
different categories in which bus systems can be divided:
– Bus topology describes the type of connection of the devices,
– bus protocol describes the rules that define the data exchange between the de-
vices, and
– physical layer10 includes the specification of the physical implementation.
8.8.3 Analog signal transmission
Analog (hard-wired) signal transmission is usually used with basic switch/sensor

control unit combinations or serves as a fallback level in the event that the more
complex digital signal transmission is faulty or fails.
The complexity of the systems and the signals to be transmitted is limited in
analog signal transmission. Likewise, the expansion of existing structures is only
possible with great effort, since each new signal usually requires an additional line.
10 Physical layer describes the transmission media required for the transmission of signals. These
could be, for example, copper cables or optical conductors.
8.8.4 Bus topologies
Bus systems can connect a wide variety of different components and enable digital
data transfer. A bus system enables the exchange of complex information and thanks
to the standardized protocols with which the various components communicate via the
bus, and the entire system can be supplemented very flexibly by additional devices.
Another advantage of today’s widespread bus topology is the reduced cabling
effort compared to point-to-point connections (analog signal transmission). For
each new component (called node in the bus system), an additional set of signal
lines from each node to all other nodes no longer must be routed, but an additional
node is integrated into the existing bus system. In general, different bus topologies
can be distinguished (Figure 8.26).
Line
Bus
Ring
Star Tree
Figure 8.26: Bus topologies (Schramm 2014).
8.8.4.1 Line structure

The line structure is characterized by the fact that all network nodes (subscribers)
of the system are lined up in one line. This very simple arrangement of nodes
makes it possible to flexibly integrate additional nodes into an existing system,
since only one additional stub is required. The number of participants in such a sys-
tem as well as the maximum line length depends on the required transmission
speed and the access method used (protocol).
8.8.4.2 Tree structure

The tree structure can be understood as an extension of the line structure. Instead
of individual participants of the bus, further line structures (branches) are con-
nected. Thus, another (linear) bus is integrated via a node.
8.8.4.3 Star structure

The so-called passive star structure is a special case of line topology. All nodes are
connected to a point via stubs. With the active star, the nodes are separated from
each other by a central star coupler. The star coupler connects the transmitters to
the corresponding receivers. In this way, defined transmission properties can be
specified with the star coupler.
8.8.4.4 Ring structure

In the ring structure, the individual accounts are connected in series. A node can
therefore only exchange data directly with its direct neighbors. The neighboring
nodes can then either evaluate this information themselves or (as happens in
most cases) serve as a relay station and forward the messages until they reach the
receiving node.
8.8.5 Structure of a bus system
Depending on the system under consideration, different demands must be made

on data transmission in bus systems. While the focus in the increased use of info-
tainment offers in particular is on the transferable bandwidth, the focus in driver
assistance systems or vehicle dynamics control systems, but also in the power-
train area, is in contrast on the safety and speed of data transmission. Depending
on the costs per node and the transmission speed, different bus systems are used
in the vehicle. In addition to the topology, the used protocol (access method) is of
decisive importance here.
The most important terms for understanding a bus system in a motor vehicle
are explained below.
8.8.5.1 Network nodes

The network nodes contain a component, for example, an ECU or a sensor, which
are connected to the network and thus to each other via the corresponding commu-
nication blocks (Figure 8.27).
Figure 8.27: Network nodes (Schramm 2014).

As an example of a network node (in this case an ECU11) (Figure 8.28):
Actors Sensors
Microcontroller
MAC
TxD RxD
Transceiver
CAN_H CAN_L
CAN_bus
Figure 8.28: Example for a network node (Schramm 2014).
– The network node first contains the device (here the microcontroller). This
executes the user software, controls the CAN controller, provides data, and
reads out data.
– Each network node also contains a communication controller (MAC12). This
generates data frames and a bit stream from binary data and forward them via
TxD13 to the transceiver.14
– The transceiver is responsible for processing the signals, serial transmission of
the bit stream to the bus, and processing incoming messages via RxD15 and for-
warding them to the CAN controller.
8.8.6 The bus protocol
The bus protocol used is an essential differentiating feature of the bus systems
used. The complexity of the bus systems introduced over time led to international
discussions about the structuring of bus systems, which eventually led to the defini-
tion of the so-called reference model.
11 ECU: Electronic Control Unit

12 MAC: Media Access Control, which generates data frames and a bit stream from binary data
13 TxD: Transmit Data; line for outgoing data to be sent by the data terminal equipment (DTE).
14 Transceiver = Transmitter + Receiver.
15 RxD: Receive Data; line for incoming data to be received by the data terminal equipment (DTE).
8.8.6.1 The ISO/OSI reference model

In a draft of the International Standards Organization (ISO 7998), the tasks to be
performed during communication, for example between two computers, are as-
signed to seven layers. This Open-Systems-Interconnection (OSI) reference model is
used to structure the communication process. The aim is to create defined interfa-
ces between system components that can be disclosed and thus enable the coupling
of subsystems from different manufacturers.
Each layer provides services (functions) to the higher layer, which can be ac-
cessed via service access points, and uses services of the lower layer.
The seven layers can be divided into the process-oriented (the application-ori-
ented) layers five to seven and the transport-oriented layers one to four (Figure 8.29).
ECU 1 ECU 2
1 Application protocol Application layer
2 Presentation protocol
Communication
3 layer
Session protocol
often summarized
4 Transport protocol to one layer,
or some layers
5 Network protocol do not show up
Data link protocol (example: CAN)
6
7 Physical protocol Physical layer
Instance 1 Network Instance 2
Figure 8.29: ISO/OSI protocol (Schramm 2014).
8.8.6.2 The physical layer

In the physical layer, the physical transmission of the data takes place on a suitable
medium (electrical, optical, and radio). Here a message is processed by pulse shaping
(signal coding) and modulation or demodulation. The necessary electrical power is
also provided. The transmission sections are physically connected (the connectors
are defined) and monitored. In this layer, synchronization is performed by pulse deri-
vation or by carrier derivation for modulated signals.
8.8.6.3 Data link layer

Data frames are formed in the backup layer, which are then transported “bit by bit”
using the bit transfer layer. Headers and trailers mark the beginning and end of the
data frames, enabling the synchronization of data frames. Control information is in-
serted for addressing and data backup (detection of bit errors). Multiple access to
transmission media (MAC) is organized. The bit transfer layer is responsible for
quality features such as residual error rate, operational capacity, and availability.
8.8.6.4 Network layer

The network layer is responsible to link and unlink connections. If necessary, the
route search (routing) is carried out here. The existing connections are managed.
The data flow, especially in case of overload, is controlled.
A special device – a router – is used to select the transmission path. This allows
networks with different topologies to be coupled together.
8.8.6.5 Transport layer

The transport layer organizes and manages the establishment of logical end-to-end
connections. Files are broken down into data packets for the switching layer at one
end of the connection and reassembled into files at the other end.
8.8.6.6 The process-oriented layers

While the transport-oriented layers – especially the bit transfer layer and the security
layer – are suitable for structuring the processes in fieldbus systems, the process-
oriented layers with the exception of the application layer for fieldbus systems are
often not specified.
8.8.6.7 Session layer

The session layer, also known as the communication control layer, is used to con-
trol dialog between communicating processes. Here, for example, the distribution
of tasks can be organized in a multiprocessor system. The division of tasks between
the session layer and the underlying layers often varies from network to network.
8.8.6.8 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for data encryption, data compression, and code
conversion.
8.8.6.9 Application layer

The application layer defines the application-specific protocols required for the
tasks to be performed. It can be seen as an interface between the user process
and the layers of the OSI model below the application layer (application program
interface).
8.8.7 The data frame
The data frame intended for data transmission consists of seven different bit fields
(Figure 8.30). The data frame is explained below using the CAN protocol as an
example.
Message Confirmation
that the message
Identifier to be is transmitted
transmitted correctly
Payload
Header Trailer
Acknowledge field Intermission

Identifier Data field (max. 64 bit)
ACK (2 bit) frame space
(11 bit) IFS (3 bit)
Control field (6 bit) Checksum field (15+1 bit)
Start-bit Cyclic redundancy check End of frame
„Start of frame“ (CRC)+ dalimiter bit EOF (7 bit)
Remote transmission request
RTR (1 bit)
Figure 8.30: Data frame using CAN as an example (Schramm 2014).
The data frame starts with a Start of Frame (SOF) bit. This is followed by the arbitra-
tion field, in which conflicts are resolved when several nodes access the bus simul-
taneously. In the standard CAN format, the arbitration field consists of the 11-bit
identifier and the RTR bit (Remote Data Request), which is used for a request tele-
gram. The control field contains two bits reserved for later developments and the
four-bit Data Length Code (DLC), which specifies how many data bytes are trans-
ferred in the data field. A maximum of eight data bytes can be sent in a message
frame. In the CRC field16 the 15-bit CRC sequence intended for data backup is trans-
mitted. This is followed by the two-bit acknowledge field with the acknowledge slot
and the acknowledge delimiter. The data frame is terminated by the end of the
frame field. Between two messages, a bus idle phase of at least three bits is inserted
through the interframe space.
16 CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check.

8.8.7.1 The bus arbitration

The bus access of the individual bus nodes is based on the CSMA17/CA principle.
Each node receives the sent messages and starts trying to send a message at the
earliest after the bus rest phase (interframe space). A distinction is made between
recessive and dominant bus states. If only one node transmits a 0 bit, the bus is in
the dominant low state. The bus is only set to the recessive state if all nodes trans-
mit a one bit. If an identifier is sent by several bus nodes after the dominant SOF
bit, then the bus assumes the dominant state as soon as a 0 bit occurs in one of the
identifiers. Each node checks whether the bus status corresponds to the bit it sends.
As soon as the bus is in the dominant state, although the node has transmitted a
one bit, the node withdraws.
In the example shown in Figure 8.31, node 2 locates in event t1 that a node
wants to send a message with higher priority and therefore only listens to the bus.
At the time t2 node 1 will retract. Node 3 can then send its message. The RTR bit is
sent as 0 bit (dominant) in the data frame.
Node 1
t
t2
Node 2
t
t1
Node 3
t
S 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 R
O T
F R
Bus
level
t
Figure 8.31: Bus arbitration (example).
17 CSMA/CMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance

8.8.7.2 The control field

At first, two reserved bits r1 and r2 are sent in the control field. In extended CAN
format, bit r1 is replaced by the IDE bit (IDentifier Extension), which indicates for
IDE = 1 that the 11-bit identifier is extended by an additional 18 bits to a 29-bit iden-
tifier. The four remaining bits DLC3, DLC2, DLC1, and DLC0 indicate how many data
bytes the message contains (DLC). The bit sequence 1000 (one recessive bit DC3
and three dominant bits) indicates, for example, that 8 bytes are sent, the bit se-
quence DC3=0 (dominant), DC2=1 (recessive), DC1=0 (dominant), and DC0=1 (reces-
sive) indicate 5 bytes.
8.8.7.3 The data field

The data field contains the number of data bytes specified in the control field. In
each data byte, the most significant bit is transmitted first and then the bit with the
next higher value, and so on.
8.8.7.4 The CRC field

For data security, the bit stream that begins with the SOF bit and includes the arbitra-
tion field, the control field, and the data field is divided by the generator polynomial
GðxÞ = x15 + x14 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x4 + x3 + 1 .
The resulting remainder is transmitted as a 15-bit CRC sequence.

The CRC sequence is terminated by the CRC delimiter – a recessive bit.
8.8.7.5 The acknowledge field

The acknowledge field consists of the ACK slot and the ACK delimiter. The node
sending a message sets the ACK bit to 1 (recessive). Each node that receives the
message and has calculated a CRC sequence that matches the sent CRC sequence
sets the ACK bit in the ACK slot to 0 (dominant).
8.8.7.6 End of data frame und interframe space

The end of the data frame is formed by seven recessive bits of the end of frame
field. An InterFrame area consisting of three recessive bits is inserted between two
message objects. The bus is therefore in idle mode for at least three bit times after
a message.
The data request frame (Figure 8.32) differs from the standard data frame in
that it contains no data and the RTR bit is set to the value 1 (recessive).
The DLC value should correspond to the DLC value control field of the re-
quested data frame. The identifier of the data request frame prompts a bus node to
send the message with this identifier. If a data request frame is sent simultaneously
Identifier Control CRC segment End of

field frame field
SOF RTR ACK Interframe

space
Figure 8.32: The data request frame (Schramm 2014).
with the data frame with the same identifier, the requesting node withdraws after
the RTR bit in the arbitration phase, since the RTR bit is set dominant in the stan-
dard data frame.
8.8.7.7 Error frame

There are five different types of errors: bit errors, bit stuffing errors, CRC errors, mes-
sage format errors, and acknowledge errors.
8.8.7.8 Bit errors and bit-stuffing errors

Each bus node monitors the bits sent and the actual bus levels present on the bus
(bit monitoring). If deviations occur, a bit error is registered.
Since no pulse signal is sent via the bus, synchronization problems can occur
in the nodes with longer bit sequences with the same parity. To avoid this, after five
bits with the same polarity, a bit with inverse polarity is inserted between them (bit
stuffing). The additional bits are automatically removed on reception. As soon as
six bits of the same polarity are received, this is recognized as an error. Bit-stuffing
is performed from the SOF bit to the CRC sequence.
8.8.7.9 CRC error

Each node calculates the CRC sequence for the bit stream that begins with the SOF
bit and includes the arbitration field, the control field, and the data field. If devia-
tions occur between the calculated and the transmitted CRC sequences, an error is
registered.
8.8.7.10 Message format error

Some bit values must have a predefined value for all messages. Examples: SOF bit,
CRC delimiter, ACK delimiter, EOF field, and interframe space. If an incorrect value
is sent in one of the fields mentioned, this is registered as an error.
8.8.7.11 Acknowledgement error

The sending node sets the ACK bit to the recessive value. A node that has received
the message without errors sets the ACK bit to the dominant value. The transmitter
checks whether the ACK bit is dominant and otherwise detects an error.
8.8.7.12 Error handling

If an error has been detected and it is not a CRC error, an error flag is sent immediately.
In the case of a CRC error, the error flag is only sent after the ACK delimiter. The error
flag consists of six consecutive dominant bits and thus violates the stuffing rule. As a
result, other nodes also send an error flag. An error frame can therefore have up to 12
dominant bits. The error frame is terminated by the error delimiter consisting of eight
recessive bits. Three bits of interframe space follow.
The nodes ignore the message with errors and end their processing. The send-
ing node tries to resend the message later.
8.8.8 The bit stream
A receiving node must interpret the incoming signals and convert them into a bit
stream. For this purpose, the signals are sampled at each pulse time and checked in
a voting window with cVotingSamples (e.g., five) sampling intervals. If the majority
of the samples is 1 (high), an output signal cVotedVal is generated with the level
high, otherwise with the level low. Voltage dips (glitches)18 can thus be filtered out.
However, this leads to a signal delay of cVotingDelay (e.g., two) sampling intervals.
The output signal generated (cVotedVal) must be interpreted as 0 or 1 bit at a
defined time. For this purpose, the local bit clock is synchronized with the incoming
bit stream. A counter counts cyclically the samples from one to cSamplesPerBit
(e.g., eight). The bit value is hidden if the counter assumes the value cStrobeOffset
(e.g., five).
The falling edge (bit synchronization edge) between the two bytes start sequence
bits sets the counter (sample counter) to the value 2 for the next sampling time (sam-
ple counter reset) and thus synchronizes. A shift of the blanking time (cStrobeOffset)
during a byte sequence can thus be compensated. Synchronization (resetting the
counter) is also permitted for other high bits (e.g., FES bits) that do not belong to the
header, payload, or trailer byte (Figure 8.33).
18 Glitch: artificial word from (English) goof and hitch describes in this context a temporary false
statement in logic circuits.
Payload
Header Trailer
Message Message
1 23456 7 8
Controller Interface
Data from sensors, Data frames Bit stream

tables, actors, etc. e.g CAN protocol
Figure 8.33: Bit stream using CAN as an example CAN (Schramm 2014).
8.8.9 Bus media – physical layer
8.8.9.1 Parallel-wire cables

In most applications, parallel-wire cables are used (Figure 8.34). These are usually
twisted pairs. A short excerpt of the length Δl can be characterized by the insulation
resistance between the conductors, the capacitance of the two conductor pieces,
and the inductance of the conductor pieces. A sinusoidal change in the voltage ap-
plied to the line leads to a wave-shaped propagation of the current along the line.
To avoid reflections at the end of the line that would overlay the transmitted signal,
the line must be terminated with the characteristic impedance. A characteristic of
the different types of cables is therefore the characteristic impedance.
Single wire line
Data line
Signal =
Voltage to ground
Ground
Dual wire line
Data wire pair

Signal =
Differential to voltage
Ground
Figure 8.34: Wired bus systems (Schramm 2014).

Frequently used cable types are:

– UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Cable with a characteristic impedance of 100 Ω.
– S/UTP (Screened Unshielded Twisted Pair): Cable with overall shielding for the
cable.
– STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Cable in which the individual wire pairs are sur-
rounded by a foil shield. Impedance: 150 Ω.
– S/STP (Screened Shielded Twisted Pair): Cables with shielded wire pairs and
overall shield.
8.8.9.2 Coaxial cables

With coaxial cables, the outer conductor surrounds the inner conductor. In between
there is an insulating layer (the dielectric).
A distinction is made:
– Yellow cable with a characteristic impedance of 50 Ω at 10 MHz.
– Thin wire (gray jacket) with the same characteristic impedance of 50 Ω.
– RG 58 (similar to thin wire, but with additional shield).
8.8.9.3 Fiber-optic cables

Optical fibers consist of glass fibers or, especially in automotive applications, plas-
tic optical fibers. The wavelength ranges for optical transmission are in the infrared
range.
Three windows are common:
– 0.8–0.9 µm (typically 850 nm),
– 1.0–1.3 µm (typically 1,300 nm),
– 1.5–1.7 µm (typically 1,550 nm).
The shaft is guided via the different refractive indexes of the core and sheath of the
optical waveguide.
In step profile fiber optics, the refractive index changes abruptly between core
and cladding. A multimode optical fiber is obtained. Signal pulses are widened be-
cause of the different paths of the different modes (mode dispersion). The maximum
length of such optical fibers is therefore limited (200–300 m). The core diameter of
the conductor is 200 µm, and the sheath diameter is 280 µm.
With the gradient profile, the transition between the refractive indices is continu-
ous. This reduces runtime differences. The core diameter of the conductor is 50 µm,
and the sheath diameter is 125 µm.
The single mode fiber-optic cable uses a special step profile with a core diame-
ter of 10 µm and a sheath diameter of 125 µm. You then only get a waveform and
only the material dispersion is effective. The signal broadening is greatly reduced.
This allows distances of up to 100 km and signal frequencies of up to 100 Gbit/s.
8.8.10 Examples of bus systems in motor vehicles other than CAN
8.8.10.1 Local interconnect network

LIN is a bus system that is mainly used in the bodywork area of motor vehicles.
Typical fields of application are:
– networking of the tire pressure sensors below the CAN-ECU,
– networking of rain sensor, light sensor, and garage door opener with the CAN
roof electronics ECU,
– networking of the rotary light switches to the CAN control panel,
– networking of the wipers to the CAN central ECU,
– networking of the headlamps to the headlamp ECU,
– networking of actuators and sensors to the CAN climate ECU,
– networking of the fans and motors to the CAN seat ECU.
Single-wire cables with bus levels corresponding to the battery voltage are used to
enable cost-effective implementation of the system. The transmission speed is up to
20 kbit/s.
The master–slave principle is used as the bus access method. Communication
takes place with the LIN data frame (message frame). This consists of the header
(sent by the master) and the message field (response) (sent by the master node or
by a slave node). The header consists of a SYNCH-BREAK field, a SYNCH field, and
an identifier field.
The message field consists of a CHECKSUM field and 0–8 data fields. The data
fields are structured according to the UART format:
– One start bit (dominant),
– eight data bits,
– one stop bit (recessive).
8.8.10.2 Time-controlled bus systems

The use of CAN causes problems for some applications:
– A deterministic timing is only guaranteed for the message with the highest
priority.
– Periodically transmitted data (e.g., for control tasks) may have time shifts from
the sampling time (transmission jitter).
– With time-critical event-generated data (e.g., alarm signals), unpredictable
waiting times (transmission latency) can occur.
– Error detection with CAN is not sufficient for safety-critical applications (e.g.,
future brake-by-wire systems).
This can be remedied by reserving slots for critical data and alternative bus access
methods such as time division multiple access. Such mechanisms are used, for
example, in the bus systems TTCAN, Byteflight, FlexRay. This will be briefly ex-
plained using the example of TTCAN.
TTCAN19 is based on the CAN protocol and can be implemented by software
using a layer based on the CAN protocol. In addition, TTCAN IP modules exist,
which are implemented as ASICs and support TTCAN hardware.
Basic cycle and time window: The time master (a selected node) starts a basic
cycle with a reference message. The reference message is recognized by its identi-
fier. The duration of the basic cycle is defined by two consecutive reference mes-
sages (Figure 8.35).
Reference Exclusive Exclusive Arbitrating Free Exclusive Reference

message window window window window window message
Basic cycle
Reference
message
identifier
Figure 8.35: Voltage coding of signals (Schramm 2014).
The basic cycle is divided into time windows of different lengths. There are three
types of time windows:
– Exclusive windows for periodic (synchronous transmitted) messages. An exclu-
sive time window is reserved for a predefined message of a node. This must be
ensured when configuring the network.
– Arbitrating windows intended for “spontaneous” CAN messages. If there are
several competing messages, the selection is made via the identifier.
– Free windows are reserved in the design phase for later additional data transfer.
Several basic cycles (number: 2n) can be combined into a matrix cycle (system ma-
trix, Figure 8.36). This allows different query times (period durations) to be realized.
The time window in which a message is sent or received is determined by the
cycle time.
Within a matrix cycle, the send or receive window is defined by time stamps
(Tx triggers or Rx triggers). The time stamp specifies the start time of an exclusive
or an arbitrary time window. The time stamp also contains a base mark and a repeat
19 TTCAN: Time Triggered CAN.

