Psychology of Men & Masculinities © 2022 American Psychological Association

2022, Vol. 23, No. 2, 265–270 ISSN: 1524-9220 https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000390

BRIEF REPORT

Men’s Masculinity Contingency and Social Anxiety Symptomology

in Higher Education: The Moderating Role of Depressive Symptoms
Ryon C. McDermott1, Kyle M. Brasil2, Y. Joel Wong3, Jennifer L. Barinas2, and April T. Berry2
1
Department of Counseling and Instructional Sciences, University of South Alabama
2
Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama
3
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Department of Counseling and Counseling Psychology, Indiana University Bloomington

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Traditional depressive symptoms (e.g., crying, feeling sad) are common among university men and can be a
potential threat to one’s masculinity. Many men experiencing depressive symptoms socially isolate,
suggesting a heightened concern for how their depressive symptoms may be viewed socially. However,
research has yet to examine the interrelationships between masculinity, depressive symptoms, and social
anxiety symptomology. The present study examined the associations between social anxiety symptoms,
traditional depressive symptoms, and masculinity contingency threat (MCT; i.e., the degree to which men
feel their self-worth would be threatened if they could not be manly) in a sample of U.S. university men (N =
606). Bivariate correlations revealed that MCT was positively associated with depressive and social anxiety
symptoms. Men with moderate to severe depressive symptoms also reported significantly greater mean
levels of MCT and social anxiety than men with no or mild depressive symptoms. However, conditional
process modeling revealed that depressive symptoms emerged as a significant moderator such that the
positive relationship between MCT and social anxiety symptoms was only significant at no or mild levels of
depressive symptoms. These results suggest that depression and masculinity contingency may act as
complementary drivers of social anxiety among university men but that, at a high level, depressive
symptoms may overshadow or outweigh any potential concerns about being masculine in relation to men’s
social anxiety. Limitations of the present study and practical implications are discussed.

Public Significance Statement

Social anxiety and depression are common problems among undergraduate and graduate students. Given
that depressed men tend to socially isolate, it is important to understand this problem among men in higher
education. Our results suggest that experiencing depressive symptoms and believing that one’s self-worth is
tied to one’s ability to be masculine (i.e., masculinity contingency) may act as complementary drivers of
social anxiety risk in this population, especially when depressive symptoms are mild.

Keywords: men, masculinity, depression, social anxiety, masculinity contingency

Supplemental materials: https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000390.supp

Self-report survey data from over 100 different universities
indicate that approximately 31.4% of university men (i.e., under-
graduates and graduates) screened positive for probable depression
in 2020 (Healthy Minds Network, 2021). Such numbers are con-
cerning, considering that depression has been linked to a variety of
negative psychological, academic, and social outcomes (Baez &
Heller, 2019). Moreover, social anxiety (e.g., fears of rejection and
feeling self-conscious in social situations; Wilver et al., 2020) is
often comorbid with depression (Pedrelli et al., 2015). Considering
that many men view traditional depressive symptoms (e.g., crying,

Editor’s Note. Ronald Levant served as the action editor for this All authors declare no conflicts of interest.
article.—YJW Y. Joel Wong is the Editor of the Psychology of Men and Masculi-
nities. To address this issue, a guest editor oversaw the review of this
manuscript.
This article was published Online First February 10, 2022. All authors agree to be accountable for ensuring the integrity and accuracy
Ryon C. McDermott https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4887-6066 of this work.
Kyle M. Brasil https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5682-6130 Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ryon C.
Y. Joel Wong https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3006-6871 McDermott, Department of Counseling and Instructional Sciences, University
Jennifer L. Barinas https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7932-016X of South Alabama, 307 N. University Boulevard #130, Mobile, AL 36608,
Research reported in this publication was not funded. United States. Email: rmcdermott@southalabama.edu

