Index
Note: Page numbers followed by b
indicate boxes, f indicate figures and
t indicate tables.
A Achillea ligustica see Achillea nobilis
Abelmoschus moschatus 193
Abies alba 282, 285
Abies balsamea 282
Abies sachalinensis 284
Abies sibirica 284
Abies spectabilis 283
Abies webbiana see Abies spectabilis
abortifacients 159–161, 162–163
absence seizures 132
absinthe oil see wormwood oil
absinthe toxicity (absinthism) 145,
473, 639–640
absinthone see thujone
absolutes
composition 7
isolation 6, 7
absorption 40–51
inhaled substances 49
oral administration 49–50
percutaneous see percutaneous
absorption
rectal administration 50–51
vaginal administration 51
absorption, distribution,
metabolism and excretion
54f
Acacia dealbata 351
Acacia decurrens var. dealbata
see Acacia dealbata
Acacia farnesiana 236
acceptable daily intake (ADI) 35
newer approaches 36–37, 36t
acetaldehyde 3
acetaminophen (paracetamol)
56–57, 128, 130
acetophenone 484
acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) 65,
117b, 119, 655
Achillea millefolium oil 11, 475–476
see also yarrow oil
Achillea nobilis 476
Acorus calamus 225, 226
acute toxic class method (ATC) 33
acute toxicity 28
alternative tests 33
dermal 29, 30t
essential oil profiles 188
extrapolating from animal data
28, 32–33
high-risk essential oils 652t
inhalation 29
oral 28–29, 30t
additive effects 24–25
carcinogens 177
adrue (piri-piri) oil 399–400
adulteration 7–8, 9–10, 10t
adverse drug reactions (ADRs) 2–3
adverse effects 2, 23–24
inhaled substances 100–103
adverse event reporting 37, 649–650
adverse reactions 25–28
first aid 649–650, 650b
guidelines for preventing/
managing 651
high-risk essential oils 652t
adverse skin reactions 3, 27–28,
69–98
determining factors 70
essential oil profiles 188
management 90–91
occupational risk 84
patch testing see patch testing
quenching 73–74
regulation 91–97
safety guidelines 651
susceptible individuals 70–72
types 70
variables of application and 72–74
see also specific types
afalon 8
African bluegrass oil 189–190
African elemi oil see Boswellia
frereana oil
African wild sage oil 412–413
African wormwood oil see lanyana oil
Agallochum malaccense
see Aquilaria malaccensis
agar oil see agarwood oil
agarwood oil 190
Agathosma betulina 220
Agathosma crenulata 221
age differences
adverse skin reactions 71
percutaneous absorption 47
Agonis fragrans 286
ahibero oil 190–191
airborne substances, adverse effects
of 100–103
air fresheners 100
air quality 99
airway irritation see sensory
irritation
ajowan oil 191
adverse skin reactions 77t, 191
drug interactions 58t, 191
safety measures 652t
ajwain oil see ajowan oil
alantolactone 179t, 485
alantroot oil see elecampane oil
albinism, oculocutaneous 87, 655
albumin binding 52
alcohols 17, 17b
aldehydes 18, 18b
alecost oil see balsamite oil
alecrim do cerrado oil see vassoura oil
Aleppo pine see Pinus halepensis
Alice in Wonderland syndrome 146
aliphatic molecules 15
alkanes 15
alkenes 15, 17, 17b
alkenylbenzenes
carcinogenic potential 167, 172,
173, 174
DNA adduct formation 167t
molecular structures 172f
alkynes 15
allergens
EU regulation 91–94, 95–97
identifying 80–83, 81t, 98
IFRA quantitative risk
assessment 94–95, 96t
listed by EU 91, 91t
relative risk of purported EU
91–94, 92t, 93t
allergic asthma 105–106
allergic contact dermatitis (ACD)
27–28, 70, 79
aromatherapy and 83–84
frequency 71, 98
genetic factors 56, 71–72
identifying allergens 80–83, 81t,
98
mechanisms 70, 78–80, 79f
occupational risk 84
patch testing 74–76
safety precautions 655
susceptible individuals 70–72
variables of application and 72–74
see also sensitization, skin
 Index
allergic reactions
airborne volatile organic
compounds 103, 105
delayed hypersensitivity (type
IV) 78–80, 79f
immediate hypersensitivity
(type I) 78
immune-mediated 171
vaginal administration 51
allergic rhinitis 105
Allium cepa 369
Allium porrum 330
Allium sativum 291
allspice oil see pimento berry oil
4-allyl anisole see estragole
allylbenzenes, toxicity 34
allyl disulfide see diallyl disulfide
allylguaiacol see eugenol
allyl isothiocyanate 485
acute toxicity 30t, 486
blood coagulant effect 116
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
potential 167, 168t, 176t,
179, 179t, 486
chemistry 21f
excretion 53t
nephrotoxicity 121
allyl sulfide see diallyl sulfide
4-allylveratrole see O-
methyleugenol
almond (bitter) oil see bitter
almond oil
aloes wood (agarwood) oil 190
Aloysia citriodora see Aloysia
triphylla
Aloysia triphylla 464
Alpinia galanga 289
Alpinia officinarum 290
Alpinia zerumbet leaf oil 114
altitude, effects on composition 7
ambrette (seed) oil 193
(Z)-ambrettolide 486
American larch needle oil 321–322
Ames test 172–173
Ammi visnaga 318
Amomum galanga see Alpinia
galanga
Amomum montanum see Zingiber
montanum
Amomum subulatum 232
Amygdalus communis var. amara
see Prunus dulcis var. amara
Amygdalus dulcis var. amara
see Prunus dulcis var. amara
Amyris balsamifera 193, 194
amyris oil 193–194
Amyris papyrifera oil see Boswellia
papyrifera oil
analgesics, nephrotoxicity 119
analytical techniques 12–13
anaphylaxis 78
758
androgenic activity 151
androgens 151
Andropogon citratus oil see West
Indian lemongrass oil
Andropogon flexuosus
see Cymbopogon flexuosus
Andropogon martinii
see Cymbopogon martinii
Andropogon muricatus see Vetiveria
zizanoides
Andropogon nardus see Cymbopogon
nardus
Andropogon zizanoides see Vetiveria
zizanoides
anemia 116
(E)-anethole 486
anticonvulsant action 139
antithrombotic activity 116, 487
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
activity 167, 173t, 174,
176, 488
chemical structure 172f
enzyme induction 60
estrogenic activity 150, 487
gastrointestinal effects 125t
hepatotoxicity 127, 487–488
immune effects 171
neurotoxicity 136, 140
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43–44
pharmacokinetics 52, 53t, 57, 487
reproductive LOAEL 158t
reproductive toxicity 153, 487
safe exposure limits 36t, 488
(Z)-anethole 488
Anethum graveolens 268, 270
Anethum sowa 269
Angelica archangelica 194, 195, 196
Angelica glauca 195
angelica root oil 194–195
anticonvulsant action 139
Himalayan (smooth angelica) 195
nephrotoxicity 120
angelica seed oil 195–196
angelicin 61t, 85, 86t, 89
angiogenesis 155, 179
’angry back’ reaction 75
Aniba amazonica 409
Aniba parviflora 409
Aniba rosaeodora 409, 410
animal toxicity 28–31
acute tests 28–29, 30t
alternative testing methods 33–34
chronic tests 29–31
extrapolation to humans 28, 30t,
32–33
methodological concerns 1–2
OECD approved tests 29b
p-anisaldehyde 489
anise alcohol see anisyl alcohol
anise camphor see (E)-anethole
aniseed myrtle oil 358–359
drug interactions 58t, 359
pregnancy and lactation 152t
aniseed oil see anise oil
anise oil 196–197
anticonvulsant action 139
antidiuretic effect 121, 196
drug interactions 58t, 197
estrogenic activity 150, 197
hyperglycemic effect 118, 196
neurotoxicity 137, 138, 139,
141t, 197
oral dose 50t, 196
pregnancy and lactation 152t
anise (star) oil 58t, 197–198
anise-scented myrtle oil see aniseed
myrtle oil
anise verbena oil 465–466
anisyl alcohol 489
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92–94,
92t, 96t, 489
annual wormwood oil 473–474
antagonistic effects 24–25
allergic skin reactions 73–74
carcinogens 177–184
Anthemis nobilis see Chamaemelum
nobile
anthopogon oil 403–404
Anthoxanthum odoratum 434
Anthoxylum odoratum 299
Anthriscus cerefolium 247
antibacterial effects, mechanisms of
31
anticarcinogenic potential 188
anticarcinogens 183
anticoagulant drugs 65, 117b, 655
anticonvulsants 138, 139–140
antidepressants 64
antidiuretic effects 121
antigenotoxicity 89
antimutagenesis 170
antinephrotoxicity 121
antioxidant enzymes, induction of
170
antioxidants
as additives 11, 12
anticancer effects 166, 170
combating photoageing 89
mode of action 31
occurring in essential oils 11, 170
protective effects 25
as quenching agents 74
antioxine see carvacrol
anxiolytic activity 140, 143
Apiaceae, phototoxic potential
87, 87t
apiole (dill) see dill apiole
apiole (parsley) see parsley apiole
Apium graveolens 241
Aplotaxis lappa see Saussurea costus
apoptosis 166, 178
Aquilaria agallocha see Aquilaria
malaccensis
Aquilaria malaccensis 190
Aquilaria sinensis 190
Arabian jasmine see jasmine sambac
absolute
araucaria oil 198
drug interactions 58t, 198
pregnancy and lactation
152t, 198
areca nut 183–184
arina oil 198–199
armoise 474
Armoracia lapathifolia
see Armoracia rusticana
Armoracia rusticana 306
aromadendrene (and isomers) 491
aromatherapists
allergic contact dermatitis 84
cancer risk 185
safety guidelines 651
aromatherapy
allergic contact dermatitis risk
83–84
cancer risk 184–185
during childbirth 161–162
defined 2
patient safety guidelines 651
aromatic hydrocarbons 15
aromatic plants 5–6, 6b
aromatic ravensare oil 403
Artemisia abrotanum 427
Artemisia absinthium 471
Artemisia afra 320
Artemisia annua 473
Artemisia arborescens 354
Artemisia caerulescens oil,
neurotoxicity 133–135
Artemisia contra see Artemisia
maritima
Artemisia douglasiana 354
Artemisia dracunculus 439
Artemisia genepi 292
Artemisia herba alba oil see white
wormwood oil
Artemisia lercheana see Artemisia
maritima
Artemisia maritima 474
Artemisia mutellina see Artemisia
genepi
artemisia oil see wormwood oil
Artemisia pallens 267
Artemisia salina see Artemisia
maritima
Artemisia spicata see Artemisia
genepi
Artemisia vestita oil 199
neurotoxicity 134t, 199
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 199
Artemisia vulgaris 353, 354
asafoetida oil 199–200

a-asarone 491 balsam fir needle oil see Canadian fir
acute toxicity 30t, 492 needle oil
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, Balsamita major
172, 173t, 176, 492 see Chrysanthemum
chemical structure 172f balsamita
hepatotoxicity 127, 492 balsamite oil 81t, 201–202
reproductive LOAEL 158t balsam (Peru) oil 81t, 96t,
safe doses 484t, 493 390–391
b-asarone 493 balsam poplar oil 58t, 202
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t, balsam torchwood (amyris) oil
176, 493–494 193–194
elimination half-life 51t Barosma betulina see Agathosma
safe doses 484t, 494 betulina
Asarum canadense 426 Barosma crenulata see Agathosma
ascaridole 494 crenulata
carcinogenic/anticancer activity Barus camphor oil 227
179t, 495 basil absolute 81t, 205
chemical structure 20, 20f basil herb 3, 177, 178
safe doses 484t, 495 basil oils 202–204, 205–209
ascarisin see ascaridole adverse skin reactions 81t, 203,
Asian skin 659 204, 205, 206, 208
aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) 65, anticonvulsant action 139
117b, 119, 655 carcinogenic/anticancer activity
asthma 105–106 179t, 183, 203–204, 205,
allergic 105–106 206–207, 208
bronchial hyper-reactivity 103 drug interactions 58t, 204, 205,
bronchospasm 106 208
causative agents 105–106 estragole CT 202–203
irritant 105 gastrointestinal effects 125
occupational 105 hairy (hoary) 203–204
safety precautions 655 holy (sacred) 204
trigger factors 106 lemon 205
Atlantic cedar oil 237–238 linalool CT 206
Atlas cedarwood oil 237–238 Madagascan 207
atopic dermatitis 40, 46–47 methyl cinnamate CT 207–208
practitioner safety 651 pregnancy and lactation 156t, 205
risk of adverse skin reactions pungent (shrubby, tree, Russian,
71–72 East Indian) 208–209
safety precautions 655 safety measures 652t
atractylis oil 200–201 baths 655
drug interactions 58t, 201 bay laurel oil see laurel leaf oil
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 200 bay leaf oil see laurel leaf oil
Atractylodes lancea 200 ‘bay leaf oil’ 323
Aucklandia costus see Saussurea bay oil (West Indian) see West
costus Indian bay oil
Australian lemon balm oil 332–333 bee balm oil 210
adverse skin reactions 81t, 333 beefsteak plant oil see perilla oil
drug interactions 58t, 333 behavioral toxicology 144
pregnancy and lactation 156t, 333 benchmark dose 36
benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
151
B benzaldehyde 495
Baccharis dracunculifolia 463 adverse skin reactions 96t, 495
Backhousia anisata 358 carcinogenic/anticancer activity
Backhousia citriodora 360 168t, 171, 175, 176t,
bad-smelling camphor tree oil 179t, 496
304–305 hepatotoxicity 126, 495
bakula absolute see bakul absolute partition coefficient 44t
bakul absolute 81t, 201 safe exposure limits 36t, 496
Balm of Gilead 202 sensory irritation 101t, 495
balm oil see melissa oil benzene 8, 15, 15f
benzeneacetonitrile see benzyl
cyanide
benzenecarbaldehyde
see benzaldehyde
benzenecarboxylic acid see benzoic
acid
benzenemethanol see benzyl alcohol
benzenoid constituents 15
benzo[a]pyrene 498
carcinogenic potential 167, 176,
176t, 498
benzoic acid 496
reproductive NOAEL 158t, 497
safe exposure limits 36t, 497–498
benzoic acid benzyl ester see benzyl
benzoate
benzoic acid phenylmethyl ester
see benzyl benzoate
benzoic aldehyde see benzaldehyde
benzoin 210–211
Siam 210, 211
Sumatra 210
benzoin resinoid 81t, 210
1,2-benzopyrone see coumarin
2,3-benzopyrrole see indole
benzyl acetate 498
carcinogenic activity 167, 168t,
176t, 499
partition coefficient 44t
pharmacokinetics 57, 498
reproductive NOAEL 158t, 499
safe exposure limits 36t, 500
benzyl alcohol 500
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
96t, 500
antiproliferative activity 171
blood pressure effects 113
developmental neurotoxicity
157, 159
hepatotoxicity 126, 501
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43, 43t
safe exposure limits 36t, 502
benzyl benzenecarboxylate
see benzyl benzoate
benzyl benzoate 502
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 502, 503
reproductive NOAEL 158t
safe exposure limits 36t, 503
benzyl carbinol see 2-phenylethanol
benzyl cinnamate 503
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 503–504
benzyl cyanide 504
nephrotoxicity 120, 121
benzyl isothiocyanate 504
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
activity 167, 168t,
179t, 505
reproductive NOAEL 158t, 505
Index
benzyl mustard oil see benzyl
isothiocyanate
benzyl salicylate 505
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 505–506
bergamol see linalyl acetate
bergamot mint oil 352
bergamot oil 211–213
composition 7, 211, 213
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
drug interactions 58t
expressed (unrectified) 211–213
furanocoumarin-free (FCF)
(rectified, bergaptenless)
85, 213
inhalation 104
neuroprotective action 146
percutaneous absorption 41t, 42
phototoxicity 27, 85–87, 212
managing risk 88, 88t
susceptible individuals 87
prevention of sunlight-related
skin cancer 90
red (bee balm) 210
skin sensitization 81t, 212
wild 213–214
bergamottin 506
anticancer activity 179t, 507
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t,
506
light-related risks 86t, 506–507
bergapten 507
absorption 41t, 42
antiplatelet activity 116, 507
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
potential 89, 90, 508
chemical structure 20f
cytochrome P450 interactions
61t, 507
hepatoprotective effects 128t,
508
partition coefficient 44t
phototoxicity 85, 86t, 507
reproductive toxicity 150, 151,
153, 507–508
bergapten dermatitis 85
bergaptol 61t, 86t
berloque dermatitis 85
betel (Piper betle) 177–178,
183–184, 214–215
betel leaf oil 214–215
