TSD Tema4 2023

Tema 4: Introducción a la Antenas
Tema 4
Introducción a las Antenas
Centro Universitario de la Defensa Jordi Ortiz Murillo

Academia General del Aire. Jordi.ortiz@cud.upct.es
1
Basadas en el trabajo del Dr. Germán Rodríguez
Bibliography
• [EWF] Electronic Warfare Fundamentals. Chapter 6

2
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Phased array antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Impact of terrain on Radar scan
Sumary
3
• The function of the antenna during transmission:
• Is to concentrate the radar energy from the transmitter into a shaped beam that points
in the desired direction.
• During reception, or listening time:
• The function of the antenna is to collect the returning radar energy, contained in the
echo signals, and deliver these signals to the receiver.
• Radar antennas are characterized by directive beams that are usually scanned in a
recognizable pattern.
• The primary antenna types in use today fall into three categories:
• Parabolic, Cassegrain, or phased array antennas.
• Additionally, the method radar antennas employ to sample the environment is a critical
design feature of the radar system. The scan type selected for a particular radar system
often decides the employment of that radar in an integrated air defense system (lADS). The
process the radar antenna uses to search airspace for targets is called scanning or
sweeping. This chapter discusses circular, unidirectional, bidirectional, helical, raster,
Palmer, and conical scans, and track-while-scan (TWS) radar systems. 4
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
5
Parabolic antenna
• One of the most widely used radar antennas is the parabolic reflector (Figure 6-1). The parabola-
shaped antenna is illuminated by a source of radar energy, from the transmitter, called the feed.
The feed is placed at the focus of the parabola, and the radar energy is directed at the reflector
surface. Because a point source of energy, located at the focus, is converted into a wavefront of
uniform phase, the parabola is well suited for radar antenna applications. By changing the size
and shape of the parabolic reflecting surface, a variety of radar beam shapes can be transmitted.
6
• Elongating the vertical dimensions of the parabola creates a radar antenna
that generates a horizontal fan-shaped beam with a small vertical dimension
(Figure 6-3). This type of antenna is generally used in height-finding radar
systems.
7
• Another variation of the basic
parabolic antenna includes using an
array of multiple feeds instead of a
single feed (Figure 6-4). This type of

parabolic antenna can produce
multiple radar beams, either
symmetrical or asymmetrical,
depending on the angle and spacing
of the individual feeds.
8
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
9
Cassegrain Antenna
• A Cassegrain antenna uses a two-reflector system to generate and focus a radar

beam (Figure 6-5). The primary reflector uses a parabolic contour, and the
secondary reflector, or subreflector, has a hyperbolic contour. The antenna feed
is located at one of the two foci of the hyperbola. Radar energy from the
transmitter is reflected from the subreflector to the primary reflector to focus the
radar beam. Radar energy returning from a target is collected by the primary
reflector and reflected as a convergent beam to the subreflector. The radar energy
is rereflected by the subreflector, converging at the position of the antenna feed.
The larger the subreflector, the closer it can be to the primary reflector. This
reduces the axial dimensions of the radar but increases aperture blockage due to
the subreflector. A small subreflector reduces aperture blockage, but it must be
positioned at a greater distance from the primary reflector.
10
Flat plate Cassegrain antenna
• To reduce the aperture blockage by the subreflector and
to provide a method to rapidly scan the radar beam, the
flat plate Cassegrain antenna was developed. This
type of Cassegrain antenna is depicted in Figure 6-6.
11
12
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
13
Phased Array Antenna
• A phased array antenna is a complex

arrangement of many individual transmitting
and receiving elements in a particular
pattern. A phased array antenna can, in

effect, radiate more than one beam from the
antenna by using a computer to rapidly and
independently control groups of these
individual elements. Multiple beams and
computer processing of radar returns give the
phased array radar the ability to track-while-
scanning and engage multiple targets
simultaneously. Figure 6-7 is a view of the
phased array radar antenna. 14
• A phased array radar uses the principle of radar phase to
control the individual transmitting and receiving elements. When
two transmitted frequencies are in-phase, their amplitudes add
together, and the radiated energy is doubled.

