AC Voltage Controllers AC voltage controllers are thyristor based devices which convert fixed alternating voltage direetly to variable alternating voltage without a change in the frequency. Some of the main applications of ac voltage controllers are for domestic and industrial heating, transformer tap changing, lighting control, ‘speed control of single-phase and three-phase ac drives and starting of induction motors. Earlier, the devices used for these applications were auto-transformers, tap-changing transformers, magnetic amplifiers, saturable reactors ete. But these devices are now replaced by thyristor-and triac-based ac voltage controllers because of their high efficiency, flexibility in control, compact size and less maintenance. AC voltage controllers are also adaptable for closed-loop control systems. Since the ac voltage controllers are phase-controlled devices, thyristors and triacs are line commutated and as such no itry is required in these controllers. The main disadvantage of ac voltage controllers is the introduction of objectionable harmonics in the supply current and orms, partienlarly at reduced output voltage levels. The object of this chapter is to study single-phase ac voltage controllers so far as their principle of working and gating signal requirements are concerned. Their use in transformer tap changers is also considered. . 9.1, TYPES\OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS The power circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller using one thyristor in antiparallel with one diode is shown in Fig, 9.1 (a). In this figure, F is taken as 1" ‘O: : (@) ® 1 Fig. 9.1, Single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller (a) Power-circuit diagram and (6) voltage and current waveforms.AC Voltage Controllers lArt. 9.2) 393 the load for simplicity. The output voltage and current waveforms obtained from this contrpller are shown in Fig. 9.1 (6). It is seen from this figure that positive half cycle is not identleal with negative half eycle for both voltage and current waveforms. As a result, de component is introduced in the supply and load circuits which is undesirable. "ae (au4a) a Loe e Fig. 9.2. Single-phase full-wave ae voltage contreller (2) Power-cireuit diagram ‘and (b) voltage and eurrent waveforms. Fig. 9.2 (a) shows the power circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave ac voltage controler with two SCRs connected in antiparallel. For this controller, voltage and current \raveforme are shown in Fig. 9.2 (6), This figure reveals that positive half cycle is identical with negative half eycle for both voltage and current waveforms. The power circuit of Fig. 9.2 (a), therefore, introduces no direct component in the supply and load circuit. This cireuit is thus more suited to practical circuits than single-phase half-wave cireuit. In this chapter, therefore, only full-wave ac voltage controllers are described. 9.2, INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL It is stated above that ac voltage controllers are phase-controlled devices. The principle of phase control is illustrated in Figs. 9.1 and 9.2. In these figures, the phase relationship between the start of load current and the supply voltage is controlled by varying the firing angle. As the controlled output is ac, these are called phase-controlled ac voltage controllers or ac voltage controllers. In industry, there are several applications in which mechanical time constant or thermal time constant is of the order of several seconds. For example, mechanical time constant for many of the speed-control drives, or thermal time constant for most of the heating loads is Usually quite high. For such applications, almost no variation in speed or temperature will ‘be hoticed if control is achieved by connecting the load to source for some on-cycles and then distonnecting the load for some off-cycles. This form of power control is called integral cycle control, So integral cycle control consists of switching on the supply to load for an integral number of cycles and then switching off the supply for a further number of integral cycles, Fig. 9.3. ‘The principle of integral cycle control can be