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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HOME SCIENCE
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
Home Science_XII_Front.indd 1 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020, 2022
(Published under New Syllabus)
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Content
HOME SCIENCE
Unit Title Page Month
1 Therapeutic Diets 1 June
2 Consumer Protection and Education 51 July
3 Food Safety 78 July
4 Fundamentals of Textiles 93 August
5 Housing and Interior Decoration 123 August
6 Pre School Organisation 160 October
7 Entrepreneurship 180 November
8 Community Development 200 November
Practicals 220
E-book Assessment

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vi

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UNIT
1
Therapeutic Diets
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
zz To provide a detailed view of the relationship between diet, nutrition and disease.
zz To study the pathophysiology and dietary treatment of various diseases.
zz To study the management of specific diseases and conditions such as gastrointestinal
disorders, liver diseases, obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and kidney disease
in depth.
zz To learn to plan therapeutic diets and to maintain or restore good nutrition in the
patient.
1 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1
XII Std - Home Science EM_Unit 1.indd 1 07-12-2021 12.25.14 PM

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Therefore, normal diet is modified to meet

1.1 Introduction
the requirements of the sick individual.
Good nutrition along with food
The normal diet may be modified to:
selection is the corner stone of personal
health and for maintaining good health 1. Provide change in consistency, as in
during and after diseases. The term “diet fluid and soft diets.
therapy” refers to the usage of food and 2. Increase or decrease the energy values.
nutrition in controlling symptoms and 3. Include greater or lesser amounts of one
managing the progress of disease. or more nutrients.
A therapeutic diet is a modified 4. Increase or decrease bulk- high and low
meal plan. The modification include fibre diets.
increasing or decreasing intake of 5. Include or exclude specific foods as in
nutrients and change in texture. allergic conditions
6. To modify the intervals of feeding.
1.1.1 Objectives of Diet
Therapy Factors to be considered in
planning therapeutic diets
1 To maintain good nutritional status.
1.
The underlying diseased condition
2. To correct nutrient deficiencies which which requires a change in the diet.
may have occurred due to the disease.
2. The possible duration of the disease.
3. To afford rest to the whole body or
3.
The diet which must be altered to
to the specific organ affected by the
overcome these conditions.
disease.
4. The patients’ tolerance for food by mouth.
4. To adjust the food intake to the body’s
ability to metabolize the nutrients In addition to economic status, the
during the disease. food preferences, occupation and time of
5. To bring about changes in body meals should be considered.
weight whenever necessary. The four attributes of a therapeutic
diet are: Adequacy, Accuracy, Economy
1.1.2 Principles of and Palatability.
Therapeutic diet
A well planned diet provides all 1.1.3 Routine Hospital Diets
the specific nutrients to the body that are The routine hospital diets include
needed to achieve nutritional homeostasis Liquid diet, soft diet, mechanically altered,
in a normal healthy individual. However, fibre restricted diet and regular diet.
in disease conditions, body tissues
either do not receive proper nutrients i Liquid Diet
in sufficient amount or cannot utilize Liquid diet consists of food that
the available nutrients owing to faulty will pour or liquid at normal room
digestion, absorption or transportation. temperature. In this diet, nutritive value is
UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diets 2

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low and is used only for limited periods of ii Soft Diet

time. The liquid diet is used It is used in acute infections,
i) to keep fecal matter in the colon at a following surgery, and for patients who
minimum are unable to chew. The soft diet is
made up of simple, easily digested food
ii) after surgery
and contains no harsh fibre and no rich
iii) to replace fluids lost from vomiting seasoned food. In this diet, three meals
or diarrhoea. with intermediate feedings should be
given; Patients with dental problems are
given mechanically soft diet. The foods
include cooked dhals, double cooked
cereals, custard, and steamed bananas,
purees.
Fluid Diet
Liquid diets may be clear- liquid or

full liquid diet.
Clear Fluid Diet: This diet is made up of clear
fluids that leave no residue, and it is non gas Soft Diet
forming, non irritating and non stimulating
to peristaltic action. This diet can meet the iii Mechanically Altered Diet
requirement of fluids and some minerals and It differs from normal diet in texture
can be given in 1 to 2 hour intervals and its and seasonings, depending on the needs
use is typically limited to 24 to 36 hours. This of the patient. Mechanically altered diet
diet is given during acute infection, following is limited to soft food for those who have
operations of colon or rectum, diarrhoea and difficulty chewing food because of missing
vomiting. The foods which can be included teeth or poorly fitting dentures. Eg. Puffed
are barley water, dhal water, whey water, tea rice, gruels, purees, minced meat and
and coffee without milk. desserts like custard.
Full Fluid Diet: This diet bridges the gap
between the clear fluid and soft diet. In this
diet, foods which are liquid or which readily
become liquid on reaching the stomach
are given. It is used following operations,
in acute gastritis, acute infections and in
diarrhoea. This diet is given at 2 - 4 hours
interval. The foods included are kanji, milk
shakes, lassi and soups. Mechanically Altered Diet

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iv Fibre Restricted Diet Metabolic Changes in Fever

Fibre restricted diet have reduced 1.
The metabolic rate is increased.
fibre content and are soft in consistency. The increase in metabolic rate is
It serves as a transition to a normal proportionate to body temperature
diet in fevers, and in gastrointestinal and the duration of fever. An increase
disturbances. of 7 percent in the metabolic rate
for each degree rise in Fahrenheit
v. Regular Diet (13 percent for every degree Celsius rise
The regular diet is the most in body temperature).
frequently used in hospitals. It should
2. Glycogen stores are decreased.
meet the RDA and include all food groups
3. Increased catabolism of proteins.
(refer to XI Home Science Text book).
4. Nitrogen waste is increased and it exerts
an additional burden on the kidneys.
1.2 Diet in Fever
5.
Water metabolism is also affected.
Fever may be defined as an
Excessive perspiration and excretion of
elevation of body temperature above
body waste increases the loss of body
normal (98.4°F). It may occur in response
water.
to infection and inflammation.
6. Increased excretion of electrolytes like
Causes of Fever sodium and potassium.
Endogenous factors: Antigen-antibody
reaction. 1.2.1 Typhoid
Exogenous factors: Infection due to Typhoid is an infectious disease with
Bacteria or Fungi. an acute fever of short duration. Salmonella
typhi causes typhoid. The duration may be as
Classification of Fever
short as three days or as long as three weeks.
zzShort duration: as in acute fevers of
colds, pneumonia, influenza, measles, Causes of Typhoid
chickenpox, scarlet and typhoid fevers. Contaminated drinking water, milk
All these diseases manifest fever as the and food by intestinal contents of a patient
first symptom. or handling of food by carriers or by flies,
zzLong duration: as in chronic fevers are the source of infection.
or infections which may continue
Symptoms of Typhoid
for months and stretch to years.
The disease is characterized by
Tuberculosis is an outstanding
a continued, high inflammation of the
example.
intestine, formation of intestinal ulcers,
zzIntermittent: Fever in which haemorrhage and enlargement of spleen.
increased body temperature last for The patient suffers from:
few hours alternate with periods in zzDiarrhoea or constipation
which the temperature is normal. e.g., zzSevere stomach ache.
Malaria. zzHeadache and anorexia.

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Principles of Diet Foods to be

A high calorie, high protein, high Foods to be included
avoided
carbohydrate, low fat, high fluid, low fibre Cereals, gruels. barley Butter, ghee,
and soft bland diet. water, vegetable oil,
Dietary Management Thin dal, milk, curds, fibres, chilies
zzEnergy: Energy utilization is high cottage cheese, milk and other
in fevers due to the high metabolic shakes, custards, spices, rich
activities. The calorie requirement Poached Eggs, pastries, fried
is increased about 50 percent. High baked fish, double foods, puddings
carbohydrate drinks and cereal cooked minced meat, and cream soups
gruels can be included in frequent vegetable puree,
small feedings to meet high energy Steamed vegetable,
demand.
Fruit juices
zzProteins: In prolonged fever 100g
of good quality proteins have to be
included. High protein beverages and 1.2.2 Tuberculosis
soups can be included. Tuberculosis is an infectious
disease caused by the bacillus
zzCarbohydrate: Glucose can be used for
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It affects the
sweetening beverages. Starchy gruels
also supply carbohydrates. lungs, kidneys, alimentary tract, lymph
nodes of the neck, liver, spleen, bones
zzElectrolytes: Sodium chloride, has and joints of children.
to be supplemented. Soups can meet
this demand. Fruit juices and milk Causes of Tuberculosis
beverages can be given in considerable It is an air borne infection.
quantities. Congested dwelling and unhygienic living
zzVitamin: The requirement increases conditions are the main causes of this
during fever. Vitamin A and ascorbic infection.
acid have to be supplemented; B complex
Symptoms of Tuberculosis
vitamin intake has to be adjusted with
zzWasting of tissues
calorie intake.
zzExhaustion
zzFluid: Intake must be liberal so as to
meet the additional loss during fever. zzPersistent cough
At least 3-5 litre of fluid intake is zzLow-grade fever
essential. zzLoss of weight
Dietary Guidelines zzPain in the chest
First clear fluid diet is given, followed zzPoor appetite
by full fluid and soft diet. Bland, easily
zzFatigue
digestible foods must be used. Instead of a
four-meal pattern, frequent small feedings zzSputum coughed up by the patient
are recommended. may become streaked with blood.

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Principles of Diet
A high calorie, high protein, high 1.3 Diet in Diseases of the
vitamin, minerals, and high fluid diet is Gastrointestinal Tract
given. Introduction
The gastrointestinal tract starts
Dietary Management from the oral cavity, where food enters the
Energy: High calorie diet is mouth, continuing through the pharynx,
prescribed. Satisfactory weight can be oesophagus, stomach and intestines to the
maintained with 2500 to 3000 calories. rectum and anus, where food is expelled.
45-50 kcal/ kg body weight for adults and Accessory organs such as liver and pancreas,
90 kcal/kg body weight for children are salivary glands and the biliary tract secrete
suggested. enzymes and bile to help break down food
Protein: The daily protein intake into is component nutrients.
of 80 to 120g or 1.5 - 2 g/kg body weight Basic Structure
for adults is suggested. The gastrointestinal tract is a
Minerals: Calcium should be muscular tube lined by a special layer of
provided liberally since it is also essential cells, called epithelium.
for healing tuberculosis lesions. At least
one litre of milk should be taken daily. i. Oral cavity
The iron needs may also be increased if In the oral cavity or mouth the food
there has been hemorrhage. is mechanical broken down by chewing
and chopping actions of the teeth. The
Vitamins: The metabolism tongue plays an important role in chewing,
of vitamin A is adversely affected in swallowing, and helps the food bolus to come
tuberculosis. The diet should provide in contact with the teeth. It is also the sensing
vitamin A. The weekly inclusion of vitamin organ of the mouth for touch, temperature
A rich food and dietary supplementation and taste using papillae.
with vitamin A is essential. Ascorbic acid
intake should be increased. Large amounts ii. Salivary glands
of citrus fruits or supplementation of Salivary glands secrete saliva that
ascorbic acid is essential. Include plenty lubricate and protect both the soft and
of antioxidants in the diet. hard tissues of the oral cavity. Three
pairs of salivary glands include Parotids,
Dietary Guidelines Submandibular and Sublingual.
Easily digestible and good quality
diet reduces strain on the body. During Functions of Saliva
the acute stage a high-calorie diet is zzIt keeps the mouth moist and helps in
prescribed. One litre of milk and 3 to speech.
4 eggs per day are given. Two or three zzIt helps in the process of mastication
servings of different type of fruits are of the food stuff and in preparing it
suggested to meet micronutrient and into a bolus suitable for digestion.
antioxidant requirement.

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zzSaliva contains two enzymes. Ptyalin zzTemporary storage allowing time for
and Maltase which converts starchy the digestive enzymes like pepsin
foods into sugars. to act.
zzSaliva helps in the sensation of taste. zzLimited absorption of water, alcohol
zzIt helps in the excretion of certain and some fat soluble drugs.
substances. Ex: mercury, lead.
zzPreparation of iron for absorption
further along the tract.
v. Small intestine
The small intestine is composed
of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It
averages approximately 6m in length. The
lining of the small intestine is made up
of numerous permanent folds, numerous
villi and microvilli.
Functions of Small Intestine

zzSecretion of intestinal juice and
hormones.
zzCompletion of chemical digestion of
iii. Oesophagus carbohydrates, protein and fats.
The esophagus is a muscular tube zzProvide protection from infection by
which conveys food from oral cavity to microbes.
stomach. zzDigestion and absorption of nutrients .
iv Stomach
v. Large intestine
The stomach is a J shaped
The large intestine is horse-shoe
expanded bag, located left side of the
shaped and extends around the small
midline between the oesophagus and
intestine like a frame.
small intestine.
The stomach is divided into three Functions of Large Intestine
regions: the fundus, the body and the zzAbsorption of water, by osmosis,
pylorus. continuous until the semi solid
consistency of stools is achieved.
The functions of the stomach zzMineral salts, vitamins and some
include: drugs are also absorbed.
zzThe short-term storage of ingested zzIt has certain types of bacteria which
food. synthesize Vitamin K and folic acid.
zzMechanical breakdown of food by zzIt helps in mass movement of fecal
churning and mixing motions. mass.

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Gastrointestinal Tract
Stress Ulcer: Stress ulcer may occur

1.3.1 Peptic Ulcer
as a complication of severe burns, trauma,
Peptic ulcer is a localized erosion surgery or radiation therapy.
on the mucosal lining of those portions
of the alimentary tract that comes Necrosis is the death of most or all cells in
in contact with gastric juice. It can an organ or tissue due to disease, injury
occur in any area of the stomach. The or failure of blood supply.
disintegration of tissues can also result in
necrosis. Causes of Ulcer
1) Bacterial infection: Infection by
Types of Ulcer
Helicobacter pylori is the chief cause
Gastric Ulcer: Gastric ulcer occur
of ulcer. It colonizes the stomach.
in the stomach, mostly along the lesser
Infection is typically contracted in early
curvature of the stomach.
childhood and remains for the rest of
Duodenal Ulcer : Most duodenal life. Helicobacter pylori is cleared by
ulcers occur in the duodenal bulb, in an antibiotic treatment especially with
area immediately below the pylorus. amoxicillin.

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2 Genetic factors: It is common in zzWeight loss

persons with blood group ‘O’. zzIron deficiency.
3) Gender: Men are affected 2-3 times
Principles of diet
more frequently than woman.
High energy, high protein,
4) Age: The incidence is high between
moderate fat and low fibre
20 and 40 years
5) Stress: People who are highly nervous Regular balanced diet should be
and emotional are more susceptible. given to support the primary medical
6) Potential irritant substance: Caffeine,
management of
chillies, pepper, ginger, meat soup and 1) tissue healing and
strong tea or coffee and protein rich foods
increase the secretion of hydrochloric 2) maintenance of structural and
acid functional integrity of tissues.
7) Emergency injuries :Stress ulcers Dietary Management
occur in conjunction with emergency Energy: Increased energy intake
injuries such as burns. is necessary. If the patient is at bed rest,
energy is not required for activity but
Pepc ulcer needed to make-up the extra demands.
Protein: A high protein diet
promotes healing. Milk and milk
Healthy
products should be included as a source
of nutrient factor for healing process.
Eggs and other high protein foods can be
included.
Fat: Moderate amounts of fat to
Duodenal ulcer help to suppress gastric secretions and
motility.
Carbohydrates: They are used to
Stomach ulcer meet the energy needs. Foods containing
high fibre and vegetables which are high
in insoluble fibre are restricted.
Symptoms of Ulcer
zzEpigastric pain in the upper abdomen. Fibre: Soluble fibre can be given.
zzHemorrhage-an escape of blood from Certain raw fruits and vegetables high in
a ruptured blood vessel. fibre are restricted.
zzHypermotility- excessive motility of Gastritis is the inflammation and

the gastrointestinal tract. corrosion of the inner lining of the
zzPainful hunger contractions. stomach called mucosa as a result of an
immune response to infection or external
zzFlatulence.
injury.

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Dietary Guidelines Symptoms of Diarrhoea

Diarrhoea means passing loose
Foods to be Foods to be
or watery stools several times a day. It
included avoided
is usually a symptom of an inflamed
Rice flakes, puffed Raw vegetables,
intestine or bowels. The inflammation
rice, well-cooked raw unripe fruits,
results in food hurrying through the
cereals, Cooked Beverages - strong bowels. This leaves too little time for
pulses, dairy tea, coffee, cola,
products like milk, water to be absorbed from the bowel
processed foods-
cream, boiled eggs, contents back into the body. Diarrhoea
pickles, spices,
steamed fish, can be uncomfortable especially when
pastries, sweets, all
Well cooked fried foods, accompanied by abdominal pain, nausea,
vegetables vomiting or fever. Diarrhoea can lead to
Spices -Pepper,
dehydration.
Desserts such as chillies
custard Principles of Diet
A high calorie, high protein,
1.3.2 Diarrhoea moderate fat, low fibre, high fluid and
Diarrhoea is often a symptom of low residue diet is recommended. Initially
a systemic disease caused by viral and liquid diet followed by soft bland diet.
bacterial organisms. It is defined as frequent
Dietary Management
passage of loose, watery stools which may
After recovery the following diet is
contain blood or mucous.
given.
Causes of Diarrhoea Energy: Energy intake is increased
Diarrhoea results from changes in by 10-20% due to increase in BMR.
the mucosa of the small and large intestines. Carbohydrate: Carbohydrate intake
Diarrhoea may be due to many causes. The is increased. to meet the increased energy
more common causes are: requirement,
zzViral Infection : e.g. ‘intestinal’ flu, a Protein: The protein requirement
common term for infection of the bowels is increased.
by the influenza virus and rota virus. Fats: Only moderate amount of fat
zzBacterial Infection : 50 percent of the should be given.
cases are due to bacterial infections of Minerals: The requirement of calcium
the gut. Bacteria produce toxin in the and iron is increased during diarrhoea.
gut e.g. Vibrio cholerae, Shigella. Vitamins: Sufficient amount of fat
zzFood poisoning : Poor food hygiene soluble vitamin A is required.
and improperly handled food as a Dietary fibre: Low fibre diets in
result of food being prepared with recommended in diarrhoea in order to
unwashed hands, food exposed to avoid stress in GI tract. Foods rich in fibre
flies or cockroaches, or left at room have high residue, so it should be avoided.
temperature for a long time. It is recommended to give low residue food.

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Fluid: Plenty of fluid, 3 to 4 litres of

water, ORS, tender coconut water, barley
water and strained soup. ORS Day is celebrated every
year on 29th July.
Treatment
Oral Rehydration Therapy: It is a
type of fluid replacement used to prevent 1.3.3 Constipation
and treat dehydration, especially that
Constipation is a common
caused due to diarrhoea. The World Health
disorder of motor activity of the bowel
Organization approved Oral Rehydration
and characterized by the infrequent and
Solution (ORS) is given in table below:
difficult passage of small amounts of
Oral Rehydration Solution hard stool. It is the passage of hard stool
at infrequent and long intervals with
Components Amount g /l
difficulty to expel. In constipation there
Glucose 20 may be less than 3 motion per week or
Sodium chloride 3.5 painful defecation.
Trisodium citrate 2.9
Causes of Constipation
Sodium carbonate 2.5 I Systematic/metabolic causes:
Potassium chloride 1.5 zzLack of exercise,
zzIgnoring urge to defecate,
Home made ORS zzDiet low in fibre,
For one glass boiled cooled water, zzPregnancy,
one pinch of salt and one teaspoon of sugar
zzSide effect of medication,
can be added, to prepare ORS at home.
zzMetabolic and endocrine abnormalities
Foods to be (uremia, hypocalcaemia, hypo-
Foods to be included
avoided thyroidism).
Refined Cereals (Rice, Whole Cereals-
Maida, Vermicelli), Dalia, Whole II Gastro Intestinal cause:
Idli, Idiyappam Wheat Flour. zzCancer in stomach and colon
Washed/Dehusked Whole Pulses- zzUpper GI tract diseases,
Pulses (Moong, Lentil). Rajmah, Chole, zzIrritable bowel syndrome,
Milk products - Curd, Soyabean, Peas, zzAnal fissures and hemorrhoids,
Buttermilk. Milk and Milk zzLaxative abuse.
Boiled Vegetables based Desserts
and Fruits - Papaya, like Milk Shakes Symptoms of Constipation
Banana, Stewed Muttons, Chicken The symptoms are as follows:
Apple (without peel), and Fish, Fried zzHead ache
strained Juice, Soups, foods zzCoated tongue
Beverages and Light Nuts and Oilseeds zzFoul breath
Desserts like Custard zzLack of appetite

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zzAbdominal swelling Sources:

zzAbdominal bloating Whole cereals - whole wheat flour,
zzNausea broken wheat, millets, oats.
zzFeeling sluggish Legumes - green gram, Bengal
gram, Rajma
Principles of Diet
Roots- carrots, radish
Normal energy, protein and fat
requirements are followed. Adequate Fruits-guava, orange, apricot, dates,
fat may be given as it increases gastric raisins, banana
motility by causing lubrication of mucous Green leafy vegetables- amaranth,
in the GI tract. High fibre and plenty of fenugreek, drumstick leaves
fluid is recommended. Vegetables – beans, brinjal,
drumstick, gourds
Dietary Management
Fibre: Primary diet consideration is Fluid: 2-3 litres of fluids including
consumption of both soluble and insoluble warm water with lemon juice is advised to
fibre because it remains in the digestive tract get relief from constipation. Unstrained
for long duration and contribute to the bulk soups (spinach, tomato, chicken and corn)
of diet. can be given.
Potassium: Acutely ill patients who
What is the role of Fibre in
Constipation? are bedridden, may be given vegetable
soup and fruit juices which are high in
Dietary fibre refers to edible potassium.
plant material not digested by the
enzymes in the upper digestive tract
of humans. It consists of cellulose, 1.4 Diet in Diseases of
hemicelluloses, pectin, starchy materials, Liver
and oligosaccharide that are partially The liver is the largest glandular
resistant to digestive enzymes. Cellulose organ of the body situated in the right
is considered insoluble; it helps move upper side of the abdomen. It is divided into
waste through your digestive tract, which four lobes. Blood is supplied by 2 sources,
prevents constipation. Residue refers the Hepatic artery and Portal vein. About
to the end result of digestive, secretary, 1500ml of blood gets circulated in the liver.
absorptive, and fermentative processes.
Functions of Liver
High residue (high bulk, high fibre,
Liver has metabolic functions
high roughage) diet is given during
related to all major nutrients.
constipation. Increasing dietary fibre may
result in increased fecal output. i. Carbohydrate metabolism
The liver is the chief storehouse
of carbohydrates in the body especially
Guava has a glycogen, which is formed from glucose
high fibre content.
(glycogenesis). When glucose is needed

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by the body, glycogen is converted to vi. Detoxification

glucose (glycogenolysis) and returned to The liver detoxifies substances
the blood stream to maintain blood levels which are toxins produced because of
of glucose. bacterial action, parasitic infection,
mineral poisons or drugs.
ii. Protein metabolism
Metabolism of protein through Vii. Other Functions
conversion of amino acid into other non- It helps in the formation of blood
essential amino acid occurs in liver. coagulation factors.
iii. Fat metabolism
The liver synthesizes lipoproteins, Jaundice is the symptom common to
phospholipids, cholesterol and formation many diseases of the liver and disease
of bile. of the biliary tract rather.
iv. Mineral metabolism It is a condition in which yellow
The greatest portion of the body’s iron discoloration of the skin and mucous
is stored in the liver in the form of ferritin. membranes occurs due to the presence
Copper is also stored and is necessary for the of excessive amounts of the bile
production of hemoglobin. pigments in the blood.
v. Vitamin metabolism
All fat-soluble vitamins are 1.4.1 Hepatitis
present in the liver. Vitamin-A, D, E and Hepatitis refers to an inflammation
K are stored in the liver. It also stores and degenerative changes of the liver.
considerable amount of Vitamin C and The most common are hepatitis viruses
the B vitamins. A, B, C, D, E virus.