• When two transmitted frequencies are out-of-phase, they
cancel each other. Phased array radars use this principle to
control the shape of the transmitted radar beam (Figure 6-8).
15
Centro Universitario de la Defensa

Academia General del Aire.
16

17
• If the same antenna elements are fed out-of-phase, the
principal direction of radiation will be along the axis of the
antenna elements. In Figure 6-10, when the positive peak
from A arrives at B, B is now positive also. These energies

interact to strengthen the energy being radiated from the ends
of the array. Meanwhile, when the positive peak from A,
radiating along the Y axis, meets the negative peak from B,
they are canceled. This type of array is called an “end-fire
array.”
18

19
• The computer controlling the phase of the
signal delivered to each transmitting and
receiving element of a phased array
antenna controls the direction and
shape of the radiated beam (Figure 6-11).

By shifting the phase of the signals
between 0° and 180°, the beam sweeps.
This is the basic means of producing an
antenna scan. In addition, the amplitude, or
power, of the signal applied to each
element can be varied to control the
sidelobes. This alters the shape of the
beam which affects the range capability and
angular resolution of the radar.
20
21
Planar array antenna
• Figure 6-12 depicts a variation of the phased array antenna, known as
a planar array antenna. A planar array antenna uses transmit and
receive elements in a linear array, but, unlike the phased array radar,
the elements are smaller and are placed on a movable flat plate. The
ability to simultaneously track several targets is one advantage of
this type of radar.
22
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
23
Antenna gain
• The most important characteristic of any type of antenna is antenna gain.

• Antenna gain is a measure of the ability of an antenna to concentrate energy
in the desired direction. Antenna gain should not be confused with receiver
gain, which is designed to control the sensitivity of the receiver section of a

radar system. There are two types of antenna gain: directive and power.
• The directive gain of a transmitting antenna is the measure of signal intensity
radiated in a particular direction. Directive gain is dependent on the shape of the
radiation pattern of a specific radar antenna. The directive gain does not take
into account the dissipative losses of the antenna. Directive gain is computed
using Equation 6-1.
24
• The power gain does include the antenna dissipative losses and is computed using
Equation 6-2.
• The term isotropic antenna describes a theoretical spherical antenna that radiates
with equal intensity in all directions. This results in a spherical radiation pattern.
• The power density for any point on an isotropic antenna is the radiation intensity
and can be calculated by dividing the total power transmitted (PT) by the total
surface area of the sphere, as shown in Equation 6-3.
25
Power Density of a practical antenna
• The radiation pattern of an isotropic, or spherical, antenna would
provide neither azimuth or elevation resolution and would be
unusable for radar applications. To provide azimuth and elevation
resolution, a practical antenna must focus the radar energy. The

power density of a practical antenna differs from the isotropic
antenna only in terms of antenna gain (G). Solving Equation 6-3 for
the power density of a practical antenna yields Equation 6-4.
26
• The actual power gain (G) of a practical antenna can be
calculated by using Equation 6-5.
27
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
28
• The power density and gain of an antenna are a function of the
antenna pattern of a radar system.
29
• The power density and gain of an antenna are a function of the
antenna pattern of a radar system.
30
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
31
Circular Scan
• A circular scanning radar uses an antenna system that continuously scans 360° in azimuth.
• The time required for the antenna to sweep one complete 360° cycle is called the scan
rate.
• Scan duration is the number of “hits per scan,” or the number of pulses, reflected by a
target as the radar beam crosses it during one full scan.

•Most pulse radars require 15 to 20 hits per scan to obtain sufficient information to display a
target.
• The factors that determine the number of hits per scan the radar receives include:
– Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
– Antenna beamwidth
– Scan duration.
32
Circular scanning characteristics:
• Accurate target range and azimuth information.
• Ideal for the roles of early warning and initial target acquisition. To
accomplish these missions, the antenna generates a fan beam that
has a large vertical beamwidth and a small horizontal beamwidth.

(Since elevation information will normally be provided by height
finder radars).
33
Circular scanning characteristics:
• This antenna scan allows the radar to scan large volumes of
airspace for early target detection. Since early detection is the
primary goal of early warning radars, accurate altitude and
azimuth resolution are secondary considerations.