carcinogenic potential 177,
214–215
drug interactions 58t
betel quid 183–184
Betula alba see Betula pubescens
Betula lenta 215, 216
Betula pendula 216
Betula pubescens 216
bigroot geranium oil 480–481
bile flow, obstructed 656
759
 Index
bioavailability 40, 49
biocides 8
biotransformation 53–57
see also metabolism
birch (sweet) oil see sweet birch oil
birch tar oil 216
drug interactions 58t
hepatotoxicity 127, 216
safety measures 652t
bisabol myrrh oil see opopanax oil
a-bisabolol 508
anticancer activity 179t, 509
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
gastrointestinal effects 125t
reproductive NOAEL 158t
bishop’s weed oil see ajowan oil
bitter almond oil 191–193
acute toxicity 30t, 192–193
FFPA (free from prussic acid)
191–192, 193
safety measures 652t
unrectified 192–193
bitter fennel oil 276–277
drug interactions 58t, 277
pregnancy and lactation 152t
see also fennel oil
bitter orange leaf oil see orange leaf oil
bitter orange oil 371–372
sedative action 140, 141t
black birch oil see sweet birch oil
blackbutt peppermint oil
see Eucalyptus smithii oil
black caraway oil see black seed oil
black cardamom oil 232–233
black cumin oil see black seed oil
blackcurrant bud absolute/oil
216–217
black mustard see Brassica nigra
black pepper oil 384–385
blood pressure effects 112t, 114
black pine oil 394–395
black poplar oil see balsam poplar oil
black seed oil 217–218
anticancer activity 179t, 218
drug interactions 58t, 218
effects on erythrocytes 116–117
hepatoprotective effects
128, 218
hypoglycemic effects 117–118,
218
hypotensive effect 114
immune effects 171, 218
reproductive toxicity 152t,
161, 218
black skin 42, 76, 659
black spruce oil 429
black tea leaf absolute see tea leaf
absolute
black tea tree oil 445–446, 652t
bleeding disorders 655–656
blood 115–118
760
blood–brain barrier 51, 52, 131, 146
fetus 154
blood clotting see clotting, blood
blood pressure (BP) 112–115, 112t
animal and ex vivo studies
112–114
human oral studies 114
inhalation effects 114
see also hypertension;
hypotension
blue bush (pteronia) oil 401
blue chamomile oil 242–243
drug interactions 58t, 61t, 243
isolation 6
renoprotective action 121
sedative action 143
blue cypress oil 265–266
drug interactions 58t, 266
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 266
blue dog (pteronia) oil 401
bluegrass (African) oil 189–190
blue gum oil see Eucalyptus
globulus oil
blue-leaved mallee oil
see Eucalyptus polybractea oil
blue mountain sage oil 413
blue peppermint oil 275–276
blue tansy oil 438–439
Boesenbergia pandurata 281
Boesenbergia rotunda
see Boesenbergia pandurata
bog myrtle oil 179t, 359–360
bois de rose oil see rosewood oil
Boldoa fragrans see Peumus boldus
boldo oil 218–219
acute toxicity 28, 30t
neurotoxicity 133, 134t
safety measures 652t
Borena type frankincense oil
see Boswellia neglecta oil
2-bornanone see camphor
Borneo camphor oil 227
borneol 61t, 509
bornyl acetate 510
boronia absolute 219
Boronia megastigma 219
boronione see b-ionone
Boswellia bhau-dajiana oil
see Boswellia sacra oil
Boswellia carteri oil see Boswellia
sacra oil
Boswellia chariensis oil see Boswellia
papyrifera oil
Boswellia frereana oil 287, 288, 289
Boswellia glabra oil see Boswellia
serrata oil
Boswellia hildebrandtii oil
see Boswellia frereana oil
Boswellia neglecta oil 287, 288, 289
Boswellia occidentalis oil
see Boswellia papyrifera oil
Boswellia odorata oil see Boswellia C
papyrifera oil
cabbage rose absolute see Provence
Boswellia papyrifera oil 287, 289
rose absolute
nephrotoxicity 120
Cabralea cangerana 230
pregnancy and lactation 156t
Cabralea canjerana see Cabralea
Boswellia rivae oil 287, 288, 289
cangerana
Boswellia sacra (B. carteri) oil
cabreuva oil 222
287–288, 289
cabureicica oil 222
Boswellia serrata oil 287, 288, 289
cade oil
Boswellia thurifera oil see Boswellia
rectified 222–223
serrata oil
unrectified 223, 652t
Boswellia undulato-crenata oil
cadinene 511
see Boswellia sacra oil
cytochrome P450 induction
botanical names 187
61t, 512
Bourbon vanilla see Vanilla planifolia
partition coefficient 44t
Brachylaena huillensis 355
a-cadinol, anticancer activity 179t
Brachylaena hutchinsii
cajeput oil see cajuput oil
see Brachylaena huillensis
cajeputol see 1,8-cineole
brain, penetration into 51
cajuput oil 223–224, 652t
Brassica juncea 355, 356
Calamintha nepeta 224, 225
Brassica nigra 355, 356
Calamintha officinalis
Brauneria purpurea see Echinacea
see Calamintha nepeta
purpurea
calamint (lesser) oil see lesser
Brazilian sassafras oil 421–422, 652t
calamint oil
breast cancer 178, 657
calamus oil 225–227
breastfeeding 117b, 162, 656
acute toxicity 30t, 226
see also lactation
anticancer/carcinogenic activity
broad-leaved peppermint oil
183, 225, 226–227
275–276
anticonvulsant action 140
bronchial hyper-reactivity (BHR)
diploid form 225
100, 103
sedative action 141t
bronchospasm 106
tetraploid or hexaploid form
broom absolute 219–220
225–226
brown camphor oil 58t, 227–228
triploid form 226–227
buchu oil 220–221
calcium channel blockers 111, 113
diosphenol CT 220–221
California mugwort oil 354
drug interactions 58t
California (pink) pepper oil
neurotoxicity 134t
385–386
pregnancy and lactation 152t
Callitris columellaris 266
pulegone CT 221
Callitris glaucophylla 266
safety measures 652t
Callitris intratropica 265
Buddha wood oil 221–222
Callitropsis araucarioides
Bulgarian geranium oil 480–481
see Neocallitropsis pancheri
Bulnesia sarmientoi 298, 299
Camden woollybut oil
Bupleurum fruticosum 447
see Eucalyptus macarthurii
burgan (kanuka) oil 316
oil
Bursera aloexylon 338
Camellia sinensis 440
Bursera delpechiana see Bursera
2-camphanone see camphor
glabrifolia
camphene 512
Bursera fagaroides 338
excretion 53t, 512
Bursera glabrifolia 338
reproductive NOAEL 158t, 512
Bursera graveolens 379, 380
sensory irritation 101–102
Bursera penicillata 338
camphor 512
Bursera simaruba 338
cardiovascular effects 111–112,
bushy lippia oil 465–466
112t, 113, 115, 514
butterfly lily absolute see ginger lily
developmental neurotoxicity 159
absolute
drug interactions 61t
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
hepatotoxicity 126, 127
11, 582
neurotoxicity 133, 135, 137t,
3-butylidene phthalide 511
514, 515
3-butyl phthalide 510

percutaneous absorption 42,
43–44
reproductive NOAEL 158t
reproductive toxicity 154, 155,
162–163, 515
respiratory tract infections 104
safe doses 133t, 484t, 516
camphorated oil
neurotoxicity 135
poisoning 26–27
reproductive toxicity 154, 155,
159
camphor bush oil 412–413
camphor inula oil 310
camphor oil 227–229
antigenotoxicity 89
blue 228
Borneo 227
brown (red) 58t, 227–228
drug interactions 58t
fractions 228
poisoning 650t
white (true) 228
yellow 58t, 228–229
camphor oil tree oil 303–304
Canada goldenrod oil 297
Canadian black ’pine’ oil 429
Canadian fir needle oil 179t,
282–283
Canadian fleabane oil 286
Canadian snakeroot oil 426
Canadian spruce oil 431–432
Cananga odorata f. genuina
see Cananga odorata f.
odorata
Cananga odorata f. macrophylla
229
Cananga odorata f. odorata 476
cananga oil 81t, 96t, 229–230
Canangium odoratum f.
macrophylla see Cananga
odorata f. macrophylla
Canarium commune see Canarium
vulgare
Canarium luzonicum 271
Canarium vulgare 271
cancer 165–186
at-risk groups 175
chemoprevention 178–182, 179t
defense mechanisms 167–170
essential oil-related risk 184–185
estrogen-sensitive 166, 185, 657
immunity and 171
initiation, promotion and
progression 166–167
mechanisms of generation
165–167
risk factors 175–177
treatment, safety precautions
656
cangerana oil 230
cang-zhu atractylodes oil
see atractylis oil
cannabinoids 144, 301
Cannabis indica see Cannabis
sativa
Cannabis sativa 144, 300
Cape chamomile oil 243–244
Cape may oil 230–231
capsaicin, inhaled 107
caraway oil 231
anticancer activity 179t, 231
estrogenic activity 150
phototoxicity 87, 231
carbofuran 8
carbon dioxide (CO2) extracts 6, 22
carbonyl-containing groups 18–19
carboxylic acids 18, 18b
carboxylic esters 19, 19b
carcinogenesis 166–167
carcinogenicity testing 171–175
interspecies differences 175
live animal tests 174–175
mutagenicity/genotoxicity tests
172–174
carcinogenic potential 188
carcinogens 165–167
antagonistic effects 177–184
anticarcinogens and 183
current regulations 185
detoxification and dosage
175–176
DNA-reactive (genotoxic) 166
dose-response relationships
176–177, 177f
epigenetic 166
essential oil constituents
antagonizing 25, 170
essential oil constituents as 167,
168t
in foods 3
genetic susceptibility 175
high-risk essential oils 652t
level of exposure and 175–177
NOAEL 38, 177
synergistic effects 177–184
thresholds doses 176–177, 176t
cardamom oil 232
black 232–233
gastrointestinal effects 125,
125t, 232
heat-related degradation 11, 11t
cardiac fibrillation 656
cardiovascular system 111–118
d-3-carene 516
elimination half-life 51t
excretion 53t
eye irritation 102
inhalation toxicity 49
bronchial hyper-reactivity 103
sensory irritation 101, 101t
reproductive toxicity 161, 517
Caribbean pine see Pinus caribaea
carnation absolute 233
Carphephorus odoratissimus
see Trilisa odoratissima
carrot seed oil 233–234
hypotensive effect 114
reproductive toxicity 149, 152t,
233
Carum carvi 231
Carum copticum
see Trachyspermum ammi
carvacrol 517
acute toxicity 30t, 517
anticancer activity 179t, 518
antiplatelet activity 116, 517
blood pressure effects 113
gastrointestinal effects 124–125
hepatoprotective effects
128t, 517
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173–174, 518
partition coefficient 44t
reproductive NOAEL 158t
3-carvomenthenone see piperitone
carvomenthol see terpinen-4-ol
carvone 518
acute toxicity 30t, 519
adverse skin reactions 73,
96t, 519
anticancer activity 178, 519–520
anticonvulsant action 139–140
immune system activation
170–171
isomer differences 56
isomerism 14, 14f, 518
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173, 519
neurotoxicity 137, 137t, 140, 141t
percutaneous absorption 43–44
safe exposure limits 36t, 484t,
520
a-caryophyllene 179t, 520
b-caryophyllene 520
anticancer activity 171, 178, 521
degradation 11–12
gastrointestinal effects 125t
b-caryophyllene oxide 521
cascarilla oil 234–235
Casearia sylvestris oil, hemolytic
effect 116–117
cassia oil 235–236
acute toxicity 30t, 236
adverse skin reactions 81t,
235–236
drug interactions 58t, 236
hepatotoxicity 127, 236
Indian see tejpat oil
neurotoxicity 131
reproductive toxicity 152t,
154–155, 236
safety measures 652t
Index
cassie absolute 236
cassis (blackcurrant) bud absolute/
oil 216–217
cat mint oil see catnip oil
catnep oil see catnip oil
catnip oil 237
psychotropic activity 144, 237
skin sensitization 81t
cautions 188
CD50 values 137t
cedarleaf oil see thuja oil
cedarwood oil 237–240
acute toxicity 30t, 238,
239, 240
adverse skin reactions 83t, 238,
239, 240
anticancer activity 179t, 238, 239
Atlas 237–238
Chinese 238
Himalayan 238–239
Port Orford 239
Texan 239–240
Virginian 240
Cedrela mexicana see Cedrela
odorata
Cedrela odorata 240
cedrela oil 240–241
Cedrelopsis grevei 317
a-cedrene 522
b-cedrene 522
cedrene, enzyme induction 60
a-cedrol 141t, 523
Cedrus atlantica 237
Cedrus deodara 238
celery leaf oil 87–88, 241
celery seed oil 241–242
central nervous system (CNS) 131
depressant activity 138–144
fetal, susceptibility to damage
154
stimulant activity 132–138
structural changes 132
Chamaecyparis funebris 237
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 239
Chamaecyparis obtusa 301, 302,
303
Chamaemelum nobile 244
chamazulene 523
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
formation 6
chamomile oil 242–245
blue see blue chamomile oil
Cape 243–244
Moroccan 244
Roman see Roman chamomile oil
Chamomilla recutita see Matricaria
recutita
champaca absolute
orange see orange champaca
absolute
white 245–246
761
 Index
champaca oil, white see magnolia
flower oil; magnolia leaf oil
champak absolute see orange
champaca absolute
chaste tree oil 246
dopaminergic activity 150–151,
247
drug interactions 58t, 247
reproductive toxicity 152t, 247
cheilitis 28
chellah oil see khella oil
chemicals
cancer initiators 166, 167
cancer promoters 167
carcinogenic 165–166, 186
chemistry, essential oil 12–15
analytical techniques 12–13
constituents 15–21
isomerism 14–15
structure of organic compounds
13–14, 14f
chemoprevention, cancer 178–182,
179t
chemotherapy, cancer 656
chemotypes 7
Chenopodium ambrosioides 470
Chenopodium ambrosioides var.
anthelminticum 470, 471
chenopodium oil see wormseed oil
cherry birch oil see sweet birch oil
chervil oil 58t, 247–248
childbirth 117b, 161–162, 656
children
dermal dosing 47–48, 47t
oral dosing 50, 66
poisoning incidents 26–27, 26t
risk of adverse skin reactions 71
safety guidelines 651, 652t, 656
susceptibility to neurotoxicity
133
toxicity to 2
see also infants; neonates
child-resistant closures 37, 651
Chinese cedarwood oil 238
Chinese cinnamon oil see cassia oil
Chinese ginger oil see finger root oil;
lesser galangal oil
Chinese pine see Pinus
tabulaeformis; Pinus
yunnanensis
Chinese red pine see Pinus
tabulaeformis
Chinese sassafras oil 228, 421,
422, 652t
Chinese weeping cypress oil 238
Chinese zedoary oil see zedoary oil
chiral molecules 14–15
Chir pine see Pinus roxburghii
Chloroxylon dupada oil
see Boswellia serrata oil
chlorpyrifos 8
762
choleretics 130
cholestasis 656
chromatographic techniques 13
chromosomal aberrations 172, 173
chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) 104–105,
656
chronic toxicity 28
animal testing 29–31
Chrysanthemum balsamita 201
Chrysanthemum parthenium
see Tanacetum parthenium
Chrysanthemum tanacetum
see Tanacetum vulgare
Chrysanthemum vulgare
see Tanacetum vulgare
Chrysopogon zizanoides
see Vetiveria zizanoides
cigar-box cedar oil 240–241
cilantro see coriander
cinene see (þ)-limonene
1,4-cineole 19, 523
1,8-cineole 523
absorption after inhalation
49, 524
anticancer activity 171, 526
chemistry 19, 20f
drug interactions 60, 61t, 64, 524
elimination half-life 51t
gastrointestinal effects 124t,
125, 125t
hepatotoxicity 127, 526
hypotensive effects 113–114
nasal instillation in infants 108,
109, 525
nephrotoxicity 120–121
neurotoxicity 136, 138, 141t, 526
oral dose 50t
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43–44
reproductive toxicity 154,
158t, 526
safe exposure limits 36t, 527
cinnamal see cinnamaldehyde
cinnamaldehyde 527
acute toxicity 30t, 528
adverse skin reactions 80, 82, 91t,
527–528, 528t
concentration dependence
72, 72t
IFRA guidelines 96t, 531
quenching 73
relative risk 91–92, 92t, 93t
temporal trends 82
anaphylactic reaction 78, 528
anticancer activity 179t, 530
antigenotoxicity 89
antiplatelet activity 116, 529
blood pressure effects 113
dermal metabolism 56, 78, 527
elimination half-life 51t
excretion 53t
hepatotoxicity 127
hypoglycemic effects 118, 529
mutagenicity 174
nephrotoxicity 120, 529
partition coefficient 44t
safe exposure limits 36t, 531
teratogenicity 157, 529
cinnamic acid 531
chemical structure 18f
excretion 53t, 531
reproductive NOAEL 158t
cinnamic alcohol see cinnamyl
alcohol
cinnamic aldehyde
see cinnamaldehyde
Cinnamomum aromaticum
see Cinnamomum cassia
Cinnamomum camphora 227, 228,
303, 403
Cinnamomum camphora var.