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Causes of Hepatitis Fats: Fats make the food more

zzAcute inflammation of the liver due to palatable and increase caloric intake. In
infection severe cases 20g and in moderate cases
20-30g of fat is recommended.
zzInflammation of the bile duct
zzObstruction of the bile duct Carbohydrates: High carbohydrate
content in the diet is essential to supply
zzHemolytic anemia
enough calories
Symptoms of Hepatitis
Vitamins: They are essential to
zznausea and vomiting
regenerate liver cells. Vitamin C, vitamin
zzhigh fever K and B complex are essential to meet the
daily needs.
zzdark colored urine
zzloss of appetite Minerals: Oral feeds of fruit juice,
vegetables and meat soup with added salt
zzpale colored stool
are given orally to maintain the electrolyte
zzabdominal pain (especially in the liver balance.
region) weakness and fatigue
Sodium: If oedema or ascites
zzweight loss is present then restrict sodium to
zzascites 500 mg to 1000 mg. Fluid intake may be
limited.
Principles of the Diet
A high protein, high carbohydrate
Dietary Guidelines
and moderate fat diet is recommended.
Small, attractive meals at regular intervals Foods to be
Foods to be avoided
are better tolerated. Over feeding should included
be avoided.
Cereal porridge, Meat, fish, egg,
Dietary Management double cooked Whole milk and
Energy: Increased energy intake. rice, soups, cream,
A liberal intake of carbohydrates and fat Milk, butter milk, Processed foods
as tolerated is required to reduce protein
Roots and tubers -papads, chutneys,
catabolism. Initially liquid, soft bland diet
-boiled tapioca, pickles,
should be given.
potato and sweet Sweet preparations,
Proteins: For the liver cells potato, bakery products,
to regenerate, an adequate supply of
proteins is needed. Protein requirements Fruit juices and Dried fruits and
vary according to the severity of the light custard nuts,
disease. With severe hepatitis, 40g, while
Condiments and
in mild hepatitis 60- 80g of protein is
spices
permitted.

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Dietary Management
1.4.2 Cirrhosis Energy: A 2000 -2500 kcals per day is
Cirrhosis is characterized by loss of needed. Most patients find it difficult to
functional cells and nodular regeneration consume adequate calories because of
of the liver cells. anorexia and nausea. Several small meals
are preferable to three large meals daily.
CIRRHOSIS OF THE LIVER
Carbohydrates: The carbohydrates content
of the diet will be high 300 to 400g per day,
in order to provide sufficient calories so
that protein is not used for energy.
NORMAL LIVER LIVER WITH CIRRHOSIS

Coconut oil is rich in Medium
Chain Triglyceride.
Causes of Cirrhosis
zzThe causes include infectious hepatitis, Protein: A high protein diet is
chronic alcoholism in association with helpful for regeneration of the liver.
malnutrition. Fats: In cirrhosis, 20 g of fat is given.
Medium chain triglycerides can be given.
zzNon-alcoholic fatty liver disease has
a number of causes, including being Vitamins and Minerals: Vitamins
verweight, diabetes, high blood fats, and mineral supplementation is needed in
and high blood pressure. all patients.
Sodium: Sodium restriction is
Symptoms of Cirrhosis
prescribed if edema and ascites are present.
Gastrointestinal disturbances such
as anorexia, vomiting, ascites, pain and Fluids: Fluids may not be severely
swelling. restricted if sodium restriction is effective in
correcting edema and ascites.
ASCITES Foods to be Avoided - Papad, pickles,
preserved foods such as jams, jellies, sauces.
Ascites is the accumulation of abnormal
amounts of fluid in the abdomen.
1.5 Overweight and Obesity
Principles of Diet therapy Obesity can be defined as the
A high calorie, high protein, high generalized accumulation of excess adipose
carbohydrate, moderate or restricted fat, tissue in the body resulting in an increase
high vitamin diet helps in the regeneration of more than 20 percent of the desirable
of liver and helps to prevent ascites. weight or ideal weight. Overweight refers
Vitamin supplementation is given. Sodium to person with body weight in excess of
is restricted only when there is ascites. the weight-height standard but below the
20% excess designated as obesity.

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1.5.1 Obesity Eating Habits

1. Nibbling between meals,
Types of Obesity 2. Some may eat faster taking less time
Android Obesity-: The android or for chewing,
the male pattern is characterized by fat 3. People who eat outside home more
distributed predominantly in the upper frequently are prone to obesity,
body above waist. This pattern may lead 4. Non inclusion of fruits and
to an “apple-shaped” body. vegetables,
Gynoid Obesity: Gynoid or female 5. People who eat processed,
pattern shows fat predominantly in concentrated and high fat food are
the lower body that is lower abdomen, susceptible to obesity,
buttocks, hips and thigh. Gynoid obese 6. Frequent consumption of fast food
looks pear shaped. which are rich in fat and low in fibre,
7. Consumption of sugar added beverages
Causes of Obesity
may contribute to weight gain.
Genetic Factor
Age and Sex: The critical periods Physical Activity
for the development of obesity is early Obesity is found in persons who lead a
childhood and early stages of puberty sedentary life with less physical activity.
because of reduced physical activity and Obesity is seen among school children who
no adjustment of kilocalorie intake and do not participate in school games and who
no change in food habits. use vehicles for commuting to school.
ADIPOSE TISSUE DISTRIBUTION IN MEN AND WOMEN
Android Obesity Gynoid Obesity

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Endocrine Factor Strategies For Weight Loss

Obesity is found in hypothyroidism. And Weight Maintenance Are
Prosperity and Civilization 1. Diet Therapy
Obesity is common among people 2. Physical Exercise
from higher socioeconomic status of
developing countries since they have
the purchasing power and availability of
Golden rate of obesity No
surplus food.
fasting No feasting.
How do you assess the Body
Composition? Principles of Diet Therapy
Body Weight Low calorie, normal protein,
An adult weighing 10% more than vitamin and mineral (except sodium),
the standard weight is overweight and restricted carbohydrates, restricted fat
20% more is obese. and liberal fluid, high fibre diet.
Ideal Body Weight Energy: To lose weight, energy

output must exceed energy input. About
The formula for ideal body weight is
20 kcal per kg ideal body weight is
Height (cm) – 100 = Ideal weight (kg) prescribed for a sedantary worker and
Body Mass Index: Obesity is 25 kcal per kg ideal body weight for
expressed in terms of BMI. It is also called moderately active worker.
QUETELET INDEX. It is represented as
Protein: About 0.8-1 g of protein/
BMI = weight (kg) / height (m)
2
kg body weight is prescribed for tissue
The following WHO classification repair.
scheme gives the grading of obesity based
Carbohydrates: Include more
on BMI.
of complex carbohydrates. High
Table 3 BMI Classification carbohydrate content food like potatoes
Classification BMI and rice are restricted. Sugar which gives
(Kilograms/ m2) empty calories should be totally avoided.
Underweight <18.5 Fruit rich in carbohydrate like banana
should be avoided.
Normal weight 18.5-24.9
Overweight 25-29.9 Fat: Low fat diet should be given to
reduce energy value of food. Foods rich
Obesity Class 1 30-34.9 in fat substances like nuts and oil seeds
Obesity Class 2 35-39.9 should be restricted or avoided. Skim
Obesity Class 3 >40 milk should be the choice.
Vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins

A and D which may be supplemented.

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Minerals: Restriction of sodium as zzExercise will also preserve lean body

common salt is helpful in weight reducing mass
diet as excess sodium leads to retention of zzIt helps to regulate appetite and
fluid. increases the basal metabolic rate
Fluid: Fluid can be taken liberally. zzReduce stress related eating.
Also a glass of water before meal helps to
cut down food intake. Complications of Obesity
zzPhysical disability: Feet have to carry extra
High Fibre: High fibre low calorie
load complications like flat feet, osteo-
foods like green leafy vegetables, fruits,
arthritis of knee, hip and lumbar spine.
vegetables salads, whole grain cereals and
pulses can be included in the diet. zzMetabolic disorder- (a) Diabetes.
(b) Plasma cholesterol level.
Advantages of High Fibre Food (c) Atherosclerosis. (d) Gout.
1. Low in calorie density
zzCardiovascular disorders-: High
2. Foods like greens provide many blood pressure and varicose veins.
vitamins and minerals (which are
zzSleep apnea.
difficult to meet with restricted
foods) zzProne to accidents-: Falling down on
slippery floor and crossing streets.
3. Give satiety
zzGastrointestinal disturbance: Hiatal
4. Help in regulating bowel movements
hernias and gall bladder disease.
5. Reduce blood cholesterol
zzOsteoarthritis.
6. Promote chewing and decrease rate
zzCancer: Cancers (colon, rectum and
of ingestion.
prostrate in men, uterus, biliary tract,
A paleo diet typically includes lean breast and ovary in women), digestive
meats, fish, fruits, vegetables, nuts and tract diseases (gallstones, reflux,
seeds. esophagitis) and skin disorders.
1.5.2 Underweight
The colour Orange is named
after the Orange fruit, but before that, According to the WHO classifi-
it was called geoluread (yellow-red) cation of Body Mass Index (BMI) people
whose BMI is less than 18.5 are considered
as underweight.
Physical Exercise
A low calorie diet accompanied Causes of Underweight
by moderate exercise will be effective in Starvation: This occurs due to
causing weight loss. famine conditions or an inadequate
zzAerobic exercise directly increases the diet lacking in proteins or an attempt at
daily energy expenditure. reducing weight.

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Wasting diseases: Underweight Proteins: Instead of 1 g of protein

also results from debilitating disease like 1.2 g per kg/day is recommended.
tuberculosis, diabetes, malabsorption Fat: Fat is added to increase the
syndrome or cancer. Infections are calories but it should not exceed the
common among them. tolerance limits.
Poor food Intake: Diminished Carbohydrate: High carbohydrate
intake of food resulting due to 1) is to provide primary energy source and
Psychological factors that cause a person to should be provided in an easily digested
refuse to eat 2) loss of appetite or imbalance form. The number of meals should be
of the brain’s hunger, satiety centers or 3) increased.
personal poverty and limited food supply.
Vitamins and minerals: Liberal
Malabsorption syndrome: amount through proper diet should be
Poor nutrient absorption results from given.
1) prolonged diarrhoea 2) gastrointestinal Fluids: Fluid should be taken after
disease 3) abuse of laxatives. meal and not before or during meals.
Dietary Guidelines
Anti obesity day is celebrated zzGood food of wide variety, well
on 26th November. prepared, helps to revive lagging
appetite and increase desire to eat.
Hormonal imbalance: Hyper- zzEnergy dense food is preferred.
thyroidism increase the caloric needs of zzFrequent small nourishing meals
the body. should be given.
Energy Imbalance: Greatly
zzConcentrated food supplements can
increased physical activity without a
be given.
corresponding increase in food brings an
energy balance deficit. zzFoods can be seasoned with ghee,
butter, sauces and dressings.
Poor living status: An unhealthy
home environment or no home at all
results in irregular and inadequate meals. 1.6 Diet for Cardiovascular
disease
Principles of Diet Therapy
A high calorie, high protein, high Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
carbohydrate, moderate fat diet with good generally refers to the disease of the
sources of vitamins and minerals. heart and blood vessels, is a major
cause of disability and premature death
Dietary Management throughout the world and contributes to
Energy: The calorie requirements the escalating cost of health care in India.
vary depending upon the activities. The Compared to the western countries, CVD
total calorie intake should be in excess of affects Indians atleast a decade earlier and
the energy requirement. in their most productive years.

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Structure of the heart The coronary blood flow in a normal

It is a muscular organ made up of adult averages 200-250 ml/minutes. In
smooth muscles (myocardium) which is a healthy adult at rest, the heart pumps
enclosed in a sac known as the pericardium approximately 5 litres of blood every minute.
(outside layer). Shaped like an egg, is about For efficient pumping, it is necessary for the
the size of a person’s clenched fist and weighs heart to beat at a reasonable rate of 60-90
around 300 g in a man and 250 g in a woman. beats/minute which is achieved through
controlled electrical impulses.
The heart has four chambers, two
atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower). The heart and the blood vessels
Valves connect the upper and lower together constitute the cardiovascular
chambers and allows blood to flow only in system.
one direction. The right and left sides of the
heart are totally separated by a muscular wall 1.6.1 Cardiovascular diseases
and there is no communication between
The most common forms of
them.
cardiovascular disease are:
The right side of the heart (Right 1. Atherosclerosis is a process by which
atrium and Right ventricle) receives arteries are narrowed due to the
deoxygenated (impure) blood collected accumulation of cholesterol and other
from different parts of the body through blood lipids along the walls obstructing
small and big veins (superior vena cava and the blood flow.
inferior vena cava) which enters the lungs
through the pulmonary artery.
In the lungs, blood is oxygenated
and carbon dioxide and metabolic waste
are removed. The left side of the heart (Left
atrium and Left ventricle) gets oxygenated
(pure) blood from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein and supplies it to the entire
body through the major blood vessel aorta
and its innumerable branches (arteries and
capillaries).
The left ventricle generates
considerably greater pressure than the right
ventricle, to enable the blood to be pumped
throughout the body.
The heart muscles are supplied with
oxygenated blood by two major coronary
arteries and their branches which are
distributed all over the surface of the heart.

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The fatty fibrous mass thickens Non-modifiable factors - the

over time narrowing the interior of the individual has no control over them.
artery and forms blood clots, which may 1. Age - Onset increases with advancing
cut off blood flow causing tissue death age: usually between 50-55 years occurs
called an infarct. When there is no supply at an earlier age in individual with a
of blood nutrients and oxygen to the position family history.
myocardium (heart muscle) due to block 2. Sex - Occurs more in men than women:
in one of the coronary arteries, the event but after menopause the risk increases
is called an acute myocardial infarction in a woman due to lack of ovarian
(MI) or heart attack. hormone estrogen.
2. Stroke / brain attack results when there 3. Hereditary/ family history - A history
is a block in the major artery supplying of premature death (before 55 years in a
blood to the brain. parent/grandparent) increases the risk
for CVD.
Risk factors for CVD
Modifiable factors - can be controlled
Multiple risk factors are involved
to prevent or delay the onset of CVD.
such as:
4. Blood lipids - Elevated levels of blood
Non-modifiable High BP lipids (Cholesterol, LDL & triglycerides)
risk factors Age
Smoking
is the major risk factor which is worsened
Gender Diabetes
Cardio mellitus by lack of physical activity, obesity,
Vascular
Genec
Disease
Physical smoking, stress and excess food intake.
factors inacvity
Obesity 5. Dietary fat- High intake of saturated
Race &
ethnicity
High blood
Cholesterol Modifiable risk
fat and cholesterol in the diet increases
factors the blood cholesterol levels.

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6. Obesity - Excess body fat is associated Cholesterol and triglycerides are

with increased risk of developing the main forms of lipids in the blood.
hypertension, high cholesterol and These come partly from the food and
diabetes. partly from the body’s own production
in the liver. Excess cholesterol above that
7. Hypertension / high blood pressure-
needed by the body is deposited in the
It is an independent risk factor for heart
arteries and contributes to atherosclerosis.
attack, stroke, diabetes and renal failure.
8. Diabetes mellitus - The risk for
Lipoproteins carry fat and
heart diseases doubles in individuals cholesterol to the tissue for metabolism and
with diabetes. back to the liver for excretion as needed.
9. Smoking - It is a major risk factor

that damages the heart and blood
vessels muscles directly by making the
heart work faster and harder. It also HDL
increases the blood cholesterol and
“GOOD” Cholesterol - HDL
blood pressure. The HDL Cholesterol scarapes away necessary
LDL from artery walls, prevenng the formaon
10. Physical inactivity - Sedentary lifestyle of plaques. That’s why HDL cholesterol is
commonly called “GOOD”.
leads to excess body fat, elevated
cholesterol and high blood pressure
resulting in 2 times increase in CVD.
11. Stress- Anxiety, depression and lack
of social support not only increases LDL
the blood pressure but also damages
“BAD” Cholesterol - LDL
the muscles of the heart.
LDL, on the contrary, deposits excess cholesterol
on the artery walls, thus promong plaque
formaon. For this reason, the LDL cholestrol
is defined as “BAD”
Heart disease occurs in
person with diabetes at 2/4 times more Because LDL constantly sends
than rate of the general population. cholesterol to the tissues and promotes the
deposition in the arteries, it is called the
“ bad cholesterol”. HDL called the “good
Blood lipids and CVD
cholesterol” transports cholesterol from
Lipid is the class name for all fats and
the tissues to the liver for elimination
fat related components. Elevated blood
from the body. It is not found in food but
lipids are associated with cardiovascular
produced in the body.
disease. Lipids substances involved
in the disease process are cholesterol, High level of total LDL is a concern
triglycerides and lipoproteins- LDL (low in the development and progression of heart
density lipoproteins) and HDL (high diseases while an optimal level of HDL
density lipoproteins). confers protection against heart diseases.

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carbohydrate, normal protein and high

ACTIVITY 1 fibre is recommended.
Assess for the presence of risk factors Dietary management
for heart disease in your respective Energy
family and discuss the same among The total energy intake should
your friends and family members. match the energy expenditure to achieve
a desirable body weight. Reducing the
ATP III classification of blood lipids calorie intake and increasing the physical
Cholesterol reading Classification activity helps to reduce excess body weight
Total cholesterol and blood lipids.
(mg/dl)
Fat
<200 Desirable Dietary fat has been shown to affect
200-239 Borderline high blood lipid levels. Total fat intake should
risk not exceed 25% of total calories.
ê 240 High risk
zzSaturated fat to be restricted to
LDL cholesterol (mg/
dl) 7% of total calories as it promotes
<100 an increase in blood cholesterol
Optimal
100-129 which in turn can lead to heart
Near optimal
130-159 disease.
Borderline high
risk Saturated fat is mostly present in
160-189 High risk animals foods like meat, poultry,
ê 190 Very high risk milk and milk products. Processed
HDL cholesterol foods like cakes, biscuits and pastries
(mg/dl) also contain these fats.
ê 60 Optimal
40-59 Desirable
<40 High risk
Triglycerides
(mg/dl) Optimal
<150 Borderline high
150-199 risk
ê 200 High risk
zzMonounsaturated fat An intake of
Principles of diet 20% of monounsaturated fat (MUFA)
Low to moderate calorie, reduces the cholesterol and maintains
moderate fat (less saturated fat, the HDL levels. These are found in
cholesterol and high in unsaturated groundnut oil, soyabean oil, olive
fats such as monounsaturated fat and oil as well as nuts like almonds and
poly-unsaturated fatty acids) low walnuts.

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cholesterol. It is advisable to restrict

the intake to not more than 1% of
calories (approximately 1-3gm/day).
Heart cancer is very rare

because heart cells stop dividing early
in life.
ACTIVITY 2
zzPolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
List the usage of different oils used in
It is found as n-3 fatty acids and n-6
your home. Justify the level of usage.
fatty acids to be not more than 10% of
total calorie intake. Fish oils, flax seeds,
nuts like walnuts are good sources of
n-3 fatty acids while n-6 are present in
vegetable oils like sunflower, safflower
oils. n-3 fatty acids can help reduce
the triglycerides levels in the blood. A
good balance between n-6, n-3 PUFA
is essential for a healthy heart which is
possible by appropriate combination
of oils. eg, use of mustard oil or soya
bean oil with other oils will help to
achieve this balance.
Consuming 100-200 gm of
fish at least twice a week benefits heart Carbohydrate
health. Carbohydrate intake should
contribute to not more than 55% of
the total energy requirement. Complex
zzDietary cholesterol Limiting the
carbohydrates in the form of whole
dietary cholesterol to less than 200 mg/
grain cereals are preferred to simple
day is associated with reduced levels of
carbohydrates that raise the blood
total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol.
triglycerides levels.
Egg yolk and organ meats like brain,
kidney and liver are rich in cholesterol. Protein
zzTrans-fats are fats that are found Normal intake of 50-60g/day is
in baked foods, fast foods and fried recommended. Usage of animal proteins
foods have the ability to raise LDL which are also rich in saturated fats and

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cholesterol can be limited or replaced with Additionally specific dietary strategies also
vegetable like pulses and nuts proteins. help to protect against heart diseases.
Dark chocolate – Moderate intake of

dark chocolate (high in cocoa content)
has antioxidant potential to lower LDL
cholesterol.
Approximately ⅓ rd the
requirement of fibre (6-10g out of
30g/day) and antioxidants for adults can
be easily met by taking 5-6 servings of
Sodium fruit and vegetables per day (1 serving =
Sodium is restricted when 75-100g)
hypertension is present.
Grapes have to be consumed

with the seeds and skin as they contain
resveratol - a powerful antioxidant that
protects the heart.
Other dietary factors

In general a nutritionally balanced
diet helps reduce the risk of CVD.
Dietary factor Protection against CHD

Soluble fibre (apples and zzLowers blood cholesterol
other fruits, oats, soy, barley, zzLower risk of heart attack
legumes).
zzImproves LDL to HDL ratio
Antioxidants like beta carotene, zzSlows progression of Atherosclerosis
lycopene, vitamin E and zzLowers risk of heart attack in people with CHD
vitamin C present in fruits and
zzDecreases LDL cholesterol
vegetables
Soya (protein and isoflavones) zzLowers blood cholesterol
zzRaises HDL cholesterol
zzImproves LDL to HDL ratio
Nuts ( in small amounts ) zzLowers blood cholesterol
walnut, almond and groundnut

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Other lifestyle modifications blood pressure of 140 mm Hg or greater

Physical activity – Regular aerobic and/or diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm
exercise like brisk walking can help to Hg or greater.
strengthen the heart muscle, promote It is also called “the silent
weight loss or help maintain weight, raise killer” because it does not exhibit any
HDL cholesterol, improve blood glucose signs or symptoms to indicate its
levels and reduce blood pressure. presence. When undetected, untreated
Smoking and stress – Refraining or uncontrolled can lead to serious
from smoking and appropriate strategies consequences like stroke.
for coping with stress would help to Hypertension may be classified as
prevent heart disease. zzPrimary or essential hypertension
- It refers to the condition where the
Case study specific cause is unknown. It involves
Kumar is a 60 year old executive who a complex interaction between poor
is obese. He smokes and occasionally lifestyle choices and genes. The lifestyle
consumes alcohol. He is very ambitious factors include a poor diet – high
and does not like to do exercise. He has sodium, low fruit and vegetable intake,
a strong family history for heart disease. obesity, smoking, lack of exercise and
stress.
1. What are his risk factors?
zzSecondary hypertension - This has a
2. What lifestyle modification will
known cause and may arise as a result
you advice him?
of another disease. E.g. Individuals
with kidney disease have secondary
hypertension.
1.6.2 Hypertension
Hypertension is the number one lassification of blood
C
killer disease in India, with a higher pressure
prevalence among the urban adult
Systolic Diastolic
population. Category
(mmHg) (mmHg)
The normal pressure of blood Optimal <120 And <80
against the walls of the arteries is called
Normal <130 <85
blood pressure or hypertension. The
normal blood pressure, when the heart High normal 130-139 85-89
contracts, is called systolic pressure (SBP) Hypertension
and is between 100-140 mm of mercury. Stage 1 140-159 90-99
When the heart relaxes, the pressure is
Stage 2 160-179 100-109
known as diastolic pressure (DBP) with
values of 70-90 mm of mercury. Stage 3 ≥180 ≥110
Hypertension in adults aged Source: Indian Guidelines for
18 years and older is defined as systolic management of Hypertension II, 2013

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Stage 1 Hypertension. Focus is on zzHigh blood lipids. High blood lipids

dietary modification (without drugs) to contribute to both atherosclerosis and
reduce excess weight and restrict sodium. hypertension.
Stage 2 Hypertension. In addition zzPoor diet. Diets rich in saturated fat and
to the diet therapy for stage 1, drugs cholesterol with low intake of fruit and
are used according to need and usually vegetable raises blood pressure.
include a diuretic agent. Continious
zzDiabetes. People with diabetes often
use of some, diuretic drugs cause loss
have high blood pressure.
of potassium along with the increased
loss of water from the body. Potassium zzGender. Risk of blood pressure is higher
replacement becomes necessary to avoid in men than in-women and the risk is
irregular heart beat. higher in post menopausal women.
Stage 3 Hypertension. Vigorous zzAge. Onset increases with advancing
drug therapy becomes necessary age (>60 years) as old age is associated
along with dietary changes in stage 2. with loss of elasticity of the arteries.
Nutritional support is important for all zzHeredity. A family history of
types of hypertension, along with other hypertension in women under 65 and
nondrug therapies of physical exercise in men under 55 significantly raises
and stress reduction. the risk of developing hypertension.
Risk factors for hypertension zzObesity. Excess body fat, especially
Major risk factors are: abdominal fat, is closely associated
with hypertension.
zzSmoking. Smoking increases the
heart’s workload, raising blood zzLack of exercise. Less active people are
pressure as nicotine in cigarette twice likely to develop hypertension
constricts the small blood vessels. than their active counterparts.
RISK FACTORS
FOR
HYPERTENSION
STRESS SALT
AGE
HEREDITARY OBESITY

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zzChronic stress. zzPrepare foods with sodium-free spices

zzCertain drugs. Birth control pills may such as basil, bay leaves, curry leaves,
increase blood pressure. garlic, ginger, mint, pepper, lemon juice,
vinegar in place of some or all of the salt
zzCaffeine. Some people, who are
to add flavour .
sensitive to caffeine may experience
an increase in blood pressure. zzRead labels for sodium to select low-salt
or salt-free products when available.
Principles of diet zzAvoid preservatives like monosodium
Low calorie, low fat, low sodium glutamate, soya sauce, ketchups, Cheese,
diet with normal protein is prescribed. and salted butter.
Energy zzCanned and instant soups.
Calorie restriction to aid weight zzGelatin, cakes, biscuit and candies.
loss is recommended for overweight and
obese individuals, which significantly
reduces the blood pressure and LDL 2.4g of sodium is
cholesterol levels. Weight loss along approximately equivalent to 6 g sodium
with drug therapy decreases the dose or chloride or table salt.
number of drugs necessary to control
blood pressure. Other minerals
Protein: Adequate intake of 50- 60 Minerals like calcium and
g protein is necessary to maintain optimal magnesium are found to be beneficial
nutrition. in controlling blood pressure, e.g. Low
fat dairy products, green leafy vegetables
Fats: Fat intake with emphasis on
and nuts. Increasing the potassium to
low saturated and high PUFA & MUFA is
replace the loss with diuretics. Most
recommended to facilitate weight control
of the fruits and vegetables are rich in
and decrease the risk of CVD.
potassium.
Carbohydrate: Complex
carbohydrate as whole grain helps to Exercise
manage high blood pressure. Moderate physical activity (30-45
minutes of brisk walking) is recommended
Sodium: In sodium sensitive people,
as weight loss is associated with reduced
restricting sodium to 2-g is sufficient.
blood pressure values.
In severe cases of hypertension, a
moderate 1-g sodium level may be indicated.
1.7 Diet in Diabetes
How to cut salt intake
Mellitus
Strategies to cut salt intake include:
Diabetes mellitus is a group of
zzSelect fresh, unprocessed foods. metabolic diseases characterised by high
zzCook with little or no added salt avoid blood glucose resulting from defects in
pickles and salted fried. insulin secretion, insulin action or both.

