228 [Art. 6.8) Power Electronics (6) The effect of overlap angle of 30° with zero degree firing angle is shown in Fig. 6.35. (afwith phase voltages. In Fig. 6.36 (a), the output voltage waveform vp is sketched with line voltages, for an overlap.angle of 30° and with firing angle = 0°. The conduction of SCRs TL to T6 is also indicated. When TS is outgoing SCR and T1 the incoming SCR, the average output voltage rare, this is shown accordingly in Fig. 6.96 (a). In v,», Uap: first subscripts ¢ anda indicate the conduction of SCRs T5, Tl together from the positive group and second _ subscript b indicates the conduction of SCR." from negative group. When 1, 16 conduct, the output voltage is v,4 as shown. For T6 as the outgoing SCR and T2 the incoming SCR, Yab * Pac 2 of SCRs 6 and 2 together from negative group and first subscript a indicates the conduction of SCR! from the positive group. The shape of output voltage waveform and the conduction of SCRs for the remaining part of a cycle can be explained similarly. (c) For firing angle of 30°, and overlap angle of 30°, the output voltage waveform vp is drawn in Fig. 6.36 (b). For obtaining vp it is preferable to indicate first the conduction of various SCRs and then draw the output voltage waveform up. In Fig. 6.36 (6), the conduction of different thyristors is shifted to the right by « = 30° with respect to their positiun in Fig. 6.35 (a) where a= 0°. Now the waveform for u, as shown in Fig. 6.36 (6), can be drawn easily. (@) The waveform for phase a input current, ie. i,, is shown in Fig. 6.36 (c). As the load is resistive, the waveform of i, is identical to the waveform of voltage up of Fig. 6.36 (b). Current i, is positive when 71 is conducting and negative when T'4 is conducting. Note that i, without overlap would have four ripples but with overlap, it is seen to have five ripples in both positive and negative half eycles in Fig. 6.36 (c). Example 6.19. A 3-phase full converter bridge is connected to supply voltage of 230 V per phase and a frequency of 80 Hz, The source inductance is 4 mH. The load current on de side is constant at 20 A. If the load consists of a de voltage source of 400 V having an internal resistance of 1, ther galeulate : (a) firing angle delay and (6) overlap angle in degrees. Solution. (a) Converter output voltage the average output voltage is . The second subscripts in v,,, U,- indicate the conduction =E+1,R = 400+ 20x 1=420V. | From Bq, (6.48), 420 = 216 2280 og q_ M2EX5OM , 99 g 1000 x x or a= 34,382° «. Firing angle delay is 34.382° , 3N6 x 230 3 (nx 50) 4 (b) From Eq. (6.48), 429 = SEES cos (+m) + oy eX 20 or es = cost OE 12.602" he p= 42.602 - 34.382 = 8.22° +, Overlap angle in degrees = 8.22". 6.8. DUAL CONVERTERSPhase Controlled Rectifiers [Art 6.8] 229 Semi-converters are single quadrant converters. This means that over the entire firing je range, load voltage and current have only one polarity as shown in Fig. 6.9 (a). In this , Voand Ip represent, respectively, the average positive voltage and current of the semi-converter indicating rectification mode and power flow from ac source to the de load. In full converters, direction of current cannot, reverse because of the unidirectional properties of SORs but polarity of output voltage can be reversed as shown in Fig. 6.9 (b). Thus, a full converter operates as a rectifier in first quadrant (both Vo, Jy positive) from a= 0° to 90° and as an inverter (Vp positive but J) negative) from a= 90° to 180° in the fourth quadrant. This shows that a full converter can operate as « two-quadrant converter, Fig. 6.9 (6). In the first quadrant, power flows from ac source to the de load and in fourth quadrant, power flows from de eircuit to the ac source. 21 © Fig. 6.37. (a) Four-quadrant diagram. Non-circulating type (6) single-phase dual ‘converter and (c) three-phase dual converter. In case four quadrant operation is required without any mechanical changeover switch, two full converters can be connected back to back to the load cireuit. Such an arrangement ‘using two full converters in antiparallel and connected to the same dc load is called a dual converter. ‘There are two functional modes of a dual converter, one is non-circulating-current mode and the other is circulating-current mode, Non-circulating types of dual converters using230 {Art 6.8) Power Electronics single-phase and three-phase configurations are shown in Fig. 6.37 (b) and (c) respectiyely. If full converter marked 1, to the left of load circuit in Fig. 6.37 (6) and (c), is working alone operation in first and fourth quadrants can be obtained. With full eonverter marked 2 working alone in Fig, 6.37 (6) and (c), polarity of load voltage as well as direction of load current, with respect to converter 1, can be reversed. Hence, full converter marked 2 can operate in both second and third quadrants. Thus, a dual converter using two full converters can give four quadrant operation as shown in Fig. 6.37 (a). 