glavescens 304
Cinnamomum cassia 235
Cinnamomum cecidodaphne 433
Cinnamomum glaucescens
see Cinnamomum
cecidodaphne
Cinnamomum loureirii 236
Cinnamomum porrectum oil 421
Cinnamomum rigidissimum oil 421
Cinnamomum tamala 447
Cinnamomum verum 248, 249
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
see Cinnamomum verum
cinnamon bark oil 248–249
acute toxicity 30t, 249
adverse skin reactions 81t,
248–249
blood pressure effects 113
drug interactions 58t, 249
hypoglycemic effects 118, 249
oral adverse reactions 25,
123–124
oral dose 50t, 248
pregnancy and lactation 152t,
154–155, 248
cinnamon basil oil 207–208
cinnamon leaf oil 249–250
adverse skin reactions 81t, 250
drug interactions 58t, 250
cinnamon oil (unspecified)
adverse skin reactions 27,
248–249, 250
oral adverse reactions 28
poisoning 26, 26t, 650t
safety measures 652t
Cinnamosma fragrans 421
cinnamyl acetate 532
cinnamyl alcohol 532
adverse skin reactions 82, 91t,
92t, 93t, 96t, 532–533
reproductive NOAEL 158t
teratogenicity 157, 533
cinnamyl cinnamate 534
cis-isomers 14
Cistus ladanifer 250, 319
Cistus ladaniferus see Cistus
ladanifer
cistus oil 250–251
citral 534
adverse skin reactions 82, 91t,
93t, 96t, 534–535
quenching 73
relative risk 92–94, 92t
androgenic activity 151, 536
anticancer activity 178, 536–537
cytochrome P450 interactions 61t
estrogenic activity 150, 151, 536
excretion 53t
female reproductive effects 149
hemolytic activity 116–117
hypoglycemic effects 117, 535
inhalation, maternal toxicity
108, 536
partition coefficient 44t
pharmacokinetics 52, 57, 534
reproductive NOAEL 158t, 537
safe exposure limits 36t, 537
sedative action 140
teratogenicity 157, 535–536
(E)-citral see (E)-geranial
(Z)-citral see neral
b-citronellal (citronellal) 11–12,
537
citronella oil 251–253
adverse skin reactions 27–28,
81t, 252
anticonvulsant action 139
drug interactions 58t, 252
poisoning 650t
sedative action 141t
citronellic acid 30t, 538
citronellol 538
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 538–539, 539t
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t,
44–45
safe exposure limits 36t, 539
teratogenicity 157
b-citronellol 13–14, 14f, 538
b-citronellyl acetate 539
b-citronellyl formate 540
b-citronellyl propionate 540
citropten 540
chemistry 19, 19f
light-related risks 86t, 541
Citrus aurantium subsp. amara
see Citrus x aurantium
Citrus aurantium subsp. aurantium
see Citrus x aurantium

Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia
see Citrus bergamia
Citrus aurantium var. sinensis
see Citrus sinensis
Citrus bergamia 211, 213
Citrus clementina 254
Citrus hystrix 258
Citrus junos 480
Citrus limonum see Citrus x limon
Citrus nobilis see Citrus reticulata
citrus oils
carcinogenic potential 186
degradation 11
furanocoumarin-free
(deterpenated) 12, 85, 88
isolation 6
non-phototoxic 87, 87b
pesticide contaminants 8, 8t
phototoxicity 27, 85–87
safe use 88
see also specific oils
Citrus reticulata 342, 343, 437, 438
Citrus reticulata var. clementina
see Citrus clementina
Citrus reticulata var. satsuma
see Citrus unshui
Citrus reticulata x Citrus x paradisi
436
Citrus sinensis 372
Citrus tangerine see Citrus
reticulata
Citrus unshui 422
Citrus x aurantifolia 336, 337
Citrus x aurantium 363, 371,
373, 374
Citrus x limon 330, 331, 333
Citrus x paradisi 297
clary sage 253–254
clary sage absolute 81t, 253
clary sage oil 253
anticonvulsant action 139
sedative action 141t
clementine oil 254
clinical safety 655–660
clocimum oil 208–209
clonic seizures 132
clotting, blood 65
deficiency disorders 655–656
drug interactions involving 65
essential oils affecting 115–116,
117b
mechanism 115
clove bud oil 254–256
adverse skin reactions 81t, 255
anticonvulsant action 139
carcinogenic potential 184–185
drug interactions 58t, 256
reproductive toxicity 154–155, 255
clove leaf oil 256
adverse skin reactions 81t, 256
drug interactions 58t, 256
clove oil (unspecified)
cytotoxicity 31
degradation 11
hepatotoxicity 126
poisoning 26, 26t, 650t
reproductive toxicity 154–155
safety measures 652t
clove pink (carnation) absolute 233
clove stem oil 257
adverse skin reactions 81t, 257
drug interactions 58t, 257
CNS see central nervous system
coagulation, blood see clotting,
blood
coastal cypress pine oil 266
Cochlearia armoracia
see Armoracia rusticana
coco grass oil see nut grass oil
coffee 3
coffin wood oil 425
cola drinks 184
cold, common 104
cold pressing 6
Coleonema album 230
Coleus barbatus see Plectranthus
barbatus
Coleus forskohlii see Plectranthus
barbatus
coleus oil 257–258
colobot oil (combava fruit oil) 258
colophony 461
color, essential oils 6
combava fruit oil 258
combava leaf oil 258–259
combinations of toxic essential oils
189
Commiphora chironium 370–371
Commiphora erythraea 370–371
Commiphora guidottii 370–371
Commiphora molmol
see Commiphora myrrha
Commiphora myrrha 357
common chemical sense (CCS) 100
common hop oil see hop oil
common horsemint oil 352
common lavender see lavender
common mandarin oil see mandarin
oil
common mugwort oil 353–354
camphor/thujone CT 353
chrysanthenyl acetate CT
353–354
neurotoxicity 134t, 353–354
pregnancy and lactation 152t
common names 187
common spruce oil 430–431
composition, essential oil 7
compresses 656
Comptonia peregrina 279
concentrations, essential oil
adjusting 189
adverse skin reaction risk and 72
calculation table 48t
conversion tables 665–666
recommended and maximum 47t
transdermal absorption and 45–46
see also dose-response
relationships
conception 152
concretes 7
condoms, latex 152, 163, 656
coniferyl benzoate 541
Conium maculatum 430
conjugation reactions 54–55
constituents, essential oil 7
authors’ restrictions 483, 484t
carcinogenic 167, 168t
changes during distillation 6
chemistry 15–21
in common foods 148b
interactions between 24–25
isomers 483
key 187–188
reproductive NOAEL or LOAEL
values 158t
reproductive toxicity 156–157
safety profiles 483–648
systematic and common names 483
trace 7, 188
consumer health products 2
contact dermatitis 3, 27–28
types 70, 70f
see also specific types
containers 2, 37, 651–654
contamination 7–10, 8t
contraindications 188
conversion tables 665–666
convulsants 132–137, 134t
animal data 137, 137t
blood pressure and 113
maximum doses 133t
convulsions 132
Conyza canadensis 286
copaiba oil 259
Copaifera langsdorfii oil 259
Copaifera officinalis oil 259
coriander leaf oil 259–260
coriander seed oil 260–261
Coriandrum sativum 259, 260
Coridothymus capitatus oil
see Thymbra capitata oil
cornmint oil (dementholized)
261–262, 652t
corpus luteum 149
corrosion, skin 76
Corymbia citriodora 335
cosmetic products
regulation of allergens 91–94
replacement of animal testing
33, 33t
Cosmetics Directive, EU 33,
91–94, 95–97
Index
costmary oil see balsamite oil
costunolide 541
anticancer activity 178, 179,
179t, 541
pregnancy 155
costus lactone see costunolide
costus oil 262–263
adverse skin reactions 81t, 262,
263
anticancer activity 171, 263
pregnancy and lactation 152t,
162, 262
Cotinus coggyria 433
cotton lavander oil 328
coumarin 541
acute toxicity 30t, 542
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
96t, 542
anticancer activity 179t
carcinogenic potential 168t, 173t,
175, 176t
chemistry 19
developmental toxicity 157, 542
drug interactions 64, 542
elimination 57
elimination half-life 51t
hepatotoxicity 128, 129,
542–543
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43, 43t,
541–542
pharmacogenetic toxicity 129
reproductive NOAEL 158t
safe doses 36t, 129, 484t, 544
unreliability of allergy data 94,
542
coumarin 3,4-epoxide (CE) 129
Coumarouna odorata see Dipteryx
odorata
creek tea tree see Melaleuca
dissitiflora
cresol 146, 544
m-cresol 146, 544, 545
o-cresol 146, 544, 545
p-cresol 544
acute toxicity 30t, 544
hepatotoxicity 127, 128b, 545
nephrotoxicity 120, 121, 545
neurotoxicity 131
p-cresyl methyl ether 30t, 545
crithmene see g-terpinene
Crocus sativus 412
cross-sensitization 79
Croton eluteria 234
Cryptocarya massoia
see Cryptocarya massoy
Cryptocarya massoy 348
cubeb oil 263–264
cuckoo flower oil see lesser
calamint oil
cuminaldehyde 545
763
 Index
cumin oil 264
anticancer activity 179t, 264
anticonvulsant action 139
safe use 88, 264
Cuminum cyminum 264
cuminyl alcohol 546
Cupressus funebris
see Chamaecyparis funebris
Cupressus obtusa
see Chamaecyparis obtusa
Cupressus sempervirens 265
Curcuma amada 344
Curcuma aromatica 459
Curcuma domestica see Curcuma
longa
Curcuma longa 457, 458
curcuma oil 458
curry leaf oil 179t, 264–265
curry plant see immortelle
cutaneous administration
see dermal administration
cyclohexane 8–9, 15
Cymbopogon citratus oil see West
Indian lemongrass oil
Cymbopogon flexuosus (East Indian
lemongrass) 334–335
Cymbopogon giganteus 190
Cymbopogon martinii var. martinii
378
Cymbopogon martinii var. motia
see Cymbopogon martinii
var. martinii
Cymbopogon martinii var. sofia 295
Cymbopogon nardus 251, 253
see also citronella oil
Cymbopogon nardus var.
confertiflorus x Cymbopogon
jawarancusa 311
Cymbopogon validus 189
Cymbopogon winterianus oil 251,
253
see also citronella oil
p-cymen-2-ol see carvacrol
p-cymen-3-ol see thymol
p-cymene 101–102, 546
Cynosurus cristatus 299
Cyperus articulatus 399
Cyperus mitis 361
cyperus oil (nagarmotha) oil
361–362
Cyperus rotundus 366
Cyperus scariosus see Cyperus mitis
cypress oil 265
blue see blue cypress oil
emerald 266
jade 266–267
cypress pinewood oil 266–267
cypriol (nagarmotha) oil 361–362
cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes
54, 60–64
coumarin metabolism 129
764
dermal metabolism 56, 57
drug substrates 661–664
evaluating risk of interactions 64
inducers 60, 61t, 656
inhibitors 60–64, 61t, 656
pharmacogenetic variations 56,
129, 175
cytotoxicity 31–32
dosage and 31–32, 32t
mechanisms 31
tests, as alternatives to animal
tests 33
D detoxification
Dacrydium franklinii 396
Dalmatian sage oil (Salvia
officinalis oil)
antioxidant activity 170t, 414
hepatotoxicity 126, 414
hypoglycemic effects 117–118,
414
neurotoxicity 133–135, 134t,
414
poisoning 650t
pregnancy and lactation 152t,
154–155, 414
safety measures 652t
seasonal variations in composition
7 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 548
Damask rose oil (rose otto)
anticonvulsant action 139
dermal absorption 42
isolation 6
sedative action 141t
damiana oil 267
Daucus carota 233
davana oil 267–268
decanoic acid 547
2-decenal 547
decyl acetate 547
deer’s tongue absolute 268
deertongue absolute 268
degradation 10–12
prevention 12
dehydrocostuslactone 547
chemical structure 19f
pregnancy 155
dehydroturmerone see ar-
turmerone
delayed hypersensitivity (type IV)
reactions 78–80, 79f
deodar cedarwood oil 238–239
dermal administration 40–48
absorption after see percutaneous
absorption
acute toxicity testing 29, 30t
bioavailability 40, 41t
dosing 47–48
maximum use levels 188, 189
regulation 91–97
variables affecting risk of adverse 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin
skin reactions 72–74 see citropten
see also adverse skin reactions 5,8-dimethoxypsoralen
dermal loading (dose per unit area) see isopimpinellin
patch testing 75 dimethylallyl diphosphate
sensitization risk and 72 (DMAD) 15
dermal metabolism 55–56 dimethyl anthranilate 550
dermatitis, classification 70f dimethyl disulfide 550
dermis 41 dimethylene see chamazulene
desert rosewood (Buddha wood) oil 1,4-dimethyl-7-ethylazulene
221–222 see chamazulene
desert wormwood 474 3,3-dimethyl-2-
deterpenated essential oils 12 see methylenenocamphane
also under citrus oils see camphene
3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal
carcinogens 175–176 see citral
reactions 54–55 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
see also metabolism (DPPH) radical scavengers
detoxifying enzymes, induction of 170, 170t
170 Dipterocarpus alatus 299
developmental neurotoxicity 131, Dipterocarpus jourdainii 299
133, 157–159 Dipterocarpus tuberculatus 299
developmental toxicity 157–159 Dipterocarpus turbinatus 299
di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Dipteryx odorata 455
(DEHP) 9 distillation 5–6
diabetes 58t, 118b, 656 fractional 6
diabetic retinopathy 117b, 656 yields 6
diallyl disulfide 548 distribution 51–52
acute toxicity 30t, 548 diterpenes 15
4,5-dithia-1,7-octadiene see diallyl
cytochrome P450 interactions disulfide
61t Dittrichia graveolens 310
hepatoprotective effects 128t, diuresis 121
548 diuretics 656
diallyl sulfide 548 DNA adducts 166, 167t
anticancer activity 178, 179, dosage and carcinogenesis 176,
179t, 549 177, 177f
cytochrome P450 interactions 61t numbers formed 174
diallyl trisulfide 549 DNA damage 166
Dianthus caryophyllus 233 1-dodecanal 550
diastereoisomers 484 2-dodecenal 550
dibutyl phthalate (DBP) 9 dodecyl acetate 167, 550
diethyl phthalate (DEP) 9 dopaminergic activity 150–151
difocol 8 dose-response analysis 35
digestive system 123–130 dose-response relationships
dihydrocarvone 137t allergic skin reactions 72
dihydrotestosterone (DHT) 151 carcinogens 176–177, 177f
6,7-dihydroxybergamottin (DHB) detoxification of carcinogens
61t, 298 175–176
diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) 9 gastrointestinal adverse effects
dill apiole 490 124–125
chemical structure 172f doses
DNA damage 166, 167t adjusting 189
mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173, combinations of toxic essential
490 oils 189
Dilling’s formula 50, 66 maximum adult daily oral 188
dill seed oil dosing
European 173, 268–269 dermal 47–48
Indian 152t, 160, 269–270 inhalation 49
dill weed (herb) oil 173, 270 oral see oral dosing
dimethoate 8 douching, vaginal 51, 656

Douglas fir oil 281–282 b-elemene 551
Douglas mugwort oil 354 anticancer activity 178, 179t,
Douglas sagewort oil 354 551–552
Draize scale 98 pregnancy 155
driving 657 elemicin 552
drug interactions 2, 57–65, carcinogenic potential 167, 174,
58t, 657 552
blood clotting 65 chemical structure 172f
CYP enzymes 661–664 psychotropic action 144, 145, 552
essential oil profiles 188 sedative action 141t
modulation of drug transport elemi frankincense oil see Boswellia
64–65 frereana oil
modulation of liver enzymes elemi oil 271–272
60–64 Elettaria cardamomum 232
drug transport, modulation of elimination, efficiency 57
64–65 elimination half-lives 50, 51t, 57
Dryobalanops aromatica 227 embryotoxicity 153, 154–155
Dryobalanops camphora emerald cypress oil 266
see Dryobalanops aromatica emmenagogues 159–160
dwarf mountain pine oil see dwarf enantiomers 14, 484
pine oil allergenic differences 94
dwarf pine oil 395 sedative effects 140
adverse skin reactions 77, 77t, endometriosis 657
83t, 395 English lavender oil see lavender oil
environmental intolerance,
idiopathic see multiple
E channel sensitivity
eaglewood (agarwood) oil 190 enzyme induction 60, 61t
ear, administration into 657 enzyme inhibition 60–64, 61t
East African sandalwood oil epidermis 41
417–418 epigenetic carcinogens 166
East Asian calamus oil 225–226 epilepsy 138, 657
Eastern arborvitae oil see thuja oil epoxides 19
Eastern hemlock oil 429–430 mutagenicity 173, 173t
Eastern red cedarwood oil 240 3,9-epoxy-p-mentha-3,8-diene
Eastern white cedar oil see thuja oil see menthofuran
East Himalayan fir needle oil 1,4-epoxy-p-menthane see 1,4-
283–284 cineole
East Indian basil oil 208–209 1,8-epoxy-p-menthane see 1,8-
East Indian dill seed oil see Indian cineole
dill seed oil Eremophila mitchellii 221
East Indian lemongrass Erigeron canadensis see Conyza
see Cymbopogon flexuosus canadensis
East Indian sandalwood oil 418–419 Eriocephalus africanus 427
adverse skin reactions 81t, Eriocephalus punctulatus 243
418–419, 418t erythrocytes 116–117
see also sandalwood oil essential oils 5–12
eau de brouts absolute 374 applications 2
EC3 values 95 chemistry 12–15
echinacea oil 271 composition 7
Echinacea purpurea 271 contamination 7–10, 8t
Echinacea purpurea var. arkansana conversion tables 665–666
see Echinacea purpurea degradation 10–12
elderly in food 2
percutaneous absorption 47 isolation 6–7
risk of adverse skin reactions 71 mistaken references to 1
elecampane camphor safety profiles 187–256
see alantolactone esterases 54
elecampane oil 81t, 271 estragole 552
electrophiles 56–57, 56f, 125–126, antiplatelet activity 116, 553
130 bioactivation 57, 175
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t,
173t, 174, 176, 176t, 554
antagonistic interactions 178
current regulations 185, 555
chemical structure 172f
DNA adduct formation 166, 167t
excretion 53t
hepatotoxicity 126, 130, 554
maximum use levels 185, 484t,
555
partition coefficient 44t
estragon oil see tarragon oil
estrogenic activity 657
estrogen-sensitive cancers and
166, 185
in females 149–150
in males 151
estrogen receptors 149, 150
estrogens 149, 151
ethanol 17
ethers 19, 20b
ethyl acetate 157, 552
(E)-ethyl cinnamate 555
ethyl parathion 8
eucalyptol see 1,8-cineole
Eucalyptus australiana oil
see Eucalyptus radiata oil
Eucalyptus camaldulensis oil
272, 274
Eucalyptus citriodora see Corymbia
citriodora
eucalyptus citriodora oil 335–336
Eucalyptus cneorifolia 275
Eucalyptus dives 275
Eucalyptus dumosa 275
Eucalyptus elaeophora 275
Eucalyptus globulus oil 272–274, 275
anticancer activity 179
seasonal variations in
composition 7
Eucalyptus kochii subsp. plenissima
oil see Eucalyptus
plenissima oil
Eucalyptus macarthurii oil 275
Eucalyptus maculata var. citriodora
see Corymbia citriodora
Eucalyptus maidenii oil 272, 273
Eucalyptus melissiodora
see Corymbia citriodora
eucalyptus oil 272–275
blood pressure effects 112t,
113–114, 115
cineole-rich 272–275
composition 7
human vs animal toxicity 32–33
immune system activation
170–171
neurotoxicity 135–136, 138, 274
oral dose 50t, 273
peppermint 275–276
poisoning 26–27, 26t, 274, 650t
Index
reproductive toxicity 154,
273–274
respiratory tract infections 104
safety measures 652t
Eucalyptus oleosa 275
Eucalyptus phellandra oil
see Eucalyptus radiata oil
Eucalyptus plenissima oil 272, 273
Eucalyptus polybractea oil
cineole-rich 272, 273
cryptone CT 276
Eucalyptus radiata oil 272, 273
Eucalyptus sideroxylon 275
Eucalyptus smithii oil 272, 273
Eucalyptus staigeriana 332
Eucalyptus viridis 275
Eucarya spicata see Santalum