265
 266 MCDERMOTT, BRASIL, WONG, BARINAS, AND BERRY
feeling sad) as feminine (Cole & Davidson, 2019), men experienc-
ing depressive symptoms may be particularly self-conscious of their
perceived lack of masculinity (Oliffe et al., 2010, 2013). To date,
however, social anxiety has not been examined directly in relation to
masculinity constructs and depressive symptoms in men. This gap is
important to address, because higher education is replete with social
situations that must be navigated successfully. Social isolation
(a common way of coping with social anxiety; Kim et al., 2021;
Teo et al., 2013) is also a dangerous precursor to more extreme
outcomes of depression such as suicide in men (Richardson et al.,
2021). Thus, the purpose of the present brief report was to examine
masculinity contingency threat (MCT) in relation to social anxiety
and depressive symptomology in collegiate and university men.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
A growing number of investigators are beginning to address the
perceived pressures men feel to be masculine (Burkley et al., 2016;
Himmelstein et al., 2019; Vandello & Bosson, 2013). Burkley et al.
(2016) drew on contingencies of self-worth theory (Crocker et al.,
2003) to develop the construct of masculinity contingency, defined as
the degree to which a man’s sense of self-worth and self-respect is tied
to his embodiment of masculinity. Burkley et al. (2016) suggested
that some men may have internalized societal pressures to be
masculine such that their self-worth is tied to their sense of manhood.
Moreover, men with a more unstable or fragile sense of manhood may
feel the need to overconform or prove their masculinity in problematic
ways. Supporting this assertion, Burkley et al. (2016) found that MCT
(the extent to which men’s self-esteem would be threatened by a
self-perceived lack of masculinity) was positively associated with
masculinity identity centrality, sexism, homophobia, conformity to
masculine role norms, and masculine gender role conflict.
A contingency perspective of masculinity may be particularly
relevant to social anxiety and depressive symptomology. For example,
phenomenological research suggests that depressed college men may
be sensitive to social judgments or may be highly concerned with the
loss of masculinity from depression (Oliffe et al., 2010, 2013). Many
of these men avoid talking about their depression (Mahalik & Rochlen,
2006) or socially isolate (Oliffe et al., 2010, 2013), suggesting the
possibility of heightened social anxiety symptomology. Indeed, given
qualitative research suggesting that men in a current depressive
episode may be particularly concerned with a perceived loss of
masculinity due to their depression (Oliffe et al., 2010, 2013), one
logical assertion is that men experiencing depressive symptoms could
be especially self-conscious in social situations. From a MCT per-
spective, therefore, men who feel their self-worth would be threatened
by a lack of masculinity may be particularly concerned about social
judgments when experiencing depressive symptoms that call their
manhood into question. However, investigators have yet to examine
the interrelationships between MCT, depressive symptoms, and social
anxiety via quantitative methods (to the best of our knowledge). Thus,
the lack of available quantitative research precludes any firm expecta-
tions about the interrelationships of these variables.
The Present Study
The present brief report sought to address the dearth of research
on the interrelationships between MCT, depression, and social
anxiety symptoms among university men. Given the theoretical
underpinnings of MCT as a fragile sense of manhood, two research
questions were addressed. First (Research Question 1), what are the
relationships between MCT, depressive symptoms, and social anxi-
ety symptoms? We hypothesized that MCT would be positively
associated with both depressive (Hypothesis 1) and social anxiety
symptomology (Hypothesis 2), because MCT represents a fragile
form of masculinity that may ultimately be harmful personally and
relationally (Burkley et al., 2016). Additionally, we expected
(Hypothesis 3) that men with clinical levels of depressive symp-
tomology would report significantly greater levels of MCT and
social anxiety than men with subclinical levels of depressive
symptomology. Second (Research Question 2), do depressive
symptoms moderate the positive relationship between MCT and
social anxiety symptomology? Given the relative lack of quantita-
tive research on the multivariate relationships between these
variables, we did not advance any formal hypotheses in relation
to this research question.
Method
Participants and Procedures
After institutional review board (IRB) approval, 606 men completed
a secure online survey as part of a university counseling center-
sponsored mental health assessment at two universities in the South-
eastern United States: one was a mid-sized public institution, and one
was a small private institution. Participants were recruited through a
randomly generated sample of email addresses. Table 1 displays the
demographics of each sample. A series of one-way analysis of
variances (ANOVAs) revealed no significant differences on measures
across samples. Participants were entered into a drawing for one of six
$25.00 gift cards. The mean age of the public university sample was
23.52 (SD = 7.10), and the mean age of the private university sample
was 22.11, (SD = 7.31).
Measures
Depressive Symptoms
Depressive symptoms were assessed via the Patient Health
Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8; Kroenke et al., 2009). The PHQ-8 is a
screening measure comprised of eight of the nine diagnostic
criteria for depression from the Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
ual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric
Association, 1994). Unlike the Patient Health Questionnaire-9
(PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001), the PHQ-8 does not include an
item assessing suicidality. Items were rated on a 4-point scale
(0 = Not at all to 3 = Nearly every day), which were summed to
produce a total score. The PHQ-8 is highly correlated with
original PHQ-9 (average r = .99, 95% CI [.996, .996]; Shin
et al., 2019), which has demonstrated strong evidence of internal
consistency and validity with measures of depression Center for
Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) and psychological
wellbeing Schwartz Outcome Scale (SOS-10; Beard et al., 2016).
In addition, PHQ-8 scores have been correlated positively with
several domains of health-related quality of life, including
depressive symptoms, fatigue, and sleep problems (Kroenke
et al., 2009). The PHQ-8 evidences the same cut-off scores as
the PHQ-9 (0–4 indicates no depressive symptoms, 5–9 mild
depressive symptoms, 10–14 moderate depressive symptoms, 15–19
moderately severe depressive symptoms, and 20–27 severe depres-
sive symptoms). A cut-off score of 10 is widely considered to be a flag
 COLLEGIATE MEN’S MASCULINITY CONTINGENCY THREAT 267