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Diabetes = to pass through ; This form has a strong genetic link

mellitus = honey ( sugar in urine) and is more prevalent in older, obese,
Insulin is a hormone produced by inactive individuals. The onset occurs in
the beta cells of the pancreas which helps to adults above age 40, but is now also being
transport glucose into the cells and utilize diagnosed in children and young adults.
them for energy production in the body. These individuals do not need insulin for
survival, but rather rely on diet, exercise,
It also helps to convert glucose to
and (usually) oral medications for disease
glycogen to be stored in the liver and muscles.
management.
Alongside it helps to convert glucose to fat
that is stored as body fat and promotes the Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
uptake of amino acids by muscles. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM)
Individuals with diabetes either is a temporary form of diabetes developed
do not produce insulin or cannot use the during pregnancy in woman who do not have
insulin produced. As a result glucose does diabetes. The blood glucose level become
not enter the body cells and builds up in normalized after delivery.
the blood causing an increase in blood
Impaired Glucose Tolerance /
glucose levels. As the disease progresses,
Pre-diabetes
glucose starts to appear in the urine.
Individuals whose fasting blood
glucose is above normal (≥ 110 mg/dL), but is
lassification of Diabetes
C not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes
Mellitus ( < 126 mg/dL) fall under this category. It is
also referred to as pre-diabetes.
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 diabetes mellitus accounts for RISK FACTORS FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES
5% to 10 % of all cases of diabetes. Previously
called insulin dependent diabetes is caused
by the destruction of the beta cells in the
pancreas. BEING
OVERWEIGHT
HAVING
A FAMILY
HISTORY
The onset of type 1 diabetes occurs

rapidly in children and adolescence.
Individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus BEING BEING
PHYSICALLY 45 AND OLDER
require insulin injections for their survival. INACTIVE
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Risk Factors for Type 2

The most common form with Diabetes Mellitus
approximately 90% to 95% of the individuals zzFamily history of
belonging to this category. When the body diabetes.
is not producing enough insulin or the
zz Age - 45 years or older.
insulin it produces cannot be used (insulin
resistance) leads to type 2 diabetes mellitus. zz Obesity (BMI ≥23 kg/m²).
zzPhysical inactivity.

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zzRace/ethnicity- Asians have 2-4 times

risk than Europeans.
Diabetes emerged as India’s
zzHistory of gestational diabetes. seventh biggest cause of early death in
2016, from eleventh in 2005. In India,
zzWoman who has delivered an infant about 50.9 million people suffer from
weighing more than 4kg. diabetes, and this figure is likely to go
up to 80 million by 2025, making it the
zzHistory of heart diseases – high
'Diabetes Capital' of the world.
cholesterol, low HDL, hypertension.
THIRST FREQUENT HUNGER

URINATION
WEAKNESS WEIGHT LOSS BLURRED

VISION
NAUSEA SLOW HEALING TINGLING

OF CUTS IN HANDS

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Symptoms of zzLimb amputations, foot ulcers

Diabetes Mellitus zzHeart diseases - Atherosclerosis
zzIncreased thirst ( polydipsia) (increase in triglyceride and decrease
zzIncreased urination ( polyuria) in HDL cholesterol)
zzHypertension
zzIncreased hunger ( polyphagia)
zzStroke
zzUnintentional weight loss in type 1, or
weight gain with type 2 Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1C)
zzBlurred vision Increase in blood glucose
zzSkin irritation or infection level, causes the glucose to attach to
zzGeneral weakness and loss of strength. haemoglobin (a pigment in the red blood
cells) to form glycosylated haemoglobin.
Complications
Glycosylated haemoglobin
Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to
(HbA1C) levels reflect the blood glucose
zzBlindness control over the previous 2-3 months. In
zzKidney disease people with diabetes, HbA1C is >6.5% of
zzNerve disorders the total haemoglobin.

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Management of diabetes are preferred. Root vegetables can be

Lifestyle modifications play an taken in moderation while simple sugars
important role in the prevention and like sugar, honey, jaggery and processed
treatment of diabetes than in any other refined cereals should be restricted.
disease. Balancing diet, exercise and
drug along with appropriate stress
coping skills will ensure better diabetic Glycemic index
management. The extent of rise in blood glucose levels
The main modes of treatment are: in response to a food in comparison
zzDiet with the response to an equal amount
of glucose is known as glycemic index.
zzExercise
Generally, complex carbohydrates are
zzDrugs considered to have a low or moderate
zzEducation glycemic index, while simple sugars have
high glycemic index.
A. Dietary Management
A balanced diet rich in complex
Fibre
carbohydrates and fibre, low in simple
An intake of 25-50g of dietary fibre
sugars and saturated fat with moderate
is considered optimal. Fibre present in
protein facilitates good glucose control.
vegetables, fruits, legumes and fenugreek
Regular use of fresh foods like fruits and
seed is soluble in nature and more effective
vegetables with limited use of processed
in controlling blood glucose and lipid levels
foods is recommended.
(reduce total cholesterol and triglycerides)
Energy than the insoluble fibre present in cereals.
The total energy intake should be High fibre diets also promote weight loss.
sufficient to meet individual needs for
normal growth and development, physical Protein
activity and exercise and maintenance of Consuming protein at levels of 20 %
a desirable body weight. of total calories is recommended. Protein
along with carbohydrate will lower blood
Even amounts of food should be
glucose level.
eaten at regular intervals throughout the
day, to prevent fluctuations in the blood Fat
glucose level, especially hypoglycaemic No more than 25% of the total calories
(low blood glucose level). Snacks should come from fat as high fat diet increases
between meals may be needed to prevent the risk of heart diseases. Polyunsaturated fatty
fluctuation in the blood glucose level. acids and Mono unsaturated fatty acids present
in vegetable oils are preferred to saturated fatty
Carbohydrate
acids that are found in meat and egg.
An intake of 55-60% of total calories
is recommended to improve glycemic Salt
control. Complex carbohydrates found in A moderate to low salt is recommended
whole grains, pulses, vegetable and fruits to lower high blood pressure.

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Case Study
Medicinal plants for diabetes Raman is a 45 year old busy executive. He
Fenugreek seeds at levels of 15g per day is obese, chronic smoker and physically
lowers blood glucose level. Bittergourd inactive. His blood sugar levels are
fluctuating.
and Jamun (Naval) exhibit hypoglycemic
effect. What advice you would give him
to maintain the blood glucose levels?
Food Exchange System

The food exchange system is a B. Exercise
familiar tool to distribute the food in a Regular, moderate intensity
balanced pattern. In this system, foods exercise like brisk walking helps to control
providing the same amount of calories, blood sugar and reduce the risk of cardio
carbohydrate, proteins and fats are vascular diseases.
grouped together. The exchange list helps Benefits:
to interchange foods from the different
zzAids weight loss/ maintenance
food groups according to one’s personal
choice and preferences. e.g In a cereal zzImproves blood lipid levels
exchange. zzIncrease blood pressure
zzImproves blood glucose control
Idli - 1½ nos / Dosa -1 no /
Chappathi - 1 no / Upma - ½ katori C. Drugs
Drugs to treat diabetes include
Provide approximately 100 insulin and oral hypoglycemic drugs.
kilocalories. Similarly vegetable , fruit,
pulse exchange are available. People with type 1 diabetes need to
take daily insulin injections.
Artificial sweeteners
People with diabetes can use Type 2 diabetes may respond to
artificial sweeteners instead of sugar treatment with exercise, diet, and medicines
but limiting their usage in beverages is orally. Some people with type 2 diabetes
considered safe. may no longer need medication. Individuals
with type 2 diabetes also may require
insulin under certain circumstances.
D. Education
Education plays a vital role in the control
and management of diabetes. Individuals with
diabetes should be educated on the nature of the
disease, importance of diet, drug and exercise,
self monitoring of glucose, recognition and
treatment signs of hypoglycaemia and the
possibility of complications if blood sugar is
not kept under control.

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E. Other lifestyle modifications

1.8 Diet for Kidney
Alcohol Diseases
Excessive amounts of alcohol on a
The kidney is the principal
consistent basis can increase the blood sugar
excretory organ of our body. The kidney
levels and raise the blood pressure. It is advisable
is a bean shaped paired structure and is
to stop or limit the alcoholic consumption.
located in the upper abdominal region. A
Smoking thin transparent membrane called capsule
Individuals with diabetes would covers the kidney. The outer portion of
benefit from quitting smoking inorder to the kidney is the renal cortex and the
have a better blood glucose control and inner portion is the renal medulla. Blood
reduce the complication of diabetes. enters the kidneys through the renal
Stress arteries and leaves through the renal
Stress can affect diabetic control, veins. Each kidney has about 1.0 millions
by reducing the insulin action. Learning of functional units called nephrons which
useful stress reduction exercises will remove wastes and extra fluids from the
ensure better control. blood in the form of urine. The urine
passes through the ureter to the bladder
SPA for excretion.
EXERCISE Urinary system
HOBBY
MEDITATION
STRESS
MANAGEMENT YOGA
NATURE
TIME
MUSIC
THERAPY
ACTIVITY 3
Structure of nephron
Create awareness by preparing a The basic functional unit of the
brochure/hand out to educate the public kidney is the nephron. The nephron
on the prevention and management of consists of a glomerulus connected to a
diabetes in the walker’s park series of tubules.

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Functions of the Kidney
Glomerulus The kidneys perform the following

functions :
Bowmans Distal
capsule tubule
1. Urine formation-Make urine through
which they excrete most of the waste
products of metabolism like urea,
creatinine, toxins and drugs.
2. Maintain fluid and electrolyte
Proximal tubule balance- Controls the concentration
of the constituents of the blood like
Loop of Henle
sodium, potassium, chloride etc.
3. Kidneys are an exclusive site for the
Collecng duct production of
Tubules consist of different segments: a) 1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol, the

the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of active from of vitamin D which is
Henle, distal tubule and collecting duct. important for bone health.
Each nephron functions independently
b) Erythropoietin which is essential for
and contributes to the final urine.
the synthesis of red blood cells.
The glomerulus is a spherical mass
c) Renin, an enzyme that helps to regulate
of capillaries surrounded by a membrane,
Bowman’s capsule. The hydrostatic pressure blood pressure.
within the glomerular capillaries results in the 4. Hormone degradation - Parathyroid
filtration of fluid into Bowman’s capsule. The hormone, calcitonin, insulin and
filtrate formed in the glomerulus passes first gastrin are degraded by the kidneys.
into the proximal convoluted tubule and from
there, through the loop of Henle and distal Risk factors for kidney disease
convoluted tubule to the collecting ducts.
zzOld age
The processes of selective
zzExposure to hot climate
reabsorption and tubular secretion of the
filtrate results in the production of 1.5 litres zzDiabetes
of urine that is excreted each day. zzHypertension
zzUrinary tract infections
The glomerular filtration zzUrinary stones

rate (GFR) is used to monitor kidney zzFamily history of chronic kidney
function. Normal GFR is 100-125 failure
ml/minute/1.73m². Chronic Kidney
Disease occurs when GFR is < 60 ml/ zzExposure to certain nephrotoxic drugs
minute/1.73m² for 3 or more months. zzLow birth weight

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1.8.1 Glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis is the
inflammation of the capillary loops of the
glomerulus. It is sudden onset and may lead
to nephrotic disease or proceed to recovery.
Glomerulonephritis occurs mostly in young
children between 3-10 years of age, although
it may occur in adults.
zzOedema- excess accumulation of fluid
A. Clinical symptoms in the body tissues
zzHematuria- the abnormal presence of zzHypertension
blood in the urine. zzPoor appetite
zzProteinuria- abnormal excess of serum zzOliguria (secretion of small amounts
proteins ( e.g albumin) in the urine. of urine ) and

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zzAnuria (absence of urine production) present, but may be increased to 2-3g/day

develops as the disease progresses. as the function resumes.
Dietary Management
zzBed rest and antibiotic drug therapy
along with optimum nutritional
support are emphasized.
zzSalt usually is not restricted unless
oedema, hypertension, oliguria is
present. Fluid intake is adjusted to
output.
Energy
Carbohydrates should be given Potassium
liberally to provide sufficient energy and As kidneys lose their ability to clear
prevent tissue protein breakdown. potassium, a build up results in the body.
This can cause irregular heart beats, hence
Protein potassium intake is restricted. Most of the
Improper functioning of the fruit and vegetables contain potassium
nephrons leads to the inability to filter which can be reduced by double leaching
urea nitrogen, a product of protein (cooking them in excess water and
breakdown which is usually expressed discarding the water twice).
as blood urea nitrogen (BUN). If the
blood urea nitrogen is elevated and urine Case Study
output is decreased, dietary protein is Ramesh is 60 year old man having oedema.
restricted. High quality animal proteins He is an hypertensive who complains of
such as meat, eggs are preferred to poor appetite and low urine output.
vegetable proteins to ensure maximum
1. What is the diagnosis?
utilization.
2. What is the sodium requirement?
Intake between 0.5-1.5 g/kg body 3. W
hat advice would you give him on
weight is recommended for children. An the protein intake?
protein intake may be held at 0.75 to 1 g/kg
body weight when BUN levels are normal. 1.9.2 Nephrosis
Fluid Nephrosis results from the damage
Fluid intake is restricted according to the tissues of the nephron both the
to urine output. If restriction is not glomerulus and tubule. This disrupts both
indicated fluids can be consumed as the filtration and reabsorption functions
desired. which result in large amounts of protein
to pass into the tubules causing damage
Sodium to it. Nephrosis is caused by progressive
Sodium is restricted to 500- glomerulonephritis, diabetes, drugs, heavy
1000mg/day if oedema or hypertension is metals or toxic insect venoms.

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Clinical symptoms
zzOedema
zzAscites (accumulation of fluid in the Kidney transplantation is
abdominal cavity) needed when the kidney function
zzProteinuria reduces to less than 10%. Donor
kidneys are taken from either brain
zzDistended abdomen due to fluid
dead organ donors or family member
accumulation.
of the recipients.
zzAlbuminuria (increased loss of
urinary albumin)
zzMalnourishment due to large protein loss
that leads to tissues protein breakdown. Hu man Organ
Transplantation Act (1994) in India
Principles of diet
allows only live transplants from
High energy, moderate protein, salt
close relative/voluntary donors
and fluid restricted diet is advised.
(exceptional) to avoid organ
Dietary management trafficking.
Energy
A high intake of 30-40 g/kg 1.8.3
Kidney Stones/
ideal body weight is provided for tissue Urinary Calculi
rebuilding. Food to be made more
Kidney stones, also called urinary
appetizing and soft in consistency to
calculi /nephrolithiasis may be found in
improve acceptability.
the kidney, ureter, bladder or urethra.
Protein
A protein intake of 0.8- 1.0 g/
kg body weight/day given to meet the
nutritional needs and prevent tissue
protein breakdown. High quality proteins
present in animal foods are preferred.
Sodium
Sodium is reduced to approximately
1 g/day to prevent oedema and increased
to 3 g/day as oedema subsides.
Other minerals and vitamins

Iron and vitamin supplement may The basic cause of kidney stones is
be helpful, while potassium restriction unknown, but many factors relating to the
is not necessary. Potassium supplements nature of the urine itself or conditions of
are useful to replace losses with diuretic the urinary tract environment contribute
usage. to their formation.

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Risk factors for the zzMedications for AIDS, thyroid

development of kidney stones hormones, chemotherapy and long
zzGender – men are 2.5 times more term antacid use.
likely to develop stones than women
Types of kidney stones
and have high recurrence rates
The common forms of kidney
zzAge- most common between 30 to 50 stones belong to calcium, uric acid,
years of age struvite and cystine types.
zzFamily history- risk doubles with Calcium stones
strong family history In India, calcium oxalate stones are
zzClimate- exposure to hot climate and very common. The causes are:
sweating in large amounts can concentrate zzFamily history
the urine and reduce the volume of urine,
which favours stone formation zzExcess calcium in the blood
(hypercalcemia)
zzDiet- high intake of animal protein
and reduced consumption of fibre and zzExcess calcium in the urine
fluids (hypercalciuria)
zzWeight- overweight or severely zzExcess oxalate in the urine

underweight increases risk (hyperoxaluria)
zzLife style- high levels of stress zzLow level of citrate in the urine
( hypocitraturia)
zzMedical conditions- hypertension,
gout and diabetes zzInfection

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Cystine stones
Calcium Oxalate zzCystine is the rarest kidney stones.
Stones Cystine stones are caused by a genetic
history.
The most preventable cause is dehydra-
tion and low urine output, where as other
factors in a person's diet can cause these
Clinical symptoms of kidney
stones including high sodium intake, high stones
oxalate intake, zzSevere pain
and high protein intake. zzGeneral weakness
zzFever (sometimes)
60-80%
of all kidney stones Treatment
Fluid intake
Uric acid stones A large fluid intake is a primary
zzGout (conditions resulting from therapy that helps to produce more
excess uric acid in the urine) dilute urine and prevent accumulation of
zzWasting disease materials that form stones.
Struvite stones Urine pH and diet

zzStruvite stones are called infection zzDietary intake can influence the
stones because they are caused by acidity or alkalinity of the urine.
urinary tract infections and not zzHigh intakes of protein foods like
associated with any specific nutrient. meat, fish, egg, pulses can acidify the
zzThus no specific diet therapy is urine while fruits, vegetables and milk
involved but removed surgically. can alkalize the urine.

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zzIt is important that acid producing zzIf a stone is calcium phosphate,

foods need to be balanced with alkali additional sources of phosphorous
producing foods to reduce the risk of (e.g., meat, legumes and nuts) should
urine stone formation. be controlled.
zzWhen stones are composed of calcium zzIf a stone is calcium oxalate, foods
phosphate or oxalate the urine is high in oxalate like spinach, tomatoes,
alkaline and hence acid ash diet is sweet potato, strawberry, chocolate,
used to balance it. wheat products, nuts and tea should
be avoided.
Foods included: cereals, meats,
fish, eggs, nuts, pulpy and pulses. Other dietary factors
Foods avoided: milk, fruit and Other dietary factors to consider
vegetables. in the case of calcium stones are sodium
fluid and fibre intake.
zzAs uric acid and cystine stones
are formed by an acidic urinary zzHigh intake of salt increases
environment the condition is treated the amount of calcium excretion
with an alkali ash diet to neutralize in the urine, thus causing
the acidic urine. hypercalciuria.
Foods included: milk, fruit and zzDiluting the urine by drinking

vegetables. plenty of fluids is beneficial
in preventing all types of kidney
Foods avoided: cereals, organ meats, stones.
fish, eggs, nuts, pulpy and pulses.
zzFoods high in phytates like whole
Dietary management wheat, soya help prevent the formation
The diet is modified to reduce of calcium oxalate salts.
the intake of nutrients that lead to the 2. Uric acid stones
formation of a particular type of stone. zzA low purine diet is recommended to
1. Calcium stones
reduce uric acid.
zzA low calcium diet of approximately zzFoods to be avoided: organ meat,
400 mg/day is recommended for chicken, legumes,alcoholic beverages,
people who are not at risk for bone spinach and cauliflower.
loss.
3. Cystine stones
zzThe lower level mainly is achieved zzCystine is derived from the essential
by restricting dairy products, which amino acid methionine, so a low
are the main dietary sources of protein diet is preffered.
calcium.

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Dietary principles in kidney stones
Stone Chemistry Nutrient modification Dietary Ash (Urinary pH)

Calcium Low calcium (400 mg) Acid ash
Phosphate Low phosphorus (1000-1200 mg) Acid ash
Oxalate Low oxalate Acid ash
Struvite Low phosphorus (1000-1200 mg: Acid ash
associated with urinary infections)
Uric acid Low purine Alkaline ash
Cystine Low methionine Alkaline ash
SUMMARY z Elevated amount of blood lipids

are associated with cardiovascular
z Nutrition and health are interrelated disease. Elevated blood cholesterol is
and good nutrition is a prerequisite for a primary risk factor for development
good health. Nutritional support and of atherosclerosis.
diet therapy are fundamental in the z Persons with heart disease benefit
treatment of acute illness or chronic from a low fat-balanced diet, weight
diseases. Nutritional strategies should management and exercise along with
be planned to reduce chronic diseases other lifestyle modifications.
and to minimize its severity and
z Weight control, exercise and sodium
duration. Diet therapy deals with
restriction are the strategies to manage
modification of normal diet, as the
hypertension.
metabolism of the individual changes
in different disease with respect to z Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic
one or more nutrients. Individual disorder involving three energy
adaptations of the diet to meet the nutrients – carbohydrate, fat and
individual needs are imperative protein. The major controlling
for successful therapy. This can be hormone involved is insulin and
achieved through proper planning persons with diabetes have either a
of diets and proper nutrition. Thus lack of insulin secretion or its action
proper nutrition can enhance the or both.
productivity of individuals and z A consistent sound diet balancing
contribute to development of a nation food intake, exercise and insulin/oral
as a whole. drug is essential for successful diabetic
z Cardiovascular disease is the major management.
cause of disability and death in India. z Education is the keystone in the care
Atherosclerosis and stroke are the and control of diabetes. Good self care
major modifications of cardiovascular skills enable a person with diabetes to
disease. reduce the risk for complications.

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z Nephron the functional unit of kidney z Antioxidants - A group of substances

maintains life sustaining blood levels of that prevent the damage by free
materials required for life and health. radicals.
Toxins, drugs, infections, stress and z Blood clot - A semi-solid mass
various diseases can interface with the consisting of a mesh of a protein, in
effective functioning of the nephrons which various blood cells are trapped.
causing serious renal diseases.
z Calorie - Unit used to indicate
z Nutritional management focuses on the energy value of foods. ie.,
reducing the load on the kidneys while kilocalories(kcals)
preventing nutrient losses.
z Diuresis - Increased secretion of urine.
z Proteins and calories are modified to
z Essential fatty acids (EFA) - Fatty acids
prevent malnourishment while sodium
which are not made in the human
and fluid are modified to correct water
body and must be supplied through
and electrolyte imbalance.
the diet. They are linoleic acid, n-6
and alpha linolenic acid, n-3.
GLOSSARY z Glomerular filtration rate - the test to
measure level of kidney function and
z Gruel - a thin liquid food or other determine the stage of kidney diseases.
meal boiled in water or milk z Ischemia - lack of blood supply to a
z Epigastric pain-discomfort right tissue resulting in reduced oxygen
below the ribs in the area of your supply.
upper abdomen z Inflammation - The reaction of the
z Hemorrhage-an escape of blood from tissues to injury, characterized clinically
a ruptured blood vessel. by heat, swelling, redness and pain.
z Hypermotility- excessive motility of all z Isoflavones - A phytochemical found

or part of the gastrointestinal tract in (especially) soyabeans that may
have cancer-preventing properties.
z Flattulence-the accumulation of gas in
the alimentary canal. z Junk food - It is food containing high
levels of calories from sugar or fat
z Necrosis- cell death caused by
with little fibre, protein, vitamins or
progressive enzyme breakdown
minerals.
z Zollinger-Elison syndrome – a typical
z Risk factors - Characteristics
peptic ulcer disease, characterized by
or conditions whose presence
enzyme gastric hyperacidity
is associated with the future of
z Pyrosis- heartburn developing a disease.
z Dyspepsia– indigestion z Stroke - a sudden condition that
z Atherosclerosis - Thickening of the results from blocking or bleeding of
walls of blood vessels by deposits of blood vessels in the brain, resulting in
fatty materials. paralysis.