6.8,}. Ideal Dual Converter Assume that the dual converter consists of two ideal converters and that there is no ripple in their output voltages. Such a dual converter can be represented by an equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6.38 (a). Vo; and Vo, are the magnitudes of average output voltages of converters 1 and 2 respectively, Diodes D1 and D2 shown here in series with the de voltage sources Vo; and Voy indicate the unidirectional flow of current. The current in load circuit can, however, flow in either direction. ‘The firing angles of both the converters are controlled in such a manner that their average output voltages are equal in magnitude and have the same polarity. This can happen only if one converter is operating as a rectifier and the other as an inverter. ‘The average output voltages for both single-phase and 3-phase converters are of the form. Vo = Vnax €08 46.50) and Vea = Vinax 98 tp (6.51) where, for a single-phase full converter, Vysgs = (2Viq/®) and for a three-phase full converter, — Vysae = (SV q1/R) Converter 1 Rectification Inversion (a) (0). Fig. 6.38, (a) Equivalent circuit of an ideal duel converter (b) Variation of terminal voltage for an ideal dual converter with firing angle. ‘Under normal operation, Vo has upper positive and lower negative polarities and Vo, has upper negative and lower positive polarities in Figs. 6.37 (b) and (c), It is assumed that the two converters have their average output voltages equal in magnitude. Their output voltages would have the same polarity only if polarity of Vea is reversed. In other words, their average output voltage Vp can be expressed as (6.52)Phase Controlled Rectifiers [Art, 6.8] 231 Substitution of Vo, and Vp from Eqs. (6.50) and (6.51) in Eq. (6.52) gives, t Viner 298 or cos a, = cos (180 ~ 0) or Oty + 09 = 180° -A6.53) Also 608 oy = 0s (180 + cr) 80? +O, 46.53 a) As per Eq. (6.53 a), for some vatue of firing angle op, a is always greater than: 180°. But 0, can never be greater than 180°, Therefore, the solution as given by Eq, (6.53) is only possible. From Eqs. (6.50), (6.51) and (6.53), the variation of output voltage with firing angle tor the two converters is as shown in Fig, 6.38 (6). The firing control circuit changes the firing angle o, and a, in such a manner that Eq. (6.53) is always satisfied 68.2. Practical Dual Converter With the firing angles controlled in a manner that a, +0, = 180° and with both the converters in operation, their average output voltages are equal and have the same polarity. One converter will be operating as a rectifier with firing angle o, and the other as an inverter with firing angle (180°~0,). Though their average output voltages are equal, yet their instantaneous voltages vo) and vg, are out of phase in a practical dual converter. This results in a voltage difference when the two converters are interconnected and as a consequence, a Jarge circulating current flows between the two converters but not through the load. In practical dual converters, this circulating current is limited to a tolerable value by inserting ‘a reactor between the two converters as shown in Fig. 6.39. The circulating current can however, be avoided provided the converters are triggered suitably. In general, a dual converter can be operated in the following two modes. (a) Dual Converter without Circulating Current. With non-circulating current dual converter, only one converter is in operation at a time and it alone carries the entire load current. Only this converter receives the firing pulses from the trigger control. The other converter is blocked from conduction ; this is achieved by removing the firing pulses from this converter. Thus, only one convercer is in operation at a time whereas the other converter is idle. Such an arrangement for the dual converters is shown in Fig. 6.37 where there is no reactor in-between the two converters. Suppose converter 1 is in operation and is supplying the load current. For blocking convertor 1 and switching on converter 2, first firing pulses to converter 1 are immediately removed or the firing angle of converter 1 is increased to maximum value and then its firing pulses are blocked. With this, load current would decay to zero and then only converter 2 is |de to conduct by applying the firing pulses to it. Now the current in converter 2 would build up through the load in the reverse direction. So long as converter 2 is in operation, converter 1 is idle as firing pulses are withdrawn from it. It should be ensured that during changeover from one converter to the other, the load current must decay to zero. After the outgoing converter has stopped conducting, a delay time of 10 to 20 msec is introduced before the firing pulses are applied to switch on the incoming converter. This time delay ensures reliable commutation of SCRs in the outgoing converter. If the incoming converter is triggered before the outgoing converter has been completely turned-off, a large circulating current would flow between the two converters. With non-circulating current mode of dual converter, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous. The control circuitry for the dual converter is so designed as to give satiafactory operation during