Table 1 Masculinity Contingency Threat

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (N = 606)
MCT was assessed via the threat subscale of the Masculinity
Midsized public Small private Contingency Scale (MCS; Burkley et al., 2016). The five-item threat
university university subscale contains statements representing beliefs that one’s self-
Demographic sample (n = 562) sample (n = 54) worth is conditional on being able to be masculine; for example, “I
Race/ethnicity can’t respect myself if I don’t behave like a ‘real man’.” Participants
African American/Black 10.7% 14.8% rated items on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
American Indian/Alaskan Native 1.6% 0% (strongly agree). Burkley et al. (2016) reported excellent internal
Asian American/Asian 3.4% 0%
consistency (α = .92) for this subscale and concurrent validity via
Asian Indian 8.5% 0%
Hispanic/Latino(a) 0.9% 5.6% positive associations with conformity to masculine role norms,
White non-Hispanic 67.4% 66.7% masculinity centrality, and masculine gender role conflict. In the
Other/multiracial 7.5% 3.7% present study, the internal consistency coefficient α was .93.
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Sexual orientation
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Heterosexual 82.2% 92.6%

Gay 3.9% 0% Results
Bisexual 3.6% 7.4%
Other/questioning 10.2% 0% Preliminary analyses and data cleaning procedures are described
Academic level in the online Supplemental Material. In support of our first and
Freshman 32.4% 24.5%
second hypotheses, MCT was positively correlated with depressive
Sophomore 11.7% 20.8%
Junior 18.1% 22.2% symptoms (r = .13, p = .002) and social anxiety symptoms (r = .11,
Senior 15.8% 24.1% p = .007) at the bivariate level, though the effect sizes were small
Graduate/professional student 20.1% 3.7% (see Table 2). Supporting our third hypothesis, a multivariate
Other 1.7% 3.7% analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a significant omnibus
SES
Lower class 6.4% 7.4% difference between men with clinical levels of depressive symptoms
Lower middle class 18.1% 16.7% (i.e., a PHQ-8 score of 10 or greater, n = 174) and men with
Middle class 50.0% 31.5% subclinical levels of depressive symptoms (i.e., a PHQ-8 score of
Upper middle class 21.7% 40.7% less than 10, n = 418) on MCT and social anxiety, Pillai’s trace F(2,
Upper class 3.0% 3.7%
589) = .15, p < .001, partial η2 = .15. Men with clinical levels of
No response 0.5% 0%
Depression screening depressive symptoms reported significantly greater MCT (M = 3.44,
PHQ-8 score greater than 29.4% 25.0% SD = 1.61) than men with no or mild depressive symptoms (M =
or equal to 10 3.02, SD = 1.58, d = .26). Likewise, men with clinical levels of
PHQ-8 score less than 70.4% 75.0% depressive symptoms reported significantly greater social anxiety
or equal to 10
(M = 2.33, SD = .99) than men with no or mild depressive
Note. Percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. Depression symptoms (M = 1.51, SD = .88, d = .89).
screening results are based on a cut-score of 10 or greater. A score of 10 or For our exploratory analysis, conditional process modeling via
greater has yielded a sensitivity of 58.3%, specificity of 83.1%, positive
PROCESS, an SPSS computational tool (Hayes, 2018), was used to
predictive value of 53.4%, and negative predictive value of 85.7% for the
PHQ-8 (Shin et al., 2019). SES = socio-economic status; PHQ-8 = Patient determine the moderating influence of depressive symptomology on
Health Questionnaire-8. the positive associations between MCT and social anxiety symptomol-
ogy via ordinary least squares regression. The predictors (MCT,
depressive symptoms, and the interaction of depression and MCT)
for possible clinical depression (Shin et al., 2019). Cronbach’s α for were entered simultaneously. The model was significant, F(3, 588) =
the present study was .88. 48.14, p < .001. Depressive symptomology and MCT were both
positive predictors of concurrent social anxiety symptoms (see Table 3).
Additionally, the interaction term of depressive symptoms and MCT
Social Anxiety Symptoms was statistically significant. The final model explained 20% of the
Social anxiety symptoms were measured via the social anxiety variation in social anxiety symptoms. As illustrated in Figure 1, simple
subscale of the Counseling Center Assessment of Psychological
Symptoms-62 (CCAPS-62; Locke et al., 2011). The seven-item Table 2
social anxiety subscale consists of statements, such as “I feel self- Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations, and Scale Ranges
conscious around others.” Participants report the degree to which the