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Options
EVALUATION
1. a is correct and b is correct
2. b is correct and c is wrong
I. Choose the correct answer 3. d is wrong and b is correct
Find out the correct one from the following 4. a is correct and c is correct
1. High calorie diet is given during 5. Cellulose is

a. Fever a) A complete protein
b. Constipation b) An indigestible carbohydrate
c. Underweight c) A saturated fat
d. Obesity d) An essential mineral
Options 6. Correctly pair the given match

1. a and b is correct a) Anti Obesity Day i) 14th
2. b and c is correct November
3. a and c is correct b) Oral Rehydration ii) 26th
4. c and d is correct. Salt Day November
c) World Heart Day iii) 29th July
2. When a person suffers from fever a d) World Diabetes Day iv) 30th
high calorie diet is prescribed, the September
reason for increase in calorie is
Options
because the Basal Metabolic Rate
1. a and ii
increases by _________ for every
2. b and iii
degree Celsius rise in body
3. c and iv
temperature.
4. d and i
Options
1. a. 13 % 7. Which of the following groups of
2. b.7% food would be allowed on a clear
3. c. 10% liquid diet?
4. d. 1% a) Strained soup, coffee without
milk and whey water
3. Payer’s Patches is seen in b) Tomato juice, sherbet and strained
a) Tuberculosis cooked cereal
b) Peptic ulcer c) Beef stock, apple juice and
c) Typhoid icecream
d) Jaundice d) Tea, coffee and milk
4. The principles of dietary treatment 8. Which of the food should not be
followed in Obesity is included in a soft diet?
a) Low calorie diet a) Idly
b) High fat diet b) Chapatti
c) High fibre diet c) Puttu
d) Low protein diet d) Idiappam

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9. Pick out the wrong statement 14. Myocardial infarction is otherwise

a). High fibre diet is given to patients known as ___________
who are obese a. Stroke
b). High calorie diet is prescribed for b. Atherosclerosis
underweight individuals c. Hypertension
c). Fibre restricted diet is given in d. Heart attack
acute infection and fevers
d Normal diet is given to replace 15. _________ is a confirmatory test for
fluids lost from vomiting or diabetes.
diarrhoea. a. Urine sugar
b. Fasting blood sugar
10. A person complains to the doctor of
c. Random blood glucose
sudden onset and passage of watery
d. GTT
stool which has lasted for 48 hours.
What treatment strategy should be 16. Women who deliver baby greater
followed immediately. than ______ kg are prone to get
a) Give him Oral Rehydration therapy diabetes.
b) Give him soft bland food. a. 3
c) Give him only juices and water b. 4
d) Give him a normal diet c. 5
11. The main function of liver is d. 2.5
carbohydrate metabolism which is
through glucogenesis. Glucogenesis 17. The caloric value of the diet for a
from the statement given person with diabetes should be ------
below is a. Increased above normal
a) Conversion of glucose to glycogen requirements to meet the
b) Conversion of glycogen to glucose increased metabolic demand.
c) Conversion of amino acid into b. Decreased below normal
other non-essential amino acid requirements to prevent glucose
d) Conversion of carotene into formation
vitamin c. Sufficient to maintain the person’s
appropriate weight
12. Soluble fibre is present in _________
d. Contributed mainly by fat to spare
a. Greens
the carbohydrate for energy
b. Cereals
needs
c. Pulses
d. Oats 18. The most effect strategy to lower
13. Oxygenated blood for the lungs reach blood pressure is ------------
the heart through _________ a. Lose weight
a. Pulmonary vein b. Restrict salt
b. Pulmonary artery c. Monitor glucose
c. Aorta d. Supplement protein
d. Superior vena cava

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19. __________ hormone is secreted by (i) Both A & R are true and R
the kidney is response to low blood explain A
pressure. (ii) Both A & R are true and R does
a. Adrenalin not explain A
b. Vasopressin (iii) Only A is true but R is false
c. Rennin
(iv) A is false but R is true
d. Calcitonin
9. Match
20. __________ is the abnormal presence
1. Trans fat - good cholesterol
of blood in the urine.
a. Oliguria 2. Insulin - brain
b. Proteinuria 3. Low urine volume - fast foods
c. Hematuria 4. Stroke - fast oliguria
d. Anuria 5. HDL - type 1 diabetes
21. ________ is the single most important 6. LDL - bad cholesterol
risk factor for kidney stones.
a. Low urine volume III. Write Short Answers (3 marks)
b. High stress
1. Define Fever.
c. Over weight
d. Hypertension 2. When and why is clear fluid diet
recommended?
II. Write Very Short Answers 3. Seetha complains of epigastric pain
2 marks) and flatulence. She is diagnosed with
peptic ulcer. What are the causes?
1. What is the cause for typhoid fever?
4. The protein requirement is increased
2. List any two exogenous agents that during fever. What foods would you
cause fever. recommend to increase the protein intake?
3. Define soft diet 5. List the signs and symptoms of cirrhosis
4. List any two high fibre foods
6. Define Jaundice
5. Expand ORS
7. What principles of diet would you
6. Name the organism that causes peptic prescribe for your friend suffering
ulcer from constipation?
7. Give any two condition where low fat 8. If a family member is suffering from
is prescribed severe diarrhoea what home remedy
8. Reason / Assertion would you prescribe?
All fats are not bad.
9. Classify the following diets based on
R- Some fats reduce blood cholesterol
the condition
while others raise them.

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Clear fluid diet, Mechanical soft diet, 18. What is pre diabetes? Can it be
soft bland diet- peptic ulcer, dentures, reversed? If yes, how?
fever
19. Raman has an HbA1C value of 8.5%.
Diet Condition He is not able to understand its
significance in diabetes. How will
you explain?
20 What are the risk factors for kidney
disease?
21. List any three risk factors for kidney
stones?
10. Define
a. Atherosclerosis 22. Expand GFR?
b. Stroke
23. List four sources of oxalate.
c. Glycemic index
d. Metabolic syndrome 24. What is the golden rule of obesity?
e. Trans fats
25. What are the clinical signs of
f. Oedema
glomerulonephritis?
g. Anuria
h. Glomerulonephritis 26. List any four sources of oxalate.
i. Ascites
27. Anitha is worried about the
j. Nephrosis
recurrence of kidney stones. Suggest
11. What is the role of antioxidant in any three ways to prevent stone
heart disease? formation?
12. How does fibre confer protection 28. Define Diabetes mellitus.
against heart disease?
IV. Write in detail (5 marks)
13. Uma consumes snacks made of
vanaspathi (dalda). Suggest ways to 1. Explain to Neela what food she has to
make a healthy snack. give her mother who is suffering from
14. Describe the major characteristics of typhoid.
the two main types of diabetes 2. Ashok is a chronic alcoholic. He has
mellitus. fatty liver. What is the condition he is
15. List the symptom of diabetes. suffering from? What dietary advice
16. What are the complications of would you give to him?
diabetes? 3. Fibre plays a very important role in
17. A woman has diabetes during her certain conditions. Name the diseases
pregnancy. What is the condition and the role of fibre in treating the
called as? What advice you would diseases.
give her?

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4. Prepare a chart describing the principles 11. Draw and explain the structure of the
and objectives of diet therapy. heart.
5. In current practice, what are the basic 12. Write on the risk factors for CVD.
principles of diet planning for 13. What is the role of dietary fat in CVD.
patients with peptic ulcer disease?
14. What is acid ash diets? When is it
6. A friend comes to you with high fever indicated? What foods are to be
and says she is suspecting tuberculosis. included?
As a dietician what symptom would
you look for and what dietary 15. Describe the principle of diet for a
treatment would you suggest? person with diabetes mellitus.
7. Kavitha is Obese. She only plays games 16. Draw and explain the structure of a
on the internet and she travels to school nephron.
by her own vehicle. What treatment 17. List the functions of the kidney.
strategy would you advise her? 18. Indicate the dietary modification for
8. Ram is underweight due to glomerulonephritis.
hyperthyroidism. He is a carpenter 19. How will you manage calcium
by profession. Give him a suitable stones.
dietary regimen and suggest two
recipes for snacks. 20. Give the classification of diabetes
mellitus.
9. Mrs Janaki is admitted to the hospital
and was diagnosed for Jaundice. She 21. Give the dietary modification for
has fever and also ascites. She has atherosclerosis.
been advised a liberal intake of 22. Link the figures in the given picture:
carbohydrates, 60- 80g of protein is
permitted and 20-30g of fat. Answer
the following questions:
a. Why was the extra calorie advised?
b. What is the role of extra protein?
c. What foods should be included
and avoided?
d. Since, she has ascites what
additional restrictions should be
placed on her diet?
e. List any other disease that requires
low fibre and high carbohydrate
10. Uma’s blood pressure read as 140/80.
What is the condition referred to as?
What is the focus of treatment?

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8. Indian Guidelines Management of

REFERENCES Hypertension 2001. Hypertension
1. Corrinne H. Robinson, Normal and India 2001; 15 (2): 1-34.
Therapeutic Nutrition (1986), 7 th 9. Joshi A. Shubangini, 2015, Nutrition
Edition Macmillan Publishing and Dietetics, 4th Edition, Mc Graw
Company, New York. Hill Education (India) Private
2. Srilakshmi B. (2014) Dietetics, New Limited, New Delhi.
Age International Pvt. Ltd. Publishers. 10. National Cholesterol Education
3. Williams S.R. (2001) Essential of Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on
Nutrition and Diet Therapy, 6 th Detection, Evaluation, and
Edition. The CB Mosby College Treatment of High Blood
Publishing. Cholesterol In Adults (Adult
Treatment Panel III: Third Report
4. Krause, M.V. and Mahan L.K. (1989)
of the NCEP Expert Panel on
Food Nutrition and Diet Therapy, 6th
Detection, Evaluation, and
Edition, W.B. Saunderspa,
Treatment of High Blood Pressure
Philadelphia.
in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel
5. Williams S.R. (2001) Essential of III), Circulation 106:3143, 2002.
Nutrition and Diet Therapy, 6 th
11. Whitney, E.N. & Rolfes. S.R., 2002
Edition. The C.B. Mosby College
Un d e rs t an d i ng Nut r it i on ,
Publishing.
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning,
6. Garrow J. S., James P.T., Ralphamn USA.
(1996) Human Nutrition and
12. Staci Nix, 2005, Williams Basic
Dietetics 9 th Edition, Churchill
Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 12 th
Livingstone, Edinburg.
Edition, Elsevier, New Delhi.
7. Lutz C. and Przytulski K. (2001)
Nutrition and Diet Therapy,
Philadelphia: Davis Company.

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ICT Corner
Therapeutic Diet
This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the type of food
they have to eat and the type of exercises they have to do to keep the body fit.
Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code. A page
opens like shown above with manu adjustments in the same page.
zzIn the left side a image with boxes to select the language and gender is
there. Select accordingly. Below that height, weight and age columns are
there. Fill them all.
zzIn the right side top left food items are given below that a plate by selecting
the ‘MORE’ button you can fill the plate by dragging the food items.
zzRight top exercises are given you have to drag the exercise pictures and fill
the exercise log book. Here also you can select the exercises by pressing the
‘MORE’ button.
zzThe final part is according to your selection the human body at the left
side will become more fattier or thinner. Now you will have a whole
understanding on exercises and food. By adjusting your weight and diet
you can change the body thinner or thicker.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/eating-
and-exercise
UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diet 50

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UNIT
2 Consumer-
Protection and
Education
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This chapter will help the students to
zz Understand the meaning of consumer and consumer education.

zz Gain insight into problems faced by consumer.
zz Learn about various consumer aids.
zz To understand about packaging and labelling
zz Provide in depth understanding on consumer rights and responsibilities.
zz Be aware of consumer redressal forums and consumer protection act.
protection. The Holy Quran mentions

2.1 Introduction the problems faced by consumers and it
The concept of protection of rights condemns the use of unjust weights and
of the consumers has been present from measures. The first consumer organizations
various centuries. Even Old Testament and were formed in Denmark in 1947 and Great
Code of Hammurabi refers about consumer Britain in 1955 where the Government
51 Consumer- Protection and Education UNIT 2

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created the consumer council in order to It does not include a person

enable consumers to express themselves on who obtains such goods for sale or any
issues reserved to producers and traders. commercial purpose.
Further it became a single European Act
which was economic and social committee
to safeguard the consumers.
In India, the ancient Vedas and
various other ancient codes also contained
provisions to protect the interests of the
consumers and provided punishment in
case of violations. During British rule in
India, the rights and interest of consumers
were mainly regulated and protected by the
common law of Tort or Law of Contracts.
In India first formal consumer 2.3 Consumer Problems
movement was started in 1949 in Madras
Consumers face a wide range of
(chennai). Later a consumer protection
problems in their day today dealings. These
council was established in Madras under
problems may be the result of scarcity,
the patronage of Shri C. Rajagopalachari.
varying incomes, product development,
The work of Council was confined only to
environmental changes or social
the people of Tamil Nadu. In 1956, nine
structure. The consumers face problems
housewives and social workers combined
even in markets, banks, government and
together to form the Consumer Guidance
private offices, hospitals, schools, public
Society of India (CGSI) in Bombay. The
distribution agencies and other services.
Consumer Guidance Society of India (CGSI)
is a Non-Profit consumer organization
CGSI was the first consumer organization
to demand special Consumer Court for
redressal of consumers’ complaints. CGSI’s
constant follow-up was instrumental
in enacting the Consumer Protection
Act, 1986 (CPA) amended in 2000.
2.2 Consumer
A consumer is a person who buys
goods and services and makes use of
public utilities as well as natural resources Problems faced by consumer can
like water. It refers to those who use goods be categorized as:
and services for their personal wants i. Problems related to products.
and excludes buyers who purchase for
ii. Problems related to services.
manufacturing purposes or for resale.
UNIT 2 Consumer- Protection and Education 52

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ix) Misleading advertisements

x) Incorrect and incomplete labels
Goods: Goods are those
xi) Deceptive packaging
products which we buy to fulfill
our needs. It includes items of daily xii) Dishonest vending
consumptions like milk, pencils, These practices pose a problem
vegetable etc. to consumers. Unless these practices are
Services: Services are those facilities restricted they are likely to continue to
which are provided by government exploit the consumers.
or non-government agencies free of i) L
ack of Safety and Quality
cost or on payment. For example- Control Regulations
electricity, water, health, education etc
Any defective functioning of
equipment can affect the safety of the
2.3.1 Problems Related to
consumers. People can sustain injuries
Products
through shock, fire while using defective
The consumer faces a number of appliances or due to absence of adequate
serious problems with prices, quality information on safe handling of defective
and weights or volumes of products equipment. e.g., household appliances and
available in the market. Profit motive equipments, electrical and mechanical
in any business is not a crime while, devices.
making profit through illegal trading
like black marketing, adulteration
etc., and objectionable malpractices
such as deceptive packaging, short-
weighing etc., are considered as unfair
business practices. The Monopolistic and
Restrictive Trade Practice (MRTP) Act
1969 offers legal protections to consumers
against list of unfair trade practices
such as
i) Lack of safety and absence of quality
control regulations
ii) Adulteration ii) Adulteration
iii) Imitation manufacture Adulteration implies that some
iv) Unfair warranties substances are either added or removed
v) Sales gimmicks from a product as a result of which its
composition, nature or quality gets altered.
vi) Substandard quality
And when product is prepared without
vii) Incorrect weights and measures
changing its composition, but kept under
viii) Deceptive goods insanitary conditions and later gets sold in

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a contaminated state, the product is said to iv) Unfair warranties

be adulterated.
Consumers are neither familiar
with nor understand the full implications
of terms like guarantee and warranty.
Even some of the terms of the warranty
are confusing, ambiguous and are
UMIN SEEDS PURE ADULTERATED favorable to the manufacturers. There are
no regulations to govern these warranties.
PURE ADULTERATED
The products in the market which

are subject to adulteration are food,
building materials, textiles, stationery etc.
The products which harm consumers the
most are those which are ingested.
iii) Imitation manufacture
Markets are flooded with all kinds
of spurious and substandard goods, some
of them often carrying popular brand Guarantee- repairing of defective
names or similar sounding brand names goods or/and change the defective parts
of popular manufacturers. Imitating these free of cost for a fixed period.
names is a deliberate malpractice and
Warranty- provides free spare parts
amounts to cheating of the consumers.
but service charges are collected from
Such products are generally of cheap
the customer.
quality and unsafe to use , but are sold as
genuine, safe and expensive products. Such v) Sales Gimmicks:
practices are commonly prevalent with
Sales gimmicks are tricks used on
the consumer goods such as shoes, soaps,
consumers intended to attract attention,
tooth pastes, medicines, cosmetics, etc.
publicity or trade.
Many manufacturers spend a lot
of money on sales promotion through
large scale advertising, free gifts, discount
sales etc. Though these are projected as
extra benefits to the consumers, generally
the cost is hidden. It is passed on to the
consumers without them becoming aware

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of it. The unsuspecting consumer assumes that they are spurious. Such fake copies
that he gets additional benefit in terms of of originals can lead to serious hazards
free gifts, discounted price as introductory besides being expensive in terms of
offer. But the product is sold at the usual replacement costs and fuel use.
price. Sometimes the consumer is forced
to take certain goods as free gifts whether ACTIVITY 1
he needs them or not.
Collect any two advertisement
which offers free gift and record
your comment regarding the offer.
vii) I
ncorrect Weights and
Measures
Receiving less than what a
consumer pays for, has been an age old
problem. This type of problems usually
occurs in case of food ingredients liquids
such as oils and milk and dry items like
vi) Substandard Quality
rice, pulses. The measuring of fabrics is
A wide range of products of also affected. Very often the cloth to be
different sizes and qualities are available measured is stretched while measuring,
in markets. The consumer finds it resulting in higher costs for the consumer
difficult to choose with confidence, in in addition to having less cloth for stitching
a market where spurious spare parts of a garment.
equipment, and adulterated foods are
As a result of the government’s efforts
easily available.
of standardising weighing and measuring
equipment and stepping up inspection
of the weights and measures used in the
market, the problem of under weighing or
measuring is significantly less than what it
was a few decades ago.
In addition to cheating the

consumers, the products of substandard
quality also create a safety problem
for them. Imitations are so cleverly
manufactured that there is no way to tell

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ix) Misleading advertisements
Advertisements are mainly

focused on goods and services that are
made available in the market. But the
consumer however, does not find any
viii) Deceptive goods one advertisement which will give him all
the information about a product. Most of
Due to technological advancement,
the statements in the advertisements are
every year many new commodities are
usually too general to be helpful to give
available in the market. Each year the
essential information on materials used.
new varieties that reach consumers also
increase. Many fake items which imitate x) I
ncorrect and incomplete
popular brands are also available. In some labels
case cheaper fibers are mixed or replaced
in place of costlier fibers and sold in
market . For example varying proportions REPORT
of cotton is mixed with linen or woolen

goods, while rayon and polyester fabrics
mixed with silk.
Fake Real
NEED TO STRENGTHEN
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND
IMPROVE PRACTICE
Centre for Science and Environment

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Labels are generally attached to a xii) Dishonest Vending

product for informing the consumers about
While improvements have been
the product. The information which a label
made in the area of legislation and
conveys varies considerably. Sometimes it
standards for sale of goods and services,
shows nothing more than the name of the
sometimes consumers feel that vendors
product and of the manufacturer, whose
have cheated them. There is no way a
address may or may not be mentioned for
consumer can know what to pay for a
future correspondence or complaints.
product.
xi) Deceptive Packaging
Packaging is a means to protect the DISHONEST PRICING
contents of a package or a product from
any kind of damage such as contamination,
breakage, evaporation, pilferage etc.
Packaging sometimes identifies the maker as
well as his product, his brand and trade mark.
In this way, he forces a consumer to make
impulsive buying with his attractive package. 48,900 59,900
In most cases, when the package is
not transparent, the consumer is unable
to examine the product. He is unable to 2.3.2 Problems Related to
judge the product in terms of its size, Services
shape, contents etc. The problem of a
consumer increases when the weight of A number of factors also influence
the packaging material or the container is the provision of services rendered to
also added to the weight of the product or customer.
contents. This means that the consumer i) Financial Institutions
pays more for less content.
Almost all financial institutions
including banks render a host of financial
services to the consumers. Wrong entries,
mis-spelt names and absences of entries of
deposits are common with these institutions.

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ii) T
ransportation Authorities staff shortages, lack of laboratories and
and Travel Agencies equipments, environmental and classroom
hygiene, lack of proper toilet and
These authorities and agencies are
washroom facilities, poor canteen services
expected to render services to customers
etc. Students are afraid to complain about
so that their journeys are made easy and
these problems due to fear of expulsion or
comfortable. The customers are charged
ill-treatment by the management.
extra for these facilities. Sometimes the
tickets are issued by private transportation
2.4 Consumer Aids
authorities and agents without
confirmation or proper reservations. Consumer aids are tools which
Sometimes, consumers are not properly consumers can use not only in the selection
informed about cancellation or delay or but also to protect themselves against
re-schedule. exploitative and fraudulent practices of
sellers in the market place.
This information can be obtained
from a number of sources such as:
i. Labels on Products
ii. Advertisements
iii. Internet
iv. Standardization marks
Label On Products
2.4.1
iii) Education
A label is a piece of paper or plastic
that is attached to an object in order to
give information about it. Manufacturer
use labeling to their products to bring
identification. This kind of labeling
helps a viewer to differentiate the
product from the rest in the shelves of
the market. It is also done to impart
knowledge of the ingredients of the food
With the demand for schooling items. This helps to spread awareness
and higher education is on raise many among the customers about the item
private schools and colleges have started they are consuming and labeling also
demanding large amounts of money from helps to mention ingredients. There are
parents at the time of children’s admission two types of labels:
or regularly along with tuition fees. i) Removable labels to adhere to the
The problems faced by students product only until they need to be
vary from shortage of space to that of removed

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ii) Non removable labels/permanent of product ingredients and nutritional

labels the bonding is permanent and characteristics including energy value,
the label is difficult to remove. content of protein, fat, carbohydrates,
vitamins and minerals.
Classification of Labels
a. Nutrient content claims: This is a
There are various classes of labeling
nutrition claim that describes the
used in market. They are informative
level of a nutrient contained in a
labels, care labels and nutrition labeling.
food. Example: low in fat, gluten
i) Informative labels- It gives details free, iron rich or low sodium.
like the composition of the product, b. Comparative claim: It is a claim
its manufacturing details the other that compares the nutrient levels or
uses of a product. energy value of two or more foods.
ii) Care labels- These are usually seen The foods being compared should be
on textile and clothing items. Care different versions of the same food
labels give the information on the care or similar food. The difference in
required like, when the item is in use nutrient content and energy value
or while washing. These instructions should be given.
are given either in a written form c. Nutrient function claim: This is a
or in the form of standard symbols. claim that describes the physiological
Instructions like store in a cool and role of a nutrient in the growth,
dry place, keep away from heat/ development and normal function
sunlight, keep beyond the reach of the body e.g., contains calcium for
of the children, do not stretch, use stronger teeth.
of bleach/soap /detergent powder,
whether machine wash or hand wash
etc. are all intended for the purpose
of providing care labels.
iii) Nutrition Labeling-

The food industry contributes to
nutrition education by offering products
that correspond to the current needs
of consumers and by informing them

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ACTIVITY 2 Internet
2.4.3
Draw a food label with all The internet is quickly becoming one
specifications for a pickle you have of the primary sources for people to receive
information and also to attract customers.
prepared
In Internet based market the transactions
are electronic, on screen interactions instead
of face to face interactions. Online shoppers
Government had made it can seek virtually any product at any time
mandatory with effect from July 1999 and from any location. Internet provides
that all packed food items should consumers with an extraordinary search
necessarily display “Best before date”. power, where a large number of Websites
It has been made mandatory that can be visited in a number of minutes,
every container of milk substitute or which is virtually impossible for traditional
infant food should have an important shoppers. Negative aspect associated with
internet buying are the products takes time
notice. “Mother’s milk is best for
to reach consumer and sometimes products
babies” in capitals.
in the illustration does not match the
products which consumer gets.
Advertisements
2.4.2 The web can be used as a powerful
marketing tool in a number of ways to
Advertisement is a source of promote business and reach people across
information to consumers. the globe. They are easy and effective.
The purpose of advertising is to Internet business is done through E-mail
inform the consumers about their product networking social media marketing etc.
and availability of a company’s services or
and to hold existing customers. Advertising Standardization Marks
2.4.4
is communicated through various mass Standardization mark is a mark or
media, including traditional media such as symbol given to a product, which meets
newspapers, magazines, television, radio, certain standards with respect to the
outdoor advertising or direct mail; and quality in terms of material used, methods
new media such as search results, blogs, of manufacturing, labeling, packaging
social media, websites or text messages. and performance. There are a number of
certification marks in use for different
products.