• Circular scan radars designed for early warning transmit a radar
signal with a low PRF. A low PRF allows sufficient time for the
radar pulse to travel long distances, and return, before another
pulse is transmitted. This gives the radar system a long,
unambiguous range capability. Circular scan radars with low
PRFs generally use long pulse widths in order to increase their
average power and long-range detection capability.
34
• The plan position indicator (PPI) scope display is normally
used with a circular scan radar.
35
4.7. Circular scan
• Circular scan radars provide range and azimuth

information for both early warning and acquisition
roles. Modified circular scan radars that can also
provide elevation information may be used for

ground control intercept (GCI) roles.
• Two modified circular scan radars that determine

range, azimuth, and elevation are:
• -V-beam
• - Stacked beam.
36
• (1) The V-beam radar transmits two fan-shaped beams that are
swept together. A vertical beam provides range and azimuth
information. A second beam, rotated at some convenient angle,
provides a measure of the altitude of the target.
37
4.7. Circular scan
• A stacked beam radar (Figure 6-19) employs a vertical stack

of fixed elevation “pencil” beams which rotate 360°. Elevation
information is obtained by noting which beam contains the
target return. Range and azimuth information is determined

in the same manner as in an early warning radar.
38
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
39
Linear Scan
• Linear scan is a method used by some radar systems

to sweep a narrow radar beam in a set pattern to
cover a large volume of airspace. Linear scans can be
oriented in a vertical direction for height finder radars
or in a horizontal direction, or raster, for acquisition and

target tracking radars. A unidirectional linear radar
scans in a single direction then begins its sweep all over
again (Figure 6-20).
• Generally, linear scans offer excellent single-axis
coverage, and the narrow beam offers enhanced
azimuth and elevation resolution.
40
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
41
Unidirectional scan
• A helical scan is a unidirectional scan pattern that allows a “pencil”

beam to search a 360° pattern. In Figure 6-21, the antenna sweeps a
360° sector in a clockwise direction. After each complete revolution,
the antenna elevation is increased. This scan pattern is repeated for a
specified number of revolutions, in this case, three, 360° sweeps. At the

end of the scan pattern, the antenna elevation is reset to the initial
elevation and the scan is repeated. A helical scan pattern is commonly
used as a target acquisition mode for radar systems with narrow vertical
and horizontal beamwidths.
42
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
43
4.10. Bidirectional scan
• A bidirectional linear scan, such as a raster scan, sweeps both horizontally

and vertically (Figure 6-22). A raster scan uses a thin beam to cover a
rectangular area by horizontally sweeping the area. The angle of elevation is
incrementally stepped up or down with each horizontal sweep of the
desired sector. After the sector has been covered, the angle of elevation is
reset to the original value and the process is repeated. The number of
raster bars is set by the number of horizontal sweeps in the basic raster
pattern. Figure 6-22 shows a four-bar raster scan, which is normally
associated with an airborne interceptor (Al) radar.
44
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
45
• A conical scan, or conscan, radar is
generally used for precision target
tracking.
• A conical scan radar (Figure 6-23)

employs a pencil beam of radar energy
that is continuously rotated around the
target. This circular rotation of a pencil
beam generates a cone-shaped scan
pattern with the apex of the cone
located at the antenna. Thus, the
name conical scan.
46
• As the pencil beam rotates, the circular scan
patterns overlap in the center.
• This creates a central tracking area that has a
much smaller effective beamwidth than the

rotating pencil beam (Figure 6-24). This results
in a very precise tracking solution.
47
• Since conical scan radars are designed for precision target tracking, these
radars normally operate at high frequencies, high PRF, narrow pulse widths, and
narrow beamwidths. The rotation rate of the pencil beam can exceed 1,800
revolutions per minute. This means that both azimuth and elevation data can be
updated about 30 times per second.