Reference Message Message Free Message Message

Arbitration
message A C window D C
Reference Message Message Message Message Message Message

message A R M R M C
Reference Message Message Message Message

Arbitration Arbitration
message A T D C
Reference Message Message Message Free Message Message

message A U M window M C
Figure 8.36: System matrix for TTCAN.
Oscillator
circuit
System
clock
Time unit
ratio Frequency
divider
Network
time unit
Local time
counter
Figure 8.37: TTCAN — determining the cycle time.
counter. The base mark indicates the number of the first base cycle within a matrix
cycle by sending or receiving the message.
The repetition counter indicates how many basic cycles lie between two conse-
cutive send or receive operations.
TTCAN does not allow the message to be repeated if errors occur, as is possible
with the CAN protocol (Figure 8.27).
The precision with which the periodic messages are sent depends on the accuracy
of the internal clock of the individual nodes and the correspondence with the global
clock of the time master. In order to achieve the most exact network-wide match of the
start times for the different windows, a smallest global time unit, the network time unit
(NTU), is introduced. The global time is measured in these time units. The NTU is deter-
mined from the oscillator frequency of the respective node by a frequency divider
(local time unit ratio, TUR).
9 Driving dynamics control systems and driver
assistance systems
The term Driver Assistance System (DAS)1 describes a system whose task is to support
the driver in various areas of vehicle driving. For example, the electric starter can al-
ready be regarded as an assistance system in the broadest sense, as it provides a con-
siderable increase in comfort when starting an internal combustion engine. Today,
the term is particularly associated with safety and comfort enhancing systems.
The benefits of DAS beyond the effects of the safety systems described in Chapter 7
can easily be explained using accident statistics. According to Brown (2002), 95%
of all road traffic accidents are caused by human error. DAS and Driving Dynamics
Control Systems (DDS) perform driving tasks independently and therefore lower the
driver’s workload. The driver then has less actions to perform, and thus there is less
potential for human error. Additionally, the driver is less likely to become tired which
again reduces the risk for human error.
Systems that do not aim to increase comfort, usually serve to stabilize the vehi-
cle directly and indirectly (by supporting the driver), in order to prevent accidents
or to reduce their severity. In addition to increasing comfort, increasing road safety
is also a driving force behind the development of DAS.
The proven positive effect of some of these systems, which have been in place
for years, has already been reflected in legislation. In Germany, vehicles with a
total mass of over 3.5 tons must be equipped with an anti-lock braking system
(ABS) (Bundesministerium für Verkehr 2011). However, today’s legislation is still
lagging significantly behind technical developments, which vary from region to re-
gion, see Section 9.9.
The current trends toward automated driving are also changing the current
view of driver assistance and driving in general. If a fully automated vehicle is seen
as a goal in the development of DAS, the idea of mobility could change in the long
term. The former driver would become a passenger and can thus use the time that
he previously had to devote to the driving task alone in another way.
The technical equipment of DAS almost always comprises the three technical
functional components:
– sensors,
– actuators, and
– algorithms.
A distinction must be made between pro-priozeptive and extra-propriozeptive sen-

sors. While pro-prioceptive sensors detect the movement of a system, in this case
1 Sometimes also called Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS).
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-009
412 9 Driving dynamics control systems and driver assistance systems
the “ego” vehicle, extra-propriozeptive sensors are used to monitor the environ-
ment. Examples of pro-priozeptive and extra-priozeptive sensors are described in
the next sections of this chapter. An overview of the equipment of a modern vehicle
with a variety of extra-priozeptive sensors is shown in Figure 9.1 using the example
of the E-Class (W213) from Daimler AG, brought into series production in 2016.
In actuator technology, the almost comprehensive introduction of electromechani-
cal steering described in Chapter 4 and the upgradation of braking systems with active
components play a particularly important role, see Chapter 5. In addition to sensor
technology, there is great dynamics and further considerable development potential in
the development of algorithms. There is a trend toward the use of machine learning
methods (see e.g. (Rehder, Georgiev et al. 2015; Rehder, Muenst et al. 2016)).
Figure 9.2 shows an overview of the history of DAS. There the influence of the
use of pro-priozeptive and extra-propriozeptive sensors, and the networking in en-
tire vehicle fleets of the, up till now, three generations of DAS becomes obvious.
In recent years, an increasing number of new vehicles have been equipped with
DAS. In addition to the parking aids already well represented on the market, this
now also applies to lane departure warning systems and to systems whose function
is to detect driver fatigue. Figure 9.3 shows the equipment rates of new cars in
Germany for the years 2015 and 2016.
Furthermore, a new law was initiated at European level, which prescribes a se-
ries of assistance systems as standard for new vehicles from 2022. In the passenger
car category, these include an intelligent speed assistant, a driver fatigue warning
system, a reversing assistance system, an emergency Brake Assist System to warn
subsequent vehicles, and the preparation of an alcohol breath test to prevent ve-
hicles with alcoholized drivers from driving away, as well as an event-related data
acquisition device (Black Box) (European_Parliament 2019).
9.1 Definition of the term “driver assistance system”
In order to systematize and thus simplify the description of DAS, a definition is use-
ful. If the term driver assistance is first considered, this results in the easy to inter-
pret definition: “systems assisting the driver.” For this assisting function, a system
should facilitate the task of the vehicle driver. DAS therefore refers to the support
and partial assumption of the driver’s tasks. These tasks can generally be described
as the actions that the driver performs between the selection of his starting and fin-
ishing points in order to achieve the goal under the given framework conditions
(traffic rules, standards, values, etc.). According to this definition, the automatic
starter of a vehicle can already be classified as part of a “keyless go” system or a
“start-stop” function as a driver assistance system, since it simplifies starting the
vehicle. The definition made here is therefore very broad. A more precise definition
is given in Reif (2010). It says:
MULTI-MODE-RADAR STEREO MULTI-PURPOSE CAMERA LONG-RANGE RADAR
80 m Range/opening angle 30° 500 m Range, thereof 90 m 3D capable 250 m Range/Opening angle 20°
40 m Range/opening angle 140° Opening angle 50° 70 m Range/Opening angle 90°
80 m 40 m 1,5 m 40 m 70 m 90 - 500 m 250 m
1,5m / 4,5m Range 40 m Range/opening angle 140°

ULTRASONIC SENSORS Multi mode radar
PRE-SAFE® Impulse side
Figure 9.1: Equipment of a vehicle with environmental sensors (schematic, not to scale representation) © Daimler AG.
9.1 Definition of the term “driver assistance system”
413
Level of automation
Fully-
automated Highly Automatic driving
automatic driving
Lane keeping Jam
Highly- assistant Platooning
automated Near field collision
Warning/avoidance
ACC+S&G
ESP ACC Intersection assistant
Partly-
automated Brake Networking
Highbeam
Cruise control ABS assistant
assistant
Wiper assistant
Supporting Curve light Traffic sign recognition
Active curve
passive Pro-Priozeptive light
Sensors
Extra-Priozeptive
Warning
Lighting on / off sensors
Time
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
1. Generation 2. Generation 3. Generation
Figure 9.2: Historical development of DAS.
Figure 9.3: Equipment rates with DAS for new cars in Germany for the years 2015 and 2016
(Bosch 2018).
Driver assistance systems support the drivers in their primary driving task. They inform and
warn them, increase their comfort and safety by actively supporting them in driving and stabi-
lizing their vehicles and if necessary, reduce their workload.
The distinction previously made between driver assistance systems and active safety
systems is not made in this book in this strict form. The reason for this is the lack of
unambiguity in the allocation of the respective systems. While driver assistance
9.1 Definition of the term “driver assistance system” 415
systems can be defined as described above, active safety systems are required to
avoid accidents through active intervention. From level 2, according to SAE_J3016
2014 at the latest, it is no longer possible to make a strict distinction between these
systems. For example, the adaptive cruise control system (ACC) independently per-
forms part of the primary driving task (longitudinal control) and therefore should be
classified as a DAS. Another fixed component of this task is automatic deceleration
when approaching a (slower) vehicle in front, that is, active intervention to prevent
accidents. This system in particular is therefore often categorized differently depend-
ing on the observer. This example also shows that, strictly speaking, each system
from SAE level 2 onwards would be assigned to both categories, which means that a
subdivision would not be appropriate. Figure 9.4 shows a qualitative assignment of
the systems discussed here to the areas of comfort (often associated with driver assis-
tance systems) and safety (associated with active safety systems). As shown, an un-
ambiguous classification is nearly impossible.
ABS, ESP Fully automated driving

Safety
Pedestrian assistance
Traction control system
Highway driving assistant
Adaptive cruise control
Lane keeping assistant
Lane changing assistant Parking assistant
Comfort
Figure 9.4: Qualitative classification of selected driver assistance and active safety systems in the
areas of comfort and safety.
The legal limits in which DAS are to operate and support the driver are currently
still specified by the 1968 Vienna Convention and additional national legislation
(Nations 1968):
“Every driver shall at all times be able to control his vehicle or to guide his animals”.
The direct consequence of this regulation is that a DAS is not allowed to overrule
the driver and thus to take over the driving task completely. This is particularly evi-
dent for emergency brake assistance. In this case, a system recognizes an obstacle,
calculates the physical conditions based on the available sensors, and concludes
within the scope of the available possibilities that a collision is unavoidable without
active intervention. Even in a situation where a collision cannot be avoided and
triggering an emergency braking maneuver would objectively be the only reason-
able choice of action, the driver must be free to act in any desired way even if this
would mean to accelerate. In addition to technical and economic factors, it is pre-
cisely this legal situation that makes it difficult to implement the current trend to-
ward further automation of the driving task. However, the Vienna Agreement was
not ratified by all countries or, as in the case of the USA and China, not even signed.
Furthermore, there are currently (as of 2016) worldwide efforts to adapt the interna-
tional standard to the changed technical possibilities. The Vienna Convention was
last revised in 2014. Since then, the agreement allows systems that influence the
driving of a vehicle, at least if they can be overruled or switched off by the driver at
any time (UNECE 2016). The amendment thus creates the regulatory framework for
current DASs such as distance regulations, which already perform many driving
tasks today. However, the responsibility remains with the driver, who must monitor
the system at all times.
9.2 Vehicle automation concepts
The term automation has had a great influence on the field of technology and re-
search in recent decades. This trend has also affected the development of automo-
biles. At the latest, since the DARPA Urban challenge 2007 (Kammel, Ziegler et al.
2008), it is clear that it is possible to let vehicles drive fully automatically through
a suburban area. This race was the first large-scale attempt to let vehicles drive
over an almost 100 km long course, in compliance with all traffic regulations and
at the same time with other vehicles through an urban area. While at that time it
was still a mere vision of the future to use these vehicles on the road in real traffic,
a trend has emerged in recent years that could turn this vision into reality within
a few years.
In addition to this vision of automated, driverless vehicles, however, the devel-
opment of ‘classic’ DASs has also taken a path that has led to an increasing propor-
tion of automated functions.
9.2.1 Classification according to the degree of automation
Looking at the DAS already mentioned examples, it quickly becomes evident that
many areas of vehicle guidance can already be automated or have already been auto-
mated. For example, if one considers adaptive speed control, at least the longitudinal
control is already taken over by a switchable system. The proportion or degree of
automation can be assessed very well using a classification, which was developed
and published by the SAE2 in 2014 (SAE 2014).
The German Federal Highway Research Institute (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen
– BASt) also has a five-level classification system. In this case, the last level is not in-
cluded (Gasser, Arzt et al. 2012).
According to the classification shown in Figure 9.5, most of the systems de-
scribed so far can be classified in the area of support, that is, level 1 and 2, since
either the lateral or the longitudinal travel task is addressed by the system.
9.2.2 Semi-automated systems
As shown in Figure 9.5, partially automated systems (level 2) are distinguished

from systems with a pure assistance function (level 1) in that both longitudinal and
lateral travel tasks are performed by the system. However, according to current leg-
islation, these systems require permanent monitoring by the driver.
9.2.2.1 Traffic jam assistant

In the course of progressive automation, manufacturers and suppliers are currently
advertising semi-automated systems. One of these systems is a traffic jam assistant,
also called congestion assistant, which should allow the driver to swim in the traffic
jam at low speed. This system is based on the assistance system described for adap-
tive cruise control and extends it to include a lane departure warning system
which, in addition to a supportive steering torque, also actively provides steering
angles that keep the vehicle in its own lane.
The monitoring function continues to be the task of the driver as shown in
Figure 9.5. Although it is possible to remove hands from the steering wheel with the
traffic jam assistants installed, a longer hands-free drive will cause the system to
shut down if a specified speed (usually approx. 30 km/h) is exceeded.
9.2.2.2 Parking assistant

The already mentioned parking assistant can also be counted among the semi-
automated systems. As early as 2013, Ford presented a prototype of a parking assis-
tant that even allows the driver to leave the vehicle before it parks itself.
According to current jurisprudence, monitoring by the driver is also mandatory
for this system. One conceivable monitoring option for such a system is, for exam-
ple, a “dead man’s switch”, which must be operated during the entire parking pro-
cess. The need for a monitoring function is justified by the already mentioned
2 SAE International: https://www.sae.org/; formerly: Society of Automotive Engineers.

Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
418
No Driver Partial Conditional High Full

automation assistance automation automation automation automation
No Automation Longitudinal Permanent Take over awareness No driver needed No driver needed
Warning only or traverse system monitoring in specific use cases System handles
control all situations
System handles at all times
all situations
in specific use cases
Sends take over request
if system limit
Car
is detected
Driver
Longitudinal and lateral
control
System controls
each other direction
Human driver monitors the driving environment Automated driver system monitors the driving environment
Lane departure Adaptive cruise Highway driving Highly automated Fully automated Driverless
warning (LDW) control (ACC) assistant (HDA) driving driving
Driver drowsiness Lane keeping Lane changes

and attention assistant (LKA) assistant (LCA)
monitoring
Examples
9 Driving dynamics control systems and driver assistance systems
Figure 9.5: Classification of DAS, according to (SAE 2014), see also Table 9.1.
Vienna Convention, which states that the driver of a vehicle always exercises con-
trol over the same.
The Vienna Convention is also one of the reasons why the equipment of ve-
hicles currently on the market is limited to partially automated functions. Another
equally important reason is the availability of high-quality sensors, which are not
yet available in a price range that would allow series production. The following sec-
tions on highly and fully automated systems therefore refer to prototypes that will
only be ready for series production in a few years’ time if the appropriate sensors
are available and after the legal situation has been adapted, see Section 9.9.
9.2.3 Highly automated systems
Highly automated systems are systems that perform the function of a partially auto-
mated system, but for a longer period of time or during specific situations without
being monitored by a driver. The logical consequence of this would be that in the
event of an accident with the system activated, it would no longer be the driver, but
the vehicle or its manufacturer or its owner, who would be accountable. However,
who is accountable for the vehicle so far, at least in Germany, is an unanswered
question. This is one of the reasons why highly automated vehicles on German
roads only exist as prototypes so far.
Examples of highly automated systems are, due to their similarity to semi-
automated systems, for example, the described congestion assistant, which does
vehicle guidance without a monitoring function for the driver as long as the prevail-
ing situation corresponds to a traffic jam. Due to their classification, according to
Figure 9.5, in highly automated systems, the human driver can still be regarded as
a fallback level, which is requested to take over control at the system boundary.
9.2.3.1 Human driver as fallback level

In particular, the handover of control of the system to the driver as a fallback level
has been the subject of investigations for several years (see e.g. Maas 2017; Maas,
Kracht et al. 2017). As soon as a system takes control of a vehicle, the driver is free
to devote himself to other activities and thus be distracted from driving. If the sys-
tem then reaches its limits, the driver must be asked to take control of the vehicle
again. Since a distracted driver is not immediately able to assess a situation again
and react adequately to it, the imminent system limit must be recognized so early
that the driver has sufficient time to adjust to a corresponding situation.
Considering the exemplary scenario of a missing lane marking, this can be de-
tected early by an appropriate camera system. How early the driver must be warned,
however, varies from driver to driver as well as depending on the situation. In a driv-
ing simulator, study of (Damböck, Bengler et al. 2012) warning times in a range of
4 to 8 seconds were investigated. Bridging this period is an important subject of cur-

rent research. A correlation between the available time reserve and the probability
of driving errors could be identified. The more time the driver has to take over the
driving task, the fewer driving errors were made. In addition, this study identified a
connection between driving errors and the traffic situation itself.
As explained, not only the technical and economic side of development is a
challenge in the development of conditionally automated systems, but also the
human component, that is, the driver himself.
9.2.4 Fully automated vehicles
According to the classification of the SAE, fully automated vehicles operate without
human intervention while driving. From a theoretical point of view, therefore, fully
automated vehicles do not require a steering wheel or pedals. The ‘driver’ becomes
a passenger in such a vehicle and can only intervene by influencing the destination
and, if necessary, the route.
There are also examples of these vehicles that are capable of solving many sit-
uations that arise in road traffic. However, if one looks at some critical situations, it
quickly becomes clear that the driver’s interpretative ability is, as of today, still re-
quired in road traffic. This becomes clear when, for example, a situation is consid-
ered in which traffic at an intersection is controlled by a police officer. Even if
this situation is not an everyday situation in road traffic today, it can happen
that a fully automated vehicle gets into such a situation. Even vehicles with an
appropriate camera system may not be able to interpret subconscious gestures or
movements.
If we drive this lack of interpretation to the top and present the situation
from Figure 9.6, this even leads to ethical questions.
Figure 9.6: Critical situation in oncoming traffic.

9.3 Driver assistance systems vs. driving dynamics control systems 421
Figure 9.6 very vividly describes a situation that inevitably seems to end in a colli-
sion. In a fully automated system, the decision on the selection of the collision oppo-
nent now lies solely with the vehicle. At least from today’s perspective, it is unclear
whether a vehicle, that is, a machine, should make this decision, if this reduces the
overall risk. Since such situations, however unlikely they may be, can be constructed
at least theoretically, a solution must also be found for such problems, which can be
trained in a fully automated system.
As these simple examples show, there are currently questions at various levels
(legal situation, economic efficiency, artificial intelligence and, not least, ethics) be-
yond the technical feasibility, which make the nationwide introduction of highly to
fully automated systems difficult. Nevertheless, many leading experts assume that
there will be fully automated vehicles in the future. However, timing and conditions,
especially from a legal point of view, can only be speculated at the present time.
9.3 Driver assistance systems vs. driving dynamics control systems
In this section, in addition to the definition of DAS, a further subdivision is made.

In the following sections, after the description of the interface between system and
human being, assistance systems are first considered, which represent a support
function based on the vehicle’s own behavior. Since the systems presented have the
particular task of stabilizing the vehicle, that is, influencing the (driving) dynamics
of the vehicle, they are also referred to as driving dynamics control systems. As a
counterpart to these, the following section describes systems that assist the driver
directly in connection with the traffic situation. Here, these are referred to as DAS.
A corresponding classification of the systems described here is shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Classification of assistance systems for motor vehicles.
Driving Dynamics Control Systems Driver Assistance Systems
Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS), Section .. Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), Section ..
Traction Control System (TCS), Section .. Lane Keeping Assistant (LKA), Section ..
Electronic Stability Control (ESP/ESC), Lane Departure Warning (LDW), Section ..
Section ..
Lane Changing Assistant (LCA), Section ..
Highway Driving Assistant (HDA),

Section ..
Pedestrian Assistant, Section ..
Parking Assistant (PA), Section ..