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The department of consumer affairs has launched this portal for

registering online complaints for grievances against misleading advertisements.
www.gama.gov.in
Grievance against Misleading Advertisements (GAMA)
i) Agmark forest and livestock products. This

certification on any product assures the
AGMARK is a certification mark consumer of correct selling practices like
employed on agricultural products
quality and purity of the product, correct
in India, assuring that they conform
to a set of standards approved by weights and other relevant chemical and
the Directorate of Marketing and physical characteristics of the product and
Inspection, an agency of the protect the consumers from the hazards of
Government of India. adulteration and contamination.
The testing done across these
laboratories include chemical analysis,
microbiological analysis, pesticide residue
and aflatoxin analysis.
The ‘Agmark’ is Important Products

a trademark of quality with Agmark -Whole and ground
control set up by the spices, butter, ghee, vegetable oils
government. It establishes honey, jaggery, food grains, gram
the norms relating to flour, oil cake, animal casings, meat
the acceptable physical and chemical and other food products
characteristics in both natural and (www.agmarknet.nic.in).
processed products. The ‘Agmark’ standard
covers 222 agricultural, horticultural,

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ii) FSSAI iv) ISI Mark
Food Safety and Standards Authority

of India (FSSAI) is an autonomous body Indian Standards Institution (ISI) is
established under the Ministry of Health & a certification mark of the Bureau of Indian
Family Welfare, Government of India. The Standards (BIS). The BIS has published
FSSAI has been established under the Food over 15,000 standards covering product
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which is a specifications, methods of test, codes of
consolidating statute related to food safety and practice and others. About 400 standards
regulation in India. of various products are approved every
year, and each standard is reviewed for
FSSAI is the supreme authority which
amendments every five years. The ISI mark
is responsible for regulating and supervising
is mandatory for certain products to be
the food safety. It is mandatory for all the Food
sold in India, like many of the electrical
Business Operators (FBOs) in order to obtain
appliances like switches, electric motors,
an FSSAI license or Food Licenses
wiring cables, heaters, kitchen appliances
iii) FPO Certification etc., Indian standards also cover food
items such as vegetables, fruits and meat
products, spices and condiments, processed
foods, cereal, soya products, soaps, candies,
beverages, detergents, paints, paper etc. and
other products like Portland cement, LPG
valves and cylinders, automotive tyres etc.
v) ISO Mark
The FPO mark is a certification mark

mandatory for all processed fruit products sold
in India such as packaged fruit beverages, fruit
jams, crushes and squashes, pickles, dehydrated
fruit products, and fruit extracts. The fruit
products order also specifies the conditions
of hygiene and sanitation required to be
International Organisation for
maintained by the manufacturers. This mark
Standardization (ISO) prescribes quality
guarantees that the product was manufactured
standards for products, services and
in a hygienic food safe environment, thus
authorizes national standard setting
ensuring that the product is fit for consumption.
bodies (Bureau of Indian Standards) to

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issue certificates. The objective of ISO is friendly and less potential for pollution
to make common standards of products as regards production, use and disposal.
and services at international level, Hence ecofriendly product should be made
which ultimately facilitate foreign trade. from recyclable, reusable and biodegradable
The areas where ISO standards can be materials. The various products in which
applicable are manufacturing, processing, you may find this eco mark are Soaps
printing, electronics, steel, banking, and detergents, plastics, paper, textiles,
telecommunication, hospital, insurance, preservatives, food additives, cosmetics,
etc. The BIS in India has prescribed paints, lubricating oils, packaging materials,
standards of 9000 and 14000 series for wood substitutes , food items (edible oils,
exportable products which confirm to tea and coffee beverages, infant foods,
the quality standards adopted in western processed foods) etc.
developed countries. ECOMARK
vi) Silkmark
ECOMARK is a certification mark
issued by the Bureau of Indian
Standards to products conforming
to a set of standards aimed at the
least impact on the ecosystem.
Silk Mark is a certification mark in

India for silk textiles. It is a registered trade
mark. It is a quality assurance label for
the assurance of pure silk and in addition
viii) Holomark
serves as a brand for generic promotion of
pure silk. It can be used in all silk product Hologram is a small square size
like dress materials, garments, carpets, plastic sticker generally of silver colour
sarees, etc. pasted on the package of some products
vii) Ecomark or on the cover page of some book. It gives
three dimensional images of different
To keep the environment ‘pollution colours when held under light. It also
free’, BIS has prescribed standards for eco- changes appearance when you change the
friendly products. An earthern pot is used viewing angle. By observing it minutely
as a logo for eco-friendly product. Products you can also find some text written on it.
that conform to the standards set by BIS The text may be the name or its logo of the
for environmental protection are permitted company. The purpose of sticking it on
eco-labeling of their products. This mark the package of the product is to establish
indicates that the product is environment the genuineness of the products.

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etc are used to indicate the presence of

vegetarian and non vegetarian ingredients
in processed food items. The red circle
indicates that the food item contains non
vegetarian ingredients and the green circle
ALUMINIUM
WASHING
CONVEX LENS
CIRCLE 3D HOLOGRAM
indicates vegetarian ingredients. This helps
the consumer to identify the food of their
choice. The Government of India has made
it mandatory for all packages of processed
Hologram is one me use. Aer peeling off, design will break food items to bear the vegetarian or non-
vegetarian mark. This is an identification
mark adopted by Government of India
from Codex Alimentarius, which is an
international organisation that prescribes
VOID IF REMOVED STRICKER
food safety norms.
ix) Hallmark
Purity of gold cannot be measured
by normal eyes. Thus to protect customers,
Bureau of Indian standards has a special
symbol on jewellery known as “hallmark”. VEG NON-VEG
Hall mark indicates the Caratage or
ensures the purity of gold jewellery number xi) Barcode
indicating gold content on a scale of 1000.
It is a set of black vertical small lines
Hallmarking is a foolproof method to
printed on the label of some products. It
accurately determine and record the exact
consists of a particular numbers of bars
gold content in jewellery.
of different width along with a number. If
you observe it carefully you may find that
the width of lines and the numbers written
are different from product to product.
These lines and numbers indicate the
types and price of the product which, only
a computer can read.
x) V
egetarian and Non
Vegetarian Mark
The small green or red circle inside
a square on the package of some products
like bread, honey, milk powder, spices

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2.5 Branding 2.5.2 The Types of Brand
A brand is a name, term, design, The types of brands include

symbol, or other feature that distinguishes individual products, product ranges,
an organization or product from its rivals services, organizations, individual persons,
in the eyes of the customer. Brands are used groups, events, geographic places, private
in business, marketing, and advertising. label brands, media and e-brands.
Name brands are sometimes distinguished i) Individual Brands
from generic or store brands.
The most common type of brand is
2.5.1 Elements of Branding a tangible, individual product, such as a car
or product. Brands can also be associated
Brand includes various elements with a range of offerings such as varieties of
like - brand names, trade names, brand toothpaste.
marks, trademarks and trade characters.
ii) Group Brands
The combination of these elements forms
a firm’s corporate symbol or name. Group branding happens when there
i) Brand Name - It is also called product is a small group of branded entities that have
brand. It can be a word, a group of overlapping, interconnected brand equity
words, letters, or numbers to represent iii) Service Brands
a product or service.
A service brand develops as
ii) Trade Name - It is also called corporate
companies move from manufacturing
brand. It identifies and promotes a
products to delivering complete solutions
company or a division of a particular
and intangible services. Service brands are
corporation.
characterized by the need to maintain a
iii) Brand Mark - It is a unique symbol, consistently high level of service delivery.
colouring, lettering, or other design This category includes the following:
element. It is visually recognisable, not
necessary to be pronounced. a. Classic service brands (such as airlines,
hotels, car rentals, and banks)
iv) Trade Mark - It is a word, name,
symbol, or combination of these b. Pure service providers (such as
elements. Trade mark is legally member associations)
protected by government. No other
c. Professional service brands (such as
organisation can use these symbols.
advisers of all kinds—accountancy,
v) Trade Characters - Animal, people, management consultancy)
animated characters, objects, and the
like that are used to advertise a product d. Agents (such as travel agents and estate
or service, that come to be associated agents)
with that product or service. e. Retail brands (such as supermarkets,
fashion stores, and restaurants)

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iv) Organization Brands Packaging serves 2 major functions –

Organization brands are companies protection and preservation. Protection of
and other entities that deliver products and the product can be from climatic damage
services. Example: Maruthi Suzuki and TVS like atmospheric moisture, oxygen, light,
each possess strong organization brands, heat, cold, microbial attack and mechanical
and each has associated qualities that make damage.
up their brand. Through product preservation a
v) Event Brands product could be preserved in a packaging
system maintaining the quality till it
Events can become brands when they
is consumed. The better the packaging
strive to deliver a consistent experience that
maintains qualities of the product, prevents
attracts consumer loyalty. Example: sporting
tampering and prevents spurious cheap
events like the Olympics. The strength of
imitations.
these brands depends on the experience of
people attending the event.
2.6.1 Classification of
vi) Geographic Place Brands Packaging
Many places or areas of the world
seek to brand themselves to build awareness i) Unit pack: It is also called primary
of the essential qualities they offer. pack or consumer pack. The size and
Geographic branding is used frequently to number of units going into each pack
attract commerce and economic investment, depends on the nature of the product
tourism, new residents. Example Kanchi silk and the merchandising method.
sarees, Tirunelveli halwa. ii) Intermediate pack: Also called
vii) Media Brands secondary pack, the purpose of the
intermediate pack can be utilization
Media brands include newspapers,
of couple of unit packs, distribution,
magazines, and television channels.
requirement, display value etc.
viii) E-Brands iii) Bulk pack: Master pack, distribution
E-brands exist only in the virtual pack, transport pack all refer to
world. Many e-brands, such as Amazon. bulk pack only. This pack is used
com, have a central focus on providing an for distribution of unit packs or
online front end for delivering physical intermediate packs. In general the
products or services. bulk pack has to take care of protection
against mechanical hazards.
2.6 Packaging
Packaging is the science, art and 2.6.2 Types of Packaging
technology of enclosing or protecting Materials
products for distribution, storage, sale and
A variety of packaging materials
use. Proper packaging ensures that product
are used by the processed food industry.
has to reach consumer in the same condition
Few are enlisted below:
with original characteristic.

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i) Glass containers: Glass containers Recycled plastic is not to be used

are heavy and fragile but glass for storing food grains. Biscuits
is still predominantly used as a stay crackling fresh mouths on end
packaging medium for a number of and cakes retain their softness even
processed food items like carbonated after weeks due to tough cellophane
beverages, syrups, squashes, jams, packages.
jellies, pickles, malted-milk foods, vi) Modified atmosphere packaging/
instant coffee, sauces, ketchup etc. Gas flushing: These are packaging
Glass is preferred as it is inert and methods for extending the life of
resistant product visibility. It offers food products by changing the
additional benefits of impermeability, atmosphere surrounding the food
reusability and recyclability. inside the package.
ii) Metal containers: Tinplate a. In modified atmosphere
containers are available in wide range packaging, the gas mix (carbon
of capacities. Inner lacquer coating dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen)
is essential for tin plate containers inside the package, suppresses /
which should be compatible with aggravates naturally occurring
the food product. Metal drums and reactions of food. This method is
used for bulk packaging. Because of employed for highly perishable
the superior strength and excellent food like meat, meat products.
protection tin plate containers are
used for a variety of processed food
items like cheese, baby foods and
milk powder, biscuits, processed
fruits and vegetables, jams, meat and
fish preparations, edible oils etc.
iii) Composite containers: In composite
containers, generally, the body is
made up of paperboard tubes and the
ends are made up of metal. The body
of the container is lined internally
with plastic films or aluminum foil.
Food products like spices, custard
powder, and corn flour are packed in
composite containers.
iv) Wooden crates or boxes: Wooden
crates are used extensively for weight
above 100 kg.
v) Plastic: Polystyrene is principally
made into tubs for ice-creams, small
packages for butter, jam and cheese.

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b. In gas flushed packages, the education is to teach people how to be

package is flushed with an inert better consumers.
gas and oxygen is eliminated
and used packing for high fat
foods to prevent oxidation and
rancidity. Item like nuts, potato
chips etc., are found in gas
flushed packages.
vii) Edible Food Wraps: Sandwiches
and meat are wrapped in edible
substances and preserved. Usually
the wraps are made up of fruit or
vegetable like broccoli, tomato or
fruit wraps like mango, peach, pear,
apple or papaya.
Edible vegetable and fruit wraps
keep lunches fresh much longer and are Consumer education is
biodegradable. Wheat protein in the form
of purified wheat gluten, commercial zza process by which an individual can
wheat gluten and corn protein as corn gain understanding of changes in the
zein have been tried as edible films. This economy, clarify personal goals, values
wrap is not water resistant and dissolves and attitudes, identify alternatives,
in the mouth. The advantages of using and make decisions that will result in
edible films are: maximum satisfaction and benefits.
zzTo provide consumer information
a. the film can be consumed with the
that increases consumer awareness,
packaged product and there is no
and helps in making the appropriate
packaging to dispose off,
decisions.
b. can add nutritional value to foods. zza process of making consumer aware of
c. flavours can be incorporated in these their fundamental rights as consumers
films. and to motivate them to utilize their
rights.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=hosmVt62x2U
2.7 Consumer Education 2.7.1 Role of Consumer

education
Every one of us is a consumer and
has a right to consumer education. The Consumer education is important
right education that would enable us to act because it helps a consumer to be a better
as informed consumers throughout our and wise buyer. The role of consumer
life. Therefore, the purpose of consumer education is:

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1. It helps a person in making proper this right, you can take precautions to
purchase. It enables the consumer in prevent the injury or if injury is caused
making right selection. in spite of precaution, you have a right to
2. It familiarizes the consumer with the complain against the dealer and even claim
problems that he faces while making compensation. For example if you buy any
purchases. This education inculcates product from the shop selling it can be held
the logical viewpoint in him. responsible if the product is fake and causes
harm.
3. It provides the consumer complete
information about products, for ii) Right to Information
example this information enables The right to obtain any information or
him in and helps taking right decision facts about the product helps the consumer
regarding purchasing, sources of to make an informed choice and to be
purchasing a particular commodity, protected against dishonest or misleading
from where to get best goods etc. advertising and labeling. Information to
4. Consumer education familiarizes the consumers such as product specification,
consumer with various standards of place of production, safety warnings, price,
standardization and their markings, mode of payment, date of quality assurance,
and the various acts enacted description of after sale services, warranty,
by the government from time ingredient, nutritional facts, etc should be
to time. given.
5. Consumer education helps the iii) Right to Choose
consumer in getting maximum
satisfaction by proper utilisation of Every buyer has the right to select
his money and leads a better living according to his needs and wants from
standard. various qualities, prices, sizes and designs
available. The consumer satisfaction varies
based on individual’s sense of beauty, sense
Rights of a consumer
2.7.2 of satisfaction, sense of reasoning, etc. This is
the theoretical framework on which right to
The definition of consumer right choose is built, and this right is fundamental
is the right to have information about to consumer satisfaction.
the quality, quantity, purity, price and
standard of goods or services but mainly iv) Right to be Heard
is to protect the consumer from any unfair This right has three interpretations.
practices of trade. They are: This right means that consumers have a right
i) Right to safety to be consulted by Government and public
bodies when decisions and policies are made
Consumers have a right to be affecting consumer interests. The consumers
protected against marketing of goods have a right to be heard by manufacturers,
which are injurious to health and life. dealers and advertisers about their opinion
As a consumer if you are conscious of on production and marketing decisions.

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The consumers have the right to be heard in vii) R

ight to Live in a Healthy
legal proceedings in law courts dealing with Environment
consumer complaints.
It is the brith right of every
v) Right to Seek Redressal individual in a society to have a clean
When any consumer has a complaint physical environment that will enhance the
quality of life. The right calls for the need
or grievance due to unfair trade practices
to protect and improve the environment
like charging higher price, selling of poor
for the present and future generations. It is
quality or unsafe products, lack of regularity
needless to say that the hazard to clean and
in supplying of services etc. or if he has
safe environment is increasing day by day.
suffered loss or injury due to defective or
This right of the consumers to be ensured
adulterated products, he has the right to seek
of clean and safe environment casts a
remedies. He has a right to get the defective
duty on the state to prevent any danger to
goods replaced or money refunded by the environment.
seller or dealer. He also has the right to seek
legal remedies in the appropriate courts viii) Right to Basic Needs
of law. This right also provides for due The right to basic needs is the
compensation to consumers if they have primary right of a consumer as a human
suffered a loss or are put to inconvenience due being. The very survival of an individual
to the fault of the supplier or manufacturer. will be jeopardized if his basic needs are not
met. Right to basic needs does not merely
vi) R
ight to Consumer
imply a simple right to survival but also to
Education
lead a normal life of an individual.
To prevent market malpractices
and exploitation of consumers, consumer 2.7.3
Consumer Protection
awareness and education are essentially Act 1986 (COPRA)
required. For this purpose, consumer It makes provision for the
associations, educational institutions and establishment of consumer councils and
government policy makers can provide other authorities for the settlement of
information to consumers about consumer’s disputes.
a) The relevant laws which are aimed at In India, it is regarded as the most
preventing malpractice and promoting important law in the field of consumer
fair practice protection. It led to the establishment of a
b) The ways in which dishonest traders widespread network of consumer forums
and producers may try to manipulate and appellate courts all over India.
market practices to deceive consumers Its provisions are very
c) How consumers can protect their own comprehensive and safeguard the
interest economic rights of consumers very
d) The procedure to be adopted by effectively. This law is based on the
consumers while making complaints. principle of ‘self-help’ to protect against
all kinds of exploitative and unfair dealings,
such as overpricing, defective goods and

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cheating. The law redefines the legal relation a. At District Level-District Forum
between consumers of goods and services b. At State Level -State Commission
and their sellers or manufacturers. c. At National Level – National
This act has two important Commission.
implications for the consumer: iv) Time Bound Redressal:
zzFirstly, it gives him the right to complain
A main feature of the Act is that
to an authority when aggrieved and seek
under this, the judgment for the cases are
redressal speedily without much haste.
decided in a limited time of period.
zzSecondly, the consumer can claim
v) C
onsumer Protection
compensation for any loss or injury
suffered on account of the negligence of Council:
the manufacturer. To favour consumer protection and
The act applies to all goods and to encourage consumer awareness, there is
services except those rendered free of a provision in this act to establish consumer
charge or under a personal service contract. protection councils. It ensures consumer’s
Any complaint of deficiency in the service right to seek redressal if any grievance arise.
rendered to a consumer, or loss caused due
to an unfair trade practice, can form the Consumer Redressal
2.7.4
subject for proceedings under the act. Forum
Features of Consumer The judiciary bodies are set up by the

Protection Act: government to protect the consumer rights.
Its main function is to maintain the fair
i) Group of Consumer’s Rights:
practices by the sellers towards consumers.
This act provides many rights to Consumers can file a case against a seller if
consumers. These rights are related to they are harassed or exploited by sellers. The
safety, information, choice, representation, court will only give a verdict in favour of the
redressal, education etc. consumers if they have proof of exploitation,
ii) Effective Safeguards: i.e., bills or other documents.
This Act provides safety to consumers i) Who Can File a Complaint?
regarding defective products, dis satisfactory The following categories of persons
services and unfair trade practices. So under can file a complaint
the purview of this Act there is a provision
to ban all those activities which can cause a zzaggrieved consumer
risk for consumer. zzany voluntary consumer organisation,
iii) T
hree-tier Grievances registered under the Societies
Redressal Machinery: Registration Act, 1860, or the Companies
Act, 1956,
Consumer courts have been
zzthe Central Government
established so that the consumers can enjoy
their rights. This Act presents Three- tier zzthe State Governments or Union
Grievances Redressal Machinery: Territory Administrations

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ii) When to File Compliant?

All complaints should be filed within
2 Years from date of purchase.
iii) W
hat Constitutes a
Compliant?
The complaint can be filed against
the trader, manufacturer and the supplier
of the services. A complaint can be filed if
there is a defect in the goods or a shortage
in the service rendered or when a trader
charges more maximum retail price for the
goods and also when a consumer suffers any
loss or damage due to unfair trade practices.
iv) Where to File a Complaint?
The consumer can move the district
forum, the State Commission or the National
Commission on the following grounds.
i) District Consumer Disputes
Redressal Forum (DCDRF): it works
at the district level with cases where v) How to File a Complaint?
the compensation claimed is up to 20
lakhs. The prescribed fee is Rs 100 to The procedure laid down for filing
500 only. complaints for seeking redressal is simple.
The complainant or his authorised agent
ii) State Consumer Disputes Redressal
can also present the complaint in person
Commission (SCDRC): it works
at the state level with cases where or send it by post to the appropriate
compensation claimed is above forum. The complaint should be signed
20 lakhs but up to one crore. The and verified by the complainant or his
prescribed fee is Rs2000 to 4000. The authorised agent.
State Commission also has Appellate They should file three copies of the
jurisdiction over the District Forum. complaint to the concerned authorities.
iii) National Consumer Disputes A complaint should contain the following
Redressal Commission (NCDRC): information:
A national level court works for the i) the name, description and the
whole country and deals compensation address of the complainant,
claimed exceeds rupees one crore.
The prescribed fee for the national ii) the name, description and the address
commission is 5000 and it is the apex of the opposite party or parties,
body of consumer courts. It is also the iii) the facts relating to complaint and
highest appellate court in the hierarchy. when and where it arose,

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iv) documents, if any, in support of the

allegations contained in the complaint, ACTIVITY 3
v) the relief which the complainant is Selvi bought a washing machine for
seeking. 25000 rupees and it was found to
The redressal forums will give orders be defective machine. What is the
for removal of defects from the goods procedure for filling a complaint and
or refund of the price paid or award of enlist what details and documents
compensation for the loss suffered or injury should provided while filling complaint?
sustained. Where should she file the complaint?
vi) P
rocedure for Filing the
Appeal against Decision: Naonal Consumers Helpline
(Sponsored by Department of Consumer Affairs, Govt. of India)
There is no fee for filing appeal Toll Free No. 1800-11-4000
SMS No. 8130009809(24 Hrs.)
before the State commission or the national www.consumerhelpline.gov.in
commission. Procedure for filing an appeal

is the same as that of a complaint, except
that the application should be accompanied S U M M A RY
by the orders of the district forum or state
z A consumer is a person who buys
commission as the case may be and reasons
goods and services. Every one of us is a
for filing the appeal should be specified.
consumer and has a right to consumer
An appeal against the decision of education. The purpose of consumer
a district forum can be filed before the education is to teach people how to be
state commission within a period of thirty better consumers.
days. Appeal against the decision of a
z It also includes the problems faced
state commission can be filed before the
by consumer are related to products
national commission within thirty days.
or related to services used by them.
Appeal against the orders of the national
They are lack of safety and absence
commission, can be filed before the Supreme
of quality control regulations,
Court within a period of thirty days. The
adulteration, imitation manufacture,
structure of the redressal machinery is
unfair warranties, sales gimmics,
shown in figure below.
substandard quality, incorrect
weights and measures, deceptive
goods, misleading advertisements,
incorrect and incomplete labels,
deceptive packaging and dishonest
vending.
z Importance of consumer education is
emphasized because it makes a consumer
Levels of Forums for Redressal of
to be a better and wise buyer. Knowledge
Complaints
about consumer aids are tools which

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consumers can use not only in the z Public distribution agencies- (ப�ொது
selection but also to protect themselves. விநிய�ோக நிறுவனம்) It is a government
This information can be obtained from chain of shops distributing basic food and
labels on products, advertisements, non-food commodities to the needy
internet and standardization sections of the society at very cheap prices.
marks. z Illegal- (சட்டத்திற்கு புறம்பான) not
z Components of consumer according to or authorized by law
education include right to safety, z Black marketing- (கள்ள சந்தை) illicit
information, choose, heard, seek trade in goods or commodities in violation
redressal, consumer education, live of official regulations
in a healthy environment and basic
z Malpractice- (முறைகேடு) an injurious,
needs.
negligent or improper practice
z Consumer Protection Act (1986) z Adulteration- (கலப்படம்) when some
“COPRA” protect the interests of substances are either added or removed
consumers. It defines the procedure, from a product which changes its
three tier redressal system in composition, nature or quality.
which who can, when to, what
z Imitation- (ப�ோலி) copying or resembling
constitutes, where to file, how to
something of better quality
file a complaint? It also provides
procedure for filing the appeal against z Sale gimmicks- (விற்பனை வித்தை) It is a
decision. creative way to attract attention to business,
product or service and to increase urge to
z Information’s pertaining on various
purchase in the mind of customers.
types of brands, classification of
z Deceptive- (ஏமாற்றக்கூடிய) misleading
packaging and variety of packaging
believe about something which is not true
materials are used by the processed
food industry and classification of labels z Misleading- (தவறான) giving the wrong
are essential for consumer to buy wisely. idea or impression.
z Dishonest- (நேர்மையற்ற) behaving in an
G L O S S A RY untrustworthy, deceitful or insincere way,
willful perversion of truth in order to
z Consumer- (நுகர்வோர்)- is a person who deceive, cheat or defraud.
buys goods and services or use of public
z Commodity- (பொருட்கள்) a substance or
utilities or natural resources
product that can be traded, bought, or sold
z Commercial- (வணிக) Buying and selling
z Standardization- (தரப்படுத்தல்) the process
z Appropriate - (சரியான) Suitable or right of making something conform to a
for a particular situation or occasion standard.
z Fundamental- (அடிப்படை) forming the z Redressal- (குறைநிவர்த்தி) Act of
base from which everything else correcting an error or a fault and a sum of
develops money paid in compensation for loss or
z Scarcity- (பற்றாக்குறை) shortage in supply injury.