• The combination of conical scan and raster scan is called a Palmer-raster scan
(Figure 6-25). A Palmer-raster scan uses a thin beam, employing a conical scan
searching pattern, for a specific sector of airspace. With each sweep of the
sector, the angle of elevation is incrementally stepped up or down. After the
vertical sector has been covered, the angle of elevation is set at the original
elevation and the process is repeated. The number of bars is determined by the
number of vertical search scans.
48
• The combination of conical scan and raster scan is called a Palmer-raster scan
(Figure 6-25). A Palmer-raster scan uses a thin beam, employing a conical scan
searching pattern, for a specific sector of airspace. With each sweep of the
sector, the angle of elevation is incrementally stepped up or down. After the
vertical sector has been covered, the angle of elevation is set at the original
elevation and the process is repeated. The number of bars is determined by
the number of vertical search scans.
49
• The combination of a conical scan and a circular scan is called a Palmer scan.
Palmer scans incorporate a circular scanning antenna to search the entire
horizon while simultaneously performing a conical scan. If the radar antenna
is also performing a unidirectional altitude search in conjunction with this
scan, it is employing a Palmer-helical scan (Figure 6-26).
50
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
51
• A track-while-scan (TWS) system uses a technique that allows a radar to track one or more
targets while scanning for others. Radar systems with a TWS capability must be able to
generate two or more distinct radar beams.
• A conventional TWS radar employs two antennas that work with each other to perform the
scan function (Figure 6-27). Each antenna produces a separate unidirectional beam. Each
beam is transmitted at a different frequency. The vertical antenna generates a beam
employing a vertical sector scan similar to a height finder radar except the beamwidth is
narrower and it scans at a higher rate. The horizontal antenna generates an identical beam
employing a horizontal sector scan at a different frequency. The track function is
accomplished in the area where the two beams pass through each other. A target that is
within this center area is tracked, and positional information on range, elevation, and azimuth
is updated each time the beams sweep through the area.
52
4.12. Track while scan
53
• The phased array radar is a product of the application of computer and digital technologies
to the field of radar design. A phased array is a complex arrangement of many individual
transmitting and receiving elements in a particular pattern (Figure 6-28). Common arrays
include linear, planar, curved, and conformal, with linear being the most common. By using
a computer to rapidly and independently control groups of these individual elements, a

phased array antenna can, in effect, radiate more than one beam from the antenna.
Multiple beams and computer processing of radar returns give the phased array radar the
ability to perform the TWS function. The most common employment of the TWS capability
of the phased array radar is in the air-to-air arena.
54
• The combination of a conical scan and a circular scan is called a Palmer scan.
Palmer scans incorporate a circular scanning antenna to search the entire
horizon while simultaneously performing a conical scan. If the radar antenna
is also performing a unidirectional altitude search in conjunction with this
scan, it is employing a Palmer-helical scan (Figure 6-26).
55
• The number of individual transmitting and receiving elements is
limited by the size of the radar antenna. The number of targets a
phased array radar can track is limited by the number of
independent beams the antenna can generate.

• Many phased array radars,
especially air-to-air radars, do
not track and scan
simultaneously, but rapidly
switch between the two
modes to overcome this
limitation (Figure 6-29).
56
• Modern TWS radars employ computer signal
processing and complex computer algorithms
to simplify the problem of target correlation
(Figure 6-30).
• An air-to-air radar typically uses a raster scan

to search a volume of airspace. In the search
mode, the radar simply presents all targets
detected in this airspace to the pilot on his
radar display. In the TWS mode, the radar
employs computer processing to figure out
target correlation and update target
information. This is done automatically, and
the results are presented on the display. 57
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Sumary
58
• No matter what type of scan a radar system employs, terrain can limit radar
line of sight (LOS) and target detection. The concepts of radar horizon, direct
terrain masking, and indirect terrain masking are important factors in radar
target detection and mission planning.
• RF waves traveling in the atmosphere are bent, or refracted, and do not travel
in a straight line. However, the degree of refraction depends on atmospheric
conditions which vary significantly and are difficult to accurately quantify and
predict. For these reasons, most radar computations are based on the
assumption that RF waves travel in a straight line. The concept of the radar
horizon is based on this assumption.
59
6
0 4.13. Impact of terrain on radar scans
The radar horizon shown in Figure 6-31 is the maximum range a radar system can
detect a target due to the curvature of the earth. The distance (d) to the horizon for
a radar antenna at a height (h) can be computed using Equation 6-6.
60
• The radar horizon shown in Figure 6-31 is the maximum range a
radar system can detect a target due to the curvature of the earth.
The distance (d) to the horizon for a radar antenna at a height (h)
can be computed using Equation 6-6.
61
• The radar horizon shown in Figure 6-31 is the maximum range a radar system can detect a
target due to the curvature of the earth. The distance (d) to the horizon for a radar
antenna at a height (h) can be computed using Equation 6-6.
62
• Another application of Equation 6-7 is in calculating the range at which a
radar antenna will achieve LOS with a low-altitude target. To compute
this distance (D), Equation 6-8 can be used.
• To illustrate the use of Equations 6-7 and 6-8, consider the