spicatum
b-eudesmol 556
anticancer activity 179t, 556
antiplatelet activity 116, 556
hypotensive effect 114
organophosphorus pesticides
and 22
pregnancy 155
g-eudesmol 556
Eugenia aromatica see Syzygium
aromaticum
Eugenia caryophyllata see Syzygium
aromaticum
eugenol 556
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 557–558, 558t
anticonvulsant action 139
antiplatelet activity 116, 559
carcinogenic/anticancer activity
167, 168t, 171, 179, 179t,
560–561
chemical structure 172f
cytotoxicity 31, 559
drug interactions 60, 61t, 64, 557
excretion 53t, 557
gastrointestinal effects 124,
125t, 559
hepatoprotective effects
128–129, 128t, 560
hepatotoxicity 126, 559–560
hypotensive effects 114
immune effects 171
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173–174, 173t, 560
neuroprotective action 146, 559
partition coefficient 44t
protective effect on erythrocytes
117
quenching effects 73
reproductive toxicity 150, 152,
153, 155, 559
safe exposure limits 36t, 561
eugenol methyl ether
see O-methyleugenol
765
 Index
eugenyl acetate 561
eupatal see alantolactone
European calamus oil 226–227
European Center for Ecotoxicology
and Toxicology
(ECETOC) 92
European dill seed oil 173, 268–269
European spruce oil 430–431
European Union (EU)
allergens legislation 189
Cosmetics Directive 33, 91–94,
95–97
listed allergens 91, 91t
relative risk of purported
allergens 91–94, 92t, 93t
replacement of animal testing
33, 33t
European valerian oil 461–462
European white birch tar oil
see birch tar oil
everlasting see immortelle
Evernia prunastri 368
excipients
orally dosed essential oils 125
pH 12
excited skin syndrome (ESS) 75
excretion 53t, 57
exhaled air, excretion in 53t, 57
exposure
cancer risk and 175–177
frequency, adverse skin reactions
and 72
quantification 35
setting safe limits 35–36
eye irritation
sensory hyper-reactivity 107
thresholds 102
volatile organic compounds
100, 101
eyes, administration into/near 657
F fir balsam needle oil see Canadian fir
fagara oil 385–386
false arborvitae oil see hibawood oil
false cinnamon oil see cassia oil
false galangal oil 345
false ginger oil 345
false pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264
farnesene, cytochrome P450
inhibition 61t
farnesol 561
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 562–563
anticancer activity 179t, 563
enzyme induction 61t, 562
partition coefficient 44t
farnesyl acetate 563
fat tissue, accumulation in 52, 66
fatty acids, transdermal absorption
45
766
feces, excretion in 53t
Fedia grandiflora see Valeriana
jatamansi
female fertility 149–151
fenchone 136, 137t, 564
fennel flower oil see black seed oil
fennel oil (Foeniculum vulgare oil)
(unspecified)
antithrombotic activity 116,
277, 278
estrogenic activity 150, 278
neurotoxicity 136, 138, 141t
oral dose 50t, 276, 277
see also bitter fennel oil; sweet
fennel oil
fenugreek absolute 279
fenugreek oil 278–279
drug interactions 58t, 279
hypoglycemic effects 117, 279
fern (sweet) oil 279
fertility 149–153
Ferula asa-foetida 199
Ferula erubescens see Ferula
galbaniflua
Ferula galbaniflua 290
Ferula gummosa see Ferula
galbaniflua
Ferula jaeschkeana 280
ferula oil 280
fetotoxicity 153–154, 155–156
fever 657
feverfew oil 280
neurotoxicity 134t
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 280
safety measures 652t
Fick’s first law 66
Ficus carica 280
ficusin see psoralen
field balm oil see lesser calamint oil
fig leaf absolute 81t, 280–281
finger root oil 58t, 281
Finn Chambers system 74, 75
needle oil
fir cone (silver) oil 282
fir needle oils 282–286
Canadian 179t, 282–283
Himalayan 283–284
Japanese 284
Siberian 77, 77t, 284–285
silver 285–286
fir (Douglas) oil 281–282
first aid 649–650, 650b
fixed dose procedure (FDP) 33
fixed oils 5
fleabane oil 286
fleawort oil 286
flouve oil see sweet vernalgrass oil
5-fluorouracil (5-FU) 45
Foeniculum vulgare oil see fennel oil
foin absolute 299–300
Fokienia hodginsii 425
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
149, 151
Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) 649
classification of drug safety in
pregnancy 148–149, 149b
foods
carcinogens in 3
essential oil constituents in 148b
essential oils in 2
furanocoumarin-containing 88
formyl benzene see benzaldehyde
2-formylphenol see salicylaldehyde
forskohlii (coleus) oil 257–258
fragonia oil 286–287
fragrance allergy 69–70
aromatherapy and 83–84
patch testing 75, 80–82
regulation 91–97
susceptible individuals 70–72
fragrance mix (FM) 80–83
allergic skin reactions 80–83, 94
composition 82b
patch testing 75, 80–82, 83t
photoallergy 85
quenching 73
fragrant agonis oil 286–287
fragrant camphor tree oil 304–305
fragrant olive absolute 378
frankincense oils 179t, 287–289
see also Boswellia papyrifera oil
French lavender oil see Spanish
lavender oil
French rose absolute see Provence
rose absolute
frequency of exposure, adverse skin
reactions and 72
functional groups 15, 16, 17–21
fungicides 8
furanocoumarins (FCs)
carcinogenic potential 172
chemistry 20, 20b, 85
foods containing 88
light-related risks 86t
photocarcinogenicity 89, 174
phototoxicity 85–88
plants containing 87–88
safety thresholds 90
furanodiene, pregnancy 155
furans 20, 20b
furo[3,2-g]coumarin see psoralen
Fusanus spicatus see Santalum
spicatum
G cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
GABAA receptor-mediated
responses 138, 139, 139b,
143
galangal (greater) oil 289–290
galangal (lesser) oil 290
galbanum oil 290–291
garlicin see diallyl disulfide
garlic oil 291–292
adverse skin reactions 77t, 80,
291
anticancer activity 178, 179t,
291–292
antiplatelet activity 115–116,
291
drug interactions 58t, 61t, 292
hepatoprotective effects 128t
hypotensive effect 114, 115
isolation 6
photoallergy 85, 291
pregnancy 154
renoprotective action 121
safety measures 652t
gas chromatography (GC) 13, 13f
two-dimensional (GC x GC) 13
gastroesophageal reflux disease
(GERD) 657
gastrointestinal (GI) tract 123–125,
123, 124t
dose-related effects 124–125
GattefossÃ, RenÃ-Maurice 2
Gaultheria fragrantissima 469, 470
Gaultheria procumbens 469, 470
gavage, dosing via 32
geliotropin see piperonal
GeloMyrtol (forte) 41t, 49, 50t
gender differences, adverse skin
reactions 71
genepi oil see genipi oil
genet (broom) absolute 219–220
genetic susceptibility
adverse skin reactions 71–72
cancer 175
see also pharmacogenetics
genipi oil 292
neurotoxicity 134t, 292
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
genotoxic carcinogens 166
genotoxicity tests 172–174
essential oils/constituents
173–174
(E)-geranial 534, 564
teratogenicity 157
see also citral
(E)-geraniol 565
adverse skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 96t, 565–567, 566t
anticancer activity 178, 179t, 567
cardiac effects 111–112
chemical structure 14, 14f
estrogenic activity 150, 151
percutaneous absorption 43t
teratogenicity 157, 567
(Z)-geraniol see nerol

Geranium macrorrhizum 480–481
geranium oil 292–294
adverse skin reactions 81t,
293–294
degradation 11–12
drug interactions 58t, 294
hypoglycemic effects 117, 294
hypotensive effects 114
oral dose 50t
sedative action 141t
5-geranoxypsoralen see bergamottin
(E)-geranyl acetate 36t, 568
(E)-geranyl acetone 568
geranyl alcohol see (E)-geraniol
geranyl diphosphate 15
(E)-geranyl formate 568
geranyl linalool 569
(E)-geranyl propionate 569
(E)-geranyl tiglate 569
1(10),4,11(13)-germacratrien-
12,6-olide see costunolide
German chamomile oil see blue
chamomile oil
Ghandi root oil 294
giant turpentine grass oil 189–190
gingergrass oil 295–296
ginger lily absolute 81t, 296–297
ginger oil 294–295
Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) 33–34
a2u-globulin 52, 120–121
glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase (G6PD)
deficiency 56, 129–130, 657
glucose, blood 117–118
glucuronidation 54–55
glutathione (GSH) 127
carcinogenesis and 170, 178
conjugation 55
depletion, hepatotoxicity 126,
127–128
glutathione S-transferase 127
substances inducing 55, 55b,
128, 170
substances inhibiting 127, 128
golden champa absolute see orange
champaca absolute
goldenrod oil 297
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) 149, 151
Gouttes aux essences, oral
dose 50t
grand mal seizures 132
grapefruit juice 64, 298
grapefruit oil 297–298
anticancer activity 179t, 298
drug interactions 61t, 298
hypertensive effect 114
GRAS (generally recognized as
safe) 188–189
greater galangal oil 289–290
greater Indian cardamom oil helenin see alantolactone
232–233 helichrysum see immortelle
great mugwort oil 354–355 Helichrysum angustifolium
drug interactions 58t, 355 see Helichrysum italicum
neurotoxicity 134t, 354 Helichrysum gymnocephalum 402
pregnancy and lactation 152t Helichrysum italicum 309
safety measures 652t Helichrysum splendidum 391
Greek sage oil 146, 415 Helichrysum stoechas 309
green (emerald) cypress oil 266 heliotropin see piperonal
greendog oil 463–464 heme synthesis defects 127
Greenland moss oil 319–320 Hemizygia petiolata 416
green myrtle oil 358 hemlock oil 429–430
green yarrow oil 476 hemlock spruce oil 429–430
grey peppermint oil see Eucalyptus hemolysis 116–117
radiata oil hemophilia 117b, 657
grey pine oil 395–396 hemp oil 144, 300
grindelia oil 298 heparin 117b, 657
Grindelia oregana 298 hepatoprotective effects 128–129,
guaiacol 44t, 569 128t
guaiacwood oil 298–299 hepatotoxicity 125–128
4(15),10(14),11(13)-guaiatrien- fatty degeneration 127
12,6-olide glutathione depletion 127–128
see dehydrocostuslactone hepatocellular toxicity 128
guaiazulene 570 liver tumor formation 176
gully gum oil see Eucalyptus smithii oxidative stress 126
oil pharmacogenetic 129–130
gully peppermint oil see Eucalyptus porphyrin production 127
smithii oil toxic metabolites 57, 125–126
gum Benjamin see benzoin visible lesions 126
gurjun balsam oil 299 Heraclin see bergapten
gynecomastia 151 herbal preparations 2
safety in pregnancy 148–149
herbicides 8
H n-hexane 8–9
hackmatack oil see balsam poplar (3Z)-hexen-1-ol (cis-3-hexenol)
oil; larch needle oil 120, 570
HADD (highest average daily dose) 3-hexenol 570
176 3-hexenyl benzoate 570
hairy basil oil 203–204 3-hexenyl formate 571
half-life, elimination 50, 51t, 57 hexyl butyrate 571
hallucinogenic effects 144 hiba oil see hibawood oil
hand dermatitis, occupational 84, hibawood oil 301
651 drug interactions 61t, 301
haptens 70, 78, 79f reproductive toxicity 152t,
havozo bark oil see ravensara bark oil 157, 301
hay absolute 299–300 Hibuscus abelmoschus
hay fever (seasonal allergic rhinitis) see Abelmoschus moschatus
105 hidden ginger oil see zedoary oil
hazard identification 35 Himalayan angelica root oil 195
hazards 3, 188 Himalayan cedarwood oil 238–239
Health Canada 649 Himalayan fir needle oil 283–284
health status, adverse skin reactions Himalayan silver fir needle oil
and 71 283–284
heart 111–112 hinoki leaf oil 61t, 301–302
heart disease 656 hinoki root oil 302
heart rate 111–112 hinoki wood oil 61t, 302–303
heart rhythm 111–112 histamine 78
heat-related degradation 11–12, 11t hoary basil oil 203–204
Hedeoma pulegioides oil 382, 383 ho leaf oil 303–305
Hedychium coronarium 296, 339 camphor CT 303
Hedychium spicatum 420 cineole CT 303–304
Index
drug interactions 58t, 303
linalool CT 304–305
neurotoxicity 134t
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
holy basil oil 204
Homalomena aromatica 294
honey myrtle oil 360
adverse skin reactions 81t, 360
drug interactions 58t, 360
honeysuckle absolute 305
honey verbena oil 463–464
hon-sho (true camphor tree)
228, 303
hop oil 150, 305–306
hormetic model, carcinogens
176–177
hormone replacement therapy
(HRT) 657
horsemint (common) oil 352
horsemint (wild bergamot) oil
213–214
horseradish oil 306–307
adverse skin reactions 77t, 306
nephrotoxicity 121
safety measures 652t
horseweed oil 286
ho-sho (fragrant camphor tree)
304
Hottentot tobacco oil 412–413
hua jiao oil 385–386
human repeated insult patch test
(HRIPT) 74, 95
human term placental peroxidase
(HTPP) 154
human toxicity 25–28
extrapolating from animal data
32–33
a-humulene see a-caryophyllene
Humulus lupulus 305
hundred-leaved rose absolute
see Provence rose absolute
Hungarian chamomile oil see blue
chamomile oil
huon pine oil 396, 652t
hyacinth absolute 307
Hyacinthus orientalis 307
hydration, stratum corneum 46
hydrocarbon groups 17
hydrocarbons 15–17, 16b
hydrocyanic acid (hydrogen
cyanide) 21, 571
acute toxicity 28, 30t, 192, 571
bitter almond oils 192, 193, 571
neurotoxicity 131
hydrodistillation 6
hydrolysis 54
o-hydroxybenzaldehyde
see salicylaldehyde
o-hydroxybenzoic acid benzyl ester
see benzyl salicylate
767
 Index
2-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester
see methyl salicylate
7-hydroxycoumarin 129
1’-hydroxyelemicin, carcinogenicity
167
hydroxyisohexyl 3-cyclohexen
carboxaldehyde 80–82
hydroxyl groups 17
2-hydroxy-p-cymene see carvacrol
o-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde
(o-HPA) 129
()-3-hydroxy-p-menthane
see ()-menthol
hydroxytoluene see cresol
a-hydroxytoluene see benzyl alcohol
hyperglycemia, essential oils
inducing 118
Hypericum perforatum 417
hypertension 112, 657
hypotensive effects 113–114
induced by inhaled essential oils
114
precautions 115
hypertensive retinopathy 117b, 657
hypoglycemia, essential oils
inducing 117–118
hypotension 658
Hyptis fruticosa oil, hypotensive
effects 113–114
hyssop oil 307–308
blood pressure effects 112t,
113, 115
linalool CT 307–308
neurotoxicity 133, 134t, 138, 308
pinocamphone CT 308
poisoning 650t
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
Hyssopus officinalis 308
Hyssopus officinalis var. decumbens
307–308
I dosing 49
iary (arina) oil 198–199
IC50 64
idiopathic environmental
intolerance see multiple
channel sensitivity
IFRA see International Fragrance
Association
Illicium verum 197
immediate hypersensitivity (type I)
reactions 78
immortelle absolute 77t, 309–310
immortelle oil 309
immune system 170–171
cancer and 171
immunoglobulin E (IgE) 78, 103
imperatorin 86t, 116
implantation 152–153
768
impurities, role in allergenicity 94
Indian cassia oil see tejpat oil
Indian cress see nasturtium
Indian dill seed oil 152t, 160,
269–270
Indian frankincense oil see Boswellia
serrata oil
Indian nard oil 428–429
Indian saffron oil 458
Indian valerian oil 462
Indian wormwood oil see common
mugwort oil
indole 571
chemistry 21, 21f
excretion 53t, 572
infants
breastfeeding 162
dermal dosing 47–48, 47t
nasal instillation and 108–109
oral dosing 50
percutaneous absorption 47
premature 659
risk of adverse skin reactions 71
see also children; neonates
infectious disease 2
Informationsverbund
Dermatologischer Kliniken
(Information Network of
Departments of
Dermatology) 98
inhalation 40, 49, 99–110
absorption after 49
acute toxicity testing 29
adverse effects after 100–103
bronchial hyper-reactivity 103
multiple chemical sensitivity
106–107
non-respiratory manifestations
108
sensory hyper-reactivity 107
sensory irritation 100–102
bioavailability 41t
blood pressure responses 114
enzyme induction 60
neurotoxic effects 140
respiratory disease therapy
104–107
safety precautions 658
inhibin 149
inorganic compounds 21
interactions
between compounds 24–25
drug 57–65, 58t
International Fragrance Association
(IFRA)
Code of Practice 91
grading of skin sensitization 81t
guidelines 189
maximum dermal use levels
86b, 90
quantitative risk assessment
(QRA) 94–97, 96t
Inula graveolens see Dittrichia
graveolens
Inula helenium 271
inula oil 310
in vitro toxicity tests
as alternatives to animal tests 33
cytotoxicity 31
methodological concerns 1–2
OECD approved 29
a-ionone 572
neurotoxicity 137, 137t
pharmacokinetics 54, 61t, 572
b-ionone 572
anticancer activity 179t, 573
neurotoxicity 137, 137t
pharmacokinetics 61t, 573
reproductive toxicity 158t,
160, 573
iris see orris
Iris pallida absolute 377
Iris pallida oil 378
Iris x germanica absolute 377
Iris x germanica oil 378
a-irone 573
irritant asthma 105
irritant contact dermatitis (ICD)
70, 76
susceptible individuals 71
irritant induced asthma (IIA) 105
irritants
classification 77b, 77t
identifying 77
irritation
sensory 100–102
skin 70, 76–77
isoamyl isovalerate 574
isobergapten 86t
isoborneol, cytochrome P450
inhibition 61t
isobornyl acetate 574
nephrotoxicity 120, 121, 574
isobutyl butyrate 574
isocineole see 1,4-cineole
isodiprene see d-3-carene
isoeugenol 574
adverse skin reactions 82, 91t,
92t, 93t, 96t, 575
antiplatelet activity 116, 576
carcinogenic potential
168t, 576
dermal metabolism 78
excretion 53t, 575
immune effects 171
inhalation 103
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t
reproductive toxicity 158t, 576
isoeugenol methyl ether see
O-methyl isoeugenol
isoimperatorin 86t
isolation, essential oils 6–7
isomenthone 577
isomerism 14–15
isomers 14, 483
differing metabolism 56
in essential oils 188
geometric 14, 14f, 484
optical 14, 14f, 484
structural 483
see also enantiomers
isopentenyl diphosphate (IPD)
15, 15f
isopimpinellin 577
cytochrome P450 inhibition
61t, 577
light-related risks 86t, 577
isopinocamphone 484t, 577
2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol
see thymol
isopsoralen see angelicin
isopulegol 578
isopulegone see a-pulegone
isosafrole 578
chemical structure 172f
hepatotoxicity 130, 579
3-isothiocyanato-1-propene see allyl
isothiocyanate
isothiocyanatomethylbenzene
see benzyl isothiocyanate
isothiocyanic acid benzyl ester
see benzyl isothiocyanate
isothymol see carvacrol
issa oil 436
Italian cypress oil 265
J
jaborandi oil 310–311
Jack pine oil 395–396
jade cypress oil 266–267
Jamaica pepper oil see pimento
berry oil
Jammu calamus oil 225–226
jamrosa oil 311
adverse skin reactions 81t, 311
drug interactions 58t, 311
Japanese fir needle oil 284
Japanese mint (cornmint oil)
261–262, 652t
Japanese pepper oil 386
Japanese pine needle oil 284
Japanese rose oil 406
jasmine absolute 311–313
adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t,
93t, 96t, 312–313, 312t
neurotoxicity 132
jasmine sambac absolute 313
drug interactions 58t, 313
skin sensitization 81t
Jasminum grandiflorum 311

Jasminum officinale f. grandiflorum
see Jasminum grandiflorum
Jasminum officinale var.