The systems listed in Table 9.1 cover only a part of the DAS. This classification
attempts to cover as many areas of the support function as possible. For example,
the ABS, TCS and cruise control (CC) systems can be divided into the area of the
longitudinal guidance at the stabilization level after Donges and Naab (1996) and
ESP into the area of the transverse guidance at the same level. Lane keeping and
lane change assistance are systems that cover the area of cross guidance at web
guide level. Active speed control and pedestrian assistance are also examples for
the web guide level in the area of longitudinal guidance. The navigation systems
which are not described here are an example of the navigation level of the vehicle
control.
9.4 Human–machine interface
The primary goal of DAS is to support the driver. This support can be provided in
various ways. At the simplest level, this support can be provided by warnings, for
example, in situations that could lead to a collision. Furthermore, the system can
also intervene directly in the vehicle guidance, as it is the case, for example, with
brake pressure control by an Anti-Lock Braking System. In the case of a warning in
particular, the way in which this warning is issued can play a major role. There is
also the danger of irritating the driver with false warnings (so-called warning di-
lemma, see for example, (Maurer 2013)). Communication between system and vehi-
cle is achieved via a human–machine interface, which can be subdivided according
to the sensory channels used by humans.
9.4.1 Sensory channels
Due to the technical feasibility of the existing human senses:

– visual: environment, optical displays, optical flow,
– acoustic: environment, acoustic displays, driving status,
– haptic: actuating forces and paths,
– vestibular: translational and rotational accelerations,
– gustatory: taste, and
– olfactory: smell,
today only the first four senses are addressed by assistance systems. The following
shows which information can be transported via the corresponding channels and at
what time.
9.4 Human–machine interface 423
9.4.1.1 Optical channel

Compared to the other channels, most information can be transmitted via the opti-
cal channel (Schlag, Petermann et al. 2009) (Figure 9.7).
Outside mirror Instrument cluster /HUD Inside mirror
Figure 9.7: Positions of warning elements within the driver’s field of vision.
Which of the displayed elements is used to inform the driver depends on the corre-
sponding system. Warnings concerning the front of the vehicle or the area in front
of the vehicle are recommended in the area of the instrument cluster and, if avail-
able, in a head-up display (HUD). Such warnings have the advantage that the driver
only has to turn his gaze away from the driving situation in front of him for a short
time in order to recognize the corresponding warning. Warnings that affect side or
rear traffic (e.g. the warning of a vehicle in a blind spot), for example, can be well
displayed in the respective mirrors. Optical warnings are preferably used where the
closest possible proximity to the physical conditions in question is created and to
which the driver’s attention is already directed in the respective situation.
The advantage of the optical interface is the particularly high information rate
that can be transported via this channel. The disadvantage is that these warning
symbols (apart from the HUD) can only be recognized when the driver turns his
look away from the situation. They can also be easily overlooked. Another point in
evaluating this interface is the time it takes to recognize an optical symbol and then
look at the situation again. This period, often described as the viewing time, there-
fore increases the reaction time.
9.4.1.2 Acoustic channel

Acoustic warnings are often used when something needs to be pointed out directly
to the driver. Compared to the information rate of the optical channel, there are dis-
advantages for the acoustic channel. This can be easily explained by using two pos-
sible acoustic warnings as examples. The simplest type of acoustic warning is a
short warning signal. This is perceived by the driver, but it is up to the driver to
interpret the signal correctly. It is therefore not clear which situation or danger is
indicated by such a signal. The second way to communicate through an assistance

system on the acoustic channel is a (voice) announcement indicating a correspond-
ing situation. While in the case of a navigation system this is usually an uncritical
process in terms of time, this possibility does not exist when warning of an immi-
nent critical situation. Here, a corresponding warning would possibly exceed the
remaining time until the collision. The advantage of the acoustic signal is that it
directly attracts the driver’s attention. A disadvantage of this is that an acoustic sig-
nal may be regarded as disturbing and might need some training to interpret the
warning correctly.
9.4.1.3 Haptic or kinesthetic channel

In addition to the interfaces described above, newer DAS also make use of the hap-
tic3 and kinesthetic4 channel. Lane departure warning systems, as described in
Section 9.6.2, are an example for the use of these channels. The systems as they are
currently on the market ensure that the driver’s attention is drawn to the steering
by superimposing a vibration on the steering wheel. Whenever the vehicle is about
to unintentionally leave the lane (crossroad markings), the system brings the driv-
er’s attention to the steering system. Compared to the visual warning, this type of
warning can also be transmitted to the driver very quickly, but here too, as with the
acoustic channel, difficulties arise due to possible misinterpretations by the driver.
In addition to this haptic feedback from the system to the driver, the kinesthetic
sense can also be addressed, for example, by briefly applying the brakes to indicate
an imminent collision. The advantage of such warnings is therefore clearly the re-
quired perception time. A disadvantage, as with the acoustic channel, is that there
is room for interpretation in the detection of the warning.
9.4.2 Warning levels
The described sensory channels are used in particular to implement different warn-
ing levels, which can be classified as follows:
– Visual warning: By inserting a warning symbol in the instrument cluster and/
or HUD, the driver is first made aware of the criticality of the current situation.
The warning via the optical sensory channel is evaluated according to Winner,
Hakuli et al. (2012), with the highest excusability in the case of a false warning
and can therefore be used as the first warning level.
– Acoustic warning: The audible warning is the next warning level that can be ac-
tivated if there is no driver response to the visual warning. Due to the increased
3 Haptic: concerning the sense of touch.

4 Kinesthetic: perception about the sense of motion / equilibrium.
attention-grabbing properties of the acoustic sensory channel and the fact that
warning noise can also be disturbing, a reduced excusability in case of a false
warning follows (Winner, Hakuli et al. 2012).
– Haptic warning: The last warning level of many systems is the haptic warning.
Common haptic warnings include a vibration of the steering wheel, a short
brake, or shift jerking. Since this can be interpreted as an intervention in the
vehicle guidance and such a warning also draws the attention of the driver
very strongly, this warning level can be regarded as very less excusable. For
this reason, this warning level should only be applied very shortly before an
unavoidable collision.
9.5 Driving dynamics control systems
As already described in the classification of DAS, this section first describes the
driving dynamics control systems. The system structure of these refer primarily to
the vehicle’s own data and support the driver within the stabilization level (Donges
and Naab 1996).
9.5.1 Anti-lock braking system
The anti-lock braking system (hereinafter referred to as ABS) is probably best-known

and one of the oldest DAS in the field of driving dynamics control systems. The Road
Traffic Licensing Regulations describe the ABS as follows (Bundesministerium für
Verkehr 2011):
“An Anti-Lock Braking System is that part of a service braking system which automatically
controls the slip in the direction of rotation of the wheel on one or more wheels of the vehicle
during braking”.
According to this description, the ABS is to be regarded as part of a brake system.

Since the brake system was originally developed to reduce the rotational speed of
one or more wheels solely depending on the driver’s wishes, the slip control ini-
tially does not appear to be appropriate. The safety-enhancing character of this sys-
tem is described below.
9.5.1.1 Problem statement

If the traffic situation shown in Figure 9.8 is taken as a basis, in which a vehicle is
approaching an end of a traffic jam and the driver notices this too late, the advan-
tage of an ABS can be simply described.
Ego vehicle
Figure 9.8: Approaching the end of a traffic jam.
In this situation, in which a vehicle approaches the end of a traffic jam, the
driver has two plausible strands of action:
– Execution of a hazard brake or
– Swerve to the left, if necessary, with simultaneous strong brake intervention.
If the plot strands are considered in detail, various possible outcomes of the situa-
tion are conceivable, which are analyzed individually in the following:
If hazard braking is initially assumed to be a selected driving maneuver, the
braking distance can be displayed as a function of the differential speed as shown
in Figure 9.9.
35
30 Deceleration 1.0 g
Deceleration 0.9 g
Stopping distance / m
25 Deceleration 0.8 g
Deceleration 0.7 g
20
15
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Closing velocity / km/h
Figure 9.9: Stopping distance as a function of speed.
For this calculation it is initially assumed that the vehicle is without ABS and that
the driver can brake ideally, that is, making full use of the available braking power.
This results in the following model assumptions:
– maximum deceleration of the wheels through ideal braking: 1.0 g,

– sufficient braking distance to the front vehicle,
– reaction time: 1 second.
Assuming that the driver is a real driver, braking is not always performed with the
maximum possible deceleration, but with too much or too little braking force.
Figure 9.9 also shows the stopping distance with a lower braking acceleration
(between 0.7 g and 1.0 g). In this case, an accident with increasing duration up to a
correction is more likely, as the available distance to the vehicle in front may be
less than the stopping distance after a certain time. As soon as the driver notices
this, he intuitively increases the brake pressure further, whereupon the slip limit is
exceeded and consequently the wheels lock. Since this does not lead to a higher
deceleration due to the maximum transferable tire forces, this situation would
tempt the driver to avoid the front vehicle and thus obtain additional path for his
braking on the left lane, Figure 9.8. During braking with blocking wheels (too much
braking pressure), however, it is not possible to execute a cornering movement,
since the vehicle only moves further in the direction of travel according to the iner-
tia and although the sliding friction between wheel and road slows down further, it
is no longer maintained in the lane desired by the driver.
The correct reaction of a driver in this case would be to reduce the braking force to
get all wheels rolling again and restore the lateral guidance properties. Since this is a
contra-intuitive reaction, often only trained drivers are capable of this intervention.
The ABS is intended to contribute to solving the formulated problems. The task
is to regulate the brake pressure on the brakes of the wheels tending to lock in such
a way that locking of the wheels is avoided, at least in wide areas. This results in
the restoration of the lateral guidance properties of the wheels, see Chapter 2.
9.5.1.2 Control concept

In the following, the control concept of the ABS is illustrated using the example of
braking on a road with good grip. In Winner, Hakuli et al. (2012), a sequence is
shown that uses a relationship between vehicle speed, wheel angular acceleration
and brake pressure to perform the brake pressure adjustment of an ABS braking. In
this case, the structure of the brake pressure control in different phases makes it
possible to speak of a logic that uses different threshold values for wheel slip (λ1 )
and angular acceleration ( − a, + a, + A) works.
In Figure 9.10 the phases of this logic are shown.
In phase 1 of the braking process, the brake pressure builds up according to the
driver’s wish (brake pedal force) until a wheel acceleration of − a is reached. This
threshold is derived from an idealised static friction coefficient slip curve and is
slightly above the maximum possible vehicle deceleration. The wheel then leaves
the stable area of the tire slip curve, see Chapter 2.
Angular acceleration
beginning of the phase: grey
end of the phase: black
Braking pressure p
y
lo cit
Ve
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
Figure 9.10: ABS logic phases.
The brake pressure is then initially maintained (and not reduced) in phase 2 to
prevent effects due to apparent decelerations (e.g. due to large axis movements in
the braking phase) which would result in an increase in the braking distance.
As soon as the wheel speed falls below the slip threshold λ1 , phase 3 begins, in
which the braking pressure is finally actively reduced by the system. This phase
continues until the acceleration threshold − a is exceeded again. The wheel slip is
again in the stable area at this point.
When the threshold − a is exceeded again, the brake pressure is maintained in
phase 4 until the threshold + A is exceeded.
Now, in phase 5, the brake pressure is increased again until the threshold + A
is again fallen below and then held until the threshold + a is undercut. The wheel
is now in the stable range of the static friction coefficient slip curve. In phase 7, the
brake pressure is gradually increased in stages until the threshold − a is undercut
again. As soon as this happens, the brake pressure is reduced again, and the cycle
is repeated (phase 8 or 3).
The input variables for the brake pressure control (shown as an example here:
on slippery roads, in uncoupled condition) are made available to the control unit
by the wheel speed sensors, often referred to as ABS sensors.
9.5.1.3 Inductive (passive) wheel speed sensors

The passive version of the wheel speed sensor, which was frequently used in the past,
is based on the measuring principle of induction. To take advantage of this measuring
effect, such a sensor can be constructed as shown schematically in Figure 9.11.
Electrical connection
Permanent magnet
Coil
Encoder wheel
Figure 9.11: Inductive wheel speed sensor according to (Reif 2012).
Figure 9.11 shows an encoder wheel (pulse wheel), which executes the rotary move-
ment to be measured by means of a fixed coupling to the wheel. The actual sensor,
which is to detect the rotary movement and convert it into an electrical signal, is
mounted above this sensor wheel. The sensor itself consists of a permanent magnet,
a pole pin, and a coil. The permanent magnet generates a magnetic field to which
the soft magnetic pole pin and the coil are exposed. This magnetic field is changed
by the rotation of the transmitter wheel, which induces a voltage in the coil. This
voltage can be adjusted with the number of turns w and can be calculated by the
following equation:
dϕ
uind = w . (9:1)
dt
The Magnetic Flux ϕ can be represented as a function of the air gap and the rota-
tional speed:
∂ϕ dφ ∂ϕ
uind = w =w _
φ. (9:2)
∂φ dt ∂φ
Here φ designates the angle of rotation of the transmitter wheel and φ _ the corre-
sponding angular rotation speed. This applies as long as the air gap remains con-
stant (within small tolerances). Due to the installation position, however, these
sensors are exposed to high mechanical loads, which occur, for example, during
braking and acceleration. As a result of a change in the air gap dL , this results in

∂ϕ ∂ϕ ddL
uind = w φ_ + (9:3)
∂φ ∂dL dt
according to the recognition that there is no linear relationship between induced

voltage and rotational speed alone. For this reason, the Hall principle is increas-
ingly used in today’s vehicles, especially as active Hall sensors, in contrast to the
principle described here, do not allow speed measurement up to a standstill.
9.5.1.4 Active (Hall) wheel speed sensors

Compared to passive wheel speed sensors, today’s vehicles increasingly use active
sensors which do not have the described disadvantages of the varying air gap and
the limited measuring range at low speeds. These sensors, designed according to
the Hall principle, are shown schematically in Figure 9.12.
Rotor with magnets (1)
Plug and socket
Hall element (2)
Figure 9.12: Design of an active wheel

speed sensor according to (Reif 2012).
Here the multipole ring or rotor (1) is shown, which is installed with the wheel and
thus rotates with respect to the sensor (2). The rotating multipole ring is constructed
with ranges of alternating polarity. The sensor housing serves to protect the integrated
IC circuit from environmental conditions which are primarily caused in the area of the
wheel by dust and dirt. The Hall sensor (2) uses the magnetic field of the multipole
ring to detect a change in polarity with the aid of the Hall effect. By detecting this
polarity change, the speed can be calculated by appropriate evaluation electronics.
The operation of a Hall5 sensor is shown schematically in Figure 9.13. This fig-
ure shows a current-carrying conductor (plate) to which a supply voltage is applied.
An (alternating) magnetic field across this plate causes the flowing electrons to be
5 Edwin Herbert Hall (1855–1938): US-American physicist and discoverer of the Hall effect named
after him.
Magnetic field
+
−
Ha
ll e
lem
en
t
−
Hall voltage
Figure 9.13: Schematic function of a Hall sensor.
deflected perpendicular to the magnetic field and applied voltage by the Lorentz
force. The displacement of the electrons leads to a potential difference across the
impressed supply voltage.
If the voltage at the plate is measured transversely to the applied supply volt-
age, both the strength of the magnetic field and the polarity are visible.
The measured values of the wheel movement are supplied to the control algo-
rithms of the ABS. As a result, the hydraulic unit adjusts the brake pressure to the
individual wheel (Reif 2010). The control logic shown refers to braking on slippery
roads with the drive unit disengaged. Deviations from this logic can be detected by
various detection algorithms during braking. The most important influences on the
braking that are detected are related to:
Slippery road: Compared to braking on a non-slip road, braking on a slippery
road generates less frictional torque between the road and the tire. For this reason,
during the pressure-maintaining phase (phase 4 in Figure 9.10) on slippery roads,
the wheel slip is reduced again in order to reduce the wheel slip more quickly. In
addition, the subsequent pressure-maintaining phase is longer (Reif 2010).
– Engaged / Disengaged Motor: When the drive train is engaged, the moment of
inertia of the wheel increases by up to a factor of four (Reif 2010) and Chapter 6,
which means that the switching thresholds between the individual phases must
be adjusted.
– Unevenly Distributed Coefficient of Friction: An uneven distribution of the co-
efficient of friction between the left and right sides of the vehicle results in a
yawing torque. Especially in vehicles with a short wheelbase, this leads to yaw
acceleration due to the low torque around the vertical axis, which can be canceled
out by various mechanisms. One of these mechanisms is the limitation of the brak-
ing torque on the side with a higher coefficient of friction, the so-called yaw torque
build-up deceleration. With this function, the braking torque is reduced only to
such an extent that counter-steering (against the yawing movement) is made
possible by the driver. A further reduction of the braking pressure would lead to
an unintentional increase in the braking distance (Reif 2010).
9.5.2 Traction control system
In addition to the problem of the locking wheels, freely spinning wheels also mean
that no lateral guiding forces can be transmitted between the wheels and the road sur-
face. This can also be detected by the wheel speed sensors and prevented by the motor
torque control interventions or braking interventions. This is made possible by the
brake system, which with the introduction of ABS has been enabled to brake individual
wheels.
As the name of this system already describes, this is the control of the drive
slip. In case that one axle of the vehicle is driven, the slip of the drive wheels can
be determined by determining the vehicle speed via the ‘towed’ wheels and com-
paring it with the speed of the driven wheels. In the case of four-wheel drive, the
vehicle speed is estimated within the framework of the ESP system and used ac-
cordingly for traction control.
When controlling the drive torque, the traction control system has several op-
tions for intervening in the vehicle system. In the case of homogeneously distributed
coefficients of friction, the torque of the driven axle is also distributed equally to
both wheels of this axle by the differential. As a result, both wheels spin when the
drive torque exceeds the torque transmitted to the road. In this case, the TCS reduces
the drive torque (e.g. by engaging the throttle position). If the reduction of the drive
torque is not sufficient, the spinning wheels can also be braked individually.
In the case of very different coefficients of friction between the left and right
side of the vehicle, it can happen that only one of the wheels spins. Due to the dif-
ferential, this means that only a very small torque value can be transmitted to the
road on the other side of the driven axle, Figure 9.14.
Here you can see that the right wheel is spinning while the left wheel is almost
stationary. This is due to the function of a differential, which distributes the drive
torques equally between the two drive wheels.
In this case, an additional torque can be generated by braking the right wheel,
which also produces a higher torque on the left side, which can be converted into
propulsion there by the higher coefficient of friction.
9.5.3 Electronic stability program
The driving dynamics control systems described so far were limited to controlling the
brakes and the drive with the focus on maintaining the steerability of the vehicle. The
MDif
FB
low
μ
Flow hig
hμ
Mk
v
Flow
FB
Fhigh
Figure 9.14: How a differential works.
system, usually known as the electronic stability program (ESP), which can guarantee
the stability of the vehicle even in critical situations, has been used in passenger cars
since 1995 (Erhardt and van Zanten 1995; Van Zanten 2000). After this assistance sys-
tem became known as ESP, it was also introduced by other OEMs and is also known as
electronic stability control (ESC). This system combines the functionality of TCS and
ABS and also considers the measured steering angle and yaw rate to avoid strong over-
or under-steering behavior in critical driving situations and thus achieve a safety gain.
The task of the system is to optimally support the variables transverse speed,
longitudinal speed and rotational speed (around the vertical axis of the vehicle)
within the physical limits and according to the driver’s wish. Consequently, the re-
corded driver request is an input variable of this system. This driver’s wish is ex-
pressed by the steering angle that the driver sets to follow an appropriate trajectory.
In addition to this driver’s request, the actual driving behavior of the vehicle is con-
stantly monitored so that any difference between target and actual values that may
occur can be detected as quickly as possible, and appropriate action can be taken.
Such a difference occurs, for example, when the vehicle is under- or over-steering.
When under-steering, the vehicle slides over the front axle, while when over-
steering, the rear of the vehicle breaks out (Figure 9.15).
The over- or under-steering driving behavior shown in Figure 9.15 often occurs
in critical situations caused by the driver’s steering intervention. For example, a fre-
quent cause of understeering behavior is a curve speed that is too high.
The strategy for defusing these situations with an assistance system is based on
the approach of steering a motor vehicle within a certain framework by targeted
braking interventions. This is made possible by wheel-specific control of braking
pressures (as implemented for ABS and TCS systems, e.g.) by braking the outer and
inner wheels of the curve, resulting in torque around the vertical axis of the vehicle
(Figure 9.16).
Under-steering
Road
Neutral-steering
Over-steering
Figure 9.15: Over- and under-steering behavior of a motor vehicle, see also Chapter 3.
Figure 9.16: Torque generation by single-wheel braking.
As shown in Figure 9.16, an additional torque can be generated in a motor vehi-

cle during cornering by braking individual wheels, which causes the vehicle to ro-
tate inwards (to reduce under-steering behavior) or outwards (to reduce over-
steering behavior) around the vertical axis.
According to Isermann (2006) an additionally generated torque can be calcu-
lated by braking a single wheel. If a braking of the left front wheel (index FL) is first
considered, a steering angle-dependent steering torque around the vertical axle re-
sults, initially when driving straight ahead:

1
Ms, ZFL = FB, FL lV sin δ − bV cos δ , (9:4)
2
with the steering angle δ, the braking force on the left front wheel FB, FL the distance
between the center of gravity of the vehicle and the front wheels lV and the vehicle
width bV . This results in the slip-dependence of the braking force:

∂FB, FL 1
Ms, ZFL = ΔλFL lV sin δ − bV cos δ , (9:5)
∂λFL 2
with the slip of the left front wheel λFL . If cornering, that is, a steering angle not
equal to zero, a force component across the wheel results. This component is also
slip-dependent and can therefore be influenced by braking. The yawing torque influ-
enced by the braking and generated by the left front wheel therefore results:
∂FS, FL
Mges, ZFL = ∂λFL ΔλFL lV cos δ − 21 bV sin δ
(9:6)
∂FB,
+ FL
∂λFL ΔλFL lV sin δ − 21 bV cos δ ,
with the lateral guidance force FS, FL . The calculation is likewise for the other wheels.
The resulting yaw torque for the vehicle results from summation over all wheels.
9.6 Driver assistance systems
In addition to systems that have a direct influence on driving dynamics in critical

situations, this section describes systems that make driving tasks easier for the
driver through information or action by reacting to the environment outside the ve-
hicle. In this section, these driving tasks are often limited to monotonous tasks,
such as speed control and lane keeping on the motorway. In addition, two poten-
tially critical situations are considered which can be mitigated or resolved by DAS.
9.6.1 Adaptive cruise control
ACC is probably the best and most common example of a comfort enhancing assis-
tance system. The operation of this system is based on CC, which relieves the driver
especially on long journeys on motorways and country roads by automatically main-
taining an adjustable speed. The development of the ACC was favored by the devel-
opment of the electrically adjustable throttle valve, which enabled direct control of
the engine torque by a control unit, independent of driver intervention. Figure 9.17
shows the function of the ACC schematically. By measuring the vehicle speed and
forming a difference to the set desired speed, a control variable is already available,
Target speed Speed difference Target

acceleration Torque
Speed controller
controller
Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle Speed
Vehicle
Figure 9.17: How the cruise control works.
with the aid of which a controller for a desired acceleration is created. The throttle
valve is adjusted by a downstream longitudinal controller which adjusts this setpoint
acceleration. The result is a corresponding drive torque, whereupon the speed differ-
ence is reduced. In the negative range, both the engine drag torque and the brake
system can be used to achieve the desired deceleration of the vehicle.
The first control stage (determination of the nominal acceleration) is limited ac-
cording to ISO (2009)6 depending on the current vehicle speed:
– low speed range (below 5m=s or 18 km=h):
– maximum deceleration: −5 m=s2
– maximum acceleration: 4 m=s2
– medium speed range (5 m=s to 20 m=s):
– maximum deceleration: −5.5 m=s + ðv=10 sÞ
– maximum acceleration: 4.67 m=s − ð2v=15 sÞ
– high speed range (over 20 m/s):
– maximum deceleration: −3.5 m=s2
– maximum acceleration: 2 m=s
This results in a permissible acceleration range as shown in Figure 9.18. A maxi-

mum permissible build-up rate of acceleration (time derivative of acceleration, jerk)
is provided, which is also subdivided according to speed (ISO 2009):
– low speed range (below 5 m=s or 18 km=h):
– maximum build-up rate: 5 m=s
– medium speed range (5 m=s to 20 m=s):
– maximum build-up rate: 5.83 m=s − ðv=6 sÞ
– high speed range (over 20 m=s):
– maximum build-up rate: 2.5 m=s.
6 Superseded by ISO 15622, 2018.