example of a radar antenna located at a height of 25 feet and a
target aircraft flying at an altitude of 100 feet. From Equation 6-7, the
radar horizon for this system would be 5.3 nm. From Equation 6-8,
the radar antenna will have LOS with the target aircraft at 16 nm.
63
• The previous discussions of the radar horizon assumes the radar is operating
over water or level terrain. Radar operations over rough terrain can present
other radar LOS limitations. As illustrated in Figure 6-32, prominent terrain
features can limit radar detection. In this illustration, a mountain acts as a
radar horizon and limits target LOS in one sector of the radar scan. This
situation is called direct terrain masking. Placing prominent terrain features
between the aircraft and threat radar systems effectively negates these
systems and is an integral part of threat avoidance during combat mission
planning.
64
• Figure 6-33 depicts another impact of terrain on target detection/indirect terrain masking.
When both the aircraft and a prominent terrain feature are illuminated by a radar beam, a
pulse radar system may not be able to differentiate the target return from the return
generated by the terrain. Indirect terrain masking is most effective when the aircraft is
flying abeam the radar site. Pulse Doppler radars and radar systems employing moving
target indicator (MTI) circuits may be able to negate the effectiveness of indirect terrain
masking. However, indirect terrain masking is another important consideration for threat
avoidance during combat mission planning.
65
CONTENIDOS
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Antenna gain
Power density
Circular scan
Linear scan
Unidirectional scan
Bidirectional scan
Conical scan
Track-while-scan
Summary
66
6
7 4.14.
Summary
This chapter has introduced basic antenna characteristics and how these
characteristics influence their employment. The concepts of antenna gain and
power density were also explained. The remainder of the chapter discussed the
different types of radar scans. A radar's scan pattern is designed to enhance target
detection and facilitate target tracking. The radar horizon, direct terrain masking,
and indirect terrain masking are LOS limitations to all radar scans. The scan pattern
chosen for a specific radar system determines the ability of that radar to provide
accurate range, azimuth, elevation, or velocity of the detected target.
67
6
8
Bibliography
Chapter 6 of “Electronic warfare fundamentals”
Det 8, ACC TRSS

4349 Duffer Drive, Ste 437
Nellis AFB NV 89191-7007
DSN: 682-4897
DSN FAX: 682-7391
Comm: (702) 652-4897
Comm FAX: (702) 652-7391
68

TSD Tema4 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TSD Tema4 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tema 4: Introducción a la Antenas

Centro Universitario de la Defensa Jordi Ortiz Murillo

• [EWF] Electronic Warfare Fundamentals. Chapter 6

single feed (Figure 6-4). This type of

• A Cassegrain antenna uses a two-reflector system to generate and focus a radar

type of Cassegrain antenna is depicted in Figure 6-6.

• A phased array antenna is a complex

pattern. A phased array antenna can, in

together, and the radiated energy is doubled.

Centro Universitario de la Defensa

Centro Universitario de la Defensa

from A arrives at B, B is now positive also. These energies

Centro Universitario de la Defensa

shape of the radiated beam (Figure 6-11).

• The most important characteristic of any type of antenna is antenna gain.

gain, which is designed to control the sensitivity of the receiver section of a

resolution, a practical antenna must focus the radar energy. The

target as the radar beam crosses it during one full scan.

has a large vertical beamwidth and a small horizontal beamwidth.

azimuth resolution are secondary considerations.

• Circular scan radars provide range and azimuth

provide elevation information may be used for

• Two modified circular scan radars that determine

provides a measure of the altitude of the target.

• A stacked beam radar (Figure 6-19) employs a vertical stack

target return. Range and azimuth information is determined

• Linear scan is a method used by some radar systems

or in a horizontal direction, or raster, for acquisition and

• A helical scan is a unidirectional scan pattern that allows a “pencil”

specified number of revolutions, in this case, three, 360° sweeps. At the

• A bidirectional linear scan, such as a raster scan, sweeps both horizontally

• A conical scan radar (Figure 6-23)

much smaller effective beamwidth than the

updated about 30 times per second.

scan, it is employing a Palmer-helical scan (Figure 6-26).

a computer to rapidly and independently control groups of these individual elements, a

scan, it is employing a Palmer-helical scan (Figure 6-26).

independent beams the antenna can generate.

• An air-to-air radar typically uses a raster scan

can be computed using Equation 6-6.

• To illustrate the use of Equations 6-7 and 6-8, consider the

Chapter 6 of “Electronic warfare fundamentals”

Det 8, ACC TRSS

You might also like