251

4 Linear Algebra
4.1 Matrices
4.1.1 Notion ofMatrix
1. Matrices A of Size (m, n) or Briefty A(m,n)
are systems of m times n elements, e.g., real or complex numbers, or fundions, derivatives, vectors,
arranged in rn rows aIHi n columns:

!I11 a12 aln )

1st row
a21 a22 a2n 2nd row
(
(4.1) •
a~11 a~2 .:. a~lft rn-th row

t t t
1st 2nd n-th column.
With the notion size 01 a matrix matrices are classifieel according to their number of rows m and number
of columns TI: A of size (m, Tl). A matrix is calleel a square matrix if the number of rows anel columns is
equal, otherwise it is a reetangular matrix.
2. Real and Complex Matrices
Real matriees have real elements, camplex matriees have complex elements. If a matrix has complex
elements
~+~ ~.~
it can be elecomposed into the form
A+iB (4.2b)
where A and B have real elements only.
If a matrix A has complex elements. then its conjugate complex matrix A * has elements
a: v = Re (aiiV) - i Im (a!,v)' (4.2c)

3. Transposed Matrices AT
Changing the rows anel columns of a matrix A of si~e (m, n) we gel. the tmnsposed matrix AT This
has the size (n, m) and
(a v!,? = (ailV) (4.3)
is valid.
4. Adjoint Matrices
The adjoint matrix Al! of a complex matrix A is the transpose of its conjugate complex mat.rix A * (see
also 4.2.3. p. 260):
Al! = (A*)T. (4.4)
5. Zero Matrix
A matrix 0 is called a zero matrix if it has only zero elements:

00,,,0)
00· .. 0
0= ( . . . . . (4.5)
oCl .:. Ö

I. N. Bronshtein et al., Handbook of Mathematics

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2004
 252 4. Linear Algebra

4.1.2 Square Matrices

1. Definition
Square matrices have the same number of rows and eolumns, i.e., m = n:
all ... a1n)
A = A(n,n) = ( :".: . (4.6)
an! ... ann
The elements a,w of a matrix A in the diagonal from the left upper corner to the right lower one are
the elements ofthe main diagonal. Their notation is all, a22,"" ann , Le., they are all the elements aJ.tv

tn {':
with J-l = lJ.
2. Diagonal Matriees

I
J
A square matrix D is called a diagonal matrix if all of the non-diagonal elements are equal to zero:

a~~O rO< "'" n{r 0 (4.7J

3. Sealar Matrix
A diagonal matrix S is called a scalar matrix if all the diagonal elements are the same real or complex
number c:

S= (~~ ~l. ::: (4.8)

00··· c
4. Traee or Spur of a Matrix
For a square matrix, the traee or spurof the matrix is defined as the sum of the main diagonal elements:
n
Tr (A) = all + a22 + ... + ann = L aJ.tw (4.9)
1'=1

5. Symmetrie Matriees
A square matrix A is symmetrie if it is equal to its own transpose:
A=A T . (4.10)
For the elements lying in symmetrie positions with respect to the main diagonal
aJ.tv = avJ.t (4.11 )
is valid.
6. Normal Matrices
satisfy the equality
AHA = AAH. (4.12)
(For the product of matrices see 4.1.4, p. 254.)
7. Antisymmetric or Skew-Symmetrie Matrices
are the square matriees A with the property:
A=-AT . (4.13a)
For the elements aJ.tv of an antisymmetrie matrix the equalities
a,w = -av,,, aJl.J.t = 0 (4.13b)
are valid, so the trace of an antisymmetrie matrix vanishes:
Tr(A) = O. (4.13c)