explained by referring to Fig. 9.2 for single-phase voltage controller with resistive load. Gate pulses Zi; #2 turn on the thyristors TL, T2 respectively at zero-voltage crossing of the supply voltage. The source energises the load for n (= 3) cycles. When gate pulses are withdrawn, load remains off for m (= 2) cycles. In this manner, process of turn-on and turn-off is repeated for the control of load power. By varying the number of n and m cycles, power delivered to load can be regulated as desired. ‘The waveforms for source voltage v,, gate pulses and output voltage vp are shown in Fig. 9.3394 Art, 92) Power Electronics nabredgri bree “ on ate of Lon off Fig. 9.8, Waveforms pertaining to integral cycle control. for n= 3 and m= 2. Power is delivered to load for n cycles. No power is delivered to load for m cycles. It is the average power in the load that is controlled. In literature, integral cycle control is also known as on-off control, burst firing, zero-voltage switching, cycle selection or eycle syncopation. \ For sinusoidal supply voltage, the rms value of output voltage V,, can be obtained as under : "ea 2 sin® wt d (at), for first on-cycle +43" Vf sin? at -d (a, for second on-eyele +. a fy Vi sin? ot (an, for non] For n.on-cycles and m off-eycles, the periodicity = (n + m) 2x radians, see Fig. 9.3. Vor leew h Yaa or deo] 1a ‘einen a- cosa | J=- or Varn ¥e- win =VVarm TV B.D) where V, = 1ms value of source voltage and b= —*-, is the duty cycle of ac voltage controller. y, Rams lead current, T= eAC Voltage Controllers fart. 92) 395 " , Vi VE (_n_) bee Power delivered to load = RR a) : (9.2) Rms value of input current, J, = rms value of load current, I, Input VA =V, (rms value of source current) eV 12 Vs le =¥e Input VA x pf = power delivered to load : v3 Vv, “ =e. Rie «Input pf = R ¥, nim (9.3) ‘As each thyristor conducts for x radians during each cycle of n on-cycles, the average value of thyristor current is given by * Inn “21 Ip sin ot -d (ot), for first on-cycle + Jo ta sin at -d (at, for second on-eycle+ HJ tm: sin ot -d (ab), for nth on-eyee) . n * . = Onin +m) J fm sin ad -d (at) fm akin (9.4) x m+n f Similarly, rms value of thyvistor current is : va * ta eal Banter acon] in [adn E =o Vanem~ 2 Integral cycle control introduces less harmonics into the supply system, the supply undertakings therefore insist upon the consumers to use integral-cycle method for heating loads and for motor-control drives. 'AC voltage controllers with on-off control has specific applications as discussed above. Phase controlled ac voltage controllers are, however, more common. As such, phase-controlled ‘ac voltage controllers will only be discussed and analysed in what follows : Example 9.1. A single-phase voltage controller has input voltage of 230 V, 60 Ha and a load of R= 15 0. For 6 cycles on and 4 cycles off, determine (a) rms output voltage, (b) input pf and (c) average and rms thyristor currents. Solution. (a) From Eq, (0.1), rms value of output voltage is 9.5) = Re o_o Va=V, Vrte = 20 Vg yg 7 18ISTV ¥ n VS = (®) From Eq. (9.3), input pf =YF= Via = Veaa = 0.7746 lag.396 fart. 9.3] Power Electronics 2 Also power delivered to toad =, R= be = MBs =2116W ac hoove VA . = 230% 28088, QTBLTAVA . 2116 co Input pf © afgngg OTHE Ine 230V2 (c) Peak thyristor current, Ip, = 1.681 A 15 From Sq. (9.4), average value of thyristor current, In _ 0.621.681 ahln Taa= t ® From Eq. (9.5), rms value of thyristor current, Typ = EE _ 21.681 x OE. Re = 4.1407 A = 8.397 A, 9.3, SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS Fig. 9.4 shows three possible configurations of single-phase ac voltage controllers. Fig. 9.4 (a), similar to Fig, 9.2 (a), uses two thyristors connected in antiparallel. The trigger sources for the two thyristors must be isolated from one another because otherwise the two cathodes would be connected together and the two thyristors would be out of cireuit as shown in Fig. 9.4 (). Thus, no control of the output voltage would be possible. Trigger source " @ @ Be. 9.4. Single-phase ac voltage controllers. : Scheme shown in Fig, 9.4 (c) employs four diodes and one thyristor. For this cireuit, there is no need for any isolation between