continuous as well as discontinuous load current. or232 fart. 6.8) . Power Electronics "(p) Dual converter with circulating current. In the circulating current mode of dual converter, a reactor is inserted in-between converters 1 and 2 as shown in Fig, 6.39. This reactor limits the magnitude of circulating current to a reasonable value. Ye — i (b) Fig. 6.39. Circulating current type dual converter for (a) single-phase supply and (6) three-phase supply. ‘The firing pulses of the two converters are so adjusted that a, + a, = 180°, As for example, if firing angle of converter 1 is 60", then firing angle of converter 2 must be 120°. Therefore, for these firing angles, converter 1 is working as a rectifier and converter 2 as an inverter. ‘Though the output voltage at the terminals of both converters 1 and 2 has the same average value and also has the same polarity, their instantaneous output voltage waveforms, however, are not similar as shown by vp, and Ug» in Fig. 6.40 (b). As a consequence of it, circulating current flows between the two converters. ‘This circulating current is limited by the reactor. If the load current is to be reversed, the role of two converters is interchanged. This means that converter 1 is now made to act as inverter by making its firing angle greater than 90° ‘and converter 2 is made to work as rectifier by making its firing angle 02 less than 90° euch that 0; +0, 180°. The normal delay period of 10 to 20 msec, as required in cireulating-current free operation, is not needed here. This makes the dual converter with cireulating current operation faster. The main disadvantages of this dual converter are as under :Phase Controlled Rectifiers [Art 6.8] 233 . r Neb ma Noe Moe Yea Meo b Mod Vac SESS KXKXO (a) ) ed vt Reactor voitoge ut @) at ic (e) [ ie! Load current WALA * (f) Fig. 6.40. Voltage and current waveforms for a circulating-current type dual converter. (i) A reactor is required to limit the cireulating current, The size and cost of this reactor may be quite significant at high power levels. (i) Circulating current gives rise to more losses in the converters, hence the efficiency and power factor are low. (iii) As the converters have to handle load as well as circulating currents, the thyristors for the two converters are rated for higher currents. In spite of these drawbacks, a dual converter with circulating current mode is preferred jf load current is to be reversed quite frequently and a fast response is desired in the four-quadrant operation of the dual converter. Dual converter operation with waveforms. The operation of the dual converter in the circuiating-current mode is described here under the following assumptions : @ The reactor is lossless.234 [Art 68) Power Electronics (i) The firing angles of the two converters are so controlled that a +0 = 180" Fig. 6.40 (a), supply line voltages &p, Yo. Uae tC. are shown. As an illustrative example for describing the working of a dual converter with waveforms, let o be equal to 60°. Then, for converter 2, 0) = 180° - 60° = 120°, With a, = 60°, the output voltage Up; for converter 1 is indicated by thick line in Fig. 6.40 (a). This ‘output voltage vo; is now shown as t,, in Fig 6.40 (b) from o¥ = 120° to 180°. In this manner, vo, is drawn for other intervals of time in Fig. 6.40 (b). With cy = 120° for converter 2, the output voltage is negative as shown by thick line in Fig. 6.40 (a). As the average values of output voltages of both the converters are positive, the output voltage vse of converter 2 must also be shown positive above the referenee line , This output voltage vg, indicated by thick line in Fig. 6.40 (a) is now shown as vp, in Fig. 6.40 (b) from ct =180° to240°. In this manner, veg waveform is drawn positive as Vg, Yeo, Yep ete. in Fig. 6.40 (6). ‘The load voltage vp is equal to the average value of the instantaneous converter output voltages ug and vg te. u9= Por + Yor ; Pon (6.54) Vou in 60° — Yau sin 60° +0 = 9.433 Voy Vp Sin 30° + Vay 8in 30° ‘At a= 30°, y= or ng Sn = 0.5 Vs 0+ Vy sin 60° At of =60°, vgs = 0.483 Vy and $0 on. At ut = 0°, v% ‘This load voltage waveform vp is shown in Fig. 6.40 (c). ‘The reactor voltage v, is equal to the difference of converter output voltages V9 aNd Upp, Le. : ar Vo1 = Pon 6.55) Atar=0°, v, = Vi sin 60° - 0= 0,866 Vix, At at = 30°, 0, = Vy 8in 30 — Vy sin 80° = 0 At at =60°, 0, = 0 - Vig 8in 60° = ~ 0.866 Vp and so on. The variation of reactor voltage v, is plotted in Fig. 6.40 (d) di, [Now vb where i, is the circulating current through both the converters and reactor L. The waveform of i, can be drawn from the waveform of v, as under : “At ué = 0°, v, is maximum and positive, therefore slope of i, must be maximum and positive to satisfy the relation v,=Z a ‘Thus, i, is shown rising in Fig. 6.40 (e) with a maximum positive slope. At «at =30°, v, =0, therefore slope of i, =0 ; this is possible only when é, is t . maximum with ae 0. After ot = 30°, v, starts becoming negative, the value of i, also starts falling so that di,/dt is negative. At of = 60°, v, is maximum but negative, therefore slope of