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E VA L U AT I O N 5. ______________ ensure legal

protections to consumers against
I. Choose the correct unfair trade practices
answer a) ISO mark
1. _____ on a product b) MRTP act
which is packed in a c) Vegetarian mark
box or bottle gives all
d) Barcode
information about the products to
consumer 6. Hologram is a symbol which is used
to establish _________ of a product.
a) Label
a) Genuineness
b) Bill
b) Rate
c) Holomark
d) Trade mark c) Eco friendliness
2. Replacement of defective products or d) Quantity

their parts is assured by the 7. __________provides free spare parts
manufacturer in ______ card. but service charges are collected from
a) Bill the customer.
b) Warranty a) Warranty
c) Standard b) Guarantee
d) Service c) ISO
3. A small red circle inside a square d) ISI

mark on the package indicates the 8. The department of consumer affairs
presence of _________ ingredients in has launched online service portal
a product. for registering complaints for
a) Non vegetarian grievances against misleading
advertisements ________
b) Vegetarian
a) Misleading advertisement
c) Artificial colours prevention agency
d) Artificial flavours b) Grievance against Misleading
4. _______ are facilities provided by Advertisements (GAMA)
government or non-government c) Food Safety and Standards
agencies free of cost or on payment Authority of India (FSSAI),
a) Goods d) Ministry of AYUSH
b) Services
c) Trade
d) Business

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9. _____________include chemical 3. Selvam bought a pair of expensive

analysis, microbiological analysis, branded shoes but on using he found
pesticide residue and aflatoxin it was not genuine and safe. It was a
analysis. duplicate of expensive brand-
a) ISO Mark Comment on type of unfair trade
practice involved in this case.
b) Silk mark
4. When the consumer is forced to take
c) Agmark standard
certain goods as free gifts as
d) Ecomark introductory offer but the cost is
10. ______ mark is by prescribed Bureau hidden and is paid by the consumer
of Indian standards for eco-friendly - identify unfair trade practice
products involved and comment.
a) ISO Mark 5. Differentiate Vegetarian and Non
b) Silk mark Vegetarian mark.
c) Agmark standard 6. Write about important information
which are needed to be found in a
d) Ecomark
label.
II. Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) 7. Who can file a complaint in consumer
redressal forum?
1. Define consumer.
8. Describe the elements of branding
2. What is meant by goods?
9. Why do we pack food? Mention any
3. Give two examples for service. one function of packaging.
4. Ramu is adding water to milk for profit 10. Enumerate on classification of
– identify the type of adulteration.
packaging.
5. Brief about deceptive goods.
6. What is silkmark? IV. Write in detail (5 marks)
7. Brief about National consumer 1. Elaborate on the problems faced by
disputes redressal commission. consumer.
8. Define brand. 2. How does advertisement affect
buying decisions? Give two examples.
9. What is geographic place brands?
3. What information will you gather
10. What are removable labels?
before buying any product? State with
examples.
III. Write Short Answers (3 marks)
4. Explain the purpose of standardization
1. Describe on the purpose of consumer
mark of the products.
education.
5. With an example explain the
2. Enlist the problems faced by consumers
information which are needed to be
related to products.
found in a label.

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6. Mohan went to the market to buy 8. Explain in detail about the rights of
bread. He bought a packet and when consumer.
he opened it at home he found the 9. Describe about the Three-tier
bread to be stale and rotten. Who is Grievances Redressal Machinery of
to be blamed? What are the Consumer Protection Act.
information you will look when you
10. Baskar bought a car for 10lakhs but
buy a bread packet?
the performance was not as it was
7. Write in detail about the image given advertised .Where should he file his
below. complaint? Discuss about the
procedure involved and prescribed
fee for filing his complaint.
11. Enlist and explain any two types of
brand.
12. Explain the types of packaging
materials used in India.
13. Write briefly on classification of
labels.
REFERENCES
Gandhi (1935) the Wisdom of Gandhi 49,

Harijan May 4, 1935,
Srilakhmi (2017) Food Science, New age
Publishers, New Delhi.
www.agmarknet.nic.in/Agmark1.htm
www.blog.ipleaders.in/analysis-consumer-
protection-laws-india/#_ftn37
www.consumeraffairs.nic.in/home.aspx
www.creatindia.org/consumer-education-
4.pdf
www.mofpi.nic.in/
www.nios.ac.in/Secbuscour/26.pdf

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UNIT
3
Food Safety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This chapter helps the students to get a bird’s eye view of:
zz The process of Food Selection and the factors governing the selection to ensure
food safety.
zz Methods to be adopted for food storage and the containers to be used for a safe
food storage.
zz Adulteration and its impact with the key adulterants in foods and simple tests to
identify them.
zz Causes of food contamination and food borne infections which prove hazardous
to health.
zz Method to prevent Food- Borne Illness.
UNIT 3 Food Safety 78

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to be purchased. Selection of foods

3.1 Introduction from the available variety is an important
Food has been a basic part of our aspect of marketing. Intelligent
existence. The edible parts of plants and selection of foods is based on the
animals termed as “food” are consumed knowledge of attributes of high quality
by people to satisfy their physiological, foods.
psychological and social needs. It is The types of food selection depend on:
universally accepted that the nutritional zzAvailability of funds/ money
value of food alone does not persuade zzNutritional needs
people to eat but also its colour, flavour,
zzEffect of advertisements
texture, temperature and presentation
which are the other contributory factors zzLikes and Dislikes
towards food consumption patterns of the Availability of funds / Money
people which ensure the wholesomeness Money enhances the purchasing
of the food in terms of quality and power and increases purchasing choices.
quantity. Thus the consumer can get People who have a lot of money can
a food item without compromising afford a variety of meals and can eat away
on the deteriorative aspects like food from home. However, people with small
contamination, food borne illnesses and incomes have a limited choice and it
infections. becomes a hard task to buy enough food
Food safety is an assurance that to meet family needs.
food will not cause any harm to the
consumer when it is prepared and eaten Nutritional needs
according to its use. The said assurance is Food choice will also depend on
determined by nutritional needs. Without food one
becomes weak and ill. The nutritional
zzWhether the harmful substances needs of the people may vary based on
present in the food have been age, activity, health condition, gender
eliminated or reduced to acceptable and specific needs during specific stage of
level. growth and development. eg. Pregnancy,
zzWhether food that has been prepared, lactation.
handled or stored under controlled and
sanitary conditions in conformation Effects of Advertisements
with practices prescribed by Another great influence on food
government regulations. choice is advertisement. Advertisements
have a way of persuading people to
make choices. Food manufacturers and
3.2 Selection of Food shops advertise their products through
Food selection is an important television, radio, magazines, newspapers,
step in ensuring good nutrition for the posters and leaflets. People tend to taste
family. The daily food guide helps in new food products that are endorsed by
deciding the kinds and amount of foods famous personalities.
79 Food Safety UNIT 3

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Likes and dislikes Dry storage

The choice of foods is often based It is a place for storage of dry
on the likes and dislikes of the family ingredients and it should be cool, well
members. Several factors contribute to our ventilated and free from infestation. The
likes and dislikes such as colour, flavour, average temperature of a dry store varies
appearance and texture of the food. between 20°C – 25°C. It is suitable for
non-perishable and semi perishable
In addition food selection also commodities.
depends on the safety and hygiene aspects
and it should be free from insecticides, Low Temperature Storage
chemical toxins, physical hazards and The main aim of low temperature
microbial contamination. storages is to maintain the temperatures
at levels which will inhibit the growth
of microorganisms thereby preserving
3.3 Storage of Foods the food. Three distinct types of low
Foods can be classified as perishable, temperature storage include
semi- perishable and nonperishable and
a) Refrigerated Storage
these factors determine the methods of
storage. Most food materials need to be b) Cold Storage
stored for different lengths of time and c) Freezer Storage for the storage of
at different temperatures, to preserve semi perishable and perishable foods.
their wholesomeness till required for
preparation and service. For effective
storage of food items two types of storages
are used :the dry storage rooms meant
for non-perishable commodities like
cereals and their products, pulses, legumes,
sugar and spices, canned foods, fats and
oils, etc., and the low temperature storages
for semi-perishable and perishable foods.
Refrigerated Storage: It is storage space

planned and maintained at a temperature
between 0C - 10C. They are necessary to
maintain the quality of perishable foods
for 3-5 days only. Foods should be kept
covered in refrigerated storage to prevent
drying and odours been taken up by
other foods.

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Cold Storage: Here the temperature iv. Place items on shelves according to
is maintained between 0 C and -5 C date stamped, with earlier ones in
thereby reducing the enzyme activity to the front of a row, and later ones at
the minimum. Such storages are called the back. Stamping also helps to cost
“chill rooms” and can hold perishables for the stocks more accurately according
over a week and in the case of vegetables to the prices paid on the bill for the
and fruits even up to a month. particular lot.
v. Arrange products to give an
organized appearance. Efforts should
be made to ensure that commodities
do not lie around on the floor at any
time.
vi. Heavy bins or drums should also
be placed on wheels or on slatted
platform, for free circulation of air
around the food packs.
vii. All items delivered in bulk bags of
jute or poly bags like sugar, flour,
cereals, pulses, etc., should be cross
Freezer Storage: The temperature ranges
stacked.
between -20°C to 0°C. For successful
viii. Any opened bags should be
freezing the foods should be blanched,
immediately emptied into metal or
cooled quickly to freezing temperature
plastic bins, polyethylene drums or
and packed in airtight containers
cans with tight fitting lids.
or bags.
ix. Cross stacking helps free air
ACTIVITY - 1 circulation. Polythene bags of
milk powder should preferably be
Try storing greens, brinjal, onion and refrigerated.
egg at different temperatures in the x. Cartons of canned foods, biscuits,
refrigerator and see the effect etc., should be stacked with their
labels visible for identification.
General Procedure for storage xi. Tins or small cardboard packs are
i. Arrange food according to the type generally used for dried fruits, preserves,
of commodity. mixes, jellies, etc., and may be lined
ii. Place stock item in alphabetical order up one in front of the other, each row
of food. having packs of the same item.
xii. As a rule, vegetables and fruits
iii. Stamp the date of delivery on every
require to be stored in areas separate
stock received before shelving
from the main dry stores, especially
to ensure that the old stocks are used
root vegetables.
up first.

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xiii. Oils and fats need special attention in Definition: Adulteration is defined as the
storage because they tend to get rancid process by which the quality or the nature
in the presence of light. So fats and of a given substance is reduced through
oils should be stored in a place where i) addition of a foreign or an inferior
it can be protected from sunlight. substance and the ii) removal of a vital
If foods are not stored properly element.
they can become contaminated leading to
Adulterants can be of
several health hazards.
two types
1) Intentional Adulterants: Some
manufacturers mix adulterants like
brick powder, chalk powder, dried
seeds, stones, marble, addition of
harmful colors to food items like spices,
pulses (metanil yellow in Turmeric
or Carmoisine in Chili powder) with
intention to make more profit.
2) Incidental Adulterants is the
contamination due to carelessness
and lack of proper hygiene during
overall processing of food. It includes
3.4 Food Adulteration contamination due to defective
packaging and storage and may result
Adulteration of food stuffs
in bacterial or fungal attack.
is commonly practised in India by
the traders. When the price of food As adulteration is rampant
production is higher than the price which everywhere, consumer should be aware of
the consumer is prepared to pay, the seller adulterators and one should take steps to
is compelled to supply a food product of safeguard themselves against those food
inferior quality. Thus, adulteration occurs. items. It is as shown in the table 3.4.1.

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3.4.1 Common Adulterants in food and their Harmful effects
Sl. Name of the Harmful

Adulterant Simple method to detect the adulterant
No. food article Effects
1. Ghee or Vanaspathi Take one teaspoonful of ghee
butter or butter with equal quantity of ____
concentrated hydrochloric acid in
atest tube and add a pinch of cane
sugar to it .
Shake well for one minute and test it
after 5 minutes.
Appearance of crimson color shows
the presence of vanaspathi
2. Milk Water Lactometer reading should not be Stomach
less than 1.026 disorder
Drop of pure milk flows slowly
leaving a white trail behind whereas ___
adulterated milk with water will
flow immediately.
3. Khoa Starch Add tincture of iodine. Blue color Less -
shows the presence of starch. nutritive
value
4. Dhals Kesari dhal Add 50 ml of dilute hydrochloric Stomach
acid to the dhal and simmer it for pain, ulcer
15 minutes. Pink color shows the
presence of kesari dhal.
5. Hing Soap stone or Shake with water , soap stone or Dysentry
other earthy earthy matter will settle down.
matter
6. Tea leaves Exhausted tea Tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter Liver
or black or paper would immediately release Disorder
Bengal gram added color.
dhal husk
with color
7. Sugar Chalk Powder Dissolve in a glass of water, chalk Stomach –
will settle down at the bottom Disorder
8. Chilli Stones Any grittiness present may be felt by Stomach
powder Brick Powder, tapping. The sediment at the bottom problems
Sawdust of glass confirms the presence of
brick powder or sand.

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Sl. Name of the Harmful

Adulterant Simple method to detect the adulterant
No. food article Effects
9. Rawa Iron filings By moving a magnet through it iron ___
filings may be separated.
10. Mustard Argemone Argemone seeds which are Epidemic
seeds seeds grainy with a rough surface can dropsy &
be separated from mustard seeds Glaucoma
which have a smooth surface by
close examination.
11. Honey Molasses A cotton wick dipped in pure honey Stomach
when lighted with a match stick disorder
burns. If adulterated the presence
of water will not allow the honey to
burn.
12. Cinnamon Cassia Bark Cinnamon barks are very thin and ___
cassia barks are thick and stiff.
13. Coffee Chicory When coffee powder is sprinkled Diarrhoea
on the water surface in a glass coffee
floats but chicory sinks down.
14. Black Pepper Papaya seeds Papaya seeds give a repulsive Stomach,
flavour distinct from the bite of liver
black pepper problems
15. Rice Marble or Place a small quantity of rice ___
other stones on the palm of the hand and
immerse the same in water. Stone
chips will sink.
ACTIVITY - 2
3.5 Food Hygiene
Collect the samples of black pepper, Food Hygiene is the action taken
cinnamon, chilli powder and milk to ensure that food is handled, stored,
and assess their quality. prepared and served in such a way,
and under such conditions, as to prevent
– as far as possible – the contamination
The Prevention of Food of food. Good food hygiene is essential
Adulteration Act, 1954 aims at making to ensure that the food prepared/
provisions for the prevention of sold by businesses is safe. Food
adulteration of food. The Act extends to safety and hygiene are important
the whole of India and came into force both to safeguard consumer health and
on 1st June 1955. the reputation of food businesses.

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3.5.1 Contamination of Food 3.6 Food borne Diseases

Food contamination occurs Food-borne diseases, including food-
by substances (contaminants) not borne intoxications and food-borne
intentionally added to food. Contaminants infections, are terms applied to illnesses
are the factors responsible for unhygienic acquired through consumption of
food. They compromise food safety and contaminated food, and are also frequently
cause harm to the health of a consumer. referred to as food poisoning.
Such substances may be chemical, physical
or biological. While many food-borne diseases
may be selflimiting, some can be very
Chemical serious and can lead to death particularly
(For example, chemical poisons in children, pregnant women and older
like insecticide) Chemical poisons such persons.
as insecticides get into food, and toxic
metals may enter food during processing.
3.6.1 Classification of food-
Poisonous plants (and fungi) like some
borne illnesses
types of mushrooms and seafood produce
chemicals or toxins which can cause l Food-borne infections – caused
illnesses if consumed incorrectly. by consuming foods or liquids
contaminated with bacteria, viruses,
Physical or parasites. These pathogens cause
(For example, undesirable infection by:
substances in food) Reports of ‘foreign • Invading and multiplying in the
bodies’ such as dead rats, insects and lining of the intestines and/or other
pieces of glass in food get wide publicity tissues
although they are rare events. Physical • Invading and multiplying in the
contaminants such as these are usually intestinal tract and releasing a toxin
detected by the consumer and the food (bacteria only).
is not consumed. However, substances
like glass or staple pins used for packing l Food-borne intoxications – caused by
can be dangerous. These incidents rarely consuming foods or beverages already
cause food poisoning but are, of course, contaminated with a toxin. Sources of
highly undesirable. toxins are as follows:
• Certain bacteria (pre-formed
Biological toxins)
(For example, bacteria, their toxins • Poisonous chemicals
and viruses) Biological contaminants • Natural toxins found in animals,
include microorganisms/microbes which plants, and fungi.
are small organisms that can only be seen
through a microscope. The most common Salmonella food Poisoning:
types of microorganisms are bacteria and Causative agents: Salmonella group
viruses. are the main group of bacterial agents

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causing food poisoning. S. enteritids, S. ducks have been the cause of several
typhimurium, S. Thompson are the most outbreaks, many types of Salmonella have
frequent but other types have also been been isolated from dried egg powder and
isolated in outbreaks of food poisoning. egg albumen.
Salmonella food poisoning causes gastro
enteritis since only the alimentary tract is Staphylococcus Food
involved and there is no general invasion Poisoning:
of the body. Causative agents: It is due to
Signs and symptoms: The condition Staphylococcus aureus and strains of this
is characterized by nausea, vomiting, organism produce an exotoxin which is
abdominal discomfort, headache and responsible for a number of outbreaks
later diarrhoea. The symptoms appear of food poisoning characterized by
12-26 hours after the ingestion of the vomiting and diarrhea. The sources
contaminated food. In most cases these include human or animal origin. The
symptoms subside in a few days and the nasal passages of many persons contain
patients recover completely in 6-8 days. a large number of these organisms, boils
Mortality rate is very low. and infected wounds may also be sources
of contaminating food.
Foods involved: The common foods that
give rise to this type of food poisoning are Signs and Symptoms: The duration of
meat, milk, fish or eggs, the contamination the condition caused by staphylococcus
being from the animal itself or from food poisoning is only for a day or two.
external sources. Eggs from infected Mortality is extremely low.

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Foods Involved: The common foods

involved are custard, cream and poultry. 3.7 HACCP – Method to
prevent Food- Borne
Botulism: Illness
Causative Agent: The organism One of the major tools for achieving
responsible for this is a spore bearing a high degree of reliability and safety is
anaerobic bacillus Clostridium botulinum called the Hazard Analysis and Critical
which produces an exotoxin in the food. Control Point (HACCP) system. HACCP
Hence poisoning is due to the ingestion of principles apply to microbiological,
the preformed exotoxin in the food. chemical and physical hazards associated
with foods but are mostly applied to
Signs and symptoms: It is a toxemia
microbiological hazards because they are
and the symptoms are protrusion of the
the leading cause of food borne disease.
eyeballs, loss of accommodation and
dilated pupils. It is most fatal and death Definition: HACCP is a management
occurs due to respiratory or cardiac system in which food safety is
failure occurs due to 4 to 8 days after the addressed through the analysis and
symptoms appear. control of biological, chemical, and
Foods Involved: It is a comparatively rare physical hazards from raw material
kind of food poisoning which follows the production, procurement and handling,
ingestion of contaminated food such as to manufacturing, distribution and
sausages, meat, fish vegetables and other consumption of the finished product.
canned foods.
Some ways in which Bacteria Case Study

are introduced into food by Mary had an egg omelette yesterday
food handlers and from today morning she is having
nausea, vomiting and stomach ache.
She consulted a doctor who said that she
is suffering from food poisoning Can
you identify the causative organism?
Principles of Hazard Analysis

and Critical Control Point
(HACCP)
The seven steps of HACCP Process include
the following:
1. Analyse hazards - Potential hazards
associated with a food and measures
to control those hazards (biological,
e.g. a microbe; chemical, e.g. a toxin;

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or physical, e.g. ground glass or metal

fragments) are identified.
2. Identify critical control points - These
are points in a food's production -
from its raw state through processing
and shipping to consumption by the
consumer - at which the potential
hazard can be controlled or eliminated.
Examples are cooking, cooling,
packaging, and metal detection.
3.
Establish preventive measures with
critical limits for each control point - For
a cooked food, for example, this might
include setting the minimum cooking
temperature and time required to
ensure the elimination of any harmful
microbes.
4.
Establish procedures to monitor
the critical control points - Such Five Keys to Safer Food*
procedures include determining how 1. Keep Clean
and who should monitor the cooking • Wash your hands before handling food
time and temperature. and often during food preparation.
5.
Establish corrective actions when • Wash your hands after going to the
monitoring shows that a critical toilet.
limit has not been met - For example, •
Wash and sanitize all surfaces and
reprocessing or disposing of food if the equipment used for food preparation.
minimum cooking temperature is not
met. • Protect kitchen areas and food from
insects, pests and other animals.
6. Establish procedures to verify that
the system is working properly - For 2. Separate raw and
example, testing time and-temperature cooked food
recording devices to verify that a •
Separate raw meat, poultry and
cooking unit is working properly. seafood from other foods.
7.
Establish effective record keeping • Use separate utensils such as knives
for documentation - This would and cutting boards for handling
include records of hazards and their raw foods.
control methods, monitoring of safety • Store food in containers to avoid
requirements and action taken to contact between raw and prepared
correct potential problems. foods.

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3. Cook thoroughly • Do not store food too long even in

• Cook food thoroughly, especially the refrigerator.
meat, poultry, eggs and seafood. • Do not thaw frozen food at room
• Bring foods like soups and stews to temperature
boiling to make sure that they have 5. Use safe water and raw
reached 70°C. materials
• Use safe water or treat it to make it
• Reheat cooked food thoroughly.
safe.
4. Keep food at safe • Select fresh and wholesome foods.
temperatures
• Choose foods processed for safety,
• Do not leave cooked food at room
such as pasteurized milk.
temperature for more than 2 hours.
•
Wash fruits and vegetables,
•
Refrigerate promptly all cooked
especially if eaten raw.
and perishable food (preferably
below 5°C). • Do not use food beyond its expiry
• Keep cooked food piping hot (more date.
than 60°C) prior to serving.
S U M M A RY G L O S S A RY
Food safety is an important issue
Food safety (உணவு பாதுகாப்பு): A
z
z
that needs advancements in methods
scientific discipline describing handling,
of maintaining the food as early as
preparation, and storage of food in ways
possible.
that prevent food-borne illness.
z People nowadays demand and wish to eat z Food contamination (உணவு மாசுபாடு):
more hygienic, clean and healthy food. presence of harmful chemicals and micro-
Health is always crucial to everyone. organisms in food, which can cause illness.
z Offering a wholesome food in terms of z Food poisoning (விசமுற்ற உணவு):
quality and quantity to everyone is the first The illness resulting from eating food
basic thing for everyone in the world. or drinking water containing bacteria,
viruses, pesticides, or toxins.
z Preventing people from food borne
disease is the most important thing that z Adulteration (கலப்படம்) Refers to mixing
needs to be done at the earliest. of an inferior and sometimes harmful
quality substances with food or drink
z Hence quality control of food will help intended to be sold.
people to protect them from illnesses z Food Storage (உணவு சேமிப்பு); Food
resulting from food contamination, storage allows food to be eaten for some
food infection and food poisoning. time after harvest rather immediately.

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7. Kesari dhal is commonly adulterated

E VA L U AT I O N with
a) Chilli powder
b) Asafoetida
I. Choose the correct answer
c) Bengal gram
Section A - Objective Type Questions d) Coffee powder
(1 mark)
8. Botulism is caused by the ingestion of
1. Pick the odd one out contaminated
Clean, separate, cook, purchase, chill a) Custard
b) Cream
2. Which is matched correctly
c) Egg powder
a. Television - Equipment store
d) Meat
b. Spare parts – Incidental
adulteration 9. HACCP principles are applied to
c. Defective - Advertisement a) Microbiological hazard
packaging b) Biological Hazard
d. Rava- Iron fillings c) Pollution Hazard
3. Cross stacking during storage d) None of the above
helps in
a) Water flow 10. Starch adulteration in milk products
b) Air circulation can be identified with
c) Easy identification a) Iron
d) Good ventilation b) Iodine
c) Calcium
4. Selection of food depends on d) Phosphorus
a) Likes and dislikes
b) Availability of money 11. Blanching of food enhances
c) Nutritional requirements a) Freezer storage
d) All of the above b) Refrigerated storage
c) Cold storage
5. Refrigerated storage is a type of d) Chill storage
a) Dry storage
b) Low temperature storage 12. Food borne infections can cause
c) Miscellaneous storage a) Cholera
d) Trash storage b) Typhoid
c) Dysentery
6. Biological contamination is caused d) All of the above
by
a) Band- Aid
b) Pesticides II. Write Very Short Answers
(2 marks)
c) Plastic
d) Micro organisms 1. What is food adulteration?
2. Define food contamination.