Acceleration / (m/s2)
Jerk (m/s3)
Velocity / (m/s) Velocity / (m/s)
Figure 9.18: Permissible acceleration (left) and permissible build-up rates (right) of adaptive cruise
control according to (ISO 2009).
The permissible range of the build-up rate is also shown in Figure 9.18.
While an ACC is based on a few influencing variables, as shown in Figure 9.17,
setpoint formation has undergone a long development since the development of the
first ACC, which ultimately led to the development of active speed control depend-
ing on the traffic situation.
This system supplements the function of an ACC by distinguishing between fol-
lowing and free driving. For this purpose, the system requires information about
the surrounding road users in addition to the data of the own vehicle.
This, at the time the system was launched, outstanding new feature of ACC is
the response to a slower vehicle ahead. It is activated when determining a target
speed with the parameters, speed and distance relative to the own vehicle. From
the driver’s point of view, this system offers a considerable comfort advantage, es-
pecially on long journeys. A vehicle equipped with this system is capable of guiding
the vehicle longitudinally on its own. The driver only has a monitoring function.
To implement such a system, it is first necessary to know the speed and the dis-
tance relative to the vehicle in front. For this purpose, Radar sensors are used in
most cases.
9.6.1.1 Radar sensors

The term Radar7 means the detection and distance measurement of objects relative
to the sensor used. Nowadays Radar sensors are used in motor vehicles to deter-
mine distances and relative speeds. Radar sensors, originally from military technol-
ogy (Winner 2003), were introduced into today’s automobile in 1998 in connection
7 Radar: Radio Detection and Ranging.

with the development of ACC. In the following, the measuring principle and the
construction of a Radar sensor are briefly explained.
The measuring principle Radar is based, as the term radio already suggests, on
the propagation, reflection, and scattering of electromagnetic waves. The Radar sen-
sor transmits these waves in a bundle. Whenever a wave hits an object, some por-
tions of it will be reflected. The reflected waves can then be detected by the sensor’s
receiver antenna. This process is based on assumptions that makes it possible to de-
termine the quantities to be measured. The most important of these assumptions are:
– Reflection: Electromechanical waves are reflected by electrically conductive
bodies. If electromagnetic waves are detected at the receiving antenna of a sen-
sor, an object is located in the measuring range of the Radar sensor.
– Constant velocity of propagation: Electromagnetic waves propagate at approxi-
mately the speed of light. The distance to an object can thus be determined by
measuring the time between the emission and the re-emergence of the signal at
the sensor.
With the help of these assumptions, basic functions of the Radar sensor can already
be described. The simplest measurement with the help of a Radar sensor is the tran-
sit time measurement. The procedure for this method is shown in Figure 9.19.
Intensity
Sender
Receiver
0 5 10 15 20
Time / ms
Figure 9.19: Measurement of the distance by a Radar sensor using the transit time measurement.
Figure 9.19 shows the corresponding signals from the transmitter (black) and receiver
(grey). If such a pulse is emitted by the transmitter and reflected on an object, the
distance s can be determined by measuring the duration t between transmission and
re-arrival of the signal using the constant propagation speed (speed of light) c:
c
s= t. (9:7)
2
The factor 1/2 in eq. (9.7) results from the fact that the electromechanical waves first
need to reach the object before being reflected and then traveling the same distance
back to the sensor.
With the aid of the laws of reflection, this relative velocity can also be derived
very well from the wave properties of the measurement signal. The corresponding
effect is called the Doppler8 effect. This is usually described in connection with a
signal horn of an emergency vehicle that initially approaches and then moves
away. When approaching such an acoustic noise source, a higher sound can be
heard; conversely, a lower sound can be heard. If the position of the signal source
and receiver do not change relative to each other, the pitch remains unchanged in
this case. The Doppler effect becomes clear, analogous to this example, when Radar
sensor and object have a relative speed to each other. The phase rotation that arises
can be determined by the equation
4sπ
φ= , (9:8)
λ
where φ is the phase shift, s is the relative distance, and λ describe the wavelength of
the radiation. It is now assumed that s is a time-variable variable whose derivative is
the relative velocity vr , the equation results after derivation according to time:
dφ ds π π
=4 = 4 vr . (9:9)
dt dt λ λ
It should be noted that in eq. (9.9) assuming that the wavelength (and therefore also
the corresponding frequency) of the transmitter signal are constant. This additional
phase shift per time means that a frequency different from the transmitter signal can
be measured at the receiver, which differs by the so-called Doppler frequency:
1 4 π vr
fd = π− , (9:10)
2 λ
with the relationship between frequency and wavelength

c
f= (9:11)
λ
the difference between the transmitter signal and the received signal is a function
of the transmitter frequency:
8 Christian Andreas Doppler (1803–1853): Austrian mathematician and physicist. Known from the
Doppler Effect and the Doppler Temperature, named after him.
fsend
fd = 2 v r (9:12)
c
which results in the required relative speed vr .

With the now-known data for relative distance s and relative speed vr , a target
vehicle can then be determined from a set of detected vehicles. This then serves as
a reference for the speed control. One of the potentially several vehicles identified
is selected as the target vehicle and it plays a very important role. Vehicles that
are not recognized can cause a critical driving situation on the one hand; vehicles
that are recognized incorrectly can cause an unwanted speed adjustment (which
influences the acceptance of the user). Therefore, the sensor data is used to check
whether a detected vehicle actually represents a vehicle in front on its own lane.
For this, it is not initially assumed that track data are already available. The
course that the vehicle follows is therefore only predicted based on its own vehicle
movement. In the simplest case, this prediction assumes that the current curvature of
the driving trajectory is maintained. To determine the desired curvature, it is particu-
larly useful to determine the steering wheel angle δH as an indicator. From the equa-
tions of the linear single-track model, the curvature (Schramm, Hiller et al. 2018) is
δR
κ= , (9:13)
l + EG v2
with the steering angle of the wheels δR , the self-steering gradient EG, the wheel-
base l, and the vehicle speed v. According to Chapter 3, depending on the steering
wheel angle and the characteristic speed vch with
l
v2ch = , (9:14)
EG
the curvature reads
δ
κ= H . (9:15)
2
iL 1 + vv2
ch
Further possibilities to determine the curvature result from the yaw rate
ψ_
κ= , (9:16)
v
as well as from lateral acceleration ay
ay
κ= (9:17)
v2
or from the difference of the wheel speeds Δv from left and right wheel of an axis to
Δv
κ= , (9:18)
v bV
with the vehicle width bV . Each of these methods has different properties regard-
ing suitability in different driving situations. Therefore, it makes sense to actually
determine the curvature in different ways and to link it with a suitable data fu-
sion. With the aid of the bend determined in this way a so-called driving hose is
formed, which is used for the selection of the relevant targets (Figure 9.20) shows
this hose and corresponding relevant and irrelevant vehicles. The detected objects
are recorded in so-called occupancy grids as part of new and future DAS. The re-
sulting environment models can be used, for example, for functions such as the
determination of evasion trajectories, assistance functions for construction sites
(Grewe, Hohm et al. 2012).
Secondary lane vehicles
Ego vehicle
Route envelope
Target vehicle
Figure 9.20: Route envelope and target vehicle.
9.6.1.2 Follow-up control

With the help of the basic correlations of the Radar sensors, the required variables
for ACC can be measured with the aid of a sensor. Using various algorithms, objects
can be detected and categorized according to vehicle types with the aid of measure-
ments from a Radar sensor (Figure 9.21). The relevant objects are then identified
from these detected objects, whereupon the influencing variables for a follow-up
control can be extracted.
In addition to the described function of adaptive speed control during free
travel, a further increase in comfort is to be achieved through the reaction to the
relative distance and the relative speed to vehicles in front. The corresponding size
to be set in this case is the time gap tL to the vehicle in front. This results under the
assumption of constant states (the own speed vego and direction of travel of the ve-
hicles involved remain constant) in:
d
tL = . (9:19)
vego
Figure 9.21: Object detection using environmental sensors © Daimler AG.
The setpoint speed is set accordingly so that the set time gap is maintained until
the vehicle in front leaves the driving hose. A vehicle in front is then selected again
or the regulation for free travel is carried out.
9.6.1.3 Lane change

The determination of relevant vehicles using a route envelope can lead to critical
situations in connection with ACC systems, as shown in Figure 9.22.
Ego vehicle Route envelope
Target vehicle
Figure 9.22: Lane change situation with EGO- and target vehicle.
Figure 9.22 shows a vehicle with ACC driving in the left lane on a two-lane motor-
way. On the right lane, a car is induced to change lanes by a slow truck in front.
This causes the changing vehicle to enter the driving hose of the faster vehicle.
The ACC system will then brake uncomfortably if necessary. While human drivers
can anticipate a corresponding lane change in many cases, the adaptation of this
behavior is still a current research task for which different forecasting methods
have already been presented. These can be divided into kinematic, reactive, and
proactive predictions according to Rehder, Georgiev et al. (2015). A selection of
the different variants is shown below.
The kinematic prediction is based on naive assumptions, as well as the ACC
course prediction, for example, the assumption of constant speed and rotation rate.
Here, a lane change can be predicted well if a transverse deposit (deviation from the
center of the lane) has already been built up and the lane change is therefore already
carried out. A corresponding approach was presented in 2009 by Toledo-Moreo and
Zamora-Izquierdo (2009), which has a prediction horizon of 1 to 1.5 seconds before
changing lanes. A larger prediction horizon can be achieved if track information is
added. With this reactive prediction McCall and Trivedi (2007) predicted up to 2.5 sec-
onds before the lane change occured. A proactive approach, which takes into account
the desire to change lanes, was presented in 2015 by Rehder, Maas et al. (2015). It
was shown that 6 seconds before the lane change, a lane change intention of the
driver could be determined. Further approaches for the prediction of lane change ma-
neuvers are discussed, for example, in Rehder, Muenst et al. (2016). Methods to clas-
sify lane change maneuvers and the influence of various parameters on the comfort
perceived by passengers are covered in Moser and Schramm (2018).
As soon as an imminent lane change can be reliably detected, a vehicle with an
active ACC system has the corresponding prediction time available as additional re-
action or braking time (and thus also a longer braking distance). The following cal-
culation example shows the effect of an additional 2 seconds braking time:
The vehicle shown in Figure 9.22 on the left lane has a speed of 150 km=h
while the target vehicle initiates changing lanes at 90 km=h. The distance be-
tween the vehicles is 100 m. According to road traffic regulations, the minimum
safety distance is 2 seconds. This results in a target speed of 90 km=h and a target
distance of 50 m. At a differential speed of 60 km=h, this leads to a necessary
brake acceleration of 2.77 m=s2 . If this process is detected 2 seconds in advance,
earlier deceleration causes 83.3 m to be available instead of 100 m detachment.
The necessary brake acceleration in this example is approx. 1 m=s2 , that is, a sig-
nificantly lower deceleration.
9.6.2 Lane keeping assistant
In addition to systems for longitudinal guidance, systems for transverse guidance at

the lane guide level are also used. One of these systems is the lane keeping assistant,
which is designed to prevent unintentional driving over the road markings. Basically,
these systems can be distinguished between active and passive variants:
– Systems whose task is to warn the driver when the lane marker is exceeded are
referred to as passive lane keeping assistants. For this reason, the name lane
departure warner (LDW) is also common. The warning that the lane marking is
about to be exceeded can be audible, visual, or even haptic.
– In addition to the warning function of passive systems, active systems can sup-
port the driver by means of an additionally set steering torque to adjust the ve-
hicle alignment with respect to his own lane. These systems are often known as
active lane keeping assistants (ALKA).
Both variants of lane keeping assistance are based on the same measurement and
evaluation of one’s own position relative to the selected lane. To maintain these rel-
ative distances and angles, a camera system measures the position of the road
markings. Since this camera system is permanently installed with the vehicle, it is
assumed for the following calculations that in addition to the position of the mark-
ing relative to the camera system, the position with respect to the vehicle center of
gravity is also known.
With the knowledge of the vehicle width bv and the distance between vehicle
center of gravity and front axle lv , the distance of the front wheels orthogonally to
the road marking can be determined according to Figure 9.23:
Lane marker
cog
Figure 9.23: Determining the transverse position of the vehicle’s center of gravity.
bv
yR = y − cos ψ − lv sin ψ. (9:20)
2
In doing so, yR describes the distance of the (here left) front wheel to the road mark-
ing, y describes the measured distance from the vehicle center of gravity, and ψ the
angle relative to the road marking. If the current speed is considered and it is as-
sumed that only small steering wheel angles are set, the approach of the front
wheel to the road marking can be set with
ΔyR = tTLC vcog sin ψ (9:21)
where vcog describes the absolute speed (center of gravity speed) of the vehicle.
Under the assumption of constant speed vcog and constant orientation ψ follows for
a prediction of the distance to the road marking over the prediction time tTLC 9:
bv
yR = y − cos ψ − lv sin ψ − vcog sin ψtTLC (9:22)
2
and after conversion to tpred , the expected time until the lane mark is reached by yR
is set to zero:
y− bv
cos ψ − lv sin ψ
tTLC = 2
. (9:23)
vcog sin ψ
With the now-known time until a road marking is reached, various warnings can be
issued to the driver before the marking is crossed if the values fall below fixed
thresholds. For passive systems, this warning is limited to
– optical warnings,
– acoustic warnings, and
– haptic warnings due to steering wheel or seat vibration.
Active systems react to a deviation from the center of the road by applying an addi-
tional steering torque. The design of the support characteristic is of decisive impor-
tance. Figure 9.24 shows two different concepts of this support characteristic.
Two significantly different variants of the support characteristics are shown
here. While in Figure 9.24, on the left a variant is shown which only reacts when a
wheel runs the risk to touch or even exceed the lane mark, in the variant shown on
the right a supporting torque is applied, which reacts with every deviation from the
target trajectory (generally the lane center) and supports the driver. In this case, the
first variant is very similar to the passive system, with the difference that a support-
ing moment is applied instead of a vibration. The second variant can be described
as “narrow guidance,” since it reacts even at very short distances from the center of
9 TLC: Time to Line Crossing.

Assist torque
Assist torque
Distance to track center Distance to track center
Figure 9.24: Concepts for support characteristics according to Winner, Hakuli et al. (2012).
the track. Usual systems generally choose a middle way by using a combination of
the two variants shown. This has the advantage that up to a certain degree of the
deviation a hardly noticeable support is imposed, while in critical situations (the
vehicle threatens to exceed the lane mark) an increased support torque is provided.
A possible combination of the variants shown is shown in Figure 9.25.
Lane marker
Assist torque
Figure 9.25: Variant of a support

characteristic according to Winner,
Distance to track center Hakuli et al. (2012).
To suppress unintentional and possibly disturbing behavior of the system, lane

keeping assistants are deactivated briefly or until the next time the vehicle is
switched on after the direction indicator and/or the brake have/has been actuated.
9.6.3 Lane changing assistance (LCA)
In addition to guiding the vehicle in its own lane, there are also systems that sup-
port the change to another lane. The task of these systems is to warn or indicate
vehicles that could potentially lead to collisions due to a lane change of the own
vehicle. These can be classified according to ISO (2008) based on the coverage area
of the environment sensors. In principle, this range can be divided into the blind
spot and the approach range (Figure 9.26).
The blind spot of a vehicle is the space between the driver’s limited field of
view and the field of vision through the door mirror. Systems with lane change
Approach range Monitored area
Blind spot
Ego vehicle
Figure 9.26: Blind spot and approach range.
assistance usually display a warning symbol in the corresponding exterior mirror in

the event of a vehicle located within this blind spot.
In addition to the blind spot area, an approach area is defined in ISO (2008),
which is located laterally behind the own vehicle. Vehicles located in this area and
approaching the own vehicle quickly can also lead to a critical situation in the
event of a lane change. Against these vehicles is usually warned by showing a sym-
bol in the corresponding exterior mirror.
If a lane change has already been initiated (e.g. by activating the corresponding
direction indicator), an acoustic warning is issued in addition to the visual warning.
9.6.4 Highway driving assistant
The logical further development of the DAS is the highway driving assistant (HDA).
This assistant is classified as a level 2 system. This system combines the lateral con-
trol with the longitudinal control of the vehicle. It thus combines the functions of
the ACC and LKAS systems. It is an example of a system that uses different environ-
mental sensors simultaneously. As a level 2 system, however, it requires the driver
to constantly perform his monitoring task. The HDA developed from the traffic
jam assistant, which was originally only intended for use at low speeds in traffic
jams or stop-and-go traffic. Since then, the operating range of these systems has
increased significantly. Present-day systems can be used in a speed range of up to
200 km/h. It is also possible to change lanes automatically when the driver acti-
vates the indicator. The system automatically detects whether there is sufficient
clearance in the target lane. The system enables the driver to take his hands off
the steering wheel for a predefined, short period of time. At the same time, it is
required that the driver, unlike with a level 3 system, constantly monitors the sys-
tem. He must therefore react immediately to any malfunction of the system. The
responsibility therefore lies with the driver without interruption. To ensure the
driver’s attention, a hands-off warning is usually implemented. If both the visual
and acoustic warnings, often combined with a reduction of the radio volume, are
ignored, the system switches off completely.
9.6.5 Pedestrian assistance
The systems described so far relate to assistance in situations involving the road and/
or other vehicles. Pedestrian protection systems are another important component in
the range of DAS. Corresponding systems from this area can have very different char-
acteristics, which depend on the respective intervention time of the system.
To categorize these systems, it makes sense to assume a hypothetical contact
between vehicle and pedestrian and to divide the time before this crash into several
phases. Figure 9.27 shows these a few seconds before a crash and divides the corre-
sponding time until the crash into two phases, which in turn can be divided into
two sections.
tCU –2 s TTC
0
Collision unavoidable Time to collision
Accident mitigation Accident avoidance Strategy

After contact Pre crash Support of Warning Methods
vehicle guidance
– Automatic hood – Pre set – Warning
– Extended – Extended (optical,
brake assitant brake assitant acoustic, haptic)
– Emergency braking – Braking jolt
– Emergency braking
Figure 9.27: Assistance levels right before a pedestrian collision after Tiemann (2012).
As shown in Figure 9.27, up to the point in time tCU a collision can be avoided be-
fore a possible crash, while a collision becomes unavoidable after this point in
time. The action to be taken by an assistance system can be derived from these very
points. As long as a collision can be regarded as avoidable, an appropriate system
should support the driver in avoiding the collision in the best possible way. After
this point in time, that is, when a collision is imminent, the consequences of an ac-
cident can be reduced by various measures. The respective systems can therefore
be divided into the areas of collision avoidance and collision mitigation.
9.6.5.1 Collision avoidance systems