grandiflorum see Jasminum
grandiflorum
Jasminum sambac 313
jasmonates, anticancer activity
178, 179
(Z)-jasmone 579
anticancer activity 178, 179t, 579
Java pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264
jointed flat sedge (piri-piri) oil
399–400
Joint Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA) 35
jonquil absolute 314
juanilama oil 465–466
juniperberry oil 314–315
oral dose 50t
reproductive toxicity 160, 315
juniper oil 315–316
abortifacient effects 160
nephrotoxicity 120
Phoenician 315–316
renoprotective action 121
juniper tar oil see cade oil
Juniperus ashei 239
Juniperus communis 160, 314
Juniperus mexicana see Juniperus
ashei
Juniperus oxycedrus 222, 223
Juniperus phoenicea 315
Juniperus sabina 160, 315, 423
Juniperus virginiana 240
K Larix laricina 321
Kaempferia galanga 345
Kaempferia pandurata
see Boesenbergia pandurata
kaffir lime see combava
kanuka oil 316
kapur kachri oil 420–421
karo karoundé absolute 316–317
katrafay oil 317
keora oil 318
kesom oil 317–318
ketones 18, 18b
kewda oil 318
key lime oil see Mexican lime oil
Khasia pine see Pinus insularis
khella oil 87–88, 318–319
khus-khus oil 466–467
khus oil 466–467
Ki 64
kidney disease 52, 117b, 121, 658,
659
kidneys
excretion by 53t, 57
function 119
toxicity of essential oils 119–121
kinetics 39–68 lavandin oils 325
kokila oil 433 lavandin Super oil 325
Kunzea ambigua 468 Lavandula angustifolia 325, 328
Kunzea ericoides 316 Lavandula hortensis see Lavandula
Kunzea peduncularis see Kunzea x intermedia
ericoides Lavandula hybrida see Lavandula x
intermedia
Lavandula latifolia 329
L Lavandula officinalis see Lavandula
labd-14-ene-8,13-diol see sclareol angustifolia
labdanum oil 319 Lavandula spica see Lavandula
labeling 34, 37, 651–654 latifolia
Labrador tea oil 319–320 Lavandula stoechas 138
lactation 162 Lavandula stoechas spp. stoechas
contraindicated essential oils 152t 328, 329
restricted essential oils 156t Lavandula vera see Lavandula
xenobiotics in 147–149 angustifolia
lactones 19, 19b Lavandula x intermedia 324
light-related risks 86t lavandulyl acetate 579
Lagarostrobos franklinii lavender 325
see Dacrydium franklinii lavender absolute 326
Langerhans cells 78, 79f adverse skin reactions 81t, 326
Languas galanga see Alpinia vaginal administration 51
galanga lavender cotton oil 328
Languas officinarum see Alpinia lavender oil 326
officinarum absorption 41t, 42–43, 42f
Languas vulgare see Alpinia galanga adverse skin reactions 27–28, 327
Lantana camara 320 anticonvulsant action 139, 140
lantana oil 320 blood pressure effects 113–114
lanyana oil 320–321 carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
neurotoxicity 134t, 321 activity 89, 179t, 328
pregnancy and lactation 152t cytotoxicity 31, 32t
safety measures 652t estrogenic activity 151, 327
larch needle oil 321–322 neurotoxicity 134t, 138
larch tamarack oil 321–322 photoallergy 85
large cardamom oil 232–233 pregnancy and lactation 152t
sedative action 140–143, 141t
laurel berry oil 322–323 Spanish 328–329, 652t
allergy 27, 322–323 spike see spike lavender oil
see also sugandha oil lavender sage oil see Spanish sage oil
laurel leaf absolute 323–324 lavender tea tree oil 404
laurel leaf oil 323–324 LD0 38
antioxidant activity 170t, 324 LD50
carcinogenic/anticancer activity acute dermal values 29
179t, 183, 324 acute oral dosing 28–29, 30t
‘laurel oil’ 322, 323 alternative tests 33
Laurus azorica see Laurus extrapolation to humans 28, 30t,
novocanariensis 32–33
Laurus camphora see Cinnamomum LD100 38
camphora Ledum groenlandicum 319
Laurus cubeba see Litsea cubeba Ledum palustre ssp. groenlandicum
Laurus nobilis oils 322–324 see Ledum groenlandicum
anticonvulsant activity 138 Ledum palustre ssp. latifolium
Laurus novocanariensis 322–323 see Ledum groenlandicum
lauryl acetate see dodecyl acetate leech-lime see combava
lavandin 324–325 leek oil 330
lavandin Abrialis oil 325 antiplatelet activity 115–116,
lavandin absolute 81t, 324 330
lavandin Grosso oil 325 drug interactions 58t, 330
antiplatelet activity 116, 325 safety measures 652t
gastrointestinal effects 125t leleshwa oil 412–413
Index
lemon balm oil see melissa oil
lemon balm oil (Australian)
see Australian lemon balm oil
lemon basil oil 205
lemon eucalyptus oil 335–336
lemongrass oil 334–335
adverse skin reactions 73, 81t,
83t, 84, 93t, 334
anticancer activity 179t, 335
anticonvulsant action 139
drug interactions 58t, 335
reproductive toxicity 156t, 334
sedative action 141t
see also West Indian lemongrass oil
lemon ironwood oil see lemon
myrtle oil
lemon leaf oil 333–334
adverse skin reactions 81t, 333
drug interactions 58t, 334
pregnancy and lactation 156t, 333
lemon myrtle oil 360–361
adverse effects on wound healing
28
adverse skin reactions 81t, 361
cytotoxicity 31–32, 32t, 361
drug interactions 58t, 361
safe limits for exposure 35, 361
lemon oil 330–332
anticancer activity 179t,
331, 332
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
distilled 330–331
expressed 331–332
neurotoxicity 140
phototoxicity 27, 86, 332
lemonol see (E)-geraniol
lemon petitgrain oil see lemon leaf oil
lemon-scented gum oil 335–336
lemon-scented ironbark oil
see Australian lemon balm oil
lemon-scented iron gum oil
335–336
lemon-scented myrtle oil see lemon
myrtle oil
lemon-scented tea tree oil 446–447
lemon tea tree oil 446–447
lemon thyme oil 450
lemon verbena absolute 81t, 464
lemon verbena oil 464
adverse skin reactions 81t,
96t, 465
drug interactions 58t, 465
pregnancy and lactation 156t, 465
Leptactina senegambica 316
Leptospermum citratum
see Leptospermum petersonii
Leptospermum ericoides see Kunzea
ericoides
Leptospermum liversidgei 446, 447
Leptospermum petersonii 446, 447
Leptospermum scoparium 344
769
 Index
lesser calamint oil 224–225
drug interactions 58t
neurotoxicity 134t
pregnancy and lactation
152t, 224
safety measures 652t
lesser galangal oil 290
lesser ginger oil see finger root oil
lethal dose, median see LD50
Levisticum officinale 339, 340
levomenthol see ()-menthol
Liatris odoratissima see Trilisa
odoratissima
liatrix absolute 268
licorice verbena oil 465–466
light, degrading effects 12
lignum aloe (agarwood) oil 190
Ligurian yarrow oil 476
limbic system 146
lime oil 336–338
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
distilled 336–337
expressed 337–338
phototoxicity 27, 86–87, 338
lime Tahiti oil see Persian lime oil
limettin see citropten
(þ)-limonene 580, 582
allergic skin reactions 91t, 92t,
93t, 94, 581–582
anticancer activity 171, 178,
179t, 583–584
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t,
175, 176t, 583
chemical structure 15, 16f
cytochrome P450 induction
61t, 581
developmental toxicity 157
elimination half-life 51t
excretion 53t, 581
eye irritation 101, 102
hypotensive effects 114, 115
immune system activation
170–171
inhalation 49
bronchial hyper-reactivity 103
occupational exposure limits
102
protection against ozone 102
sensory irritation 101–102,
101t, 582
nephrotoxicity 120–121, 582
oxidation 11, 581
partition coefficient 44t
quenching effects 73
regulatory guidelines 584
reproductive toxicity 158t,
582–583
ubiquity 7
()-limonene 584
linaloe wood oil 338
linalool 584
770
adverse skin reactions 91–92,
91t, 92t, 93t, 94, 585–586,
586t, 587
anticancer activity 178, 179t, 587
anticonvulsant action 139
distribution in body 52, 585
enzyme induction 60, 585
excretion 53t, 585
gastrointestinal effects 125t
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 41t,
42–45, 42f, 43t
reproductive toxicity 158t,
163, 586
safe exposure limits 36t, 587–588
sedative action 140–143, 141t
linalool oxide 588
linalyl acetate 588
gastrointestinal effects 125t
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 41t,
42–43, 42f, 44–45
safe exposure limits 36t, 589
sedative action 140–143, 141t
linear non-threshold (LNT) model,
carcinogens 176, 177
g-linolenic acid (GLA) 45
lipophilic molecules 15
distribution within body 51, 52, 66
metabolic changes 54
partition coefficients 44, 44t, 66
percutaneous absorption 44–45
renal handling 119
Lippia alba 465
Lippia amentacea see Lippia
graveolens
Lippia berlandieri see Lippia
graveolens
Lippia citriodora see Aloysia
triphylla
Lippia geminata see Lippia alba
Lippia graveolens 376
Lippia javanica 463
Lippia sidoides oil 124–125,
125t, 642
Lippia tomentosa see Lippia
graveolens
Lippia triphylla see Aloysia triphylla
Liquidamber orientalis (Asian
styrax) 432, 433
Liquidamber styraciflua var.
macrophylla (American
styrax) 432, 433
Litsea citrata see Litsea cubeba
Litsea cubeba 349, 350
liver 125–130
distribution into 51, 52
fatty degeneration 127
metabolic function 53–54
protective effects 128–129, 128t
toxic damage see hepatotoxicity
liver disease 52, 117b
liver enzymes 54, 55
modulation 60–64
see also cytochrome P450 (CYP)
enzymes
liver function tests 126
local lymph node assay (LLNA)
73, 95
Lolium italicum 299
Lolium perenne 299
longifolene 589
longleaf pine see Pinus palustris
longoza oil 339
longozo oil 339
Lonicera species 305
lovage leaf oil 87–88, 339
lovage root oil 339–340
lovage seed oil 340
lungs
absorption via 49
excretion from 53t, 57
toxicity 108–109
luteinizing hormone (LH) 149, 151
Lyral 80–82
M drug interactions 58t, 350
mace oil 340–341
Madagascan basil oil 207
magnolia flower oil 341–342
magnolia leaf oil 342
mahogany birch oil see sweet birch
oil
Maiden’s gum oil see Eucalyptus
maidenii oil
Majorana hortensis see Origanum
majorana
makrut lime see combava
Malay camphor oil 227
male fertility 151–152
mandarin leaf oil 88, 343–344
mandarin oil 342–343
composition 7, 342
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
mandarin petitgrain oil see mandarin
leaf oil
mandravasarotra oil 421
mango ginger oil 344
manuka oil 344–345
maraba oil 345
marigold oil see taget oil
marigold (Mexican) oil see Mexican
marigold oil
maritime lavender oil see Spanish
lavender oil
maritime pine see Pinus pinaster
marjoram oil
antioxidant activity 170t
sedative action 141t
Spanish (Thymus mastichina)
11, 346
sweet 346–347
wild see wild marjoram oil
marsh honey myrtle oil see honey
myrtle oil
massage, safety precautions 658
massage therapists, allergic contact
dermatitis 84
massoia lactone 348–349, 589
massoia oil 348–349
adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t,
96t, 348
mass spectrometry (MS) 13
mastic oil 179, 179t, 349
mastic thyme oil see Spanish
marjoram oil
Matricaria chamomilla
see Matricaria recutita
Matricaria recutita 242
Mauritius papeda see combava
maximation tests 74, 75
maximum adult daily oral dose,
188
maximum dermal use levels 188,
189
may chang oil 349
adverse skin reactions 81t, 350
reproductive toxicity 156t, 350
medical applications, essential
oils 2
Medicines and Healthcare products
Regulatory Agency (MHRA)
649
Mediterranean cypress oil
see cypress oil
4,7-megastigmadien-9-one
see a-ionone
5,7-megastigmadien-9-one
see b-ionone
Melaleuca alternifolia 440, 445
Melaleuca bracteata 445
Melaleuca cajuputi 224
Melaleuca dissitiflora 440, 445
Melaleuca ericifolia 404
Melaleuca leucadendron var.
cajuputi see Melaleuca
cajuputi
Melaleuca linariifolia 440
Melaleuca linariifolia var.
alternifolia see Melaleuca
alternifolia
Melaleuca quinquenervia 364,
365
Melaleuca teretifolia 360
Melaleuca terpinen-4-ol type 440
Melissa officinalis 350
melissa oil 350–351
adverse skin reactions 81t,
96t, 351
anticancer activity 179t, 351
antioxidant activity 170t, 351

degradation 11–12
drug interactions 58t, 351
hypoglycemic effects 117, 351
reproductive toxicity 156t, 351
p-mentha-1,3-diene see a-terpinene
p-mentha-1,4-diene see g-terpinene
p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-al
see perillaldehyde
p-mentha-1,8-diene see (þ)-
limonene
p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol see perillyl
alcohol
p-mentha-6,8-dien-2-one
see carvone
Mentha aquatica var. citrata 352
Mentha arvensis 261
Mentha canadensis 261
Mentha cardiaca (Scotch
spearmint) 427, 428
Mentha citrata see Mentha aquatica
var. citrata
Mentha longifolia 352
(-)-p-menthan-3-ol see (-)-menthol
p-menthan-3-one see menthone
Mentha pulegium oil 382, 383, 384
Mentha spicata var. crispa (Mentha
viridis; native spearmint) oil
427, 428
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
potential 428
degradation 11–12
Mentha x piperata oil
see peppermint oil
p-menth-1-en-4-ol see terpinen-4-ol
p-menth-1-en-3-one see piperitone
p-menth-4(8)-en-3-one
see b-pulegone
p-menth-8-en-3-one see a-pulegone
menthofuran 590
chemical structure 20, 20f
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t,
590
hepatotoxicity 128, 590
maximum use levels 36t, 484t,
590
(-)-menthol
allergic asthma induced by 105
anticancer activity 179t, 593
cardiovascular effects 112,
113, 592
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
elimination half-life 51t
gastrointestinal adverse effects
123
hepatotoxicity 126, 129–130,
592
inhalation toxicity 101t, 591–592
mechanism of therapeutic effect
103
nasal instillation in infants 108,
109, 592
percutaneous absorption 42,
43–44
pharmacogenetic toxicity 129–130
reproductive toxicity 158t, 592
respiratory tract infections 104
safe exposure limits 36t, 593
menthone 593
mutagenicity/genotoxicity 173,
594
neurotoxicity 132, 137t
(-)-menthyl acetate 594
chemical structure 19f
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
Merkus pine see Pinus merkusii
metabolism 53–57
animals vs humans 66, 67
dermal 55–56
implications for toxicity 56–57
isomer differences 56
pharmacogenetics 56
phase I reactions 54
phase II reactions 54–55
placental 154
methane 15, 15f
methidathion 8
methiocarb 8
methoxsalen 594
anticancer activity 179t, 595
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t,
594
nephrotoxicity 121
photocarcinogenicity 89–90, 594,
595
phototoxicity 85, 86t, 594
PUVA therapy 89–90
reproductive toxicity 150, 151,
153, 158t, 594, 595
methoxyallylbenzene see estragole
2-methoxy-4-allylphenol
see eugenol
7-methoxy-5-geranoxycoumarin 86t
3-methoxy-4,5-(methylenedioxy)
allylbenzene see myristicin
2-methoxy-4-(2-methylvinyl)
phenol see isoeugenol
2-methoxyphenol see guaiacol
5-methoxypsoralen see bergapten
8-methoxypsoralen
see methoxsalen
methoxysafrole see myristicin
1-methyl-4-isopropylcyclohexan-3-
one see menthone
methyl allyl disulfide 595
methyl allyl trisulfide 595
methyl anthranilate 596
methyl benzoate 596
O-methyl catechol see guaiacol
O-methyl chavicol see estragole
methyl cinnamate 596
2-(1-methylethyl)-5-methylphenol
see thymol
O-methyleugenol 597
acute toxicity 30t, 598
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t,
174, 176, 176t, 177, 177f,
184–185, 598–599
chemical structure 172f
DNA adduct formation 166, 167t
elimination half-life 51t
genetic variation in bioactivation
175, 598
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43–44,
598
safe exposure levels 177, 185,
484t, 599
methyl heptenone 599
O-methyl isoeugenol 600
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t
methyl jasmonate 600
anticancer activity 178, 179,
179t, 600–601
methyl parathion 8
methylphenol see cresol
methylprotocatechuic aldehyde
see vanillin
methyl salicylate 601
acute toxicity 30t, 601
anticoagulant drug interactions
65, 601
antiplatelet activity 116, 602
blood pressure effects 115
elimination half-life 51t
hepatotoxicity 126
inhalation toxicity 100, 602
nephrotoxicity 119, 120
neurotoxicity 133, 137
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 42, 43,
43t, 45, 46, 601
poisoning 602, 650t
reproductive toxicity 156, 158t,
602–603
safe doses 36t, 133t, 484t, 603
metribuzin 8
Mexican cedarwood oil 239–240
Mexican juniper oil 239–240
Mexican lime oil
distilled 336, 337
expressed 337
Mexican marigold oil 345–346
drug interactions 58t
psychotropic activity 144, 346
Mexican mint marigold oil
see Mexican marigold oil
Mexican oregano oil 376–377
Mexican tarragon oil see Mexican
marigold oil
Mexican white pine see Pinus
ayacahuite
Michelia alba 245, 341, 342
Index
Michelia champaca 245
Michelia longifolia see Michelia alba
Micromeria fruticosa oil 382, 383
micropsia 146
midsummer daisy oil see feverfew oil
migraine 108, 658
mikan oil see satsuma oil
milfoil oil see yarrow oil
mimosa absolute 351–352
Mimusops elengi 201
mint oil
bergamot 352
wild forest 352
miscarriage, substances causing
159–161
mixtures
benefits of 40
toxicity of 24–25
Monarda didyma 210
Monarda fistulosa var. menthaefolia
213
Monarda menthaefolic see Monarda
fistulosa var. menthaefolia
monk’s pepper oil see chaste tree oil
monoamine oxidase (MAO),
inhibition 64
monoterpenoids 15, 16b
Monterey pine see Pinus radiata
Moroccan blue chamomile oil
438–439
Moroccan cedar oil 237–238
Moroccan chamomile oil 244
Moroccan tansy oil 438–439
moslene see g-terpinene
motha oil see nut grass oil
motia oil see palmarosa oil
mountain cedar oil 239–240
mountain pine oil see dwarf pine oil
mountain salvia oil see wild
mountain sage oil
mourning cypress oil 238
mouth see oral cavity
mucous membranes, safety
guidelines 658
mugo pine oil see dwarf pine oil
mugwort oil 353–355
common see common mugwort oil
Douglas 354
great see great mugwort oil
muhuhu oil 355
mullilam oil 355
multiple channel sensitivity (MCS)
106–107, 658
Murraya koenigii 264
muscatel sage see clary sage
musk seed oil 193
mustard oil 355–357
gastrointestinal adverse effects 124
nephrotoxicity 121
safety guidelines 652t
skin irritation 77t, 356
771
 Index
mutagenesis 166, 172
defense against 170
see also photomutagenicity
mutagenicity tests 172–174
essential oils/constituents
173–174
b-myrcene 603
animal toxicity studies 1, 604, 605
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
activity 168t, 604–605
cytochrome P450 interactions
61t, 604
nephrotoxicity 120–121
reproductive toxicity 157, 158t,
604
sedative action 140, 141t
Myrica gale 359
Myristica amboinensis
see Myristica fragrans
Myristica aromatica see Myristica
fragrans
Myristica fragrans 340, 366
Myristica moschata see Myristica
fragrans
Myristica officinalis see Myristica
fragrans
myristicin 605
carcinogenic/anticancer activity
179t, 606
chemical structure 172f
drug interactions 64, 605
enzyme induction 61t, 605, 606
mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t,
173, 606
psychotropic action 144, 145,
605–606
sedative action 141t
Myrocarpus fastigiatus 222
Myrocarpus frondosus 222
Myrospermum pereirae
see Myroxylon balsamum
var. pereirae
Myroxylon balsamum var.