contrel and power cireuits. This scheme, therefore offers fa cheap ac voltage controller. The voltage drop in the three conducting devices (two diodes and one thyristor) will, however, be more than in Fig. 9.4 (a). | The cireuit shown in Fig, 9.4 (d) uses one triac. This configurtion is suitable for low-power applications where the load is resistive or has only a small inductance. The triggering circuit for the triac need not be isolated from the power circuit,AC Voltage Controllers fart. 9.3] 397 | 9.3.1. Single-phase Voltage Controller with R Load Fig. 9.5 (a) shows a single-phase voltage controller feeding power to a resistive load R. As stated before, two thyristors are connected in ant parallel. Waveforms for source voltage v, gating pulses i,y, ia, load current io, source currenc i,, load voltage Yo, voltage across T1 as Up, and that across T2 as vr) are shown in Fig. 9.5 (6). (a) (b) Fig 35. (a) Singlesphaso ae voltage controller with R toed (@ Voltage and current waveforms for figure (a). ‘Thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during positive and negative half cycles respectively. During positive half cycle, 1 is triggered at a firing angle .. T1 starts conducting ‘and source voltage is applied to load from a ton. At r, both vg, ig fall to zero. Just after x, TL is subjected to reverse bias, it is therefore tumed off. During negative half cycle, T2 is ‘triggered at (n+ a). T2 conducts from n +a to 27, Soon after 2x, T2 is subjected to a reverse bias, it is therefore commutated. Load and source currents have the same waveform. From zero to a, T1 is forward biased, vp,=v, as shown. From a, T1 conducts, vn is therefore about 1 V. After x, T1 is reverse bissed by source voltage, therefore ¢;, =v, from398 [Art. 9.3) 1 Power Electronics nto x+ a. From na to 2x, T2 conducts ;T is therefore reverse biased by voltage drop across T2,which is about 1 to 1.5 V. The voltage variation up, across SCR T1 is shown in Fig. 9.5(6). Similarly, the variation of voltage vr, across T2 can be crawn. In Fig. 9.5 (b), voltage drop across thyristors Tl and T2 is purposely shown just to highlight the duration of reverse bias across T1 and T2. Examination of this figure reveals that for any value of o, each thyristor is reverse biased for n/4 see. ‘There is thus no restriction on the value of firing angle «. Firing angle can, therefore, be controlled from zero to x and rms output voltage from V, to zero. Here V, is the rms value of source voltage. +. Circuit turn-off time, Harmonics of output quantities and input current. It is seen from Fig, 9.5 (b) that waveforms for output quantities (voltage vp and current i) and input current i, are non-sinusoidal. These waveforms can be described by Fourier series. As the positive and negative half cycles are identical, de component and even harmonics are absent. ‘The output voltage vp can be represented by Fourier series as under : vp= EAn sin not + 5, B, cos not (8) neh aes where Ay=2 [v0 (on sin nat (00) 9.7) fi 9 (at) cos next - d(at) (9.8) and The load voltage vy during the first half cycle is, . Ug = Voy Si OF «OL < . Substivatian of vo from Bq, (9:9) in Eqs. (8.7) and (88) gives Ayo a J" sin of -sin not -d (0!) avast [eos (n- 1) at - c08 (n +1) af] dle) 2 anes snia-nal 9.10) ned and B= ine sin at - cos nat - d(at) veo veh {sin (1 + 1) of - sin (n - 1) af] dot) Ya{sosms a= ~soees dant] 94D) where Vi,=4E V, and V,= ns luo of vores veltage. For obtaining Eq, (9.11), note that for n= 1,3, 5...c0s (n + 1) x= Land cos (n- 1) x= 1. ‘The amplitude of the nth harmonic output voltage V;q, and its phase @, are given byAC Voltage Controllers ‘ [Art 93] 399 t =NAZ+ By and, = tan! Ba (9. 