statement represents them in the last 4 weeks, from 0 (not at all like Variable 1 2 3 M SD Range
me) to 4 (extremely like me), with higher scores indicating more
1. PHQ-8 — .42*** .13** 7.00 5.76 0–24
severe social anxiety symptoms. Locke et al. (2011) reported 2. CCAPS-SANX — .11** 1.76 0.98 0–4
satisfactory internal consistency (α = .82) and convergent validity. 3. MCS-threat — 3.15 1.60 1–7
In a large psychometric study of college students, McAleavey et al.
Note. N = 606. PHQ-8 scores were summed, and all other variables were
(2012) reported that Social Anxiety scores were strongly associated
averaged. PHQ-8 = Patient Health Questionnaire-8; CCAPS-SANX =
with a widely used screening instrument for social phobia based on Counseling Center Assessment of Psychological Symptoms-Social
DSM-IV criteria, the Social Phobia Diagnostic Questionnaire Anxiety; MCS-threat = Masculinity Contingency Scale Threat subscale.
(Newman et al., 2003). Cronbach’s α for the present study was .81. ** p <. 01. *** p < .001.
 268 MCDERMOTT, BRASIL, WONG, BARINAS, AND BERRY

Table 3
Ordinary Least Squares Regression Model Predicting Social Anxiety Symptomology

Predictor variable B SE β p 95% CI of B lower 95% CI of B upper

Intercept .95 .12 — <.001 [.714 1.188]

MCS-threat .10 .04 .16 .007 [.027 .167]
PHQ-8 .10 .01 .59 <.001 [.073 .127]
MCS × PHQ-8 −.01 .00 −.22 .022 [−.016 −.001]
Note. MCS-threat = Masculinity Contingency Scale Threat subscale; PHQ-8 = the 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ) measure of depression;
MCS × PHQ-8 = interaction term for moderation; B = unstandardized beta weight; SE = unstandardized standard error of beta; β = standardized beta coefficient;
CI = confidence interval of unstandardized regression coefficient beta.
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slopes tests revealed that the positive association between MCT and psychological risk for men. Such risk is conceptually consistent
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social anxiety symptomology was only significant for men with low
(1SD below the mean) depressive symptoms. Further probing of the
interaction via the Johnson–Neyman method (Johnson & Fay, 1950)
revealed that the association between MCT and social anxiety became
nonsignificant at a PHQ-8 score of six or greater.
Discussion
The present study addressed a lack of research on university
men’s depressive and concurrent social anxiety symptoms and
masculinity. In support of our hypotheses, we found significant
positive associations between MCT and depressive symptoms
(Hypothesis 1) and social anxiety symptoms (Hypothesis 2). Addi-
tionally, men with clinically significant levels of depressive symp-
toms reported significantly greater mean levels of masculinity
contingency and social anxiety symptomology than those with
subclinical levels of depressive symptoms (Hypothesis 3). Consis-
tent with Burkley et al.’s (2016) conceptualization of MCT, the
degree to which men feel their self-worth would be threatened if they
could not be masculine may be linked—albeit modestly—to greater
depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Thus, our findings suggest
that such contingencies may carry a degree of social and
with the concept of masculine discrepancy strain (i.e., the psycho-
logical distress associated with not being able to meet impossible
standards of masculinity; Pleck, 1995). It is possible that men in the
present study were at greater risk of both depression and concurrent
social anxiety because they tied their sense of self-worth to difficult
to achieve masculine standards.
Our exploratory moderation results revealed an intriguing set of
findings. Notably, the association between MCT and social anxiety
was only significant for men with low levels of depressive symp-
toms. This pattern of results suggests depression may act as either a
moderator or a suppressor variable by changing the relationship
between MCT and social anxiety. While qualitative findings suggest
that depressed men may be especially self-conscious about how
their symptoms negatively impact their masculinity, our results
suggest that MCT may not be as important to social anxiety
when men are experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms.
However, this interpretation should be discussed in the context of
the other findings in this study. Specifically, masculinity contin-
gency was also positively associated with depression and social
anxiety at the bivariate level, and men with moderate to severe
depressive symptoms reported the greatest MCT. Thus, one possi-
bility is that MCT and depressive symptoms act as complementary