balsamum 454
Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae
390
Myroxylon pereirae see Myroxylon
balsamum var. pereirae
Myroxylon peruiferum
see Myroxylon balsamum
var. pereirae
myrrh oil 357
antioxidant activity 89, 357
cytotoxicity 32t
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 357
myrtenyl acetate 606
myrtle oil 357–358
aniseed see aniseed myrtle oil
bog 179t, 359–360
green 358
honey see honey myrtle oil
772
hypoglycemic effects 117–118,
358
lemon see lemon myrtle oil
red 358
Myrtus communis 357
N CNS stimulation 132–138
nagarmotha oil 361–362
narcissus absolute 362
adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t,
93t, 362
Narcissus jonquilla 314
Narcissus poeticus 362
nard oil 428–429
Nardostachys grandiflora 428, 429
Nardostachys jatamansi
see Valeriana jatamansi
narrow-leaved peppermint oil
see Eucalyptus radiata oil
nasal instillation, infants and
108–109
nasal mucosal irritation, volatile
organic compounds 100
nasal pungency threshold 102
nasturtium absolute 156t, 362–363
Nectandra globosa see Nectandra
sanguinea
Nectandra sanguinea 421
Neocallitropsis araucarioides
see Neocallitropsis pancheri
Neocallitropsis pancheri 198
neonates
dermal dosing 47–48, 47t
percutaneous absorption 47
see also infants
neoplasms 165
Nepalese cardamom oil 232–233
Nepeta cataria 237
nepetalactone 53t, 606
nepetalic acid 607
nephrotoxicity 119–121
precautions 121, 121b
protection against 121
species-specific effects 120–121
nepitella oil see lesser calamint oil
neral 534, 607
see also citral
nerol 607
chemical structure 14, 14f
estrogenic activity 150
teratogenicity 157, 608
nerolidol 608
anticancer activity 179t, 609
gastrointestinal effects 125t
partition coefficient 44t
nerolina oil 365
neroli oil 61t, 363–364
nervous system 131–146
neryl acetate 609
neryl isobutyrate 609
neryl isovalerate 609
neryl propionate 610
NESIL (no expected sensitization
induction level) 95
neurogenic inflammation 107
neurotoxicity 131–132
CNS depression 138–144
developmental 131, 133,
157–159
psychotropic activity 144–145
structural changes 132
nevadensin, anticancer activity 178
New Caledonian sandalwood oil
419
niaouli oil 364–366
cineole CT 364–365
linalool CT 365
nerolidol CT 365
pulmonary toxicity potential 108
reproductive toxicity 154, 364
safety measures 652t
viridiflorol CT 365–366
Nigella sativa 217
nitrogen compounds 21
NOAEL (no-observed-adverse-
effect level) 34, 35
carcinogens 38
2-nonanone 610
non-volatile compounds 6
nootkatone 610
nopinene see b-pinene
North American calamus oil 225
Northern cypress pine oil see blue
cypress oil
Norway spruce oil 430–431
nosebleed oil see feverfew oil
nose irritation, volatile organic
compounds 100
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy 13
nut grass oil 179t, 366
nutmeg flower oil see black seed oil
nutmeg oil 366–368
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
activity 183, 368
drug interactions 64, 368
East Indian 366–367
neurotoxicity 140, 141t,
144–145, 367
reproductive toxicity 152, 154,
367–368
safety measures 652t
West Indian 366–367
O drug interactions 58t, 370
oakmoss absolute 368–369
adverse skin reactions 81t, 82,
92t, 93t, 96t, 368–369, 368t
oakmoss concrete 369
occlusion, transdermal absorption
and 46
occupational asthma 105
occupational risk, adverse skin
reactions 84
ocean pine see Pinus pinaster
b-ocimene 610
Ocimum americanum var. pilosum
203
Ocimum basilicum 202, 205, 207
Ocimum canum see Ocimum
americanum var. pilosum
Ocimum gratissimum oils 207,
208–209
anticonvulsant activity 138
gastric effects 125
hypotensive effect 114
Ocimum minimum 208
Ocimum sanctum see Ocimum
tenuiflorum
Ocimum tenuiflorum 204
Ocimum viride oils see Ocimum
gratissimum oils
Ocimum x citriodorum 205
Ocotea odorifera oil 421–422
Ocotea pretiosa oil see Ocotea
odorifera oil
Ocotea quixos 116
octanal 36t
3-octanol 611
nephrotoxicity 120, 121
sensory irritation 101t
octanol/water partition coefficients
44, 44t
3-octanone, sensory irritation 101t
1-octen-3-ol, sensory irritation 101t
1-octen-3-yl acetate 611
octyl acetate 612
nephrotoxicity 120
reproductive toxicity 157,
158t, 612
odor threshold 102
Ogaden type frankincense oil
see Boswellia rivae oil
Olbas Oil 104, 108
Olea fragrans see Osmanthus
fragrans
olfactory epithelium, absorption via
49
olfactory hypersensitivity 108
olibanum oil see frankincense oils
onion oil 369–370
antiplatelet activity 115–116,
369
carcinogenic/anticancer activity
179t, 370
safety measures 652t
ood (agarwood) oil 190
opobalsam resinoid see tolu balsam
resinoid

opopanax oil 81t, 370–371
opoponax oil see opopanax oil
oral administration 40, 49–50, 123
absorption after 49–50
acute toxicity tests 28–29, 30t
extrapolating from animal data
28, 32–33
adverse reactions 28
gastrointestinal tract 123–125,
124t
hepatotoxicity 125–128
nephrotoxicity 119–121
bioavailability 41t
drug interactions 58t, 60
excipients 125
excretion after 53t, 57
hypoglycemic effects 117–118,
118b
hypotensive effects 114
maximum adult daily dose 188
safety precautions 658
oral cavity
irritation by volatile organic
compounds 100
topical administration 123
adverse reactions 100, 124
oral dosing 50, 50t, 658
frequency 50
infants and children 50
orange blossom (flower) oil
see neroli oil
orange champaca absolute 156t, 245
orange flower absolute 373
orange flower and leaf water
absolute 374
orange flower water 373–374
orange leaf absolute 374
orange leaf bigarade oil 374, 375
orange leaf oil (petitgrain oil) 61t,
374–375
orange oil 371–373
anticancer activity 179t
bitter see bitter orange oil
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
sweet 372–373
orange petitgrain oil see orange
leaf oil
oregano oil 375–376
acute toxicity 30t, 376
adverse skin reactions 77t, 376
antioxidant activity 170t, 376
drug interactions 58t, 376
gastrointestinal adverse effects
124t
Mexican 376–377
oral dose 50t
reproductive toxicity 152t,
154–155, 376
safety measures 652t
see also wild marjoram
oil; individual species
Oregon cedar wood oil 239
Oreodaphne porosa see Phoebe
porosa
organic compounds, chemical
structure 13–14
Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development
(OECD)
approved toxicity tests 28, 29b,
33
developmental toxicity endpoints
157
organochlorine pesticides 8
organophosphorus pesticides 8, 22
organ-specific effects 188
Origanum compactum oil
see Origanum vulgare ssp.
hirtum oil
Origanum dubium see Origanum
majorana
Origanum hirtum see Origanum
vulgare ssp. hirtum oil
Origanum majorana 346, 347,
348
origanum oil see oregano oil
Origanum onites oil 375, 376
adverse skin reactions 376
gastrointestinal effects 124–125
Origanum smyrnaeum oil
see Origanum onites oil
Origanum vulgare oil
antiplatelet activity 116, 376
immune stimulation 170–171
Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum
(Origanum compactum) oil
375, 376
antigenotoxicity 89
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173–174
Ormenis mixta oil 244
Ormenis multicaulis 244
orris absolute 377
orris oil 377–378
osmanthus absolute 378
Osmanthus fragrans 378
Oswego tea oil 210
Osyris lanceolata 417
Osyris tenuifolia oil 417
oxamyl 8
oxidation
metabolic 54
stored products 1–2, 10–11
prevention 11, 12, 73
respiratory/sensory irritation
and 101–102
skin sensitization risk 72–73,
82b
oxidative stress
essential oils protecting against
170
hepatotoxicity and 126
see also antioxidants; reactive
oxygen species
oxides 19, 20b
oxygen 10–11
oxygen-bridged functional groups
19–20
oxypeucedanin 612
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
phototoxicity 85, 86t, 612
ozone 101–102, 651
P peimou oil 425
Pacific island sandalwood oil 419
Pacific thuja oil see Western red
cedar oil
packaging 2, 37, 651–654
padang (kewda) oil 318
Paddy’s river box oil see Eucalyptus
macarthurii oil
palmarosa oil 378–379
adverse skin reactions 81t, 379
antioxidant activity 170t
drug interactions 58t, 379
palo santo oil 379–380
Pandanus fascicularis 318
Pandanus odoratissimus
see Pandanus fascicularis
pandanus oil 318
paracetamol (acetaminophen)
56–57, 128, 130
Paraguayan orange leaf oil 375
parmone see a-ionone
parsley apiole 490
abortifacient effects 160,
490–491
chemical structure 172f
hepatotoxicity 126
maximum dose limits 484t, 491
mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t,
173
nephrotoxicity 120
poisoning 650t
parsley herb oil see parsley leaf oil
parsley leaf oil 380
phototoxicity 87
reproductive toxicity 152t, 160,
380
safety measures 652t
parsleyseed oil 380–381
drug interactions 58t, 381
psychotropic action 145, 381
reproductive toxicity 152t, 160,
381
safety measures 652t
parsnip oil 381
drug interactions 58t, 381
possible phototoxicity 87–88, 381
partition coefficient (P) 44, 44t, 66
passing off 9–10
Pastinaca sativa 381
Index
patches, dermal 658
patchouli oil 382
adverse skin reactions 83t, 382
antiplatelet activity 116, 382
drug interactions 58t, 382
patch testing 1, 27, 74–76, 658
grading of skin reactions 74, 74t
interpreting data 74–76
patient safety, guidelines 651
Patrinia jatamansi see Valeriana
jatamansi
pau-rosa oil see rosewood oil
Pelargonium x asperum 292
pe mou oil 425
pennyroyal oil 382–384
acute toxicity 30t, 384
drug interactions 58t
European 382–384
hepatotoxicity 127, 128b, 383
human vs animal toxicity 33
nephrotoxicity 120
neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138, 383
North American 382–384
poisoning 26t, 115–116,
383–384, 650t
reproductive toxicity 152t,
160–161, 383
safety measures 652t
Turkish 382–384
pentadecanolide 612
peppermint camphor see (-)-
menthol
peppermint, cardiac effects 112
peppermint eucalyptus oil 275–276
peppermint gum oil 275–276
peppermint oil (Mentha x piperata
oil) 387–390
absorption 41t
adverse skin reactions 83t, 93t,
388
analysis 13, 13f
antioxidant activity 170t, 389
bioavailability 41t
carcinogenic/anticarcinogenic
activity 173, 389
cardiovascular effects 112t, 113,
115, 388
composition 7, 387
contaminants 8
degradation 11–12
dose recommendations 50t, 137,
387, 389–390
drug interactions 61t, 64, 389
gastrointestinal effects 28, 123,
124t, 125, 388
mucous membrane sensitivity 28,
388
neurotoxicity 132, 137, 388
peppermint oil þ caraway oil 50t,
124t
773
 Index
pepper oil
black see black pepper oil
pink 385–386
Sichuan 386
white 386–387
peptic ulcer 117b, 658
percutaneous absorption 42–47, 43t
age differences 47
animals and humans 29, 31f
biocides 8
concentration effects 45–46
delivery vehicle effects 45–46
hydration, temperature and
pressure effects 46
molecular size and solubility and
44–45
permeability enhancement 45
skin trauma and 46–47
volatility and occlusion and 46
perfumes, adverse reactions 106,
107
pericon oil see Mexican marigold oil
Perilla frutescens 390
perilla ketone 613
perillaldehyde 613
chemical structure 18f
skin reactivity 96t, 613
perilla oil 390
adverse skin reactions 81t, 390
pulmonary toxicity 108, 390
safety measures 652t
perillyl alcohol 89, 613
androgenic activity 151, 178
anticancer activity 170, 178, 179,
179t, 614
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
gastrointestinal adverse effects
124, 124t, 614
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
131
permeability coefficient
apparent (Papp) 42, 43–44
in vitro skin (Ps) 43–44, 66
peroxides 20
Persian lime oil
distilled 336, 337
expressed 337
Peru balsam oil 81t, 96t, 390–391
Peruvian mastic oil 385–386
Peruvian pepper oil 385–386
peruviol see nerolidol
pessaries 51
pesticides 8, 8t
pesto 3, 177
peta oil 391–392
petitgrain mandarin oil see mandarin
leaf oil
petitgrain oil see orange leaf oil
petit mal seizures 132
petrolatum 75
Petroselinum crispum 380
774
Petroselinum hortense
see Petroselinum crispum
Petroselinum sativum
see Petroselinum crispum
Peumus boldus 218, 219
P-glycoprotein (P-gp) 64–65
pharmacogenetics 56
cancer risk and 175
pharmacogenetic toxicity 129–130
pharmacokinetics 39–68
phase I reactions 54
phase II reactions 54–55
pheasant pepper tree oil see may
chang oil
a-phellandrene 167, 614
phenethyl alcohol see 2-
phenylethanol
phenols 17, 17b
phenoxyl radicals 31
phenylacetonitrile see benzyl
cyanide
b-phenylacrolein
see cinnamaldehyde
b-phenylacrylic acid see cinnamic
acid
phenylcarbinol see benzyl alcohol
2-phenylethanol 615
acute toxicity 30t, 615
reproductive toxicity 158t,
615–616
sedative action 141t
2-phenylethyl acetate 616
phenylethyl isothiocyanate 616
anticancer activity 178, 179t,
616–617
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t,
616
phenylethyl methyl ether 617
phenylpropanoids 16, 16b
pheromones, insect 5
pH, excipients 12
Phlaris zizanoides see Vetiveria
zizanoides
Phleum pratense 299
phoebe oil 392
Phoebe porosa 392
Phoenician juniper oil 315–316
Phoenician savin oil 315–316
photoallergy 78, 85
photocarcinogenesis 88–90
mouse data 90
PUVA therapy 89–90
risk/benefit considerations 90
specific furanocoumarins and
lactones 86t, 174
photocontact dermatitis 70
photogenotoxicity 89
photomutagenicity 86t, 174
photo-oxidative stress 89
photopatch test 85
photosensitization 27, 70, 84–90
phototoxicity 84–88
adjusting dose and 189
clinical data 85–87
essential oils causing 87–88, 87t
IFRA recommended maximum
use levels 86b
managing risk 88
specific furanocoumarins and
lactones 86t
susceptible individuals 87
phototypes, skin 76t
photoxic reactions and 87
PUVA therapy-related skin
cancer risk and 89
skin sensitivity and 76
phthalates (phthalate esters) 9
phytanic acid 132
phytoestrogens 149–150
phytol 132, 617
phytols 22
phytophotodermatitis 85
Picea abies 430
Picea alba see Picea glauca
Picea canadensis see Picea glauca;
Tsuga canadensis
Picea excelsa see Picea abies
Picea glauca 431
Picea mariana 429
Picea nigra see Picea mariana
Picea rubens 431
pigmented contact dermatitis
(PCD) 70, 79–80, 659
pigmented cosmetic dermatitis 80
Pilocarpus jaborandi 310
Pilocarpus microphyllus 310–311
Pimenta acris see Pimenta racemosa
var. racemosa
Pimenta dioica 392, 393
Pimenta officinalis see Pimenta
dioica
Pimenta racemosa var. racemosa
209
pimento berry oil 392–393
antioxidant activity 170t
drug interactions 58t
safety measures 652t
pimento leaf oil 393–394
drug interactions 58t, 394
safety measures 652t
Pimpinella anisum 196
Pimpinella oils, estrogenic activity
150
3-pinanone see isopinocamphone;
pinocamphone
a-pinene 618
anticonvulsant activity 138
carcinogenic/anticancer activity
171, 620
cytochrome P450 interactions
61t
elimination 53t, 57, 619
elimination half-life 51t
eye irritation 102
inhalation toxicity 49, 619
bronchial hyper-reactivity 103
sensory irritation 101–102,
101t
partition coefficient 44t
reproductive toxicity 158t, 619
b-pinene 620
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
elimination half-life 51t
excretion 53t
inhalation toxicity 101–102,
101t, 103
partition coefficient 44t
reproductive toxicity 158t, 621
pine oils (including pine needle oils)
394–397, 398–399
black 394–395
dwarf see dwarf pine oil
grey 395–396
huon 396, 652t
poisoning 650t
pondorosa 58t, 396–397
red 397
Scots 173, 398
white 399
Pinimenthol ointment
absorption kinetics 41t, 43
upper respiratory tract infections
104
pink pepper oil 385–386
pinocamphone 621
developmental toxicity 159
neurotoxicity 133, 137t, 621
safe dose limits 133t, 484t, 621,
622
Pinus ayacahuite 459
Pinus banksiana see Pinus
divaricata
Pinus canadensis see Tsuga
canadensis
Pinus caribaea 459
Pinus contorta var. latifolia 459, 461
Pinus divaricata 395
Pinus elliottii 459, 461
Pinus halepensis 459, 461
Pinus insularis 459, 461
Pinus kesiya see Pinus insularis
Pinus latteri 459, 461
Pinus merkusii 459
Pinus montana see Pinus mugo
Pinus mugo 395
Pinus mugo var. mugo 395
Pinus mugo var. pumilio 395
Pinus mugus see Pinus mugo var.