12a) and Igg’= Yt = nth harmonic load current wu(9.126) R For fundamental frequency, i.e, for n= i, Vip, and @, cannot be obtained from Eqs. (9.10) to (9.12), because these become indeterminate for n=1. This difficulty can, however, be overcome by putting n= 1 in Eqs. (9.7) and (9.8) and substituting the value of v from Eq. 9). . . Ve lei : A= 2 Vy sin ot -aton = * +-0] (9.18) * and By=2 J Vp in at 008 at dla (9.14) From the coefficients A, and B;, the peak value of the fundamental frequency voltage Vip. and its phase , are given by Vin = lA + Bil? a 2 -%[[ent ea + {eet} lr (9.164) hy Ym. amplitude of fundamental component of load or source current (9.156) B - eaten’ 212 tan {cos 2e-1 and = tantt Zh an [sanerbaca (9.16) ‘When ac voltage controller is used for the speed control of a single-phase induction motor, only fundamental component is useful in producing the torque, The harmonics in the motor current merely increase the losses and therefore heating of the induction motor. For heating and lighting loads, however, both fundamental and harmonies are useful in producing the ac controlled power. In such applications, rms value V,, of the output voltage should be known, It can be obtained from Eq. (9.9) as follows : aa ve [2S V4, sin? ae - ace v. 12 Hel oer Fainza] (9,170) and I= Rr rms value of load, or source current 8.178) The average power P delivered to load of resistance R is ¥ Patt. na tea 2 (ee) +} inte] ve t = ale ~a)+ z sin 2a] (9.18) Maximum power P,,,, is delivered to load when a = 0.400 Art. 9.31 ‘ Power Electronics This gives In terms of harmonic components, P=Rh, + hot List i i Van t Vos + Vogt one) Fig. 9.5 (8) shows that source current waveform is identical with load current waveform. ‘This shows that expressions for both load and source currents for the appropriate harmonics are the same. Power Factor. Assuming that source voltage remains sinusoidal even though non-sinusoidal current is drawn from it, the power factor is given by V, fy 008 @_ Ih cos pf= Realpower __ Yih c08 Ii 008 1 Kpparent power V, (9.19) where , e = rms value of fundamental component of source current given by Eq. (9.15 6) ms value of source current, Eq. (9.17 b), ' ‘= phase angle between V, and J;, Eq. (9.16) Another expression for pf can be obtained as follows : Real power delivered to load = 5" Apparent power delivered to load ' eitev, Me VER _ Vor Pf OTR, Vor [2 1 i” From Eq, (9.17), f= ei {« 04} sn aah] (9.20) ‘The maximum value of rms output voltage and current occurs at a = 0 and are given by V, and V,/R respectively, Eq. (9.17). For = 0, harmonics are absent, these are therefore also the maximum values of fundamental rms voltage and current. Example 9.2. A single-phase voltage controller feeds power to a resistive load of 3.0 from 230 V, 60 Hz source. Calculate : (a) the maximum values of average and rms thyristor currents for any firing angle a, (®) the minimum circuit turn-off time for any firing angle o, (c) the ratio of third-harmonic voltage to fundamental voltage for a (d) the maximum value of di/dt occurring in the thyristors, (@) the angle « at which the greatest forward or reverse voltage is applied to either of the thyristors and the magnitude of these vottages.AC Voltage Controllers ' TArt.9.3} 401 Solution. (a) It is seen from Fig. 9.5 (6) that current through thyristor flows from a to fot the first cycle of 2n radians. Therefore, average thyristor current is given by 1 pte _¥m, LJ FB sin ot deon = pay 2 ea8 Its maximum value occurs when a= 0, Therefore, maximum value of average thyristor current is Rms thyristor current is 12 . In lal (F sin «| aan) « Vin 1. 4) = ate | +2 its maximum valve occurs at @= 0. YB x 230 _ Ox3 = 64.211 A aR Vn Also b Tew (6) Waveforms for vr, 0m in Fig. 9.5 (6) show that for any value of firing angle circuit turn-off time is always x radians. = Fx 34.512= 54.211 A a, the = 0.01 sec = 10 m-sec. ss a @” axf Of 2x50 “c) For third harmonic, from Eq, (9.10), ‘ag= Yn | sin. 240 _ sin 120° SRL 4 2 ~. Circuit turn-off time = and from Eq, (9.11), B= J The magnitude of these voltages is V,, = v2 V,. 9.3.2, Single-phase Voltage Controller with RL Load Fig. 9.6 (a) shows a single-phase voltage controller with RL load. In Fig. 9.6 (b) are shown waveforms for source voltage ¥,, gate currents igy.and ig, load and source currents iy and i,, load voltage vp, voltage uz, across SCR T1 and voltage vr» across thyristor T2. Vos: ignis| jase Ware Fig. 9.6. Single-phase voltage controller with RL load. | During zero to n, Tis forward biased. At af = a, Tis triggered and ig = ipy starts building up through the load. At x, load and source voltages are zero but the current is not zero because of the presence of inductance in the load circuit. At