If a possible collision with a pedestrian is imminent, two intervention strategies can
generally be applied. On the one hand there is the possibility to avoid the pedes-
trian, on the other hand an emergency braking can be carried out with sufficient
distance to the pedestrian. In addition, combinations of both variants are also con-
ceivable. The respective actions are already supported by the described systems
ABS (with emergency brake assistant) and ESP (in case of a very fast steering move-
ment caused by a shock). However, in order for a hypothetically inattentive driver
to perform one of these actions, the system must first inform him of this. The point
in time when such a warning must be given can be derived from the following driv-
ing dynamics considerations and can be related to the distance to an obstacle.
If the required braking distance is first considered, this results from the maxi-
mum possible deceleration amax and the initial difference speed to the obstacle v0
from double integration of (constant) maximum deceleration:
ðð ð
1
a = d = at + v0 = at2 + v0 t + d0 , (9:24)
2
whereby d0 describes the distance traveled at the start of braking. This is made up
of the driver’s reaction time and the time required to build up the braking pressure,
during which the current speed can be regarded as constant.
ð
d0 = v0 = v0 ðtr + tbr Þ, (9:25)
which results in the required distance to the obstacle if the vehicle is to stop exactly
in front of the obstacle:
1
dbrake = d + d0 = at2 + v0 t + v0 ðtr + tbr Þ. (9:26)
2
With the calculation of time

v0
t= (9:27)
a
up to a standstill, taking into account the sign of a (deceleration), the total braking
distance is:
1 v20
dbrake = + v0 ðtr + tbr Þ . (9:28)
2a
With the appropriate reaction time, an appropriate warning must therefore be is-
sued for emergency braking if the distance to an obstacle falls below this threshold.
9.6.5.2 Collision mitigation systems

If the second variant, the evasive maneuver, is now considered, the distance results
as follows. First of all, it can be assumed that a vehicle has an additional lateral
offset of dq = 1 m (half vehicle width) to pass the pedestrian. Figure 9.28 shows a
corresponding offset.
Collision object
Figure 9.28: Dodging trajectory of a vehicle due to an obstacle in the driving trajectory.
If the same conditions are applied for this maneuver as well (maximum possible
lateral acceleration), the time for constant longitudinal speed is
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2dq
tavoid = + tr + tsteer (9:29)
a
until the corresponding lateral offset is set. In doing so, the time tr equals the reac-
tion time in the braking example and tsteer is the time needed to adjust the steering
wheel. The distance covered during this time results from the assumption of con-
stant longitudinal speed:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !
2 dq
davoid = v0 + tr + tsteer . (9:30)
a
If a maximum possible lateral acceleration of approx. 80% of the maximum trans-

ferable longitudinal acceleration and a reaction time of 1 s and a time of 0.1 s for
the build-up of the brake pressure and the required driving time, the distances at
which a driver should be warned are determined as shown in the Figure 9.29.
As shown in Figure 9.29, high differential speeds (over approx. 36 km=h) result
in shorter distances for evasive maneuvers compared to braking. Especially at these
high differential speeds, a driver may plan an evasive maneuver, but then receive a
warning signal, as the minimum distance for braking is not reached. At this point,
it is a particular challenge for system manufacturers to find a middle way out of
safe warning distances and the acceptance of errors.
160
140
Dodge and brake distance (m)
120 Avoid
100 Brake
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
36 km/h Difference velocity / (km/h)
Figure 9.29: Evasive and braking distance as a function of the differential speed.
With the help of the warning distances calculated in this way, speed-dependent
warning thresholds are specified for the systems used, to which the driver is usually
warned in several stages via different channels.
If the driver does not react to any of the warning levels described in Section 9.4.2,
a collision becomes increasingly probable. In this case, vehicle systems are activated
that actively support the driver during an emergency maneuver. These systems are:
– Brake assistant: This system prefills the brake system, reducing the described
brake pressure build-up time.
– Emergency brake assistant: This system reacts when the accelerator pedal is re-
leased quickly, followed by braking. Instead of the brake pressure (requested
by the brake pedal), the brake pressure is then provided for maximum deceler-
ation. This reduces the braking distance by the time the driver needs to bring
the braking pressure to a corresponding level.
If a collision is unavoidable despite warnings and supporting measures, the situation

changes to the ‘pre-crash’ state as shown in Figure 9.27. At this point, automated
functions to reduce the consequences of accidents for occupants and collision oppo-
nents are taking effect. Probably the biggest lever for reducing the consequences of
accidents is the reduction of relative speed. This can be done by automatic emer-
gency braking. Other active measures in the ‘pre-crash’ area include closing win-
dows, tightening seat belts and, in the event of an imminent pedestrian accident,
lifting up the bonnet of some vehicles. Depending on the system, the latter takes
place before the crash (electromechanical and therefore reversible) or at the time of
the accident (pyrotechnical and irreversible). Raising the bonnet provides more defor-
mation space in the event of an impact, which reduces the impact energy over a
longer period of time and thus leads to lower accelerations. This reduces the risk of
injury to pedestrians.
9.6.6 Parking assistance
In addition to the assistance systems considered so far, there are also systems that
simplify the parking process of the vehicle. These systems exist in various expan-
sion stages, ranging from the mere task of distance monitoring to other vehicles
and objects to taking over the entire parking process. The systems are presented
individually below.
9.6.6.1 Distance monitoring

One of the most important tasks during the parking process is to monitor the distances
to other vehicles. These distances differ very strongly in their order of magnitude (here
a few meters) from the distances considered so far (up to several hundred meters).
These small distances are therefore either estimated manually by the driver or mea-
sured by separate sensors. In the former case it is often difficult to estimate the correct
distance due to the visibility from the rear window of a vehicle. As early as 1991,
Mercedes found its first simple solution to this problem by installing travelers in the
rear of the vehicle (limousine), which are clearly visible from the driver’s perspective.
These travelers are automatically extended by several centimeters by engaging reverse
gear, which simplifies distance estimation. Figure 9.30 shows these travelers.
Instead of this visual support, most new vehicles today offer an acoustic system
that provides a relative measure of the distance to obstacles via a sound at varying
intervals. Usually ultrasonic sensors are used for this system, which are mostly
mounted in the bumper cover. This system usually works with two to six ultrasonic
sensors, which are installed in the front and/or rear area. The number of sensors used
depends on the accuracy to be achieved and the vehicle width. Figure 9.31 shows typi-
cal mounting positions for a system with four sensors. One advantage of this system is
the possibility of simple retrofitting, even for older vehicles.
An extension of this measuring principle are rear and front cameras, which allow
the driver to see the area around the vehicle. The display of the corresponding image
is shown on any existing screen or in the interior mirror (as a split or complete
image). In addition to the image displayed, some cameras also display a distance
grid to prevent the effects of distortion. Figure 9.32 shows such a representation.
9.6.6.2 Parking systems

Extensions to the purely monitoring systems form systems that actively take over
part of the parking process in addition to the sensory supports. These include sys-
tems that are already available, such as parking pilots who independently take
Figure 9.30: Travelers.
Figure 9.31: Mounting positions for ultrasonic

sensors.
Figure 9.32: Image of an environment camera.

over steering during the parking process, through to fully automated parking sys-
tems, some of which can be controlled from outside via a smartphone app. The
high level of automation poses both technical and legal challenges as described
in Section 9.2.
9.7 Adapted design of vehicles for assisted driving
In addition to the already existing technical and legal difficulties, the introduction
of a vehicle guidance system, in which the previous human driver becomes a pas-
senger, also brings with it new opportunities for accident avoidance with regard to
its dynamic driving design, but also new challenges. This concerns, among other
things, the aspect of the loss of controllability on the “driving style” by the passen-
ger and thus in particular the driving comfort, the perceived safety, and, more than
in conventional vehicles, the danger of Kinetosis. A large part of the challenges that
arise have to do with the fact that the time freed up to travel is of course to be used
for other activities, which leads to a far-reaching decoupling of the driver or passen-
gers from the traffic situation.
This raises the question of objective criteria for evaluating the driving style of
(partially) automated systems with regard to the perception of driving comfort
during highly automated driving and simultaneously performed non-driving ac-
tivities. Some approaches to resolve the conflicting requirements are described,
for example, by Festner, Baumann et al. (2016), Festner, Eicher et al. (2017),
Festner (2019) as well as Burkhard, Enders et al. (2018) and Burkhard, Vos et al.
(2018). A comparison of several approaches can be found, for example, by Enders,
Burkhard et al. (2019).
9.8 Future development trends
Systems currently (2018) available fulfil the functionalities of level 2 (see Section 9.2.1),
which require the driver’s continuous attention. The next step toward level 3 will also
involve a shift of responsibility from the driver to the vehicle and therefore its manufac-
turer, which will raise both technical and legal questions.
From a technical point of view, the challenges associated with at least a tempo-
rary complete take-over of vehicle control by a technical system increase with the
complexity of the relevant traffic scenarios. This increases the demands on sensors,
high-precision map materials, and algorithms for interpreting traffic situations dra-
matically and also requires a corresponding expansion of the infrastructure. At the
same time, the consequences of accidents will increase with rising speed. Figure 9.33
shows the field of challenges in the two dimensions of driving speed and traffic com-
plexity, and the associated possible development path. It is to be expected that the
9.8 Future development trends 455
Complexity of traffic scenarios
Urban traffic Country roads

Partly confusing and extremely Complex traffic scenarios
complex traffic situations with e.g. including intersections at higher
pedestrians and cyclists speeds
Traffic jams on
motorways Motorways
Structured, straight traffic at
Structured, straight traffic at low
comparatively high speeds
speeds
Travel speed
Figure 9.33: Dimensions of complexity in different traffic scenarios.
motorway congestion assistants already offered as series equipment will initially be

gradually expanded to higher speeds, since a comparatively regulated traffic flow
can generally be assumed here. In urban areas, automation toward level 3 and higher
systems may be possible in areas where only prescribed low speeds occur. All this
presupposes that the legal framework conditions for this development are created
step by step in parallel.
Overall, it is the authors who believe that further development can only be ex-
pected in small (automation) steps. Thus, on the one hand, the resulting risks can
be kept manageable and, on the other hand, corresponding experiences can be
gathered, which can then again be incorporated into the further development.
There is a willingness to take appropriate steps, but this will vary considerably from
one vehicle manufacturer to the next. While new manufacturers, such as Tesla, al-
ready offer very far-reaching systems, the established manufacturers are much
more reluctant, even with more extensive sensor equipment at the same time.
Similar considerations can also be made for level 4 and level 5 systems.
Here, however, it can be assumed that these systems will initially be used out-
side public traffic areas in private or closed special traffic zones that may be
under special (external) surveillance. Whether and when level 4 and level 5 ve-
hicles will actually be used in public traffic areas is difficult to assess from to-
day’s perspective. However, due to the current regulatory situation and the
current technical trend, it is likely that individual level 4 or level 5 vehicles will
first be realized in special applications in China or the USA.
Another particular challenge is the transition to automated driving in the ini-
tially unavoidable scenario of mixed traffic with non-automated vehicles.
9.9 Legal possibilities and limits for autonomous driving
While automation, levels 1 and 2 (according to the SAE definition) have now
moved into series production and automation level 3 is already technically pos-
sible and the introduction is currently essentially prevented by legislative and
liability hurdles, automation levels 4 and 5 are currently only conceivable in
very limited scenarios. In addition, the introduction of a vehicle guidance sys-
tem, in which the previous human driver becomes a passenger, also brings new
opportunities for accident avoidance with regard to its dynamic driving design,
but also new challenges.
While the technology of autonomous driving is progressing faster and faster,
the legislative clearly lags behind.
More and more cars with autonomous subfunctions are driving on our roads,
and also prototypes of vehicles that are driven fully automatically. But legally ev-
erything is actually not yet possible.
The so-called Vienna Convention of the UN on road traffic, which applies to al-
most all countries of the world, with the exception of the USA, makes it compulsory
that the driver always needs to maintain control of the vehicle. And the regulations
also drawn up within the framework of the UN on vehicle approval (UN-ECE) means
among other things, it is mandatory that automatic driving functions over 10 km/h
are not permitted.
In addition, there is an increasing uncertainty in data protection: to whom does
the vehicle data (black box) belong if an accident occurs? The driver? The police?
The insurance company? And what about the more and more often from vehicle
manufacturers registered data about customer preferences, for example, at the refu-
eling, selection of routes and restaurants, etc. Can they be commercially exploited
without further ado? And what happens when the networked driving provides con-
flicting or incorrect data from vehicle to vehicle, or from the infrastructure to the
vehicle, for example, about traffic, weather, accidents and more?
Finally, there is also the liability law, because it only ever affects liability in the
event of a breach by a driver or owner, even though they are increasingly losing
control of their vehicle to the autonomous functions – is it not time to hold the
manufacturers of these functions liable? Or is there a need for a completely new
liability system, in which accidents occur between autonomous vehicles from the
participating insurances regardless of whether they are at fault (which can probably
be determined less and less) and are balanced where the insurance would stay
where it is right now: with the driver/holder. There is therefore a constantly grow-
ing discrepancy between the law and the reality, and it would make sense to be
more involved in the USA, where – at least in some states – the legal situation con-
cerning autonomous driving is already largely adapted. This can quickly lead to a
9.9 Legal possibilities and limits for autonomous driving 457
competitive disadvantage that cannot be caught up, when the rest of the world now
does not act soon.
Some pieces of information about “Connected and autonomous mobility – chal-
lenges for cyber security and data protection as well as warranty and liability law”
in German language can be found in Brisch, Eckhardt et al. (2019).
10 Driving simulators
Driving simulators are increasingly utilized in research and development. While

simulators in the aerospace industry have been used in research and as a standard
tool for riskless training in many other industrial and mobility areas since the be-
ginning of the twentieth century, their history in the automotive industry is much
shorter. Additionally, save for a few exceptions, such as for driver training in motor
sports, there is no use case for modern driving simulators in training.
The first driving simulators emerged in the 1970s. The initial simulators were
tasked with questions from the area of vehicle dynamics, which at this early point
in time could not yet be answered. The technology available was not able to repre-
sent the driving dynamics in the detail and quality that was required. Only due to
the CPU computing power that has increased steeply over the past 30 years, it has
been possible to calculate more and more complex models of vehicles and driving
environments, which is the prerequisite for any simulator. Similarly, the area of vi-
sualization of the virtual reality has made crucial progress and at the same time,
significant efforts have been made to recreate a more realistic driving experience in
the simulator. That way, the scope of simulated systems, as well as the so-called
level of immersion1 (perception of reality) could be increased steadily. This has con-
tinuously expanded the range of driving simulators and now allows the assessment
of driving dynamics in simulation. The use of 3D visualization concepts, which
have also improved significantly over the past years, has opened another area of
application. Thus, e.g. the interior design of a virtual vehicle can be more easily
matched to the needs of a real driver.
Driving simulators are mainly used to research the human–vehicle interface,
and to study systems that need to consider the driver due to their functionality
(Figure 10.1). This is possible because a real driver (and further people respectively)
can immerse himself in a realistic environment. Especially for the development of
systems that specifically incorporate the driver (e.g. driving assistance), simulators
are a very good and popular tool. Increasingly, other issues from the field of vehicle
dynamics, or interior design, are examined using corresponding simulators. The
driving simulator can be used wherever solution based purely on simulation tech-
nology is not sufficient. As described, this is often the case when the driver has a
decisive influence on the overall system, because the driver cannot (or only very
limitedly) be simulated within the framework of simulation models. In some situa-
tions, the simulator is the only way to study certain issues. This is for example al-
ways the case when the risks to carry out real tests are too high, or when there
simply are no prototypes available yet.
1 Immersion: In this case, into the virtual reality.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-010
460 10 Driving simulators
– Experience
– Expertise – Health – Age
– Skills – Fatigue – Motivation
– Personality – Attention – Behavior
Driver
– Driving task – Type

– Situation – State
– Traffic flow – Inputs / outputs
– Road type Environment Vehicle – Noise
– View
Figure 10.1: Interaction of driver, vehicle, and environment, according to König (2015).
Even a short, brief consideration of existing driving simulators shows that

there are significant differences between them. Depending on the use case, the re-
quirements to simulators can vary widely. When for example examining a driver
assistance system, that is supposed to activate the kinesthetic sense via a brake re-
action in a human–machine interface (HMI), the system of movement of the simula-
tor is particularly important. However, when looking at a lane assistant for comfort,
that activates an overlay moment in the steering wheel as a human–machine inter-
face, the synthesis of the steering torque, or the quality of the steering actuator is
especially important. With rising complexity, especially of the system of movement,
the cost for the implementation of the driving simulator rises disproportionally.
Therefore, the optimal driving simulator can only be defined for the individual use
case. Thus, especially mid-size (and -price) driving simulators are very different,
and often highly specialized.
Driving simulators cannot completely replace real driving tests. They do how-
ever allow a reduction of development time and cost due to flexible and riskless
preliminary tests. Depending on the use case, the simulator, and the design of a
study, the findings gained from the simulator are already sufficiently close to the
results from real tests.
10.1 Basic requirements for driving simulators
When a driving simulator is utilized to induce realistic behavior of a driver in differ-

ent scenarios in order to evaluate either the driver, the system, or a combination of
both, a precise model to describe the physics (the correlations and the behavior of
different systems) is required, that can be simulated in real time. Furthermore, the
driver needs to be allowed to immerse himself in the situation. The driver must be
able to solve the presented tasks (starting with the pure driving task) in the same
way he would in a real environment.
In the following, the specific modeling and simulation of the vehicle or of single
components is not discussed. The topic of modeling and simulation of driving dy-
namics can be found in Chapters 2 and 3 in this book, or for further reading in
Schramm, Hiller et al. (2018) or for dynamic simulations including suspension elastic-
ities in Kracht, Saba et al. (2018). The following sections do discuss the different fun-
damental tasks when driving a motor vehicle and the resulting basic requirements
for a driving simulator.
When observing only the pure driving task without any additional tasks, it is
usually divided into three levels (Figure 10.3). The behavior of the driver is interest-
ing because the duration and complexity of driving tasks with the different levels
varies widely. Still, solving tasks in the control loop driver-vehicle-environment is
always based on sensory stimuli. However, the type of perception (sensory channel)
as well as the processing varies greatly. The driver then performs based on previ-
ously gained knowledge and the different information requires complex analysis
and interpretation. The rule-based behavior describes solution strategies based on
trained rules, such as, for example, following road signs.
To group the different action strategies when generally solving tasks, and espe-
cially when solving tasks during the operation of motor vehicles, the division into
primary, secondary, and tertiary tasks has become customary. Depending on the
task, the person accesses very different stimulus–response mechanisms. For exam-
ple, in stabilizing actions (e.g. compensating for sudden cross winds), the driver
acts solely based on stimulus reactions. This (partially) trained behavior is very fast
and immediately connected to a stimulus and does not necessitate any further in-
terpretation of the situation by the driver. If a driver tries to navigate in unknown
terrain, different strategies are necessary. Here, the driver takes in information from
the environment (such as the location of prominent buildings) and connects the
collected information in order to consciously initiate an action.
The interaction of certain sensory channels (stimuli) with reactions to a particu-
lar level of driving is especially interesting for the development of a driving simula-
tor concerning the interactions presented in Figure 10.2. In order to now enable the
correspondingly realistic patterns of action in a driving simulator, the stimuli ex-
pected from the driver need to be made available to him. When observing highly
dynamic scenarios to examine the interaction on the level of stabilization (such as
Knowledge-based bhehavior
Identification Decision-making Planning
Rule-based bhehavior
Reportoire of
Associative
Recognition rules of conduct
assignment
Skill-based bhehavior
Filtering of Stimulus-
features response
automation
Sensory signals Motor actions

information
Figure 10.2: Different levels of the driving task according to Rasmussen (1983).
Navigation
Track guidance
Stabilization
~1s ~ 1 min >1h
Figure 10.3: Model presentation of the vehicle management task.
often necessary in the area of driver assistance development), it is essential to also

offer the necessary stimuli for tactile sensations. That is the reason why driving sim-
ulations used for evaluating highly dynamic processes are technologically much
more complex than those for studies with longer drives and a secondary task. In
studies that do not have to display any dynamic driving behavior, often a much
simpler simulation is sufficient to emulate the desired behavior. This is also the rea-
son why there are an extremely large number of different simulator concepts that
offer good results for a more or less wide range of applications.
10.1.1 Perception and distinction when driving a car
There is a multitude of models to explain human information processing. These

specify the general assumption, that a signal (stimulus) arriving at a receptor is
transformed into a representation and a reaction (response). There are different ap-
proaches to describe the functional chain between the stimulus and the action of a
person. In part, they assume that different steps must be executed sequentially, but
there are also approaches based on the assumption, that different stimuli (e.g., lan-
guage parallel to optical stimuli) can be processed at the same time. These theories
are not part of the following sections and can be found in corresponding literature.
Generally, a three-phase model can be used for the observation of perception
and the ensuing action in research of driving. This consists of the three processing
stages perception (information intake), cognition (information processing), and
motor function (information output). The efficiency of the three processing stages
of information processing is influenced by the available processing resources and
necessitates attention. This results in the targeted selection of information that is to
become content of the conscious processing. The constant oversupply of available
information exceeds the human processing power in such a way, that one is by far
unable to consciously be aware of everything that reaches them on the level of sen-
sory receptors.
One can distribute all available attention between the three levels of the informa-
tion process in order to choose relevant information sources and to process this infor-
mation. An efficient distribution of attention can be learnt for any task, in extreme
cases, a bad distribution of attention can cause human errors. Theoretically, various
forms of attention can be differentiated in the dimensions selectivity and intensity.
The selective direction of attention describes the fact that one has to choose between
competing sources of information. Within the framework of shared attention, different
stimuli have to be perceived simultaneously. When changing the direction of atten-
tion, one stimulus can be ignored in favor of a different one. The intensity of attention
concerns the activity level. Here, the reduced vigilance (low share of relevant stimuli),
and sustained attention (high share of relevant stimuli) are important.
Concerning perception when conducting a car, the visual, auditory, movement
(haptic), and position (vestibular) perception play an important role.
10.1.2 Vehicle guidance and requirements to information sources in driving

simulators
As already described, visual, auditory and tactile stimuli are used when driving a
vehicle (Figure 10.4). In some cases, the sense of smell can supply valuable infor-
mation as well. In normal operation, this is however not the case, but usually rather
indicates a failure or damage. Equally, using appropriate sensors, the same
Human being HMI Vehicle
Sender Receiver Sender Receiver