mugo
Pinus nigra 394
Pinus palustris 459, 461
Pinus pinaster 459, 461
Pinus pondorosa 396

Pinus pumilio see Pinus mugo var.
pumilio
Pinus radiata 461
Pinus resinosa 397
Pinus roxburghii 459, 461
Pinus spectabilis see Abies
spectabilis
Pinus strobus 399
Pinus sylvestris 398
Pinus tabulaeformis 459, 461
Pinus teocote 459
Pinus webbiana see Abies spectabilis
Pinus yunnanensis 459, 461
Piper betle see betel
Piper cubeba 263
piperitone 137, 137t, 622
Piper nigrum 384, 386
piperonal 53t, 622
piri-piri oil 399–400
Pisticia lentiscus 349
placental transfer 154
plai oil 400
plants, essential oil-bearing 5–6, 6b
plasma protein binding 52, 53f
platelets (thrombocytes) 115–116
Plectranthus barbatus 257
Plectranthus forskohlii
see Plectranthus barbatus
Plectranthus fruticosus 400
plectranthus oil 400–401
abortifacient effect 161, 401
fetotoxicity 155–156, 400–401
teratogenicity 156
Ploesslea floribunda oil see Boswellia
papyrifera oil
Poa pratense 299
poet’s narcissus absolute
see narcissus absolute
Pogostemon cablin 382
Pogostemon patchouly
see Pogostemon cablin
poisoning 25–27
first aid 649–650, 650b, 659
signs and symptoms 649, 650t
see also toxicity
Polianthes tuberosa 456
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
186
Polygonum minus 317
polysensitized patients 72
po mu oil 425
pondorosa pine oil 58t, 396–397
Populus balsamifera 202
porphyrias 127, 659
porphyrin production 127
Port Orford cedarwood oil 239
potentiation 24–25
Pott, Percival 67
poverty bush oil 468–469
practitioner safety 651
prangolarin see oxypeucedanin
pregnancy
contraindicated essential oils
152t, 162
FDA classification of drug safety
148–149, 149b
restricted essential oils 156t
safe levels of exposure 158t, 163
safety guidelines 659
termination of 149, 159–161
toxicity during 153–157
xenobiotics in 147–149
premature infants 659
prickly ash oil 385–386
priprioca (piri-piri) oil 399–400
progesterone 149, 152
p-trans-propenylanisole
see (E)-anethole
propenylguaiacol see isoeugenol
4-propenylveratrole see O-methyl
isoeugenol
propiconazole 8
propyl allyl disulfide 622
prostatic hyperplasia, benign (BPH)
151
protein binding, plasma 52, 53f
Provence rose absolute 30t,
406–407
provisional tolerable weekly intake
(PTWI) 35
Prunus amygdalus var. amara
see Prunus dulcis var. amara
Prunus communis var. amara
see Prunus dulcis var. amara
Prunus dulcis var. amara 191, 192
prussic acid see hydrocyanic acid
Pseudevernia furfuracea 456
pseudopinene see b-pinene
Pseudotsuga menziesii 281
Psiadia altissima 198
Psidium guyanensis oil,
anticonvulsant activity 138
Psoraderm see bergapten
psoralen 623
cytochrome P450 inhibition
61t, 623
photoallergy 85
photocarcinogenicity 89
phototoxicity 86t, 623
psoriasis 46–47
psychotropic activity 144–145
Pteronia incana 401
pteronia oil 401
pulegone
hepatotoxicity 57
nephrotoxicity 120–121
neurotoxicity 135, 137t
safe exposure limits 36t
a-pulegone 623
b-pulegone 623
acute toxicity 30t, 624
carcinogenic potential 168t, 625
hepatotoxicity 127, 128, 128b,
625
hypoglycemic effects 118
isomer differences 56
neurotoxicity 132, 133
safe exposure limits 133t, 484t,
626
pulmonary function parameters 103t
pulmonary toxicity 108–109
pumilio pine oil see dwarf pine oil
pungent basil oil 208–209
punk tree oil see cajuput oil
purity, essential oils 1
purple coneflower oil 271
PUVA therapy 89–90, 171
Pyrethrum majus
see Chrysanthemum
balsamita
Q reproductive NOAEL or LOAEL
quality, essential oil 1, 7–12
quality control 654
quantitative risk assessment
(QRA), IFRA 94–97, 96t
quantitative structure–activity
relationships (QSAR) 34, 98
quenching 25, 73–74
quinone reductase 170
R adverse effects of airborne
racial differences
adverse skin reactions 72
skin sensitivity 76
Racosperma dealbatum see Acacia
dealbata
Radiotherapy 656
raindrop technique 46, 66
ramanas rose oil 406
rambiazana oil 402
rambiazinza vavy oil 402
ramy oil see Ocimum gratissimum oil
Ravensara anisata see Ravensara
aromatica
Ravensara aromatica 402, 403
ravensara bark oil 58t, 402
ravensara leaf oil 403
ravintsara oil 303–304
RD50 101t, 102
REACH (Registration, Evaluation
and Authorization of
Chemicals) 33
reactive airways dysfunction
syndrome (RADS) 105
reactive oxygen species (ROS)
carcinogenesis 166
cytotoxic 31
photogenotoxicity 89
reconstituted oils 9–10
rectal administration 50–51, 123
Index
rectification 6
red bergamot oil 210
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
116–117
red camphor oil see brown
camphor oil
red cedar oil see cedrela oil;
Virginian cedarwood oil
red cedarwood oil 240
red myrtle oil 358
red pine oil 397
red spruce oil 431
reduction reactions 54
reference dose (RfD) 35
Refsum’s disease 132, 617
regulatory guidelines 188–189
renal disease/impairment 52, 117b,
121, 658, 659
reporting, adverse event 37,
649–650
values 158t, 163
reproductive system 147–164
reproductive toxicology 147–149
resinification 12
resinoids
composition 7
isolation 6
respiratory depression 109
respiratory disease 104–107
respiratory system 99–110
substances 100–103
transient receptor potential
(TRP) channels 103
respiratory tract infections 99, 104
resurrection lily oil 345
rhodinolic acid see citronellic acid
Rhododendron anthopogon 403
Rhododendron groenlandicum
see Ledum groenlandicum
rhododendron oil 403–404
Rhus cotinus see Cotinus coggyria
Rhus taratana 436
Ribes nigrum 216
risk 3
characterization 35
consumer awareness 37
estimating 32–34
minimizing 34–37
risk assessment 34–35
river tea tree oil see black tea tree
oil; cajuput oil
R notation, chiral molecules 14–15
rock cedar oil 239–240
Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine
see Pinus contorta var.
latifolia
Roman chamomile oil 244–245
antidiuretic effect 121
sedative action 141t
775
 Index
Roman coriander oil see black seed oil
romba oils see Ocimum
gratissimum oils
Rosa damascena var. trigintipetala
see Rosa x damascena
Rosa gallica f. trigintipetala see Rosa
x damascena
Rosa gallica var. centifolia see Rosa x
centifolia
rosalina oil 404
Rosa rugosa oil 406
Rosa x centifolia 406, 407
Rosa x damascena 404
rose absolute (Provence) 30t,
406–407
rose de Mai absolute see rose
absolute
‘rose geranium’ oils 294
rosemary oil 407–409
antioxidant activity 170t, 409
blood pressure effects 112t,
115, 409
drug interactions 61t, 409
hyperglycemic effect 118, 409
neurotoxicity 134t, 138
safety measures 652t
rose of cedar wood oil 239
rose oil 404–406
Damask see Damask rose oil
Japanese 406
rose otto see Damask rose oil
rose oxide 626
rosewood oil 179t, 409–410
rosha grass oil see palmarosa oil
rosin 461
Rosmarinus officinalis 407
route of administration 40, 41t
royal jasmine absolute see jasmine
absolute
Rozman scale 177, 177f
rubbing ointments, asthma 106
rubefacients 66
Rudbeckia purpurea see Echinacea
purpurea
rue absolute, phototoxicity
87, 411
rue oil 410–412
nephrotoxicity 120, 121
phototoxicity 87, 411
reproductive toxicity 152t, 161,
411
rugosa rose oil 406
Russa grass oil 295–296
Russian basil oil 208–209
Russian fir needle oil see Siberian fir
needle oil
Rutaceae, phototoxic potential
87, 87t
Ruta chalapensis 411
Ruta graveolens oil 410, 411–412
Ruta montana 410
776
S nephrotoxicity 119, 121 Satureia montana (winter savory)
sensitivity 659 oil 424–425
sabinene 158t, 626
teratogenicity 156 Satureja capitata oil see Thymbra
3-sabinone see thujone
see also aspirin; benzyl salicylate; capitata oil
(Z)-sabinyl acetate 627
methyl salicylate Satureja khuzestanica oil
abortifacient effect 161, 627
salicylic acid benzyl ester see benzyl hypoglycemic effects 118, 376,
embryo and fetotoxicity 152,
salicylate 425
155–156
Salmonella/microsome assay reproductive toxicity 443
reproductive LOAEL 158t, 163
172–173 Saudi frankincense oil see Boswellia
teratogenicity 156
Salvia apiana 416 sacra oil
Sachalin fir needle oil 284
Salvia fruticosa 415 Saussurea costus 262
sacred basil oil 204
Salvia hispanorum see Salvia Saussurea lappa see Saussurea
safety advice, authors’ 188
lavandulifolia costus
safety (uncertainty) factors 35–36
Salvia lavandulifolia 415 savin oil 423–424
safety guidelines, general 649–654
Salvia libanotica oil 138, 179t, 526 confusion with juniperberry oil
safety profiles
Salvia officinalis oil see Dalmatian 315
essential oil constituents
sage oil hepatotoxicity 126, 424
483–648
Salvia sclarea 253 neurotoxicity 138
essential oils 187–256
Salvia stenophylla 413 reproductive toxicity 152, 152t,
saffron absolute 81t, 412
Salvia triloba see Salvia fruticosa 156, 163, 423–424
saffron oil 81t, 412
Sampacca longifolia see Michelia savory oil 424–425
saffron resinoid 412
alba acute toxicity 30t, 425
safrole 627
sandalwood oil 417–419, 420 adverse skin reactions 77t, 425
carcinogenic potential 167, 168t,
adverse skin reactions 83t, 85, drug interactions 58t, 425
172, 173t, 174, 175, 176,
93t, 418–419, 418t safety measures 652t
176t, 629, 630
anticancer activity 179t sedative action 141t
antagonistic interactions 178
blood pressure effect 114 scarlet monarda oil 210
betel quid chewers 184
East African 417–418 scented myrrh oil see opopanax oil
chemical structure 172f
East Indian see East Indian Schinus molle 385
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
sandalwood oil Scientific Committee on Consumer
excretion 53t, 627–628
lactation 162 Products (SCCP) 94, 95
genetic variation in bioactivation
New Caledonian 419 sclareol 632
175
Western Australian 58t, 420 anticancer activity 178, 179t, 632
hepatotoxicity 126, 127, 628
West Indian (amyris) 193–194 clary sage products 253, 254
mutagenicity/genotoxicity 167t,
sanna oil 420–421 Scots pine needle oil 173, 398
628–629
santalol (including a-santalol) 631 seasonal allergic rhinitis 105
nephrotoxicity 120
adverse skin reactions 85, 631 seasonal variations, essential oil
reproductive toxicity 154,
anticancer activity 89, 179t, 631 composition 7
162, 628
blood pressure effect 114 sea wormwood oil 474
safe dose levels 484t, 630
partition coefficient 44t pregnancy and lactation 152t
sage oils 412–417
Santalum album 418, 419 safety measures 652t
African wild 412–413
Santalum austrocaledonicum 419 sedatives 140–143, 141t
blue mountain 413
Santalum cygnorum see Santalum seizures 132–133
cardiovascular effects 111–112,
spicatum olfactory stimulation 137–138
112t, 113, 115
Santalum spicatum 420 see also anticonvulsants;
clary see clary sage oil
Santolina chamaecyparissus 328 convulsants
Dalmatian see Dalmatian sage oil
santolina oil 328 b-selinenol see b-eudesmol
Greek 146, 415
saro oil 421 sensitive skin 76–77
neurotoxicity 133–135, 134t,
Sassafras albidum oil 421, 422 sensitization assessment factor
138
sassafras oil 421–422 (SAF) 95
Spanish see Spanish sage oil
Brazilian 421–422, 652t sensitization, skin 70, 77–84
white 416
carcinogenic activity 183, 422 grading of risk 81t
wild mountain see wild mountain
Chinese 228, 421, 422, 652t occupational risk 84
sage oil
drug interactions 58t oxidized products 72–73, 82b
St. John’s wort oil 417
poisoning 650t see also allergic contact dermatitis
salai (mullilam) oil 355
safety measures 652t sensory hyper-reactivity (SHR)
salicylaldehyde 630
satapashpi seed oil see Indian dill 100, 107
acute toxicity 30t, 630
seed oil sensory irritation (SI) 100–102
hepatotoxicity 127, 631
satsuma oil 87, 422–423 substances causing 101t
salicylates
Satureia hortensis (summer savory) terpene oxidation and 101–102
drug interactions 65
oil 424, 425 thresholds 102

Seriphidium maritimum
see Artemisia maritima
Serotonin 659
b-sesquiphellandrene 632
sesquiterpenes 15, 16b
sesterterpenes 15
Seville orange leaf oil see orange
leaf oil
Seville orange oil see bitter
orange oil
shikimole see safrole
shiso oil see perilla oil
shiu (shiu-sho) oil 304–305
shrubby basil oil 208–209
shrubby hare’s ear oil 447–448
Siam benzoin 210, 211
Siamese ginger oil 289–290
Siam wood oil 425
Siberian fir needle oil 77, 77t,
284–285
Siberian pine needle oil see Siberian
fir needle oil
Siberian silver fir needle oil
see Siberian fir needle oil
Sichuan pepper oil 386
silver fir cone oil 282
silver fir needle oil 285–286
silver spruce see silver fir
Skimmia laureola 426
skimmia oil 87–88, 426
skin 69–98
absorption through
see percutaneous absorption
administration to see dermal
administration
adverse reactions see adverse skin
reactions
metabolism 55–56
phototypes 76t
sensitive 76–77
sensitization see sensitization, skin
structure 41–42, 41f
trauma, transdermal absorption
and 46–47
skin cancer 88–90
PUVA therapy-related risk 89–90
skin diseases 659
slash pine see Pinus elliottii
small galangal oil 345
smoke plant/tree oil 433–434
smooth angelica oil 195
snakeroot oil 426, 652t
S notation, chiral molecules 14–15
snowbush oil 427
sofia oil 295–296
Solidago canadensis 297
solvent extraction 6
solvents, contaminating 8–9
Somalian myrrh oil see myrrh oil
sorbitan sesquioleate (SSO) 82
sour orange leaf oil see orange leaf oil
southern birch oil see sweet birch oil
Southern spring flower oil 468–469
southernwood oil 427, 652t
sowa seed oil see Indian dill seed oil
Spanish broom absolute 219–220
Spanish cedar oil 240–241
Spanish jasmine absolute
see jasmine absolute
Spanish lavender oil 328–329, 652t
Spanish marjoram (Thymus
mastichina) oil 11, 346
Spanish sage oil 415–416
estrogenic activity 150
neurotoxicity 134t, 143
reproductive toxicity 152t, 416
safety measures 652t
Spanish tarragon oil see Mexican
marigold oil
Spanish wild marjoram oil
see Spanish marjoram oil
Spartium junceum 219
spearmint oil 427–428
adverse oral reactions 28
adverse skin reactions 81t, 83t,
428
spermatogenesis 151
spiked ginger lily oil 420–421
spiked thyme oil 451–452
spike lavender oil 329–330
hypotensive effects 113–114
safety measures 652t
spikenard oil 428–429
spike thyme oil 451–452
spiroether 61t
spirometry 103t
spotted gum oil 335–336
sprague oil see ajowan oil
spruce oil 429–432
black 429
hemlock 429–430
Norway 430–431
red 431
white 431–432
standard margin of safety 24, 24b
Staphylococcus aureus 31
star anise oil 58t, 197–198
steam distillation 6
stenophylla oil 413
stilbestrol 156
stinking mahogany oil 240–241
storage 10, 654
preventing degradation 11, 12
temperatures 11–12, 11t
storax oil see styrax oil
stratum corneum 41, 42
hydration state 46
stress, psychological
adverse skin reactions and 71,
76, 98
multiple channel syndrome 107
Styrax benzoin 210
styrax oil 432–433
adverse skin reactions 81t,
432–433
pregnancy 157
Styrax paralleloneurus 210
Styrax tonkinensis 210
styrene 433
developmental neurotoxicity 157
neurotoxicity 131
subacute toxicity 28
Sudanese frankincense oil
see Boswellia papyrifera oil
sugandha oil 433
sugandhawal oil 462
sugandh kokila oil 433
sugandhmantri root oil 294
sulfation 55
sulfur compounds 21, 21b
sumach oil, Venetian 433–434
Sumatra benzoin 210
Sumatra camphor oil 227
sunbeds 659
sunlight exposure 659
sunpati oil 403–404
sunscreens 90
superoxide dismutase 170
suppositories 50–51, 123
surgery, before or after 117b, 660
swamp cedar oil see thuja oil
swamp paperbark tree oil 404
swamp tea tree oil see cajuput oil
swangi see combava
sweet annie oil 473–474
sweet bay oil see laurel leaf oil
sweet birch oil 215–216
drug interactions 58t, 216
neurotoxicity 134t
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
sweet birch tar oil see birch tar oil
sweet dragon oil see Mexican
marigold oil
sweet false chamomile oil see blue
chamomile oil
sweet fennel oil 277–278
drug interactions 58t, 278
hepatoprotective effects 128t, 278
neurotoxicity 136
reproductive toxicity 152t, 155,
161, 278
see also fennel oil
sweet fern oil 279
sweet flag oil see calamus oil
sweet gale oil see bog myrtle oil
sweetgum oil see styrax oil
sweet inula oil 310
sweet mace oil see Mexican
marigold oil
sweet marjoram oil 346–347
sweet myrrh oil see opopanax oil
sweet olive absolute 378
Index
sweet orange oil 372–373
sweet-scented marigold oil
see Mexican marigold oil
sweet verbena tree oil see lemon
myrtle oil
sweet vernalgrass oil 58t, 434–435
sweet voilet absolute 467–468
sweet-wood (cascarilla) oil 234–235
sweet wormwood oil 473–474
synergistic effects 24–25
allergic skin reactions 73
carcinogens 177–184
systemic effects, essential oil
profiles 188
Syzygium aromaticum 254, 256, 257
T
tacamahac oil see balsam poplar oil
taget absolute 435–436
Tagetes lucida 144, 345–346
Tagetes minuta oil 435–436
erythrotoxic effects 117
Tagetes patula 435–436
taget oil 435–436
anticonvulsant action 139
erythrotoxic effects 117
hypotensive effect 114
possible phototoxicity 88, 436
sedative action 143
Tahitian vanilla see Vanilla
tahitensis
tailed pepper (cubeb) oil 263–264
tambookie grass oil 189–190
tambuti oil 189–190
tamoxifen 178
Tanacetum annuum 438
Tanacetum parthenium 280
Tanacetum vulgare 438
tana oil 436
tangelo oil 436–437
tangerine oil 437–438
anticancer activity 179t, 438
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
tansy oil 438
blue 438–439
drug interactions 58t
neurotoxicity 134t, 138, 438
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
Tanzanian spring flower oil 468–469
Tarchonanthus camphoratus
412–413
tarragon oil 439–440
anticancer/carcinogenic activity
183, 184–185, 439–440
anticonvulsant action 139
antiplatelet activity 116, 439
drug interactions 58t
Tasmanian blue gum oil
see Eucalyptus globulus oil
777
 Index
Tasmanian spring flower oil
468–469
TD50 176, 176t
tea leaf absolute 81t, 96t, 440
tea olive absolute 378
tea tree oil 440–445
adverse skin reactions 28, 81t, 83,
84, 441t, 442–444
antibacterial effects 31, 444–445
antioxidant activity 170t, 444
black 445–446, 652t
carcinogenic/anticancer activity
179t, 444
composition 7, 440
cytotoxicity 32t
drug interactions 58t
estrogenic activity 151,
443–444
lemon-scented 446–447
poisoning 25, 26, 26t, 444, 650t
pregnancy and lactation 156t
quality 1, 440
safety measures 652t
systemic allergic reactions 171
vaginal administration 51
tebuconazole 8
tejpat oil 447
drug interactions 58t, 447
safety measures 652t
skin sensitization 81t, 447
Teloxys ambrosioides
see Chenopodium
ambrosioides var.