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3. Give the harmful effects of coffee

powder with excess chicory. REFERENCES
4. What are the signs and symptoms of 1. Joshua A.K. (1988) Microbiology 4th
staphylococcus food poisoning? Ed., Popular Book Depot, Chennai.
5. What is a cold storage? 2. Sethi M, Malhan S, (1993) Catering
Management 2nd Ed, Wiley Eastern
III. Write Short Answers (3 marks) Limited, New Delhi.
1. What is meant by food safety? 3. Subbulakshmi G. Udipi S.A. (2001)
2. Explain refrigerated storage? Food Processing and Preservation,
New Age International (P) limited,
3. What are the causes of physical New Delhi.
contaminants?
4. Johns N. (1991) Managing Food
4. What are the common adulterants in Hygiene Macmillan Press Ltd.,
asofoetida and termeric?
London.
5. How do advertisement influence food 5. Srilakshmi B. (2017) Food Science
selection?
New Age International Limited,
New Delhi.
6. Manay N.S., Shadaksharaswamy M.
1. Explain the general procedure for
(2013) Foods: Facts and Principles,
storage?
New Age International Limited,
2. List the steps of HACCP. New Delhi.
3. What is Salmonella food poisoning?
4. What are the simple ways to detect
adulteration in
a) Mustard Seeds b) Honey.
5. Describe the categories of storage.

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ICT Corner
Food Safety
This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the food factors.
It acts as a reinforcement or recollection of what they heave learnt on food.
It’s self parameter
Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code.
zzA page opens with quiz and it’s options. You select your own quiz.
zzThen start your quiz. Start to select the right options.
zzIf the answer is right it gives you a green tick. If not the tick will be red.
And the score will be shown at the top right corner.
zzWhen we press the next button it goes to the next quiz.
zzThe special feature of this quiz or game is till we give the right answer it
will be in the same place.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=food.
science.master.quiz

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UNIT
4 Fundamentals
of textiles
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
zz To know the different kinds of fibres and their uses.

zz To identify and differentiate fibres using simple tests.
zz To learn about yarn making and weaving.
zz To understand about fabric finishes.
zz To gain knowledge about different temporary and permanent stitches in daily life.
zz To learn about stain removal.
4.1 Introduction on it was used as clothing. Home makers,

dressmakers, interior decorators and
Textiles play a vital role in our daily life.
retail-store customers demand textiles.
From the primitive age textiles are used
This chapter deals with the various types of
for covering, warmth, personal adornment
fibres, their properties, finished products
and even to display personal wealth. Today,
of textiles, care of fibres and uses.
textiles are used for various purpose and
everyone is an ultimate consumer. Though
4.1.1 efinition and
D
we aren’t the direct purchaser, we use
Classification
textiles in some form. In the beginning
textiles were used for packing food then Textile is defined as a type of material
it was used as mats in shelter and later composed of natural and synthetic fibres.
93 Fundamentals of textiles UNIT 4

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The word textile comes from Latin textilis, the most well-known natural fibres. There
means “woven”, which in turn comes from are several other commonly used natural
the Latin verb textere, “to weave”. In textile fibres such as jute, linen and asbestos.
science, however, a textile is finely defined A. Cotton
as any product made from fibres. Types of
textiles include animal-based material such The word “cotton” is derived from the
as wool and silk, plant-based such as linen Arabic word “qoton” or “qutun”, which
and cotton and synthetic material such means a plant found in conquered
as polyester and rayon. Textiles are often land. Cotton is a fibre that grows on
associated with the production of clothing. the surrounding surface of seeds in the
pods, or balls of a bushy mallow plant.
Textile fibre is very long in relation
Cotton is referred to as the “King of
to its thickness. The fibre consists of cells
fibres” as it is most important textile fibre
arranged in its longitudinal direction.
in the world.
The strength and elasticity of the fibre is
dependent on the forces between these cells.
4.2 Manufacturing Of
Fibres
Fibres may be classified based on
the origin and chemical type as natural
fibres and man-made fibres. Table-1
describes the classification of fibres.
4.2.1 Natural Fibres Cotton plant
Natural fibres are taken from plant and The cotton fibre is a long cell-
animal sources. Cotton, Silk and wool are made up of countless cellulose molecules.
Classification of fibres
Natural fibres Man-made fibres
Vegetable fibres Animal fibres Mineral fibres Cellulosic Modified Non Minerals
(Cellulosic) (Protein) (Asbestos) (Viscose) Cellulosic Cellulosic (Carbon)
(Acetate) (Nylon)
Animal Animal
Hair Secretion
(Wool) (Silk)
Seed fibres Bast fibres Leaf fibres Nut fibres

(Cotton) (Flax, Jute) (Pineapple) (Coir)
UNIT 4 Fundamentals of textiles 94

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Cotton is removed mechanically from the c) Combing: This process removes

seed balls by the cotton gin. The ginned more short hairs and makes fibres
cotton is then pressed into bales and sent more parallel.
to the factories to be spun into yarn.
i. Manufacturing process
The main processes are bale breaking and
cleaning, carding, combing, spinning,
weaving, scouring, bleaching and dyeing.
a) Bale breaking and cleaning: The
tightly pressed cotton fibres from
the bales are loosened in a machine
and the impurities falls out. Another
machine removes more impurities
until sheets of loose fibre like cotton
wool emerge ready for carding. Combing
d) Spinning: The combed sliver is now
converted into yarn by spinning.
Scouring and Bleaching is usually
done after weaving to enable the
cloth to be dyed easily.
Bale breaking
b) arding: The fibres emerge from

C
the carding rolls as a thin filmy
sheet which passes between two
rolls and is formed is to a thick rope
called “Slivers”.
Spinning
ii. Properties:
Lustre : Low
Tenacity/ Strength : Medium
Elastic Recovery : Low
Elongation : 7%
Resilience : Low
Carding Density : 1.54 g/cm3

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Moisture : 8.5% B. Silk

absorption Silk has been considered
Dimensional : Good as one of the most
Stability elegant and luxurious
Acids : Damages, of fibres. It is popularly
Weakens fibre known as the “Queen
Alkalis : Resistant of Fibres”. The method of raising silk
(mercerization) worms and removing the silk filaments
Effect of : Weakens fibre from the cocoons and of using the silk in
sunlight slowly weaving for garments was discovered by
Insects : Silverfish Hsi-Ling-Chi, a little empress of China.
damages fibre
To flame : Burns readily
Shape : Fairly uniform
in width, 12-20,
length varies from
½ and 2 ½inches
Definition of important terms:

Elasticity: The ability of a fibre or fabric to
return to its original length, shape, or size
immediately after the removal of stress.
Density: Explains the thickness of
textile products.
Tenacity: The customary measure of
strength of a yarn.
Resilience: The ability of a material
to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically, and release that energy upon
unloading.
iii. Uses:
Silk thread and silk saree
zzCotton is the most widely used fibre
because it is inexpensive, easy-care, Silk can be cultivated or it is found
high absorbency, excellent launder in forest as wild silk. Cultivated silk is
ability and good colour fastness. the Mulberry silk. The common wild silk
zzIt is not only used for apparel but varieties are Eri, Tasar and Muga silk. The
also for household and industrial process of cultivating silkworm for silk
applications. production is called as sericulture.

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When the silk worm is fully grown ii. Properties:

it starts spinning its cocoon on straw
Shape : Like glass rod
placed on the trays. The silk fluid from
the special glands issues from two holes, Length : 30000 to 39000 cm
one on either side of the head called Elasticity : Good
spinnerets. Stretch : Good
ability
The fluid hardens as it comes in
contact with the air and two long fibres Flexibility : Medium
which are stuck together with silk gum are Density : 1.25g/cm3
formed. The cocoons are heated to kill the Reaction : Causes less damage
pupa inside, otherwise the moths would with acid.
destroy some of the silk. Some are allowed
To Flame : Burns with a
to become moths to provide eggs.
sputtering flame.
i. Manufacturing process: Sunlight : Increased exposures
will break down the
The manufacturing process involves
fibre.
Reeling, Throwing, Degumming, Weaving,
Dyeing and sometimes weighting. Insects : Destroyed by Carpet
beetles.
a) Reeling: This is the process of
Drying : Quick and good.
unwinding the silk filament from
Dyeing : good absorption
the cocoon. The cocoons are boiled
for acid and basic
in water to soften the gum so as to
dyes.
unwind the filaments.
b) Throwing: Throwing is the process
iii. Uses:
of combining several reeled strands
to make a yarn. The number of zzSilk fabrics are noted for their
strands are twisted together to form soft luxurious handle, rich lustre,
a strong yarn. warmth, resilience and crease
resistance, strength and excellent
c) Degumming: The gum left on
draping quality.
the fibres to protect them are now
removed by boiling in soap and zzA wide range of fabrics are
water. Sometimes degumming is left made ranging from sheer chiffon
until the fabric is woven. Weaving is to firmer dress and suiting material
carried out the same way as for other to heavy brocades to the rich pile
fibres. velvet.
d) Weighting: Weighting is the process zzSilk serves best for ceremonial
of treating silk with certain metallic occasions, evening or day ware and
salts to give weight and body to the lingerie.
product.

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Manufacturing of silk
C. Wool animal is called pulled wool which is

inferior in quality to fleece or clip wool.
Wool is one of the oldest fibres used for
protection from the cold climate. It is The quality of wool is expressed
natural protein fibre and considered as by numbers. The higher the numbers, the
Man’s best friend. Sheep skin, including finer the wool and better the quality. The
the hair, was probably used long before it finest wool is from young sheep. Very fine
was discovered that fibres could be spun wool of excellent quality is shorn from
into yarns or even felted into fabric. lambs when eight months old.
i. Manufacturing process:
The earliest fragments of Once the raw wool reaches the mills,
wool fabric have been found in Egypt is has to pass through many processes
but Mesopotamia is the birth place of before it finally emerges as woolen cloth.
wool. Sorting, Scouring, Carbonizing, Carding,
Spinning, Bleaching, Dyeing, Weaving,
Knitting and Finishing.
Wool can be sheared from the
living animal or pulled from the hide after a) Sorting: When the bales are
the animal has been slaughtered for its meat. opened, the fleece is graded. It may
Sheared wool is called Fleece or Clip wool be separated into sections such as
and wool taken from hides of slaughtered shoulders, sides etc.

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Wool
b) Scouring: The raw wool is washed in Reaction with : Most of alkalis

successive troughs of soapy alkaline Alkalis destroy the fibre
water of decreasing strength to Absorbency : Good
remove dirt and grease.
Reaction to : More heat affects the
c) Carbonizing: Straw, burrs and Sunlight fibre
other vegetable matters are removed Flame : Burns slowly in
by treatment with acid, heat and direct flame, but
pressure of rollers. self-extinguishing.
d) Carding: The wool is passed through Insects : Damaged by moths
machine rollers with sharp steel and carpet beetles.
wires which separated the fibre and Drying : Prolonged drying
mix them thoroughly. Dyeing : Absorbs acid and
e) Spinning: The mass of carded wool basic dyes readily.
is drawn out and twisted or spun
into woolen yarn which is a soft and iii. Uses:
fluffy thread. zzWoolen fabrics are used throughout
the world as warm fabrics and durable
ii. Properties: apparels.
Shape : Fibre contain scales zzThey are used in home furnishing as
Length : 3.75 cm stuffing in pillows/cushions.
Elongation : Good
Fibre luster : Fair ACTIVITY 1
Elasticity : Good Collect the fabrics made with natural
Stretch ability : Good fibres and prepare an album.
Flexibility : Good
Density : 1.30-1.32 g/cm3 ACTIVITY 2
Reaction with : Not affected Identifying different fabrics using flame
Acid test.

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4.2.2 Man-made fibres is pumped through the spinneret. It

emerges in strands which can be stretched
Man-made fibres are fibres made by man like warm taffy. The size of the fibre is
with combination of natural products determined by the size of the holes and the
along with chemicals. speed with which the fibre is withdrawn
from the spinneret. The fibres are cooled
A. Nylon by air blown across them. By drawing
Nylon was the first synthetic fibre. In 1928 process either filament or staple fibres are
the Dupont Company decided to establish prepared.
a fundamental research program. It was
ii. Properties:
noticed that when a glass rod was taken out
of one of the polyester stills the solution Shape : Shape is controlled
adhering to it stretched out into a solid by the manufacturer,
filament. The filament could be stretched filaments are uniform
ever further and it did not go back to its and long.
original length. This stimulated the group to Luster : Bright to Dull
concentrate on textile fibres. The term nylon Elastic : 100%
was chosen for the fibre and it was called Recovery
the Miracle fibre for several years. The first Elongation : Good
nylon was referred to as type 6, 6.
Resiliency : Good
Density : Good
Moisture : 8%
absorption
Dimensional : Excellent
stability
Acids : Resistance is poor
Alkalis : Good resistance
Nylon
Sunlight : Generally affects
i. Manufacturing process: Insects : Normally damages
Nylon 6, 6 is a linear condensation polymer To flame : Flammable
made from hexa methylene diamine
and adipic acid. Specific amounts of the
two chemicals are combined in solution iii. Uses:
to form nylon salt. The salt is purified, zzNylon is used in women’s stocking or
polymerized, extruded in ribbon form, hosiery.
and chipped into small flakes or pellets. zzIt is also used as material for
The polymer chips are melted producing socks, swimwear, shorts,
by heat in an autoclave and pumped to track pants, active wear, draperies
the spinneret. The hot syrupy solution and bedspreads.

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zzNylon is used for making fishing nets, strength of the polyester reinforces the
ropes, parachutes and tier cords. cotton fibres, which are weakened by the
zzNylon is used in cookware since it has finishing process.
a relatively high continuous service
temperature.
zzNylon is used for making plastic
machine parts as it is low cost and
long lasting.
zzIt is often commonly used in electronics
industry for its non-conductivity and
heat resistance.
Polyester
i. Manufacturing process:
Nylon Thread
zzPolyester is made by reacting a
Hosiery: used in shops for things such dihydric alcohol with a dicarboxylic
as socks, tights and stockings. acid.
Draperies: Cloth hanging or arranged zzAs the acid and alcohol are
in folds polymerized, they are extruded from
the polymerizing vessel in the form of
B. Polyester a ribbon.
Polyester is sometimes referred to as zzThe ribbon is cut into small chips;
the “workhose” fibre of the industry. the chips are diced and conveyed to
The filament form of the fibre has been a hopper from which they are fed to
said to be the most versatile fibre and melt spinning tank.
the staple form has been called the “big zzThe hot solution is forced through
mixer” because it can be blended with so spinnerets, and solidifies into fibre
many other fibres, contributing its good form on contact with cool air.
properties to the blend without destroying
zzIt is stretched while hot, the stretching
the desirable properties of the other fibre.
contributes strength to the fibre and
Its versatility in blending is one of the
controls elongation characteristics.
unique advantage of polyester. One of
the important physical changes has been zzThe greater the amount of molecular
that of changing from the standard round orientation obtained during this
shape to a trilobal cross-section that strengthening step, the stronger the
gives the fibre silk-like properties. The fibre and lower the elongation.

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ii. Properties: zzAn important use of polyester is for

surgical implants.
Shape : Controlled by
Manufactures.
Luster : Controlled from ACTIVITY 3
semi bright to dull Obtain a total of ten advertisement
Elastic : Varies and labels identifying ten different
Recovery polyester trademarks used in apparel,
Elongation : Varies by type home furnishings, automobiles tires,
Resiliency : excellent and industrial fabrics and list the
characteristics or properties of the
Density : 1.38 g/cm
fibre as advertised.
Moisture : very low
absorption
Dimensional : Excellent
stability
Resistance to : Strong acids destroy
acids fibre, weak acids
have little or no
effect.
Alkalis : moderate
Sunlight : resistance is
excellent Polyester
Insects : Excellent
To flame : will burn, but ACTIVITY 4
slowly and melting Collect pictures and samples of man-
fibres tend to drop madefibres.
off, preventing
further burning.
4.3 Simple Test For Fibre
Uses:
Identification
zzPolyester fibres have immediate
The burning test can be used to identify
consumer acceptance because of their
the group-cellouse protein, minerals
easy-care and wrinkle-free properties.
etc., to which the fibres belong. General
zzThey require no ironing, easy to
direction for the burning test.
launder and quick to dry.
i. Ravel out and test several yarns from
zzPolyesters are not only used as apparel
each side of the fabric to see if they
but also in industrial use items such as
have the same fibre content. Difference
laundry bags, calendar sheeting, press
in lustre twist and colour will indicate
covers, conveyor belts, fire hoses, fish
that there might be two or more kinds
netting, ropes and protective clothing.
of fibre in the fabric.

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ii. Hold the yarn horizontally with the

pair of tweezers or tongs. Feed the ACTIVITY 5
fibres slowly into the edge of the flame Collect few natural and man made
and observe what happens. Repeat this fibres and observe the burning
several times to check results. characteristic by flame test.
Burning characteristics of Fibres.

Fibres Cotton Silk Wool Nylon Polyester
Approaching Ignites upon Curls away Curls away Melts away Fuses, melts
flame contact, does from flame from flame from flame, and shrink
not shrink Shrink and away from
away fuses. flame
In flame Burns Burn slowly Burns slowly Burns slowly Burns
quickly and sputters with melting slowly and
continuous
to melt
Removed Continues Usually self- self- self- self-
from flame burning, extinguish extinguish extinguish extinguish
after glow
Odor Similar to Similar to Similar to Celery Chemical
burning burning hair burning hair odor
paper
Residue Light, Crushable Brittle, small Hard, tough, Hard, tough,
feathery bead, black black bead grey tan black or
ash grey in colour bead brown bead
in colour
4.4 Yarn Making various sizes and textures, and also vary
in other characteristics. Performance, end
Yarns play an important role in the use, and fabric care are affected by these
fabric manufacturing process . Yarn is yarn characteristics.
“a generic term for a continuous strand
of textile fibers, filaments, or material in 4.4.1 Yarn Twist
a form suitable for knitting, weaving, or
otherwise intertwining to form a textile Yarns are twisted to hold the fibres together.
fabric. Yarns are also used for products The number of twists per unit length is
such as sewing and embroidery thread, used to measure twist. Yarn twist can be
string, and rope. Yarns are produced in broadly divided by number of twists: none

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or very low, low, average, and high twist. Filament yarns are extruded yarns
Yarn twist impacts the yarn’s appearance, that are made of natural extruded fibres
fineness, strength, and absorption. or manufactured fibres extruded through
the spinneret. These yarns fibres can be
Directions Of Twist: broadly divided into:
Fibres can be twisted together in the 1. Monofilament yarn
clockwise or counter clockwise direction
2. Multifilament yarn
to form yarns. Yarns are twisted in the
clockwise direction for “S” twist, and Monofilament yarn is made from a
counter clockwise for “Z” twist. The “Z” single, relatively thicker filament fibre.
twist is employed in a majority of the spun Transparent sewing thread, metallic yarns,
yarns used for fabric construction. bare elastic, and fishing lines are examples
of monofilament yarns.
Multifilament yarn is made from multiple
filament fibres. Continuous filament fibre
length requires little or no twisting to hold
the multifilament yarn together.
Yarns are classified as simple, novelty and
textured yarns.
a) Simple Yarns
Directions Of Twist Simple yarns are characterized by uniform
size and regular surface. They can be
4.4.2 Classification Of Yarns broadly divided into single, ply, cord, and
rope yarns.
Classification of yarns based on fibre
length is used to broadly divide yarns i. Single yarn: This is the simplest type
into: – Spun yarns (made from short, of yarn. It is commonly produced by
staple fibres) – Filament yarns (made twisting together staple or filament
from continuous filament fibres) fibres.
Spun yarns are composed of short ii. Ply yarns: These are produced by
staple fibres, or long filament fibres that twisting two or more single yarns.
have been cut into short staple fibres. Each strand of single yarn is referred
Spun yarns may contain fibres of the same to as a ply. Thus, four single yarns
type or a blend of different fibres. The twisted together would form a four-
characteristics of spun yarn depend on ply yarn.
the amount of twist given to the fibres iii. Cord yarns: They are produced by
during spinning. A fairly high degree of twisting two or more ply yarns.
twist produces strong yarn, a low twist
iv. Rope yarns: They are produced by
produces softer, more lustrous yarn and a
twisting two or more cord yarns.
very tight twist produces crepe yarn.

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c) Textured Yarns
Textured yarns are made of fully drawn
filament fibres with a changed surface,
i shape and texture developed by using the
ii iv
iii new spinning techniques. There are two
main types of textured yarns: 1. Stretch
yarns 2. Bulk yarns.
Simple Yarns 4.5. Weaving

b) Novelty Yarns: Weaving is the process of making cloth
Novelty yarns, typically made of two or with two components, a warp, and a weft,
more stands, are produced to provide and can be done by very simple techniques
decorative surface effects. Based on the on a complicated loom.
purpose, each strand is referred to as base/ Preparing The Warp Yarns For
core, effect, or binder. Weaving
The base/core strand provides the Before their use on the loom, warp and
structure and strength. filling yarns must be prepared for weaving.
The effect strand creates decorative detail In preparation for weaving, each warp end
such as knots and loops. (yarn) must be threaded through its own
drop wire, heddle eye, and reed dent. The
The binder is used to tie the effect yarn to
Drop wire is a device that will stop the loom
the base yarn if binding is necessary.
if an end should break, the heddle eye is the
There is a wide variety of novelty opening in a heddle that carries the yarn,
yarns that are produced using different and the reed comb-like device that will push
techniques and types of fibres and strands. each filling yarn close against the completed
example: 1) Flake yarns, 2) Slub yarns, fabric.
3) Spot yarns, 4) Spiral yarns,
Placing the warp yarns on the loom is
5) Loop yarns, 6) Chenille yarns.
done either by drawing-in or by tying-
in. Heddle wires are held in frames called
harnesses. The number of harnesses
required for the loom is determined by
the weave.
Preparing The Filling Yarns For
Weaving
Yarn that is to be used for filling must be
packaged in some form that allows it to be
4 5 6 unwound easily for transport through the
1 2 3
shed is called a shuttle and is made up of a
Novelty Yarns

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wooden carrier into which a quill or pirn

Definition of important terms:
is placed.
• Weft: The horizontal yarns are called
weft yarns.
• Warp: Warp yarns run vertically the
length of the fabric, known as the
grain.
• Selvedge: The weft yarns are
wrapped around the warp yarns to
create an edge to the fabric, known
Warp Yarns & Weft Yarn as the Selvedge.
• Bias: The diagonal or cross grain of
Basic Weaving Operation – 4 basic steps
a woven fabric.
Primary Motions
• Grain: Runs the length of the fabric.
Once the filling yarns have been prepared
and the warp beam containing the sized
yarns is placed at the back of the loom. 4.5.1.
Classification Of Woven
The warp yarns are conveyed to a cylinder Fabrics
called the cloth beam which is in front. Basic/Simple Weaves
The loom goes through a series of motions Plain Weave: - It is the simplest weave.
Shedding: raising and lowering of warp Many fabrics that you commonly wear like
yarns by means of the harness to form mulmul dupattas, organdy and chiffon
shed, opening between warp yarns sarees are all plain weave. Each and every
through which weft yarn passes. weft yarn goes alternately under and over
Picking: inserting of weft yarn by the the warp yarns across the width of the
shuttle through the shed. fabric.
Beating up: packing the weft yarn into the Twill Weave :- This basic weave has a clear
cloth to make it compact. diagonal line on the face of the fabric.
The denim or jean fabric you wear is twill
Taking up: winding newly formed cloth
onto the cloth beam, Letting off: releasing weave. It is a very strong and durable
yarn from a warp beam. weave. It is therefore commonly used in
men’s suit and coat fabrics. Twill weave
fabrics show soil less quickly than plain
weave.
Satin Weave : This basic weave has a
beautiful shiny surface because of long
floats on the surface of the fabric. In the
satin weave warp yarns float over several
weft yarns before interlacing with a weft
yarn and so on.
Loom

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Basic Weaves given to a fabric to change its appearance”.