Interaction
Image
Gesture Eye Optical Display processing
Speech, Auditive Sprache, Speech

noise Ear geräusch recognition
Hand, Hand, Haptic Force Control,

foot foot feedback keyboard
Olfactory No technical implemen-

Very limited tation in the car
Figure 10.4: Channels of human-machine interaction in the driving simulator, according

to Hiesgen (2011).
channels can be utilized to transmit information to the vehicle. While the driver col-
lects most of the information via sight, the “inputs” to a vehicle are mostly haptic,
even in today’s vehicles. The most important components for driving a vehicle re-
main the steering wheel and the pedals. Especially in the recent past, a variety of
different additional control elements have been added. Those range from voice con-
trol to image processing sensors allowing the driver to create inputs using gestures.
10.2 Classification and basic structure of driving simulators
Independent from the chosen/necessary degree of complexity, the driving simulator

can be roughly divided up into the following sub-categories:
– Simulation,
– driver’s workplace,
– motion system, and
– environment depiction.
Thereby, all sub-categories can have very different characteristics, as they often
need to be adapted to the requirements of the planned simulator experiment.
The following sections can only provide a very rough first introduction to the in-
dividual parts of a driving simulator (Table 10.1). For further details concerning the
composition of driving simulators, please refer to the diverse literature available in
this area of research Among others, the works of Negele (2007), Capustiac, Hesse
10.2 Classification and basic structure of driving simulators 465
Table 10.1: Structuring of R&D driving simulation elements, according to Hiesgen (2011).
Simulation Driver’s workplace Motion system Environment depiction
Driving dynamics Cockpit Number of degrees of Kind of projection/

Driver assistance Human–machine freedom visualization
systems interfaces Acceleration Field of vision
Surrounding traffic HiL elements Max. velocity Resolution
Road surface Ergonomics Frequency bands D/D
Environment ... Motion cueing ...
Weather ... Source of noise
... D sound
...
et al. (2011), Capustiac (2011), Hiesgen (2011) should be mentioned here. Especially
the dissertation of Negele (2007) sheds light on the requirements and the possible
technological implementation in the context of application.
10.2.1 Simulation
The simulation is the core of a simulator. In it, all physical effects are represented
mathematically and show the interplay with the inputs of the driver that are rele-
vant to the simulation. Naturally, the vehicle dynamics need to be simulated with
the necessary precision, (Unterreiner 2013). It is however also necessary to use mod-
els for any surrounding traffic as well as the environment if necessary.
Here, the needed modeling depths still play an important role even in today’s
simulators. In a typical driving situation in urban areas, this quickly leads to 20 and
more vehicles being involved in a traffic situation. Added to this are possibly fur-
ther traffic participants such as pedestrians and cyclists. When choosing a model-
ing depth that is too detailed, this quickly leads to a situation in which a real-time
simulation is not possible anymore, which (generally) makes the use of a simulator
impossible. Therefore, in many approaches, the own vehicle (the so-called EGO-
vehicle) is simulated in high detail, while other traffic participants are calculated in
a much more simplified fashion.
The concept of real-time plays a decisive role because the simulation within the
framework of a driving simulator needs to communicate with the driver’s workplace
and the depiction of the environment, which in turn corresponds to a kind of hard-
ware-in-the-loop simulation (HiL). Actions of the driver need to generate reactions
of the system immediately (similar to the real world). In a second step, these need
to be immediately recognizable by the driver as well. Only then, the described loop
of driver, vehicle and environment can work in the simulator experiment. This sim-
ple consideration however often creates a large challenge for the simulation.
For details concerning modelling and simulation of a vehicle and individual

systems of the vehicle and a complex traffic situation, refer to previous chapters
of this book, as well as relevant literature, e.g. (Adamski 2014), (Schramm, Hiller
et al. 2018).
10.2.2 Driver’s workplace
During a simulation, the driver’s workplace in the driving simulator must ensure
that the test person can interact with the vehicle in the usual/intended manner.
This includes the usual controls necessary, such as the steering wheel, the pedals,
as well as further input and output devices in the cockpit, that are necessary in a
desired scenario. Any innovative control units can also be implemented and tested
in the simulator.
Next to simply making available the control units, the driver’s workspace has
another very important function. As described, it is crucial for a successful simula-
tor study that the driver accepts the “drive” as a real and serious task. This is criti-
cally influenced by the direct environment of the driver. Simply by opening the
door of the vehicle and by getting in before the drive, a completely different effect
is achieved than in simulations that work without closed cockpits. Here, the degree
of immersion in the simulated situation is much lower and can require additional
time.
Common variants of simulators range from simple steering wheels, taken from
the field of consumer electronics, to complete vehicles, that are used as simulators.
Depending on the purpose, everything in between is possible. Compared to com-
plete vehicles, the very simple set-ups have the decisive advantage that both han-
dling and integration into a simulation are relatively easy. In case e.g. whole
vehicles are utilized in the simulator, it needs to be ensured that the vehicle can be
operated the same way as it would be in real traffic. This is possible by feeding the
vehicle all necessary sensor and control signals from the simulation.
For the driver’s workstation, one of the main controls is the steering wheel. For
the area of lateral control of the vehicle, the steering is not only the central control
for the driver. The steering feel is also crucial for the behavior of the driver. The steer-
ing thus represents a bidirectional interface between vehicle and driver. It sometimes
is very difficult to recreate a realistic steering feel in a simulator, (Fritzsche 2016),
(Baumgartner, Ronellenfitsch et al. 2017, Ronellenfitsch, Degenhart et al. 2018). It is
also striking that the same stimuli in the simulator are sometimes perceived differ-
ently from those in the real vehicle. This is reflected, among other things, especially
with the steering. It may thus be that the steering is assessed to be more realistic
when equipped with a much larger resistance compared to that in a real vehicle,
when additional forces that are generally active simultaneously during acceleration
are missing in the simulator. Steering is thus a good example for the fact, that the
balancing of the driver’s workplace and especially of the interfaces between driver
and simulator, can only succeed with great knowledge of the simulator, the technol-
ogy used and the underlying scenario.
10.2.3 Environment depiction
Next to the visualization, this includes the auditory stimuli. Haptic signals that
would be necessary due to the environment, such as vibrations due to an uneven
road surface, are within the scope of the system of movement. The mapping of the
environment, as well as the systems of movement, are very diverse for the different
simulators that can be found in literature or in a short internet search.
The most important part of the environment depiction is surely the optical re-
presentation of the simulated scenario. The optical representation can be seen im-
mediately when entering a simulator and conveys (or destroys) right away a certain
impression of reality. Next to the degree of reality of the portrayed objects, which
even in a very good simulator do not necessarily have to have the level of today’s
PC games, the following points are especially important:
– Temporal displacement to the simulation,
– viewing angle (optical flow) and
– visible image borders.
Because the majority of information necessary to conduct a vehicle is visual, a lag

between the simulation and the pictorial representation quickly leads to a situation
in which the vehicle cannot be driven safely. In the control loop of driver, vehicle
and environment, lag simply leads to instability. During cornering for example, the
driver first steers as usual. If the vehicle does not immediately respond due to lag,
the driver will react with an amplified turn of the wheel. This can then lead to a
situation, in which even experienced drivers have great difficulties to steer the vehi-
cle on the desired track in such a simulator.
The optical flow describes the angle changes to objects within the field of vision
over time. This conveys a feeling for velocity to the driver. When for example driv-
ing in a wooded area, or when there are objects close to the road, “flying past”
these objects in the peripheral field of vision indicates the velocity at which the ve-
hicle is going. The lack of an optical flow (e.g., when using a flat screen in front of
the simulator) quickly results in an incorrect assessment of the velocities. This is
amplified in many simulators by missing speed-dependent road impulses (vibra-
tions). The lateral field of vision is furthermore crucial when roads with tight cor-
ners are supposed to be used.
The most popular simulators in automotive research usually rely on a so-called
projection cave. This cave surrounds the driver in a way in which he can see the pro-
jected image of the environment in all directions. The cave can be in the form of a
rectangle, cylinder, or even a dome. Cylindrical, and especially spherical projection

screens have the large advantage that the driver’s view is always perpendicular to
the screen. Furthermore, there are partial fractures in the optical presentation in the
corners of a cube. A projection on a curved surface does however require a larger
technical effort.
Today, simulators with a 3D visualization are increasingly used. The 3D tech-
nology allows two things in simulators. For one, road users that are very close to
the vehicle can be represented more vividly. In the flat projection surfaces in 2D
technology, it is almost impossible to show an object very close to the vehicle
(within the first 1–3 m from the vehicle) realistically. Secondly, even the own vehi-
cle can become a part of the 3D visualization. That way, the driver still gets the im-
pression to sit in a fully-fledged vehicle without it actually existing. Thus, for
example, interior concepts can be quickly tested in driving conditions. The prob-
lematic thing in the 3D systems is, however, that these require a larger computing
power and can increase the problem of Kinetosis.2
10.2.4 The motion system
The motion systems in simulators are used to give the driver a feel for the vehicle.
To this end, a considerable effort is put into current driving simulators. Since com-
plete motion systems for driving simulators are very expensive however, they are
only utilized in experiments in which the feedback from vehicle dynamics is very
important. Simulators such as the one presented in Figure 10.5 by Toyota, represent
the highest level (concerning the number of degrees of freedom).
Figure 10.5: Toyota driving simulator.
2 Kinetosis: Motion sickness, which in the context of the topic of this chapter is also called “simu-
lator sickness.”
The entire visualization system (white dome) is stored on hexapods.3 This hexapod
alone is able to move the dome with the vehicle attached to it in all six directions
available. It is however mostly used for the inclination of the vehicle around the x-
and y-axis. Additionally, the vehicle can be rotated freely around its vertical axis.
By doing this, especially the yaw movement of the vehicle can be modeled. For lon-
ger-lasting lateral or longitudinal movements (accelerations), the entire structure
can be moved on a large x-y-table. With these degrees of freedom, the rigid body
movement of the vehicle is simulated. For a realistic impression of velocity and for
a further increase of the level of reality, a high frequency excitation (similar to the
rolling caused by tires on a road) is crucial. To this end, stampers are fit to the four
wheels, which can move them along their z-axes.
Almost all vehicle manufacturers and large research institutes operate very sim-
ilar structures. Regarding the motion of the simulator, two fundamentally different
approaches need to be distinguished:
– Creation of the “real” motion/acceleration as it is known from the simulation of
the vehicle dynamics or
– simulation of motion/acceleration by smartly using the motion systems.
The second point is called motion cueing and has been discussed again and again. The
principle is easy to understand when using the example of a very long cornering and
the resulting lateral acceleration that the driver feels due to the centripetal forces. If the
real movement of the vehicle were to be directly modeled using the motion system of
the simulator, the roll motion would be relatively easy to model using the hexapod.
The lateral acceleration could be achieved by laterally moving the entire structure. Due
to the limited size of the sledge system, this approach would fail quickly because the
simulator would reach the limits of the working space. In this case, the so-called mo-
tion cueing is often utilized. Here, the gravitational acceleration is used to give the
driver a feeling of lateral acceleration. To this end, the whole dome with the motion
system is heavily tilted. Due to the rotation of the image, the driver feels like he is mov-
ing almost horizontally (with a roll angle). However, the acting gravitational accelera-
tion now has a strong component in lateral direction of the vehicle due to the strong
tilt of the simulator. This is perceived as lateral acceleration by the driver. The use of
this technology necessitates that the driver does not have any optical reference point to
static parts. This would immediately destroy the illusion. The control of actuators in
the system of motion as well as the determination of target values is a very complex
task for this kind of simulation of movement. For more information about motion cue-
ing (the necessary wash-out filters) as well as the advantages and disadvantages of this
technique can be found in various publications about this topic, for example,
Capustiac, Banabic et al. (2011), Capustiac, Hesse et al. (2011), Capustiac (2011).
3 Hexapod: spatial motion machine with six drive elements.

10.3 Simulator experiment
The simulator experiment is an extension of the similarly widespread development

methodology based on (real-time) simulations and Hardware-in-the-loop simula-
tions (Figure 10.6). Here also, the core of the simulator lies in the possibility to repre-
sent the relevant physical effects numerically and to simulate them in real time.
Further information about the simulation of vehicle and different systems inside the
vehicle can be found both in previous chapters and in relevant literature. As previ-
ously noted, for a successful experiment, the presented driving task must be per-
ceived as real by the driver. The more realistic the presented stimuli, the easier this
becomes. For some experiments however, very simple simulator constructions can
be found. Even if the experiment with a simulator serves very different fields, it is
always a suitable tool to test a system that consists of driver, vehicle and environ-
ment under laboratory conditions.
Test
Pre-processing
planning
Scenario Simluation Hardware

preparation parameters interfaces
Test
management
Real-time Visualization
simulation client
Test execution
Data Visualization
server client
Hardware Synchronization
...
MMS
Metrology
Processing
Post-
Video Results
Data analysis
analysis management
Figure 10.6: Overall sequence of a driving simulation study according to Hiesgen (2011).
10.3.1 Reasons for the use of simulators
The advantages compared to physical tests in the test vehicle are very similar to
those of other simulation techniques:
– Comparability of test runs/series of tests:
– Exact adjustability and high reproducibility of the scenarios to be evaluated,
– Wide range of variations of environmental conditions,
– Full control of environmental impacts and avoidance of environmental stimuli
that might influence the subjects,
– Driving situations and system parameters flexibly adjustable.
– Cost savings in contrast to comparable real tests as on the one hand, the exper-
iment design is less expensive and on the other, the often very expensive con-
struction of prototypes can be avoided.
– Time savings, respectively the number of prototypes can be reduced, in devel-
opment processes as the driving simulator can already be utilized in early
stages of development (no physical prototype necessary). Furthermore, differ-
ent functionalities can be tested (and discarded if necessary) based on func-
tional models before they are physically constructed.
– Riskless testing is made possible. The simulator is an effective possibility to
safely test critical situations. For some analyses that would expose the
driver to danger in a real experiment, the simulator is the only effective way
of analysis.
However, since the ride in a simulator can never completely depict reality, depend-
ing on the scenario and the simulator available, some challenges do arise:
– Simulation specific artifacts such as changes in driving behavior due to limited
perception of hazard awareness and restrictions of physiological awareness
(image and movement system).
– Expenditure due to the operation of hardware and software, scenario creation
and depiction of vehicles and systems (in early stages of development, usually
only generic models are available).
– Cancellation of test subjects due to Kinetosis (“simulator sickness,” or “motion
sickness”; see, for example, Schweig, Liebherr et al. (2018)) and
– a change in the behavior of the driver as subjects drive, for example, less risk
averse.
Even though the simulator is much easier to construct compared to the real driving
experiment, the preparation and follow-up as well as the execution of the experi-
ment has to be performed very diligently.
10.3.2 Study design and implementation
A simulator study (simulator test) always consists of multiple stages. For best re-
sults, these should be strictly followed. The following sections give some advice
hereto. Depending on the object of study, the implementation can/must divert in
some respects. Up to the actual simulator study, there are usually multiple pilot
studies, which validate the set-up and are utilized for optimizations.
Before the actual execution, the object of study is defined. Depending on this,
first a simulation scenario must be created and if necessary, changes to the simula-
tor need to be made. In this phase, it is also important to define which “measure-
ments” should be taken in the experiment. Depending on this, testing needs to be
done at a very early stage to determine whether the desired factors can be deter-
mined in the utilized models and with the available simulator construction.
The actual test procedure is then broken down in multiple steps. These are
briefly described below.
10.3.2.1 Preparation of the test subject

The preparations before the simulator test should be used to explain the upcoming
task. The driving task (which can differ from the hypothesis that is actually exam-
ined) is explained to the test subject (driver). Often, the driver is also tasked with
minor tasks outside of driving. Before the start of the experiment, it must be very
clear to the test subject what is expected of him.
Since a driving simulator might possibly have specific features with regards to
the operation, or special prototypical operations are to be tested, the simulator and
its operation need to be explained briefly before the start of the first trip. This is
similar to the instructions received before a first test drive.
Finally, the driver has the chance to ask questions even before the first ride has
begun. This would already be a part of data collection.
10.3.2.2 Familiarization
The familiarization to driving in the simulator is necessary as many of the actions
performed while driving is subconscious. To learn the correct (possibly slightly di-
verging from reality) operation, a little time should be provided. The intuitive oper-
ation of the simulator is especially important when increasingly highly dynamic
maneuvers are to be driven that rely on stimulus-response patterns (ability-based
behavior). To this end it is important that the subject is familiar with the simulator.
The time necessary for the adjustment to the simulator can vary depending on the
design and the planned experiments and might take some time (Rasmussen 1983).
10.3.2.3 Test execution

During the execution of the simulator experiment, all “measurements” are recorded.
These especially include values directly from the simulation models. Additionally, to
the model parameters taken, objective values are recorded (see below) that can be
evaluated after the study. It is important for the execution of the experiment to leave
the driver to complete his task without interruption. Interference from the outside
often leads to a situation in which the driver does not perceive the driving task as
realistic.
10.3.2.4 Further data collection

After the experiment, further data can be recorded if necessary. This applies, for
example, to a further questioning of the subjects after the test.
10.3.3 Possible values from simulator experiments
One of the advantages of a simulator experiment compared to a real measurement

is the relatively easy collection of measurement data. Especially recording vehicle
parameters such as acceleration and velocities, etc., are easily feasible as the corre-
sponding variables simply need to be recorded during the simulation. Furthermore,
several physical values can be recorded which in a real drive would only be measur-
able with extreme effort, if at all.
The simulator experiment does have further advantages concerning data collec-
tion (Table 10.2). Due to the fully controllable testing environment (which in a real
testing environment are not even achievable with great care), for example, specific
observations about driving behavior can be made. Without exposing the driver to un-
controllable influences, the allocation of human behavior and the corresponding sim-
ulated situations can take place more easily.
Table 10.2: Possible data measured in a driving simulator experiment.
Measurement of vehicle and traffic Measurements of the Survey

driver
Objective “measurement” of vehicle Observation of behavior Questionnaire at different

parameters (e.g., by video) times in the experiment
Longitudinal, lateral, and vertical Physiological Free survey
dynamics measurements, Subjective rating
Recording of single simulation values for example, heart rate,
concerning the vehicle or vehicle system skin conductance, etc.
10.3.4 The phenomenon of simulator sickness
Driving simulators have the purpose to immerse a person in a virtual environment

that corresponds in its expression as well as possible and exactly to reality.
Through the generation of sensory stimuli – especially on a visual level – the sub-
ject is presented with a driving situation which, according to the main focus of the
investigation, should trigger a reaction which is carried out in analogy to a real traf-
fic situation. However, in this context the virtual driving situation can only to a cer-
tain extent mimic influences from the real situation, whereby a difference between
the virtual and the real (known) situation occurs. Due to this difference, some of
the subjects can suffer from the phenomenon of simulator sickness.
The simulator sickness is characterized by symptoms similar to those of sea-
sickness (Brooks, Goodenough et al. 2010):
– Headache,
– sweat,
– dry mouth,
– drowsiness,
– disorientation,
– dizziness, and
– nausea.
However, the severity of these symptoms is lower compared to seasickness (Kennedy,

Lane et al. 1993).
10.3.4.1 Sensory conflict theory

The most widespread and generally accepted theory about the causes of simulator
sickness is the sensory conflict theory (Reason and Brand 1975). This theory states
that if different or contradictory information occurs on different sensory channels,
the above-mentioned symptoms can be expected. In the context of driving simula-
tors, the different sensory impressions are often due to the channels of the sense of
balance and the sense of sight. In most driving simulators, the presentation of the
vehicle movement is given priority by means of the visualization, that is, for example,
by implemented screens. The physical movement of the subject or the vehicle is ei-
ther not at all supported in these cases or only by means of motion cueing. The con-
sequence is often an implausible movement, which is recognized by the sense of
equilibrium. The subject thus registers (usually unconsciously) a sensory conflict,
whereupon sooner or later it will react with symptoms of the simulator sickness.
The same theory can also be plausibly presented in every day’s life. Many people
have difficulty when reading in a moving vehicle (especially in the car). Again, the
sensory conflict is to be identified as a possible root cause. The conflict arises in this
context from the fact that the visual perception is limited to a book and possibly the
vehicle interior, while the sense of equilibrium perceives a movement (the movement
of the vehicle). Another supportive example is seasickness, which occurs much faster
and stronger in the interior of a ship than when the person is on deck and can visu-
ally perceive the ship’s movement by looking at the horizon line or objects on land.
10.3.4.2 Susceptibility to simulator sickness

Depending on the chosen scenario of the respective investigation, different levels of
the subjects with and without symptoms of the simulator sickness could be de-
tected in the past. The failure rate due to the simulator sickness ranges from less
than 5% to more than 50%, depending on the subject group. In several studies look-
ing at the likelihood of simulator sickness, between 80% and 95% of subjects expe-
rienced single symptoms of simulator sickness, along with a 5%–30% failure rate
(Stanney, Kingdon et al. 2002). The reason for discontinuing a study is usually nau-
sea (Balk, Bertola et al. 2013). Today, the relationship between personal character-
istics and the likelihood of occurrence is not fully understood.
Further studies, which deal with the relationship between personal character-
istics and the probability of occurrence of the simulator sickness, show different
correlations:
– Gender-specific: Male subjects have a lower risk of simulator sickness (Garcia,
Baldwin et al. 2010; Freund and Green 2006).
– Age-related: Older subjects appear to be more susceptible to simulator sickness
(Brooks, Goodenough et al. 2010). This assumption is often attributed to the
fact that younger people, in particular today, often have experience (e.g., from
video games) with virtual environments.
– Cognitive limitations: People with cognitive impairment are more likely to suf-
fer from symptoms of simulator sickness by a factor of 2.4 (Rizzo, Sheffield
et al. 2003).
In a very large and thus statistically relevant investigation with driving simulators
of the University of Duisburg-Essen, the studies listed could be partially completed,
confirmed and extended (Schweig, Liebherr et al. 2018). As part of the funding proj-
ect ALFASY,4 a preliminary study was conducted on the subject selection in order
to prevent test subjects’ failure due to simulator sickness. 414 subjects aged 25 to 89
years (mean 69.7 years, standard deviation 12.7 years) participated in this study.
The subjects initially completed a neuropsychological test, to evaluate their mental
abilities. Subsequently, a test run was carried out in a static full vehicle simulator
with rectangular cave representation of the environment (Figure 10.7). The driving
task consisted of a 25-minute free ride through a scenario consisting of urban, rural,
and motorway sections (Figure 10.7). Furthermore, the subjects were informed that
4 ALFASY: Altersgerechte Fahrerassistenzsysteme (Driver assistance systems for the elderly).