f > x, load current reduces to zero. Angle B is called the extinction angle. After x, Tl is reverse biased but does not turn off because iy is not zero. At B only, when ig is zero, T1 is turned off as it is already reverse biased. After the commutation of Ti at B, a voltage of magnitude V,, sin B at once appears as a reverse bias across T1 and as a forward bias across T2, Fig. 9.6 (b). From f to x + a, no current exists in the power circuit, Thyristor'T2 is turned on at (n+ 0) > B. Current i) =i starts building up'in the reversed direction through the load, At 2x, v, and tv are zero but iz = ig is not zero.AC Voltage Controllers [Art. 9.3] 403 At fervor, igg=0 and T2 is turned off because it is already reverse biased. At (x+0+7), Vq sin (n+ c+) appears as a forward bias across Tl and as a reverse bids across ‘72, Fig. 9.6 (6). From (x+a+7) to (2n+0), no current exists in the power circuit. At (2x+a), T1 is tured on and current starts building up as before. When T1 conducts, voltage drop across it appears as a reverse bias across T2. Similarly, when T2 conducts, vz appears as a reverse bias across T1. It is seen from Fig. (9,6 5) that waveform vyy is obtained after inverting waveform vp, Waveform Up, shows that TI is reverse biased for x radians, Same is true for thyristor T2. Therefore, circuit turn-off time ¢, for each SCR, for any firing angle o, is t= n/@ 6ec. ‘The expression for load current ig can be obtained as under : The KVL for the circuit of Fig. 9.6 (a) gives toe w=Vasin at = Riy+ LY cot <8 The solution of this equation is of the form te sin (at ~ 9) + Ae" where Z=1R*+ (ob)? and o= tan”! (al/R) Constant A can be obtained from the initial condition according to which i)=0 at wt = aie. att=a/. Therefore, or A Substitution of this value of A in Eq. (9.21) gives ip as y, . igs Fl sio oro — sin (0. ¢) exp Cle] 180! (9.83) a It is seen from Fig. 9.6 (bY that «= 0 again at { (9.24) = sin (@— 9) - exp! ‘R (a-8% Llo Extinction angle B can be obtained from Eq. (9.24). ‘The conduction angle y during which current flows from angle «. to angle B is given by ol y=B-a +(9.25) ‘30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° For a given value of load phase angle $, angle Fig. 7.7 versus @ curves for B is determined for various values of 0. from Eq. ” ge voltage controller of Fig. 9. (a). 2: 404 fart. 9.3] ' Power Electronics (9.24) and thus a relationship between 7 and @.can be realized from Eq. (9.25). For the various Values of yand a, curves shown in Fig. 9.7 are obtained for different values of 6, Note that phase angle @ cannot exceed 90°. : tis seen from Figs. 9.6 (b) and 9.7 that as a.is decreased, the conduction angle y incroases. ‘The waveform of current ig in Fig. 9.6 (b) reveals that for 7<,é; through T1 flows from ato(at)=$. TI remains off from a+ upto (n+ a). At (t+ a), ir through T2 flows from n+aton+a+y, T2 remains off from n+a47 to 2x+u, At 2n +0, TI is tuned on. With progressive decrease in a, Y may become equal to x. Under this condition, when y is just equal coe Ti will be on {rom @ to-+ at and ip, flows from a to x +a Further, T2 will be on from 4 c:to 2n-+ 0. and current ipp flows from x +a to 2n+<. Thus, when y= ny 0 to a —T2 conducts oto (n+ a) —T1 conducts fA) (n+ a) to (2x + a) —T2 conducts and so on ‘This shows that load current will never become zero for any segment of time and therefore for all the time, load is connected to source. Thus, for y=, the load voltage is equal to sinusoidal source voltage provided the voltage drop in thyristors is neglected. Under these conditions, load behaves as if it is being fed directly by the ac source. What is the value of a for which y=1 and load is directly connected to ac source ? For this, consider that RL load, with load phase angle 9, is connected directly to ac source. Under Steady state, the load current will be a sine wave and lag behind the voltage wave by an single 9 a8 shown in Fig. 9.6 (c). The current is positive from 4 tam + and negative from © + @ to On 6, Fig, 9.6 (c), If it is required to obtain the current waveform of Fig. 9.6 (c) through the operation of power circuit of Fig. 9.6 (a), then 0 to @—T2 conducts oto (n+ 6) —T1 conducts BY (n+ @) to (2 + 4) —T2 conducts and so on} ' “Acomparison of expressions (A) and (B) reveals that when a= 6, y= 7. This can be verified by referring to Eqs. (9.24) and (9.25). When a= 6, Eq, (9.24) gives sin (B- 0) =0=sinn or (B-a)=n From Eq. (9.25) y=B-a=n. ‘This shows that for 1-phase ac voltage controller, waveforms of Fig. 9.6 (6) are applicable only when a > and that of Fig. 9.6 (c) for as. Operation with a, Assume that ac voltage controler is working under steady state with a6. From zero to ¢, T2 conducts and from $to(n+@), T1 conducts ; from 119 to 2n +6, T2 conducts and so on, Now let a be decreased below ¢. When T1 is triggered at o<6, TI will not get turned on because it is reverse biased by voltage drop in T2 which {5 conducting current ép, T1 will get turned on only at ¢ when iz, =0 and reverse bias due to voltage drop in T2 vanishes. Now T1 will conduct from @ ton +6. T2 will be triggered at an angle (+ 0) < (n+). As TI is conducting, a voltage drop in T1 will apply a reverse bias arrose T2, as a result T2 will not got turned on at n+ a, but only at x + 9, when iz = 0. Now 72 will conduct from x+9 to 2n+ and so on. This shows that load voltage and current waveforms will not change from what they are at a=. Thus the reduction of a below 6 is wet able to control the load voltage and load current. The ac output power ean be controlled only for a.> 6. Note that for 0.< 6, y remains, equal to x. Thus the control range of firing angle is 9 6, a gate pulse of narrow width is sufficient to trigger the SCR. In case a < 6, minimum width of gate pulse should be equal to $ plus the angle required for the current to reach latching current ‘value. (a Fig. 9.8, Single-phase voltage controller with Fig. 9.9. Types of gating signals RL load with pulse gating. (@ pulse gating (6) continuous gating (©) high-frequency carrier gating. In practice continuous gating is undesirable as it leads to more heating of the SOR gate and at the same time, it increases the size of the pulse transformer, The technique that mitigates the above disadvantages of continuous gate signal and ensures thyristor turn on is to use a train of firing pulses from o. to x as shown in Fig. 9.9 (c). This type of signal is also termed as high-frequency carrier gating. Example 9.8. A single-phase voltage controller is employed for controlling the power flow from 230 V, 50 Hz source into a load cireuit consisting of R= 39 and ol =4 0. Calculate (a) the control range of firing angle,406" [Art 9.3] Power Electronics (b) the maximum value of rms load current, (c) the maximum power and power factor, (d) the maximum values of average and rms thyristor currents, fe) the maximum possible value of di/dt that may occur in the thyristor and @ the conduction angle for a= 0° and = 120° assuming a gate pulse of duration x radian. Solution, (a) For controlling the load, the minimum value of firing angle a= load phase 1b sani 4 angle, ¢= tan’! += tan”! 3 = 53.13°. The maximum possibte value of o: is 180°. :. Firing angle control range is §3.13* < a < 180°, (8) The maximum value of rms load current Jp occurs when a= = 53.13°. But at this value of firing angle, the power circuit of ac voltage controller behaves as if load is directly connected to ac source. Therefore, maximum value of rms load current is Iga =p my = pep = 46 A OO NR aby Wate () Maximum power = R= 46?x 3 = 6348 W GR _ 46 20% 46x38 Power facto! = 7. = “pay 06. (d) Average thyristor current is maximum when a= and conduction angle y=, From Fig. 9.6 (c), eery, Travn= 35 J, Zi sin (t-9) dws) * an Zz y, V2 x 230 a=tBe = FE ax Nee OTA. Similarly, maximum value-of rms thyristor current is 2 179 [Vy 2 Im=| 3 Ja {i> sin cata} aa _¥m _ 2 x 230 = ee 82.827. (e) Maximum value of occurs when a= >. From Eq, (9.23), 7" Vn ss J 008 (at - 4) - 0. | tts value is maximum when cos (at - ¢)=1 @).. = 2.28028 50 9 g437 x 104 A/sec. “(P For a~0°, Fig. 9.7 shows that conduction angle y is 180°. For a=120° dnd $=53.13, Fig. 9.7 gives a conduction angle of about 95°. Example 9.4. For the circuit shows in Fig. 9.10 (a), sketch the waveforms of output voltage and current for the following values of firing angles. ‘(a) Only 72 is triggered at at = 0, 2x, 4x ete.