Figure 1
Moderation Plot
B = -.02, SE = .03, p = .630

Depressive
Symptoms

Low
B = .05, SE = .02, p = .054
Mean

High

B = .09, SE = .03, p = .007

Note. All regression coefficients are unstandardized. See the online article for the color version of this figure.
 COLLEGIATE MEN’S MASCULINITY CONTINGENCY THREAT
drivers of social anxiety risk. That is, for men who have low levels of
depressive symptoms, MCT may be a risk factor for social anxiety,
but high levels of depression may overshadow the risk posed by
MCT in relation to social anxiety.
This interpretation is consistent with (a) the position that MCT
may be a psychological and emotional vulnerability for men
(Burkley et al., 2016), (b) research underscoring the social cost
of contingencies of self-worth (Crocker & Knight, 2005), and
(c) numerous studies linking depression to social anxiety (Jacobson &
Newman, 2017). Additionally, this interpretation raises an important
question for future research. What is unique about a PHQ-8 score
above six that nullifies the positive relationship between MCT and
social anxiety? One possibility is that men with higher levels of
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depression may report concurrent social anxiety for reasons unrelated
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to MCT. Given the numerous, negative personal, psychological,
academic, and relational correlates of clinical depression (Baez &
Heller, 2019), men with higher levels of depression may be
socially self-conscious for a variety of reasons that may not be
directly linked to a fragile sense of masculinity. Core theories of
psychological functioning, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
(Maslow, 1943, 1954, 1962, 1987), may help explain this phenom-
enon. For example, if a man is experiencing moderate to severe
depression, masculinity concerns may seem relatively unimportant
by comparison. Therefore, additional research is needed to build
upon the present exploratory findings and to further untangle the
complex intersections of these variables.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
A few limitations should be noted. We relied on a cross-sectional
sample, and thus, causality and the temporal order of variables
remain unknown. The sample was also only from two institutions
and was primarily White and heterosexual. Future researchers
should consider expanding into more diverse samples across multi-
ple institutions and using longitudinal designs. Additionally, we
relied on explicit self-report questionnaires that may have suffered
from socially desirable response bias, and our response rate was less
than 50%. Thus, future researchers are encouraged to consider
implicit measures or to gather observational data.
Practice Implications
Depression and social anxiety are common mental health pro-
blems in college and university student populations (Healthy Minds
Network, 2021). The fact that MCT was positively (albeit weakly)
associated with depressive and social anxiety symptoms suggests
possible utility in conceptualizing these problems from a masculine
contingency framework. That is, masculinity contingency is likely a
risk factor for both constructs and may act as a complementary
driver of university men’s social anxiety along with depression.
College men who believe that their self-worth would be nega-
tively impacted if they did not perceive themselves as masculine
may be vulnerable to these mental health issues. Thus, clinicians
may benefit from formally or informally assessing their male clients’
level of masculinity contingency. The MCS-threat scale consists of
only five items, which could easily be administered in session or
used as a prop for discussion. In turn, such discussions could be an
important starting point for helping clients process the pressures
269
men experience to be masculine, as well as the personal and
relational consequences of the weight of those expectations.
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Received April 1, 2021
Revision received December 23, 2021
Accepted December 27, 2021 ▪