Country road
Inner city
Freeway
Figure 10.7: Simulator cave and simulator road scenario.
they can cancel the trip at any time of discomfort, nausea, or other reasons at any
time. As a result, the time spent by subjects in the driving simulator was chosen as
an indicator of the occurrence of simulator sickness. Statistical analyzes (Pearson
correlation, T-test, Cohens) revealed the following relationships:
– Gender-specific: Women are statistically more likely to abandon the driving
task due to simulator sickness.
– Age-related: The likelihood of stopping the driving task due to simulator sick-
ness correlates significantly with age.
– Mental abilities have a significant impact on the likelihood of aborting the driv-
ing task due to simulator sickness.
This study also identified individual factors that influence the onset of simulator
sickness symptoms. However, a direct reversal of which persons suffer from simula-
tor sickness is not known yet.
10.4 Exemplary implementation of a driving simulator
As explained in the previous sections, a suitable driving simulator can look very differ-
ently depending on the purpose of the simulation. While very complex systems are uti-
lized in almost all areas, including the design of vehicle dynamics, simpler systems are
much more limited. Often, cheap simulators are built for one purpose only. Simulators
consist of multiple basic building blocks (see Section 10.2). From these building blocks,
almost any simulator configuration can be constructed in a modular fashion.
The following sections present some possible simulator concepts (in a very
abridged form). These concepts are in no way to be interpreted as a catalogue of pos-
sible concepts. Here, the bandwidth of possibilities for simulators utilized in research
is outlined. The different stages of development as presented in this book are based
on the mechanical construction (cockpit and motion platform). The core of any simu-
lator remains the simulation itself. This can be identical for different simulators even
though the simulators might differ greatly. This has the great advantage for the con-
tinuous development of systems on simulators that different experiments can be car-
ried out on various simulators without having to adapt the simulation software. In
practice however (in cases where only one simulator is available), simulation models
are often used for the operation of highly complex simulators, which depict reality
much better than those utilized in the most basic simulator designs. When thinking
of simple desktop simulators, this seems obvious because, for example, the effort for
modeling and calculation of complex vehicle dynamics does not seem justified when
this cannot be conveyed by the simulator anyways.
10.4.1 Desktop simulator
For very simple applications, simulator designs which can be operated directly from
the desktop of the developer are sufficient (Figure 10.8). Such a simulator consists of a
very simple human–machine interface. For very simple simulators, the steering wheels
and pedals used are borrowed from the gaming industry. A commercially available PC
monitor can be used for visualization. The human–machine interface and the visualiza-
tion are of course easily scalable and adaptable to the requirements of the simulation.
Figure 10.8: Driving simulator at the desktop

© Lehrstuhl für Mechatronik, Universität Duisburg-
Essen.
Due to the missing vehicle environment as well as the often smaller monitors, the de-
gree of immersion is rather low in such simulations. The driver does not immerse him-
self into the simulation as much as he would in more elaborate simulator designs.
However, there are applications for which such a simple construction has proven to
be sufficient. Direct conclusions concerning the real behavior in the vehicle are how-
ever not always possible. Simple desktop simulators have been especially successful
in large-scale simulator studies. The simple construction has the large advantage that
the development of systems or the design of simulator studies can be done without
extensive efforts and changes can be tested right at the workstation of the developers.
Only after these “preliminary studies,” the real study is conducted using a more com-
plex simulator. Furthermore, desktop simulators are well-suited to quickly and im-
pressively demonstrate systems or interactions between human and machine.
10.4.2 Simulator with cockpit
For an increase of the sense of reality, a cockpit in which the typical human–machine
interface (pedals and steering wheel) are integrated can be utilized (Figure 10.9). This
can already improve the feeling of driving quite substantially.
Figure 10.9: Trade fair simulator set-up © Lehrstuhl für Mechatronik, Universität Duisburg-Essen.
Typically, such constructions can be found at trade fairs or for other demonstration
purposes. Simple studies can also effectively be carried out with such a simulator.
Similar to the desktop simulator, the kind of visualization, audio, or the man-
machine interface does not depend on the design of the driver’s workplace. The
human–machine visualization ranges at seat boxes, for example, from simple PC
monitors to complete 360-degree projections.
10.4.3 Static driving simulator with full vehicle
Regarding the driver’s workplace, the use of a complete vehicle represents the great-
est degree of realism that is possible for a driving simulator (Figure 10.10). The driver
is situated in the usual “room” surrounded with familiar controls. Furthermore, even
the act of getting into the vehicle supports the feeling of starting a real drive by sup-
plying the corresponding sensory impressions.
82°|4.65 m
51°|2.75 m
Led-fields
66°|3.60 m
Dc-drive Inside mirror
7-inch LCD
Dynamic
driver's seat
CAN
Linear actuator
Audio/Video
Visuali- Real-time
LCD 1 LCD 3
LCD 2 zation simulation
32°|1.22 m 32°|1.22 m
38°|1.22 m
Figure 10.10: Exemplary composition of a static simulator using the example of the Ford Fiesta
driving simulator at the Chair of Mechatronics of the University of Duisburg-Essen © Lehrstuhl für
Mechatronik, Universität Duisburg-Essen.
By utilizing a complete vehicle as a driving simulator, the requirements for spatial

conditions are considerably increased as well. A simulator room is necessary that
the complete vehicle can be placed into. Additionally, there needs to be a way to
visualize the surroundings of the vehicle (Figure 10.11). To this end, usually projec-
tors are utilized that are able to present a front projection. In doing this, the dis-
tance between the vehicle and the projection screen is minimized in order to avoid
Figure 10.11: Exemplary driver’s view from the Ford Fiesta driving simulator of the Chair of
Mechatronics of the University of Duisburg-Essen © Lehrstuhl für Mechatronik, Universität
Duisburg-Essen.
shadows and reflection effects from the vehicle itself. The human eye is able to
make conclusions about the position of an object at close range (a distance of up to
2 m from the eye) only by the necessary focusing of the eye. For reasons of human
perception, this also leads to a minimal distance between the eye and the projection
screen. If the projection screen was too close to the driver, the eye would focus on
an object at close range. To this end, all objects shown on the screen would at first
seem very close. If an object is depicted in the virtual reality that is not within the
immediate close range of the eye, it doesn’t correspond to the focal point of the eye.
This can lead to the driver evaluating the simulation as being unrealistic (Negele
2007). Furthermore, it is much less tiring if the projection screen is at a distance to
the eye that can be observed by the eye in a relaxing manner.
For this purpose, a simulator with a complete vehicle needs a room of at least
5 × 5 meters.
10.4.4 Dynamic driving simulators
Driving simulators with motion system can have different versions for the driver’s
workplace (the cockpit). Here, systems with a kind of seat box, simple cockpit bodies,
or even full vehicles can be found. The motion system itself then has to be adapted to
the payload (the driver’s workspace). Furthermore, motion systems can be differenti-
ated between the possible impulses. Because a motion system for a simulator is often
very expensive and the control of the actuators quickly becomes very complex, there
are only few dynamic simulators with a very simple driver’s workplace or a simple
visualization system. With some exceptions, the expansion stage for the driver’s
workplace, the visualization, and a motion system is matched in a way that the de-
gree of reality of the (essentially independent systems) does not fundamentally differ.
This is especially important in studies with untrained subjects. Experienced drivers
can focus on different aspects while others are disregarded.
The following sections show a few simulators as examples of driving simulators
with motion systems. It is often the case that the decision to build a dynamic simu-
lator is only made after the range of applications (the degree of reality) of using
static simulators seems to be fully exhausted. This then leads to the fact that most
dynamic simulators used in research or OEMs include a complete vehicle, or at
least a fully-fledged cockpit.
10.4.4.1 Dynamic driving simulator with complete cockpit

In the project DesignStudio NRW, a very compact and low-cost form of a dynamic
driving simulator has emerged at the Chair of Mechatronics at the University of
Duisburg-Essen (Figures 10.12 and 10.13). Compared to a purely static simulator, as
is explained in the previous section, actuators are used in this simulator in order to
depict the vehicle dynamics within given boundaries. Here, the overall objective (as
described above) is to increase the degree of immersion (the perception of reality)
and thus to open further fields of study.
The simulator presented in this section displays a very good compromise be-
tween degree of reality and complexity of the simulator system. Especially the very
compact construction compared to the systems shown in the following sections is
advantageous.
The cockpit is located in the center of a cylindrical screen. As in other simula-
tors, multiple powerful projectors are used to show the whole picture of the envi-
ronment. The images of the single projectors are adapted in a way that they are
projected onto the curved screen without deformations. Furthermore, the images
must overlap without it being perceived by the viewer. This is called warping and
blending. The viewer is presented with a consistent and continuous image that
depicts approximately 252° without distortions from the view of the driver (Proff,
Brand et al. 2015) (Figure 10.14). This is sufficient for a normal drive including
looking over one’s shoulder when changing lanes or making a turn. The rear area
of the simulator is depicted using further monitors. These can either be directly
mounted to the mirror at the cockpit or large monitors can be placed behind the
vehicle, which are viewed through a real mirror. Additionally, further instruments
Figure 10.12: Driving simulator from the project DesignStudio NRW (Proff, Brand et al. 2015)
© Chair of Mechatronics, University of Duisburg-Essen.
Figure 10.13: Model of the motion platform © Lehrstuhl für Mechatronik, Universität Duisburg-
Essen.
Figure 10.14: Representation of a city environment in the simulator at the Chair for Mechatronics
© Lehrstuhl für Mechatronik, Universität Duisburg-Essen.
for the instrument cluster as well as another freely configurable monitor in the
interior are used for human–machine interaction.
As a driver’s workplace, a monocoque is used that was especially made for the
simulator. It was made by separating a driver’s workspace from a small car. Even
though the missing passenger seat slightly changes the sense of space insight the sim-
ulator compared to a full car, the full cockpit offers a very realistic driving experience.
The utilized movement platform (Table 10.3) has the possibility to move in three
degrees of freedom according to the three actuators used. These are roll, pitch, and
heave; see Chapter 3. In contrast to other simulators, the actuators are used to only
reproduce the “real” rigid body motions of the vehicle body.5 Special focus was given
to the objective to make these movements highly dynamic, which makes it possible
to realistically simulate roadway impulses that occur, that is, driving over a speed
bump or cobbles. This is made possible by using strong actuators and designing a
simulator with a low body mass. The chosen combination can deal with accelerations
of up to 20 m/s2 in vertical direction. The result is a very realistic driving experience
(roadway feedback) (Proff, Brand et al. 2015). The roadway feedback is important es-
pecially for the regular drive as it allows the driver to draw conclusions concerning
the state of the vehicle (especially the velocity). Without the high frequency motion
component, this possibility does not exist.
5 Motion cueing: Wash-Out Filter.

Table 10.3: Technical data of the motion platform.
Variable Value
Basic measurements . m × . m × . m (L × W × H)
Roll angle  degrees
Pitch angle  degrees
Actuator lift  mm vertical
Maximum frequency  Hz
Body weight  kg
Total weight , kg
10.4.4.2 Dynamic full vehicle simulators

The motion platform described in Figure 10.13, with some extensions of the ac-
tuators, has also been used to construct a driving simulator for a whole vehicle
(Figure 10.15).
Figure 10.15: Platform of motion with whole vehicle © Photo: Annette van de Locht.
The following sections however also show a few examples of simulators that are
available to large research institutions or the vehicle manufacturers. A more detailed
description of the dynamics (utilized hardware) as well as the simulator technology
used (both for real-time simulation and visualization) is left out at this point.
All simulators share the fact that the driver’s workplace consists of a com-
plete vehicle. This must be partially modified for the purposes of the simulator.
Especially a force feedback at the steering and a realistic pedal feeling must be
provided. Furthermore, it must be ensured that the driver input (insofar as it is
necessary) can be passed on to the simulation environment, where it is proc-
essed. The advantage of today’s vehicles is that most signals are exchanged via
bus systems. The simulator environment can then access the signals available in
the vehicle. Additionally, the indicating instruments inside the cockpit can be
accessed for the simulation via this channel. For this to work correctly, actual
motion needs to be simulated not only for the driver, but also the vehicle. The
simulation must feed single bus signals in an appropriate way without which the
remaining system would not function correctly. Then, only few sensors/actuators
are used, which are connected to the bus. The simulation of all remaining com-
ponents to put the vehicle into the desired state is referred to as residual bus
simulation.
For vehicles with an electric power steering, it is partially possible to directly
load the necessary force feedback for the simulation via the already available actua-
tor of the power steering. In this case, an additional actuator can be omitted.
Otherwise it must be ensured that both the steering (as one of the central elements
of human–machine interaction) offers the usual haptic interface to the vehicle.
The usual dynamic simulators that are used in a full vehicle as driver’s work-
place are able to move the vehicle together with the depiction of its environment
along the six rigid body degrees of freedom of the vehicle. The available working
area (along one of the axes) is limited by the mechanical design of the motion sys-
tem. Many simulators use further active axes (actuators) that go beyond the neces-
sary six actuators. Hereby, a redundancy is created that can be utilized for an
optimized design of motions. That way, for example, very large workspaces of an
x-y slide system with the large dynamics of simple heave-actuators can be combined.
However, the workspaces of today’s simulators are still limited. This leads to the fact
that not every desired motion of the simulator can be executed. Especially in longer
accelerations along one axis it is not possible to directly simulate this acceleration
with the structure.
Dynamic full vehicle simulators usually fully decouple the driver’s field of vi-
sion from the real environment. The vehicle is usually positioned within a projec-
tion dome in such a way that a 360° field of vision of the virtual reality exists from
the view of the driver. Next to the very large degree of immersion, this has the large
advantage that further techniques for the simulation of movement can be utilized.
By skillful control of the actuators, the gravitational acceleration can be used to
give the driver a feeling of a lateral or longitudinal acceleration. To this end, the
whole vision system is tilted with the vehicle in a way that the Earth’s acceleration
is a distinct component along the desired vehicle axis. As the relative position of
the driver to the projection screen and the projected image doesn’t change, this
acceleration component is then interpreted by the driver as a longitudinal or lateral

acceleration. In literature, this approach is known as motion cueing. The challenge
here is to offer the optimal acceleration stimulus to the driver. Here, the real motion
of the complete system must not be interpreted as such. To this end it is necessary
that some motion happens below the threshold of perception for the driver. The
complete area of motion cueing is the topic of many scientific papers.
10.4.4.3 Examples of dynamic full vehicle simulators

The dynamic driving simulator of the DLR in Braunschweig (Figure 10.17, Table
10.4) differs from that of the BMW AG (Figure 10.16) in its applied motion system.
According to (Pattberg 2005) and (Stöbe 2006), a hexapod is also utilized for the
DLR simulator. Unlike most others, the load-bearing cabin is hanging from the
upper joints (Figure 10.17). This construction is chosen to allow for maximum trans-
lational and rotational motion.
Figure 10.16: Driving simulator BMW from 2003. Source: BMW AG.
The simulator of the Daimler AG is one of the most modern vehicle simulators in
the world (Figure 10.18). Here, the core element is the large dome which contains
the vehicle (driver’s workspace) and all elements necessary for the mapping of
the environment (visualization and sound). The dome is mounted to a hexapod
similar to other simulators in a way that all six degrees of freedom are available in
space.
Figure 10.17: DLR simulator in Braunschweig (Stöbe 2006).
Figure 10.18: Daimler driving simulator | Mechanical basic design (left) and 360-degree
visualization (right). Source: Daimler AG.
In addition to the motion that the hexapod makes possible, the Daimler simula-
tor offers a highly dynamic linear axis. Along this axis, the complete design can be
moved several meters. That way, strong accelerations over a longer period of time
can be realistically simulated. The dome with the vehicle inside can be turned 90° so
that the axis can be either used for lateral or longitudinal motion.
Table 10.4: Work space and dynamics of the DLR Simulator (Stöbe 2006).
Distance Velocity Acceleration
Longitudinal ±1.5 m ±2 m=s ±10 m=s2
Lateral ±1.4 m ±2 m=s ±10 m=s2
Vertical ±1.4 m ±2 m=s ±10 m=s2
Rolling −20 deg=21 deg ±50 deg=s ±250 deg=s2
Pitch ±21 deg ±50 deg=s ±250 deg=s2
Roll ±21 deg ±50 deg=s ±250 deg=s2
The simulator by Toyota presented in Figure 10.5 offers a total of 13 degrees of

freedom. Next to the degrees of freedom that a hexapod offers, an x, y sled system is
added. This can be used to simulate longer motions, similar to the system of the
Daimler simulator. Furthermore, the complete dome can be rotated around its verti-
cal axis. Because of this, the yaw angle of the vehicle is not limited. Another four
actuators at the wheel contact points can be used to simulate high frequency sur-
face excitations.
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Wallentowitz, H. and K. Reif (2008). Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugelektronik: Grundlagen-Komponenten-
Systeme-Anwendungen, Springer-Verlag.
Literature 503
Williams, M. L., R. F. Landel and J. D. Ferry “The Temperature Dependence of Relaxation

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Index
12 V vehicle power net 354, 357, 358 Auxiliary Braking System 218
42 V vehicle power net 352, 357 axle geometric and kinematic properties 79
48 V vehicle power net 352, 359, 360, 361 AZT/RCAR test 328
ABS see: Anti-Lock Braking System
ACC see: Adaptive Cruise Control231, 435 BAS see: Brake Assist System
see: Adaptive Criuse Control battery 353
accident 317 – aging 372
accident severity 332 – capacity 366, 377
accumulator 368 – cycling 372
Ackermann Steering 167 – degree of discharge 370
Ackermann’s angle 86, 87, 94, 109 – gassing voltage 369
active lane keeping 199 – internal resistance 369, 376
Active Lane Keeping Assistant 444 – management 372
active safety 319 – model 373, 374
active stabilizer 102, 146 – nominal capacity 369
Adaptive Cruise Control 231, 435 – nominal charge 370
ADAS see: Advanced Driver Assistance System – nominal current 369
Advanced Driver Assistance System 411 – nominal voltage 368, 369
air resistance 249, 253 – performance 368
air spring 141 – self-discharge 372
airbag 319, 336 Battery Electric Vehicle 6, 283
– control unit 326, 337 Battery Management System 309, 314
– cover 340 battery pack 306, 309
– front 336 belt force limiter 336
– side- 337 belt pretensioners 335
– system 334 belt slack 335
air-fuel mixture 263 BEV see: Battery Electric Vehicle 6, 279
aligning torque 53 see: Battery Electric Vehicle
ALKA see: Active Lane Keeping Assistant Biodiesel 303, 306
all-wheel steering 212 Biogas 306
alternative fuels 305 blind spot 423, 446
alternator 351, 353, 356, 366, 378, 379, BMS see: Battery Management System
381, 382 body damper 144
– efficiency 380 body-fixed coordinate system 75
– load torque 387 boosting 360
analog signal transmission 391, 394 brake
anti roll bar 124, 145 – actuating system 226
Anti-Ackermann steering 169 – assistance 231, 244
Anti-Lock Braking System 231, 411, 425, 427 – booster 231, 232, 233
Anti-Locking Braking System 64 – caliper 236
articulated steering system 164 – circuit 239
ASI-Level see: Automotive Safety Integrity Level – disc 232, 237
Autogas 303 – drum 232
automatic start-stop 359 – fading 235
Automotive Safety Integrity Level 20 – inner transmission 231, 235
automotive standards 19 – line 232
auxiliary braking force 233 – pad 230, 237
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110595703-012
506 Index
– pedal 217, 227, 231, 232 charging cycle 306