anthelminticum
temperature
percutaneous absorption and 46
storage 11–12, 11t
templin see silver fir
Tenasserim pine see Pinus latteri
Tenoria fruticosa see Bupleurum
fruticosum
teratogenicity 153, 156–157
terebenthene see b-pinene
terebinth oil see turpentine oil
termination of pregnancy 149,
159–161
terpenes
chemistry 15, 16t
elimination 57
enhancing dermal drug
absorption 45
oxidation, respiratory irritation
and 101–102
terpenoids 15, 16, 16b
a-terpinene 632
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
partition coefficient 44t
reproductive toxicity 157, 633
g-terpinene 633
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173–174, 634
778
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t
terpinen-4-ol 634
anticancer activity 179t, 634
hypotensive effect 114
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t
terpineol 635
a-terpineol 635
cytochrome P450 inhibition 61t
partition coefficient 44t
percutaneous absorption 43t
sedative action 141t
d-terpineol 17f, 635
terpinolene 636
terpinyl acetate 636
sedative action 141t
toxicity 108
a-terthienyl 88
testosterone 151
tetradifon 8
tetraterpenes 15
Texan cedarwood oil 239–240
Texas tarragon oil see Mexican
marigold oil
Thai ginger oil see finger root oil
thalidomide 148, 156, 163
Thea sinensis see Camellia sinensis
Therapeutic Goods Administration,
Australia 649
therapeutic index (TI) 24, 24b
thioallyl ether see diallyl sulfide
3,3’-thiobis-1-propene see diallyl
sulfide
Thomas balsam resinoid see tolu
balsam resinoid
thorow-wax oil 447–448
threshold model, carcinogens
176, 177
threshold of toxicological concern
(TTC) 36
throat irritation, volatile organic
compounds 100
thrombocytes 115–116
thrombocytopenia 117b, 660
thujan-3-one see thujone
cis-4-thujanyl acetate
see (Z)-sabinyl acetate
Thuja occidentalis 448
thuja oil 448
acute toxicity 30t, 448
neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138, 448
poisoning 650t
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
Thuja plicata 468
thujaplicin 637
b-thujaplicin 637
acute toxicity 30t, 637
reproductive toxicity 157,
158t, 637
thujone 638
acute toxicity 30t, 639
carcinogenic potential 168t,
640–641
cardiovascular effects 111
developmental toxicity 159
neurotoxicity 133–135, 137t,
639–640, 640t
psychotropic action 145
safe doses 36, 36t, 133t, 484t,
641
a-thujone 638
neurotoxicity 133–135, 639, 640
percutaneous absorption 43–44
b-thujone 638
chemistry 18f
neurotoxicity 133–135, 639
Thujopsis dolobrata var. hondai 301
Thymbra capitata oil 11, 375–376
thymbra oregano oil 451–452
Thymbra spicata 451
thyme camphor see thymol
thyme oils 448–449, 450–454
adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t,
449, 451, 453
antioxidant activity 170t, 454
antiplatelet activity 116, 449,
451, 453
blood pressure effects 112t,
113, 115
borneol CT 448–449
carvacrol CT 452–454
chemotypes 7
drug interactions 58t, 449,
451, 454
effects of altitude 7
geraniol CT 449
hepatoprotective effects 128t,
453
lemon 450
limonene CT 450–451
linalool CT 451
pregnancy and lactation 154–155,
156t, 451, 453
safety measures 652t
spike 451–452
thujanol CT 452
thymol/carvacrol CT 452–454
thymol/carvacrol interactions 25
thymol CT 452–454
thymol 641
acute toxicity 30t, 642
anticonvulsant action 139
antiplatelet activity 116, 642
blood pressure effects 113
chemical structure 18f
cytotoxicity 31, 642
gastrointestinal effects 124–125,
642
hepatoprotective effects 128t,
129, 642
mutagenicity/genotoxicity
173–174
pharmacokinetics 41t, 44t,
51t, 642
thymoquinone 643
anticancer activity 179t, 644
effects on erythrocytes 116–117
gastrointestinal effects 125t
hepatoprotective effects 128,
128t, 643–644
renoprotective action 121, 643
reproductive toxicity 155,
158t, 643
Thymus capitatus oil see Thymbra
capitata oil
Thymus lanuginosus var.
citriodorum see Thymus x
citriodorus
Thymus mastichina oil 11, 346
Thymus satureioides 448
Thymus serpyllum 450, 452,
453, 454
Thymus serpyllum var. citriodorus
see Thymus x citriodorus
Thymus serpyllum var. vulgaris
see Thymus x citriodorus
Thymus vulgaris 449, 450, 451,
452, 453, 454
Thymus x citriodorus 450
Thymus zygis 451, 452, 453, 454
tick bush oil 468–469
timur seed oil 455
tissues, accumulation in 52
T lymphocytes 78, 79f, 171
tolerable daily intake (TDI) 35
newer approaches 36–37, 36t
tolu balsam resinoid 81t, 454–455
Toluifera pereirae see Myroxylon
balsamum var. pereirae
tomar seed oil 455
tonic-clonic seizures 132
tonic seizures 132
tonka absolute 455–456
tonka bean camphor see coumarin
toothpick ammi oil see khella oil
toxic essential oils, combinations of
189
toxicification 56–57
toxicity 2–3, 23–38
acute see acute toxicity
animal see animal toxicity
cellular see cytotoxicity
chronic 28
classifications 28–29, 31t
estimating risk 32–34
human 25–28
manifestations 23–24
mathematical models 34
measuring see toxicity tests
metabolism and 56–57
minimizing risk 34–37

of mixtures 24–25
packaging and labeling 37
patterns 34
signs and symptoms 649, 650t
subacute 28
toxicity tests 28–32
alternatives to animal tests
33–34
methodological concerns 1–2
OECD approved 28, 29b
reproductive toxicity 148
toxicodynamics 24
toxicokinetics 24
toxicology 23
toxic substances 24–25
trace constituents 7, 188
Trachyspermum ammi 191
Trachyspermum copticum
see Trachyspermum ammi
traditional medicine 2
transient receptor potential (TRP)
channels 103, 104t
trans-isomers 14
transplants 660
trauma, transdermal absorption and
46–47
tree basil oil 208–209
treemoss absolute 456
adverse skin reactions 81t, 92t,
96t, 456
triacylglycerols, transdermal
absorption 45
2,4,6-trichloroanisole 8
Trigonella foenum-graecum 278
Trilisa odoratissima 268
3,4,5-trimethyl-1-allylbenzene
see elemicin
1,3,3-trimethyl-2-norbornanone
see fenchone
triterpenes 15
Trolab patch testing system 75
Tropaeolum majus 362
true camphor oil 228
true camphor tree oil 303
TRUE Test system 75
Tsuga canadensis 429
tuberose absolute 456–457
tulsi oil 204
Turkish sage oil see Greek sage oil
turmeric leaf oil 457–458
turmeric oil 457–458, 459
drug interactions 58t
hypoglycemic effects 117
neuroprotective action 146
wild 459
turmeric rhizome oil 458
ar-turmerone 179t, 644
Turnera aphrodisiaca see Turnera
diffusa var. aphrodisiaca
Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca
267
Turnera diffusa var. diffusa
see Turnera diffusa var.
aphrodisiaca
Turnera microphylla see Turnera
diffusa var. aphrodisiaca
turpentine 461
turpentine oil 459–461
adverse skin reactions 27, 76, 460
inhalation toxicity 132, 460
neurotoxicity 136–137, 138
twisted leaf pine see Pinus teocote
U verbena (lemon) absolute 81t, 464
UDP-glucuronyltransferase 55–56,
64, 170
ultraviolet (UV) light
clinical safety 659
degrading effects 12
photoallergic reactions 85
photocarcinogenesis 88–90
phototoxic reactions 85–86
uncertainty factors 35–36
2-undecanone 645
undiluted essential oils 660
conversion tables 665–666
patch testing 74
transdermal absorption 45, 46
up and down procedure (UDP) 33
upper respiratory tract infections
104
urinary system 119–122
urine 119
excretion via 53t, 57
urticaria, immediate contact 78
uterine cancer 657
V W
vaginal administration 51, 656
vakula absolute see bakul absolute
vakul absolute see bakul absolute
valeranone 140, 141t, 143
valerenal 140, 141t, 143
valerenic acid 140, 141t, 143
Valeriana fauriei see Valeriana
officinalis
Valeriana jatamansi 462
Valeriana officinalis 461, 462
Valeriana wallichii see Valeriana
jatamansi
valerian oil 461–462
European type 461–462
Indian 462
sedative action 140, 141t, 143
vanilla absolute 462–463
Vanilla fragrans see Vanilla
planifolia
Vanilla planifolia 462–463
Vanilla tahitensis 462
vanillic aldehyde see vanillin
vanillin 645
anticancer activity 179t, 646
excretion 53t, 645
mutagenicity 174, 646
partition coefficient 44t
vaporization 660
vasculitis 117b, 660
vassoura oil 125t, 463
vehicles
oral administration 49
percutaneous absorption and
45–46
Venetian sumach oil 433–434
verbena oil 463–466
honey 463–464
lemon see lemon verbena oil
phototoxicity 98, 465
white 465–466
verbenone 646
vernalgrass (sweet) oil 58t,
434–435
Vetiveria zizanoides 466
vetiver oil 466–467
Vicks VapoRub 104, 105
Victorian emerald cypress oil 266
Viola odorata 467
violet leaf absolute 467–468
Virginian cedarwood oil 240
Vitex agnus castus 246
volatile organic compounds (VOC)
100
adverse effects 100–103
RD50 values 101t, 102
sensory irritation 100–102
transdermal absorption 46
warfarin 65, 117b, 660
warning labels 34
wartara seed oil 455
Wasabia japonica root oil 116
waste disposal 654
water, spoilage 12
water-soluble molecules
distribution within body 51
excretion in urine 119
percutaneous absorption 44, 66
weaver’s broom absolute 219–220
weeping tea tree oil see cajuput oil
Western arborvitae oil see Western
red cedar oil
Western Australian sandalwood oil
58t, 420
Western red cedar oil 468
neurotoxicity 134t, 138, 468
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
Western yellow pine oil
see pondorosa pine oil
Index
West Indian bay oil 209–210, 324
adverse skin reactions 81t, 209
antioxidant activity 170t, 209
drug interactions 58t, 209
West Indian cedar oil 240–241
West Indian lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus) oil
334–335
gastrointestinal toxicity 125, 125t
see also lemongrass oil
West Indian lime oil see Mexican
lime oil
West Indian sandalwood oil
193–194
white birch tar oil see birch tar oil
white camphor oil 228
white cedar oil see thuja oil
white champaca absolute 245–246
white champaca oil see magnolia
flower oil; magnolia leaf oil
white cloud oil 468–469
white cypress (pine) oil 266–267
white fir see silver fir
white ginger lily see ginger lily
white jade orchid oil see magnolia
flower oil; magnolia leaf oil
white kunzea oil 468–469
white lippia oil 465–466
white pepper oil 386–387
white pine oil 399
white sage oil 416
white sandalwood oil see East Indian
sandalwood oil
white skin 42, 76, 659
white spruce oil 431–432
white tea tree (kanuka) oil 316
white turmeric oil see zedoary oil
white verbena oil 465–466
white wormwood absolute 474
white wormwood (Artemisia herba
alba) oil 474–475
antigenotoxicity 89
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
wild bergamot oil 213–214
wild camphor tree oil 412–413
wild chamomile oil 244
wild forest mint oil 352
wild ginger oil 426
wild marjoram oil 347, 348
adverse skin reactions 77t, 347
carvacrol CT 347
drug interactions 58t, 347
linalool CT 348
see also oregano oil
wild mountain sage oil 416–417
adverse skin reactions 77t, 81t,
417
drug interactions 58t, 417
wild oregano oil see wild marjoram oil
wild turmeric oil 459
779
 Index
wild verbena oil 463–464
winged prickly ash oil 455
wintergreen oil 469–470
drug interactions 58t, 470
human vs animal toxicity 32
nephrotoxicity 120
neurotoxicity 131–132, 134t, 137
poisoning 25–26, 469–470,
650t
pregnancy and lactation 152t, 469
safety measures 652t
winter tarragon oil see Mexican
marigold oil
woolly butt oil see Eucalyptus
macarthurii oil
wormseed oil 470–471
acute toxicity 30t, 470–471
animal toxicity 28, 471
nephrotoxicity 120
neurotoxicity 131–132
poisoning 650t
safety measures 652t
wormwood (white) absolute 474
780
wormwood oil 471–475
African see lanyana oil
annual (sweet) 473–474
blood pressure effects 113
Indian see common mugwort oil
nephrotoxicity 120
neurotoxicity 134t, 135, 138,
145, 472–473
pregnancy and lactation 152t
safety measures 652t
sea 474
white see white wormwood oil
WP50 8
X ylang-ylang absolute 476–477
xanthorrizol 179, 179t, 647
xanthotoxin see methoxsalen
Xanthoxylum alatum
see Zanthoxylum armatum
xenobiotics 23
in pregnancy and lactation
147–149
Y yu-sho 303
yuzu oil 87, 480
yarmor oil see turpentine oil
yarrow oil 475–476
chamazulene CT 475–476 Z
drug interactions 58t, 476
Zanthoxylum alatum
green 476
see Zanthoxylum armatum
neurotoxicity 134t, 476
Zanthoxylum armatum 455
pregnancy and lactation 152t
Zanthoxylum limonella
sedative action 141t
see Zanthoxylum rhetsa
yellow camphor oil 58t,
Zanthoxylum piperitum 386
228–229
Zanthoxylum rhetsa 355
yellow pine see Pinus palustris
zdravetz oil 480–481
yellow sandalwood oil see East
zedoary oil 481–482
Indian sandalwood oil
reproductive toxicity 149, 152t,
155, 481–482
ylang-ylang oil 477–478
Zingiber cassumunar see Zingiber
adverse skin reactions 81t,
montanum
83t, 84, 93t, 96t, 478,
Zingiber montanum 400
479, 479t
Zingiber officinale 294
hypotensive effect 114
Zingiber purpureum see Zingiber
Young’s formula 50, 66
montanum
Yunnan pine see Pinus yunnanensis
zinziba oil 463–464