– pressure reducer/limiter 217, 224, 225 chassis 9, 77, 120
– radius 228 circumferential slip 61
– reaction times 240 claw pole alternator 378
– saturation point 230 clutch 270, 289
– servo 217 CNG see: Compressed Natural Gas
– thermal behavior 238 coaxial cable 406
Brake Assist System 243, 451 cockpit simulator 478
Brake-by-Wire 220 coil spring 138, 139
braking Collision Avoiding System 449
– distance 242 combined slip 60
– maneuver 241 combustion chamber 262
– process 240 combustion process 265
– system 217, 226 Compressed Natural Gas 273, 303, 305
bus compression ratio 271, 272
– access 401 Congestion Assistant 417, 419
– arbitration 401 consumer power 366
– bit stream 397, 404 consumption map 273
– data frame 397, 400 contact patch 187
– line structure 395 control-arm wheel suspension 124
– node 395 Controler Area Network 391, 392
– protocol 394, 396, 397 Conversion Design 5, 288
– ring structure 396 cornering resistance 253
– star coupler 396 cornering stiffness 53, 90, 91
– star structure 395 coupling mass 149
– topology 394, 395 CP50 scale 152
– tree structure 395 crank mechanism 262
bus system 394, 396 crankshaft 262, 263, 264
Byteflight Bus System 408 Crashworthiness Data System 345
critical velocity 97
camber 79 cross-sectional area 253
camber angle 56, 79, 80, 81, 82, 176, 177 CSMA/CA principle 401
camshaft 263 current capacity 370
CAN protocol 400 curve radius 87
CAN see: Controler Area Network custom cable harness 353
capacitance 370 cyber security 457
capacity 369 cylinder 262
CARDAN-angles 75 cylinder head 262
caster angle 81, 83, 176, 177 cylindrical cell 311
catalyst 263
cathode 310 damper 144
cell voltage 369, 374 – tube 124
center of gravity 75 damper tube 124
Center of Mass 74, 87 danger 317
centrifugal force 102 DARPA URBAN CHALLENGE 416
centripetal acceleration 109 DAS see: Driver Assistance System
Change of Velocity criterion 333 DC/DC converter 279, 361
characteristic velocity 96 DDC see Driving Dynamics Control System
charge and discharge cycle 372 deep discharge 372
Index 507
degree of discharge 370 Dynamic Driving Control 231

degree of hybridization 281 dynamic driving simulator 481
degression parameter 55 dynamic response to steering input 107
Depth of Charge (DoC) 377 dynamic wheel load 103
desktop simulator 477
DIESEL Engine 263, 264, 265, 266, 268 EBS see: Equivalent Barrier Speed
differential 432 ECE regulations (EWG) 322
digital data transmission 391 EES see: Energy Equivalent Speed
digital twin 16 effective mean pressure 269, 270
disc brake 236 EHB see: Electro-Hydraulic Braking system
distance monitoring 452 electric drive 274
door mirror 446 electric permanent-magnet synchronous
DOPPLER machine 276
– Effect 439 Electric Power Steering 157, 164
– Frequency 439 electric synchronous machine 276
double lane change 119 electric traction motor 275
double wishbone suspension 97 Electric Vehicle with Range Extender 283
drag 253 electrical energy storage device 306
drag coefficient 253 electrical loads 387
drilling torque 187 electrical machine 382
drive topology 281 electrical signal transmission 391
Driver Assistance System 411, 435, 447 electrical system 349
– classification 416 electrode 309
– components 411 Electro-Hydraulic Braking system (EHB) 220, 243
– definition 412 Electro-Hydraulic Power Steering 197
– ethical questions 420 electrolyte 309, 367
– fully automated 420 Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) 244
– handover of control 419 Electro-Mechanical Power Steering 198
– highly automated 419 – APA Type 201, 203
– history 412 – Column Type 201
– level 416 – Dual Pinion Type 201, 202
– partially automated 417 – Pinion Type 201, 202
driver’s airbag 338 – power consumption 205
driver-fitness safety 319 – Rack Concentric Type 201, 203
driving behavior 73 Electronic Stability Control 433
driving comfort 151 Electronic Stability Program 108, 433
driving cycle 291, 295 Emergency Brake Assistant 451
Driving Dynamics Control System 411, 421, 425 Energy chain 3
driving maneuver 116 energy density 362
– closed-loop 117 Energy Equivalent Speed 332
– open-loop 117 energy management 372, 389
driving resistance 249, 251 energy power net 350, 362
driving simulator 459 energy recuperation 227
– motion system 468 energy storage 362
driving stability 96, 319 engine
driving state 294 – characteristic 292
driving task 461 – combustion engine 262
– three-phase model 463 – housing 262
drum brake 234, 237 – internal combustion efficiency 270
508 Index
– internal combustion engine 262 gas exchange 265

– mechanical efficiency 272 gas generator 338, 339
– performance 269, 270 gateways 392
– size 269 gear 288, 289
– specific engine performance 269 gear box 289
– thermal efficiency 270 gear ratio 289
– volume 269 General Unevenness Level 138
environment depiction 467 geometric wheel axle 82
EPS see: Electric Power Steering gravitational resistance 249, 254
Equivalent Barrier Speed 332 GUL see General Uneveness Level
equivalent circuit diagram 374
Equivalent Test Speed 332 HALL sensor 430
ESC see: Electronic Stability Control handling 25
ESP see: Electronic Stability Program Hardware-in-the-Loop simulation 465
ETS see: Equivalent Test Speed hazard and risk analysis 21
EULER’s Equations 49, 63, 91 Head-Up Display 423
Euro NCAP crash test 321 heave 74
exhaust aftertreatment 263 height roll center 98
exhaust valve 264 HEV see: Hybrid Electric Vehicle6, 283 see:
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
FCHEV see: Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle Hexapod 469
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard high-voltage range 361
(FMVSS) 322 Highway Driving Assistant 447
final discharge voltage 369 HiL see: Hardware-in-the-Loop-simulation
fist-caliper disc brake 236 Hill Holder 244
fixed-caliper disc brake 236 HMI see: Human-Machine-Interface
fleet test 297 HPS see: Hydraulik Power Steering
FlexRay Bus System 392 HUD see: Head-Up Display
Follow-Up Control 441 Human-Machine Interface 422
foot pedal 227 – sensory channels 422
force limiter 334 Human-Machine-Interface 460
four-link wheel suspension 124 Human-Vehicle Interface 459
Four-Stroke Combustion Process 268 HV-storage 279
Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 266 Hybrid Electric Vehicle 6, 283
Four-Stroke Petrol Process 267 Hydraulic Power Steering 195, 196
frequency response 113, 118 Hydrogen 306
frontal crash 328, 330
Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle 6 ICE see: Internal Combustion Engine
fuel ICEV see: Internal Combustion Engine
– consumption 291, 292 Vehicle 6, 283 see: Internal Combustion
– conversion efficiency 272 Engine Vehicle
– diesel 303 ideal brake force distribution 220, 224
– flammability 271 ideal drive output mapping 259
– injection 263 idle and open-circuit voltage 369
– Petrol 303 immersion 459
– synthetic 306 inclination resistance 249
fuel consumption 23 indirect tire pressure 69
full-frontal crash (FF) 329 individual wheel suspension 122
functional safety 19 inertia resistance 255
Index 509
inertial system 75 Liquified Petroleum Gas 303, 305

inlet port 263 Lithium-Ion Battery 307
instationary driving behavior 112 Lithium-Ion Cell 309, 316
instationary tire force 61 LKA see: Lane Keeping Assistant
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 279 LNG see: Liquified Natural Gas
intake valve 264 load change reaction 102
intercalation 307 longitudinal dynamics 73
Internal Combustion Electric Vehicle 291 longitudinal slip 187
Internal Combustion Engine 23 LORENTZ force 277
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle 6, 283 low-voltage range 361
inverter 279 LPG see: Liquified Petroleum Gas
ISO 26262 19
isobaric heat supply 266 MAC 397
isobaric process 266 machine learning 412
isochoric heat removal 266 MacPherson Wheel Suspension 78, 123, 127
isochoric process 266 Magic Formula tire model 57
isotropic compression 265 magnetic flux density 384
isotropic expansion 266 manikin 12
master brake cylinder 217, 231
J NCAP 323 microtrip 297
jerk 74 Millerycle process 284
moment of inertia 86
KAMM’s Circle 59 MOST Bus System 392
Kinetosis 468, 471 motion cueing 469
king pin multibody system 75
– offset 83, 84 multi-link wheel suspension 78, 124, 125
king pin angle 81, 83
– offset 81, 84 natural frequencies of organs 151
knuckle arm 183 Natural Gas 273, 303, 305
KREMPEL friction ellipse 59, 60 NEDC see: New European Driving Cycle 23, 295
see: New European Drive Cycle
Lane Change Assistant 442, 446, 447 network node 396
Lane Departure Warner 444 network protocol 392
Lane Keeping Assistant 207, 443 neutral driving behavior 95
lateral acceleration 106 neutral steering 109
lateral acceleration frequency response 113 New European Drive Cycle 23
lateral dynamics 73 New European Driving Cycle 295
lateral tire force 91, 169, 174, 186 New Product Development Process 14
LCA see: Lane Change Assistent NEWTON’s Equations 63, 91
LDW see: Lane Departure Warner NG see: Natural Gas
lead-acid battery 362, 368, 372 NPD see: New Product Development Process
legal regulations 19
Liability Law 456 OBS see: Operation Braking System
lightweight design 326 OEM see: Original Equipment Manufacturer
Likert scale 152 Offset Deformable Barrier Test (ODB) 329
LIN Bus System 392, 407 Operating Braking System 218
Linear Single Track Model 85, 91, 92, 104 operating safety 320
– Equations of Motion 86 operating strategy 283, 286
Liquified Natural Gas 273, 303, 305 optical flow 467
510 Index
Original Equipment Manufacturer 2 pretensioner 334

OSI reference model 398 prismatic cell 311
OTTO Engine 263 Probability of Exposure 20
outlet valve 264 Product Development Process 14, 16
over-steering 95, 97, 102, 107, 109, 433, 434 production start-up phase 16
project definition 16
parallel hybrid drive 281 Project Fact Sheet 16
parallel-wire cables 405 projection cave 467
Parking Assistant 207, 417, 452 propulsion requirements 248
parking brake 217, 218 propulsion system 247
parking maneuver 188 Purpose Design 5, 288
Parking Sensor 452 push 74
parts availability for production 17
passenger airbag 338 quarter vehicle model 147, 148
passive safety
– system 318, 320 rack and pinion steering 165, 170, 173, 181,
– vehicle structure 325 191, 192
path circular frequency 135 rack displacement 183
pedal force 234 rack steering 124
Pedestrian Protection System 448 Radar sensor 437
perceptual safety 320 radial tire 25
Petrol Engine 264, 268 radius of curvature 88
PEUKERT effect 370 Range Extended Electric Vehicle 6
PHEV see: Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle 6, rear steering 161
279 see Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle recirculating ball gear 174
physical layer 394, 398 rectifier circuit 385
piston 262 recuperation 275, 295
piston engine 264, 265 relaxation length 42, 63
piston rod 124 repair crash 328
piston stroke 269 response time 115
pitch 74 restraint system 319, 327, 333
Plastic Optical Fibers 406 REX see: Range Extended Electric Vehicle 6,
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle 6, 283 283 see: Electric Vehicle with Range
pneumatic trail 79 Extender
post-crash 330 Ride-Down Effect 333
pouch cell 311 rigid axles 121
power density 362 rigid brake force distribution 224
power electronics 279 rim
power net 353 – diameter 30
power net supply voltages 356 – flange 27
power rating 269 road inclination 254
power split hybrid powertrain 281 road plane 80
power steering 195 road surface 136
powertrain 9, 247, 288 Roadway irregularities 134
– efficiency 290 roll 74
pre-crash 318, 330 roll angle 111
prediction horizon 443 roll angle frequency response 113
press analysis 162, 163 roll angle gradient 111
pressure monitoring systems 65 roll axis 97, 98
Index 511
roll center 97, 98, 100, 101, 102 SoC see: State of Charge
roll stabilization 146 SoH see: State of Health
roll stiffness 145 Solid Electrolyte Interface 311
roll torque 98 SOP see: Start of Production
rolling resistance 249 specific consumption 273, 293
– coefficient 251 spectral power density 138
– force 251, 253 spread angle 177
roll-over 324, 328, 334, 336, 342, 344, 346 spread offset 175, 176
run-flat tire 28 spring constant 139
Rush hour traffic 366 – air spring 141
RxD 397 spring control arm 125
spring resistance 253
safety 317 spring-strut 124
safety requirement level 21 spring-strut wheel suspension 123, 124
SBC see: Sensotronic Brake Control stabilizer 101, 145
SBS see: Standstill Braking System Standstill Braking System 218, 219
scrub radius 81, 84, 175, 176, 178 Start of Production 18
seat belt 334 startability 388
seat reference point 12 starter 354
SEI see: Solid Electrolyte Interface starter battery 362, 363, 368
SEILIGER Process 265, 267, 270 starting capability 368
self-aligning torque 186 State of Charge (SoC) 371
self-steering State of Health (SoH) 370, 372
– behavior 94, 107, 108, 146 state vector 92
– gradient 93, 95, 108 stationary driving behavior 107
sensor stationary steering behavior 92
– extra-priozeptive 412 stationary yaw angle velocity 95
– pro-prioceptive 411 steady-state circular drive 92, 107, 117
sensory conflict theory 474 Steer-by-Wire 213
Sensotronic Brake Control (SBC) 220 steering
separator 309 – angle 86, 87, 93, 95, 107, 181, 185
series development 14 – assistance 160, 195
series hybrid drive 281 – axis 83, 176, 187
servo brake 243 – behavior 159
servo brake booster 228 – column 170, 171, 172, 179, 191
shear stress 139 – feedback 161
shell map diagram 273 – feel 157, 158, 159, 171
shock absorber 144 – kinematics 170
side crash 337, 343 – lever 124
side-slip angle 86, 107, 111, 169, 174 – linkage 179
side-slip angle gradient 111 – precision 161
Simplex drum brake 234 – rack 170, 172, 173, 179, 186, 189, 190
simulator experiment 470, 473 – ratio 179, 180, 181
simulator sickness 471, 474, – responsiveness 161
475, 476 – rod 170
simulator study 472 – shaft 170, 171, 172, 179
single track model 85 – torque 56, 160, 179
single-tube gas pressure damper 145 – triangle 166
slip angle 86, 89, 93, 95 steering feel 466
512 Index
steering system – damping 38

– requirements 158 – driving slip 49
– test bench 207 – dynamic tire radius 47
steering wheel 170 – force classification 44
– angle demand 161 – force transmission 44
– angle 93, 109, 115, 179 – force 90
– hand torque 191 – inflation pressure 38, 65
– rotation 180 – innerliner 27
– torque 161 – labelling 29
step-steer input 119 – lateral force 53, 54
STIRLING engine 263 – lateral slip stiffness 63
stopping distance 427 – lateral slip 51, 53, 61
strain ratio 272 – lateral stiffness 42, 63
stroke volume 271 – longitudinal slip stiffness 39, 51, 62
stub-axle steering 165, 166 – longitudinal slip 47, 58, 60
superimposed steering 211 – manufacturing process 28
surge resistance 252 – modeling 56
suspension system 77 – normal force 54
suspension trail 178 – pneumatic trail 53
system matrix 92 – pressure sensor 67
– production date 30
tandem master brake cylinder 232 – profile 26
Tank-to-Wheel 3 – relaxation length 62
target velocity 258 – rim 27
TCS see: Traction Control System 231, 432 – rolling restistance 35
see: Traction Control System – shoulder 27
terminal voltage 373, 376 – sidewall 26
test cycle 295 – slip angle 51, 52, 53
test subject 472 – speed index 30
thorax bag 337 – spring stiffness 37
three-point belt 335 – steel belt 47
throttle valve – temperature 42
– electrically ajustable 435 – vertical force 36, 45
tie rod 124 – vertical stiffness 45
tie rod stiffness 183 – width 30
Tier 2 Tire Pressure Monitoring System 65
tire 25 toe-in angle 79, 80, 81, 82, 176, 177
– bead 27 torsion bar 102
– belt 27 torsion bar damping 195
– brake slip 49 torsion bar stiffness 195
– brush model 47 TPMS see: Tire Pressure Monitoring System
– carcass belt 36 track width 107
– carcass 25, 26 track zero 82
– caster 53, 54 traction battery 361, 362
– circumferential force 50 Traction Control System 231, 432
– construction radius 30 traction force equation 257
– contact patch 35, 37, 50 trail 81, 84, 176
– contact point 80 trail offset 84, 176
– cornering stiffness 41, 55, 104 transceiver 397
Index 513
transient steering behavior 93 Wandfluh steering 180

transmission 9, 288 WANKEL Engine 263
transport system 12 warning
tread 26 – acoustic 424
– blocks 26 – haptic 425
– grooves 26 – level 424
– pattern 26, 35, 48, 51 – visual 424
triangular linkage steering 170 warranty and liability law 457
trigger sensor 341 Well-to-Tank 3
TTCAN 408 Well-to-Wheel 3
turning circle diameter 180 wheel 25
turntable steering system 164 – base 107, 109
twin-tube damper 144 – carrier 120, 124, 191
twist-beam axle 122 – center 80, 84
twisted pair 405 – lateral forces 95
two-phase vehicle reaction 115 – load 54, 55, 90, 91
Two-Stroke Combustion Process 268 – radius 80, 81, 176
TxD 397 – suspension 120, 134
– velocity 86
ultrasonic sensor 452 – vertical dynamics 138
under-steering 95, 97, 102, 107, wheel resistance 251, 253
433, 434 wheel sensor
universal joint 172 – active 430
up-front sensor 341 – passive 429
US NCAP 323 WILLANS curve 293
wind velocity 253
vacuum pressure brake booster 233 window bag 337
valve 262 wishbone bearing 124
vehicle WLTC test cycle 296
– assembly group 9 WLTP see: Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles
– body roll 97 Test Procedure
– body 9 Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test
– dimension concept 11 Procedure 296, 301
– dynamics 73, 85
– electrics 9 XBS see: Auxiliary Braking System
– handling 25
– packaging 11 yaw 74
– standards 19 yaw angle 86
– steering system 157 – velocity 86, 95, 107
– topology 9 yaw gain factor 110
Vehicle Automation concepts 416 yaw rate 86, 94, 107, 110
vertical dynamics 73, 134 yaw reaction 107
vibration comfort 151 yaw velocity frequency response 113
Vienna Convention 415, 416, 419
virtual reality 459 Zero-Emission Vehicle 275
voltage regulator 386 ZEV see: Zero-Emission Vehicle

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Dieter Schramm, Benjamin Hesse, Niko Maas, Michael Unterreiner

The Science of Innovation. A Comprehensive Approach for Innovation

Vehicles, Drivers, and Safety

Vehicle Systems and Driver Modelling

Industrial Software Applications. A Master’s Course for Engineers

Technical Foundations of Current and

Dr.-Ing. Benjamin Hesse Dr.-Ing. Michael Unterreiner

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020931121

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

1 Introduction and overview 1

2 Wheels and tires 25

2.3.4 Impact of the tire’s normal forces 54

3 Vehicle dynamics and suspension system 73

3.9.1 Kinematic models 131

4 Vehicle steering 157

4.10 Power steering assistance systems 195

5 Braking systems 217

6 Propulsion systems 247

6.2.3 Air resistance (Drag) 253

7 Vehicle safety 317

7.4.3 Trigger sensors and algorithms 341

8 Automotive electrical system 349

9 Driving dynamics control systems and driver assistance

9.2.2 Semi-automated systems 417

10 Driving simulators 459

10.4.2 Simulator with cockpit 478

Duisburg, February 2020

1.1 Basic terminology

1.1.1 Definition of the term motor vehicle

According to Bundesministerium für Verkehr (2011)1 motor vehicles are

“Non-permanent track-guided land vehicles moved by machine power.”

1 German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure.

1.1.2 Life cycle of a vehicle

A vehicle is a product that is produced by an original equipment manufacturer

Figure 1.1: Supplier pyramid.

Figure 1.2: Development and life cycle of a vehicle.

1.1.3 Motor vehicles as part of the energy chain

1,000 Rail transport

Coastal and inland navigation

Figure 1.4: Energy consumption chain of a vehicle.

energies, at least in the long term. Furthermore, electric powertrains prove to be

1.1.4 Vehicle categories and segments

Even when focusing on passenger cars, the variety of vehicles to be considered is

3 KBA: German Federal Motor Transport Authority.

1.1.5 Vehicle types according to drive type

1.1.6 Registration and production figures

Designation Acronym Description

Internal combustion ICEV Motor vehicle conventionally powered by a combustion

1.2 Configuration of a vehicle

Stock in thousands of pieces

15,473 15,377 15,325 15,219 12,514 12,405 12,350

Figure 1.8: Stock of motor vehicles in Germany (KBA).

140 Purchase of vehicles

1.2.1 Vehicle assembly groups and component configuration

1.2.1.1 Vehicle assembly groups

These assemblies can be assigned to the individual subassemblies and components

1.2.1.2 Topologic arrangement of components

Table 1.2: Typical assembly groups of a vehicle.

Chassis and Powertrain Vehicle body and Vehicle electrics and

Springs and Propeller shaft Glazing Lighting

Braking system Differential Seats Servomotors

Steering system Driveshafts Pedals Sensors and actuators