Finishes are applied to make fabric more be
smooth, shrink resistant, easy care, flame
resistant, etc. Finishes can be divided into
two types, general and functional.
Plain Twill Satin General Finishes or routine
Compound/Complex/Novelty finishes are identified as mechanical,
Weaves chemical or combination of the two. It is
a basic procedure in preparing fabrics for
1. Dobby Weave
consumer use.
2. Jacquard Weave
i. Scouring: Fabrics can be scoured by
3. Double Cloth & Double Weave immersing them in 2-4 percent of
4. Pique caustic soda (NaOH) with addition
of wetting agents and emulsifiers
5. Pile Fabrics
under heat to remove waxes, foreign
6. Surface Figure Weaves matter and discolouration.
ii. Bleaching: Bleaching is done to
fibres, yarns and fabrics to make
them white or prepare them for
dyeing and printing. It is a chemical
finish where sodium chloride or
hydrogen per oxide bleach is used
to bleach the fabrics. The chemical
for bleaching depends on the textile
Dobby Weave Double Weave
fibre. Cellulose fabrics such as
cotton can be bleached with sodium
hypochlorite whereas silk and wool
respond well to hydrogen peroxide.
Pile Fabrics Pique
4.6 Fabric Finishes

Fabrics which reach the consumer are
finished by one treatment or other. Except
for the white fabrics, colour is applied to
all the fabrics. “A finish is any treatment
Bleaching

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iii. Calendaring ( Pr e s s i n g ) :
Calendaring is also called pressing
done on cotton, wool, silk as well
as rayon. It is a mechanical process
where the fabric is fed between flat,
heated plates and pressed under heat
and pressure.
Embossing
Calendaring
iv. Heat Setting: Mostly thermoplastic
fibres are given heat setting finish
to produce fabrics with wrinkle Permanent Design -Pleats
resistant, good elastic recovery, and
give relative permanent design detail v. Tentering: Tentering is a
such as pleats, planned creases and mechanical finish where the fabric
surface embossing. The fibres are is held horizontally by each selvedge
exposed to a certain temperature between pins. There is a tenter
called the glass transition temperature frame which moves with a speed
(Tg temperature) where they are slightly higher than the speed with
shaped. If at any later period the fabric
which the chains holding the fabric
is exposed to temperature higher
are moving. This process,straightens
than Tg temperature the fabric may
the fabric which involves many
take a new shape. So fabrics should
finishing processes like mercerizing,
be laundered or dried under the
resin finishing and drying.
Tg temperature.

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the starch into the fabric and remove

excess solution. Thus a fabric with
additional stiffness and improved
luster is obtained.
Tentering
vi. Mercerization: Mercerization
is a chemical finish mostly done
on cotton fabrics. The fabric is
immersed in 16 – 27 percent of Sizing
sodium hydroxide and fed between
viii. Weighting: Weighting is a process
rollers for a specific period of time.
applied to silk fabrics. After removal
Then it is passed on a tendering
of gum i.e. degumming, the silk
frame to have specified dimensions.
fabric, becomes very soft. To make
At last it is washed and dried. This
the silk fabric heavy and stiff the
process causes the fabric to have
Federal Trade Commission ruled that
increased lustre, improves dying
silk fabric can be given stiffness by
characteristic and strength.
addition of 10% stannous chloride a
metallic salt. If this 10% exceeds very
high the silk fabric tends to crack
and split. Weighted silk has body and
density but they are not durable and
can be damaged by sunlight, air and
perspiration.
Unmercerized Mercerized
ix. Functional finishes are those which
vii. Sizing: Sizing is a process of stiffening alter, improve or change the behavior
materials to yarns or fabrics. Sizes or service characteristics of the fabric
is composed of starch or resin. and produce certain properties.
Starch is applied mostly to cellulose Example: A durable press fabric, a
fabrics to improve its luster and to water proof fabric.
add strength. Resin when applied
x. Water Proofing: Water Proof finishes
reacts with the fibre molecules and
are those that prevent water entering
chemical change occurs in the fibre.
the fabrics. These fabrics do not allow
Starch is applied to the fabric which
air also to enter and thus not suitable
then passes between rollers that pad
for wearing apparel. Earlier, rubber,

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oxidized oil or varnish were used to dissolved in water and salt is added to
waterproof fabrics. Modernfabrics control the absorption rate of the dye by the
are coated with synthetic polymers. fibre. Then the cloth which is to be dyed is
immersed. Direct dyed stuff have relatively
excellent light fastness and good colour
fastness to sunlight.
Example: Cotton
ii. Acid dyes:
When acidification is done on basic dyes,
acid dyes are formed. Acid dyes are used
on protein, acrylic and nylon fibres.
They have no affinity for cellulosic fibre
4.7 Dyeing and are not suitable for fibres which are
Dyeing is the substance which is fixed sensitive to weak acid solutions. They
more or less permanently on the fabric have excellent light fastness and some
which evokes colour. have good colour fastness to dry cleaning
and perspiration.
Types of Dyes
4.7.1. Examples: Nylon, Silk, Wool
Dyes are classified according to hue iii. Basic dyes:

produced chemical class, method of Basic or cationic dyes are excellent for
application and the types of fibres to which colouring acrylic fibres. They are mostly
they are applied. Some of the different used as “topping” colours to give brilliant
dyes include: colour effects of fabric. Because of the
variety of colour effects produced, it is
successfully used on modified nylon and
modified polyester.
Examples: Wool and Silk
iv. Vat dyes:
Vat dyes have excellent colour fastness
property and are suitable on all cellulosic
fibres and man-made fibres. It is
Dyes not suitable on protein fibres because of
the alkaline bath which will damage the
i. Direct dyes: fibres. There is a wide choice of vat dyes
Direct dyes colour the fabric directly in a and they withstand hard wear and are fast
single operation without any affixing agent. colours.
Direct dyes are water soluble and are applied Examples: Cotton
mostly to cellulosic fibres. These dyes are

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v. Reactive dyes: iii. Yarn dyeing: Yarns are dyed by three

methods namely, skein dyeing,
Reactive dyes are suitable for mostly all
package dyeing and beam dyeing.
fibres- cellulosic, wool, nylon, silk, acrylic,
Yarn dyeing is best way to adopt for
as well as blends. Bright colours with
large quantity dyeing.
excellent wash fastness &colour fastness
iv. Fabric dyeing: Fabric dyeing
are obtained. Color fastness to crocking is
consist of either piece dyeing the
excellent. Example: Cotton
fabric or printing followed by
Crocking: Crocking is tendency of a an after treatment to fix the dye.
fabric or paint to give off the colour Piece dyeing is nothing but most
when the surface is rubbed. solid colour fabrics are dyed after
the fabrics has been completed.
Fabrics made of cellulosic fibres,
4.7.2. Dyeing Methods
cotton, rayon and flax are most
There are four steps involved by which frequently piece dyed.
colour may be applied to textile materials.
i. Solutions: Pigments or dye stuffs can 4.8 Printing
be dispersed in the spinning solution
where the fibres are manufactured. Designs are applied on fabrics by means
Solution dyed yarn is highly resistant of printing. Printed fabrics are defined as
to UV fade and shade changes. Solution those that have been decorated by a motif,
dyed yarns are fully uniform in colour pattern or design applied to the fabric after
and typically do not vary from lot to it has already been constructed(Marjory
lot. They are colour fast, resistant to Joseph 1977). Printing can be done by
multiple washing and mild bleaching. two basic methods –Resist printing and
ii. Fibre dyeing: Fibres are dyed in their direct printing.
loose state where the fibres can be less
tangled and dyed thoroughly. Fibre 4.8.1. Resist printing
dyeing is expensive to produce. There Resist printing is done by preventing the
is better penetration of the dye into the dye to enter some specific portions of the
fibre which produces a higher degree fabric by some method.
of colour fastness on fabrics. Direct,
sulphur, vat and developed dyes are i. Tie and dye: Fabrics are made
used on cellulose fibres. into tiny puffs with some object
inside and tied with a waxed thread
wherever the dye has to be prevented.
The fabric is immersed in the dye
solution. If two or more colours are
desired the thread is removed and
the fabric re-tied. After drying the
object is removed. Other methods
Fibre dyeing of tie and dye includes holding the

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fabric and stitching it and pulling In some places it forms cracks and
the threads to draw the fabric to forms fine lines in the design. The
resist the dye from penetrating into fabric is later washed in boiling
the fabric called as Tritik. Tie and water to remove the wax.
dye fabrics are quiet popular in
apparel and home furnishing.
Tie and dye
ii. Batik: A resist method developed

by the Japanese involves wax as
the resist substance. A copper cup
called “tjanting” is attached to a
reed handle. The wax is taken in this
tjanting and applied in the design
areas, wherever necessary to resist
the dye. The fabric is immersed in
dye solution. The wax resists the Screen printing
dye from entering the fabric. iii. Screen printing: A Screen is made
by covering a frame with blotting
cloth of silk, metal or nylon filament
yarns. The fabric is covered with a
film and the design areas are cut out
of the film. Some areas of the mesh
are left open to allow the dyestuff to
pass through and print the fabric.
The frame is laid on the fabric, and
the dye is placed at one end of the
frame. A rubber knife moves the
Batik dye across the screen and forces
the dye through the open mesh of
the fabric. One screen is prepared
for each colour. Screen printing
is considered by many textile
authorities to be the newest method
of decorating fabrics.

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iv. Discharge printing: Discharge

4.8.2. Direct Printing
printing is used to print designs on
fabrics which has been previously Direct Printing is the method of applying
dyed. A reducing bleach is used colour directly on to the fabrics by one of
which removes the base dye and the following methods.
leaves a white pattern on a coloured
i. Roller Printing: Designs are
ground. Dark fabrics with white
engraved in metal rolls and arranged
designs such as polka dots are
around a main cylinder and locked
examples of discharge printing.
into place. Many rolls can be used.
A trough containing in the dye
solution along with a doctor blade
which scrapes of the excess dye
is placed for each roll. The large
cylinder is covered by a padded
blanket and a grey cloth is used on
top of the printing blanket. The cloth
to be printed is on the outer surface.
The layers move together, the rolls
take up the dye from the trough, print
on the cloth as it comes and goes
to the drying oven which sets the
colour on the fabric. Roller printing
Discharge printing has steadily increased during the
past decades for its quality prints
v. Stencil printing: Stencil Printing and unusual patterns produced.
was developed by the Japanese.
Designs are cut in stencil paper
which is coated with wax. The
stencil designs are placed on fabric
and colour is applied by sponge, air
brush or by spray gun. This method
is done on minimum fabrics like
scarves and similar products.
Roller Printing
Stencil Printing

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ii. Block Printing: Block made of

wood or metal are engraved with
designs. Each block prints only one
colour. The blocks are dipped in dye
solution. Only the raised portion in
the blocks picks up the dye and is
then pressed on the fabric, forcing
the dye to be printed on the surface.
Duplex Print
iv. Photographic Prints: Photographic
prints are made similar to that used
in making photograph. A negative
is placed on the fabric and light is
transmitted to it and the design is
developed. The fabric is washed
and the design is as permanent as a
photo.
Block Printing Photographic Prints
iii. Duplex Prints: Duplex print are v. Transfer Printing: Transfer printing
produced by modified direct roller involves heat and pressure. The dye
print equipment. The design is made in the desired design, is first printed
by a machine, which is set up to print onto a special paper. The paper is
on both the face and back of the laid on the fabric and the design is
fabric. transferred by sublimation. The dye

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is changed from solid state on the of fabric together before a permanent

paper to vapor and again changes to stitch in made. Usually the stitch is worked
solid and fixes on the fabric. The heat from right to left, starting with a knot in
sets the colour on the fabric. Transfer contrasting colour thread, so that it can be
printing is suitable for nylon and easily removed.
some acrylic fabrics. i. Even Tacking: Secure the thread with a
knot on the wrong side or several firm
small stitches at the end of the seam.
Make the running stitches ¼ long,
where the stitch is the same length
on the right and wrong sides. Even
Transfer Printing Tacking is used where there is strain
while stitching bodice seams and also
ACTIVITY 6 as a guideline for stitching intricate top
stitched details.
Decorate a plain woven white fabric
ii. Uneven Taking: In this, the stitches on
by each of any three methods of
the upper side is ½ or at least twice that
printing or dyeing with household
on the underside ( ¼ ) . This stitches
dyes.
can be used for longer folds and seams.
This is comparatively stronger than
4.9 Basic Stitches even tacking. Use this type tacking as a
guideline or where there is little or no
Basic Stitches are the fundamental stitches strain.
which have to be learnt before doing iii. Diagonal Tacking: While attaching
actual sewing. It is necessary to learn basic two or more layer of fabrics this type
stitches to do temporary and permanent of stitch is made about ¼” apart before
stitching. making machine stitch. Work stitches
through the material at right angles
4.9.1 Temporary Stitches to the fabric edge so that a diagonal
or slanting is made on the upper side
Tacking or basting is a temporary stitch and a vertical stitch is made on the
used for holding two or more layers underside.
Classification of basic stitches
Temporary Stitches Permanent Stitches
Even Tacking Running stitches

Uneven Tacking Back stitch
Diagonal Tacking Hem stitch
Tailor’s Tacking Whipping stitch

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Even Tacking Uneven Tacking
Tailor Tacking Tailor Tacking

over pattern Diagonal Tacking
Temporary Stitches
iv. Tailor’s Tacking: Start tacking using

double thread of contrasting colour,
so that they can be easily seen. Tack
through double layer of fabric along
the seam lines using even stitches
of ½ ” length apart, leave them as Running Stitch
loop without pulling it tight. So that ii. Back Stitch: The back stitch is
the thread tuft, will remain on both strong and sometimes substituted for
the layers of fabric and remain as a machine stitch. It takes much time.
guide line. This is especially used for Care must be taken while stitching,
marking details between patterns such since stitching is done on the right
as dart markings and pleat markings. side of the fabric. On the back side of
the fabric the stitch is similar to stem
4.9.2 Permanent Stitches: stitch. Stitches should be about 1/8”
long on the right side. Repeat this way,
i. Running Stitch: This is the simplest keeping stitches uniform in size and
form of the hand stitch which is fairly firm.
used for permanent sewing stitched
using same colour thread used to
make seams, darning, gathering and
finishing. It is similar to even tacking,
much smaller, straight, fine and evenly
spacious, easy and can be worked fast.
Back Stitch

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iii. Hem Stitch: This is used to finish

Case Study 1
the raw edge of the garment usually
referred as the hem. Hemming must Karthick was in a great hurry in the
be fine, evenly spaced and must be morning to go to school on time.
inconspicuous from the right side Unexpectedly he tore his school pants
of the garment. Start the hem with a while he was trying to wear it. How will
tiny knot and finish with the same. you help Karthick and his mom to get
Hemming must be as invisible as the pant stitched and board the school
possible on the right side. Of the van on time?
garment do slanting stitch on wrong
side, close enough to hold the hem
4.10 Care And Maintenance
securely, picking one or two yarns of
Of Fabric
the fabric. Usually this stitch is seen in
all types of garments. The care of garments and other products
made of fabrics has always been a concern
of consumers. Such care is reflected in
economy, the household budget, service
ability, and appearance. There are certain
care procedures which consumers should
observe in order to get the greatest use and
Hemming Stitch satisfaction from textile products. Textile
products should not only be carefully
iv. Whipping stitch: This stitch is used to selected, they should also be given proper
finish raw edges, sleeves, collar of kid’s care throughout their service. This care
wear. The other name for this stitch includes (1) frequent brushing and
is overcasting. Whipping produces airing, (2) clean storage when not in use
slanting stitches taking stitches over (3) immediate mending when damaged by
the rolled fabric edge with needle in a tearing (4) stain removal before washing
straight position. The finished fabric or further use, (5) intelligent choice
gives continuous ‘X’ shape stitches. On of cleaning method - washing or dry
both the sides stitches appear similar cleaning, (6) frequent laundering when
in shape. the fabric is washable (7) proper method
of laundering for type of fabric (8) proper
ironing or pressing.
4.11 Stain Removal

Clothing can get stained with curry,
grease, blood, tea/coffee and ink spills.
It is very important that the stain is
removed while fresh, Most stains will
Whipping Stitch be totally removed because they would

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not have penetrated into the fabric. The iii. Drop Method: The reagent is put
stain removal should be systematic and on the stained cloth stretched over a
methodical. bowl with a dropper.
It should be remembered that many
dilute applications are better than one
concentrated treatment as strong chemicals
can damage the fabric.
Stains can be removed by the
following methods.
i. Dipping: The stained material is
dipped into the reagent. It is then
scrubbed to remove the stain and Drop Method
finally rinsed with water.
iv. Steaming: The stained area is
exposed to steam from boiling hot
water.
Dipping
ii. Sponging: The part of material from
which the stain has to be removed
is placed on blotting paper and the
reagent is applied with a sponge
on the stained area and scrubbed
gently.
Steaming
Simple tips to remove stain

from washable fabrics
zzAlcohol paints: Soak for 30 minutes
in strong ammonia solution and then
wash.
Sponging

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of textiles and clothing. These fibres

are obtained from naturally available
Blood Tea Orange Juice Grass sources like plants, animals and
minerals.
zz Man-made fibres are combination of
natural products and chemicals.
Grease Dyes Mud Coffee
Types of Stain zz All man-made fibres and synthetic
fibres are filaments, their length and
zzBlood: Soak in cold water till stain
thickness can be modified based on the
lightens then wash in warm soapy
end product.
water.
zz The burning test can be used to identify
zzDyes: Soak or wash in cold or
the group-cellouse protein, minerals
lukewarm water for 10 to 12 hours.
etc., to which the fibres belong.
Then wash, dry in the sun.
zz Finishes gives a high level of satisfaction
zzEgg: Sponge with cold water. Then
to the consumer in terms of looks,
wash in warm soap water.
texture, colour and suitability for dyeing,
zzGrass: Dip in Javelle water sodium printing etc.,
hypochlorite (Naclo) for 1 minute
zz Basic stitches are used as a foundation
then rinse in cold water.
prior to garment construction. These
zzGrease: Put soap on stain and soak in are used to enhance the functionality
cold water. and decoration of the garment. These
zzIodine: Hold over steam of boiling tea basic stitches are used as guidelines
kettle. while sewing.
zzInk: Rub in glycerine, rinse with cold zz Clothing can get stained with curry,
water or use absorbent powder. grease, blood, tea/coffee and ink spills.
zzLipstick: Rub in glycerine or vaseline. It is very important that you remove
Then wash with soap and water. that stain while fresh. The stain removal
should be systematic and methodical.
zzNail polish: Sponge with nail polish
remover or peroxide and rinse. G L O S S A RY
Case Study 2 zz Absorbency: Capable of absorbing
Michael is a mechanic. His clothes after heat, light, moisture etc.
gets stains with grease and paints. How zz Crease: A line or ridge produced on
will you help him to remove the stain. paper or cloth by folding, pressing, or
crushing.
zz Extrude : thrust or force out.
S U M M A RY
zz Tweezers : a small instrument like a
zz Natural fibres play a very important pair of pincers for plucking out hairs
role in the growth and development and picking up small objects.

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E VA L U AT I O N
I. Choose the correct answer c) Cellulose layer

1. Match the following: d) all the above
Fibres Titles 5. Cotton plant is
A) Cotton i) Manmade fibre a) Lengthy
B) Silk ii) Best friend b) shallow
C) Wool iii) King of fibre c) bushy
D) Polyester iv) Queen of Fibre
d) hard
Options: 6. The silk fibre is invented by
a) i, ii, iii, iv. a) Egyptian
b) iv, iii,ii,i. b) Japanese
c) iii,iv,ii,i c) Indian
d) ii, iv,iii,i. d) Chinese
2. Assertion, (A) Cotton is a natural 7. Stitches are made of equal lengths
fibre in
Reason (R) it is taken from plants. a) Even Tacking
Options: b) Uneven Tacking
a) Both A and R are true, R c) Diagonal Tacking
explains A. d) Tailor’s Tacking
b) Both A and R are true but R does 8. ______________ is used for holding
not explain A two or three layers of fabric before
c) Only A is true and R is false. sewing
d) A is false and R is true. a) Even Tacking
3. Pick out the odd stitch from the given. b) Uneven Tacking
a) Back stitch c) Diagonal Tacking
b) Hem stitch d) Tailor’s Tacking
c) Running stitch 9. ______________ is used to finish the
d) Even tacking raw edges of the fabric
4. Cotton is stronger when it is wet. This a) Back stitch

is because of b) Hem stitch
a) Crystalline fibre c) Whipping Stitch
b) hydrophilic in nature d) Machine stitch

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10. Polyester is referred as 7. Batik is done on the fabric to make it

a) dupont more attractive-Explain?
8. Define dyes Give two example of dyes?
b) work hose
9. Vat dyes are applied to cellulose and
c) cellulose acetate
man made fibres- Justify?
d) acrylic 10. What is block printing?
II. Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) 11. Care and maintenance of fabric is a
1. Name any two natural fibres? concern of consumers-Explain
2. Name the method of removing seeds 12. Why are direct dyes appllied to cotton?
from dried cotton. How is it done? IV. Write in detail (5 marks)
3. Is polyester man-made or natural? 1. Describe the manufacturing of silk
How is it made? fibre?
4. Name the process by which nylon is 2. Discuss the different types of direct
manufactured? printing methods?
5. Do you agree that permanent stitches 3. How can natural fibres be classified?
are used in stitching? If so what are Explain their sources.
they and where it is used? 4. What is the difference between man
6. Tacking makes the dress beautiful. made fibres and natural fibres?
How? 5. Do you prefer natural or synthetic
7. Name the fibre that is given weighting. fibres? Give reason for your
Why is it given to the fabrics? selection.
8. Give some uses of nylon fabrics. 6. Finishing is done on fabric to make the
9. Name the fibre which is made by product complete. Explain the various
combining two chemical and it is a finishing methods?
polymer. 7. A Mechanic’s clothes have lot of grease
III. Write Short Answers (3 marks) stain. What are the methods you would
suggest to remove those stains?
1. Cotton has multiuse in our daily life
Explain?
REFERENCES
2. Can Nylon be manufactured in
industry. Mention the raw materials 1. Marjory L. Joseph(1977) Introductory
used for Nylon fabric. Textile Science 3rd Edition, California
3. What are the uses of even tacking? State University, Northridge.
4. Name the strongest stitch among 2. PremlataMullick(1995) Textbook of
stitches and give reason. Home Science, Kalyani publishers,
5. Name the stitch used to cover the New Delhi, India.
edges. How is it done? 3. Bernard P. Corbman(1983)Textiles
6. Write a simple stain removal Fibre to Fabric, McGraw-Hill Book
procedure followed at home? Co, Singapore.

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ICT Corner
Textiles - Cotton
This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the fibre cotton.
It helps them understand about the cotton plant as well as the cotton fibre. It
contains more facts also
Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code. A
page opens with OPTIONS on the top. When you click the games it shows
four options. All worthy with many informations on cotton.
zzFor example if you click drag and drop the game will display .
zzA picture of the scientist will be there in the centre with the question at
the bottom and two option at either side of the scientist. When we drag
the scientist to the correct option it shows ‘reveal the answer’ when we
click that we can check whether the answer is correct or not. Then for next
question have to click “Next”
zzThree more options are True or False, Choose the best and quiz time. Try
all and enjoy.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5
URL:
h t t p : / / w w w. c o t t o n c a m p u s . o r g / C C - U S -
Environmental-Science/CC-Habitat/
UNIT 4 Textiles - Cotton 122

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UNIT
5 Housing and
Interior
Decoration
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the chapter, the student should be able to:
zz Describe the importance of house
zz Gain information on site selection and principles of organising rooms while

planning a house
zz Identify activities in the house and space allocation
zz Understand the elements and principles of design
zz Learn about colour and colour schemes
zz Know the types of floor decorations
123 Housing and Interior Decoration UNIT 5

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live and seek refuge from tensions

5.1 Introduction and worries of the outside
Housing is one of our basic needs. world.
Home is where our heart lies. Nowadays, 3. The house forms the centre of
the space in the home is of great importance family life. It is a place where family
because it is limited. Due to over population, members are bound together by
land has become very expensive. Therefore, love and affection and enjoy group
within less available space, many apartments living.
are constructed to accommodate many 4. The house provides space for group
families. When we purchase our homes, and individual activities for the
we need to consider many factors to ensure members of the family such as
safety and economy. We have a number of cooking, serving, washing, storage,
equipment, furniture, furnishings at home disposal of waste, recreation, reading
and they need to be properly organised and and hospitality.
arranged to provide maximum convenience
5. The house offers facilities for self-
and comfort. To lead a happy, satisfying
expression and a degree of freedom
life, our interiors must have pleasing
of action.
environment in terms of colour schemes,
furniture, furnishings and accessories. 6. A good house provides a healthy
environment for its members to
House is a shelter made of floors,
develop their personality, attitudes,
walls, windows, roof etc where family
values and a sense of security in
members live together and spend maximum
addition to rest and privacy.
part of their life. Housing, next to food and
clothing, satisfies one of the basic needs 7. An individual acquires customs,
of man. According to National Building traditions, habits and culture of the
Organization a house is defined as a pucca family only in the house.
or semi-pucca unit of dwelling that can 8. House is the place where some
accommodate an average household. Its family members who cannot support
importance is given below: themselves for reasons of sickness,
unemployment, old age, widow-
hood or other handicaps get shelter
and care.
5.1.1 Importance of house
9. Housing is the determining factor
1. The house protects the family members for the standard of living of a family
from excessive cold and heat, wind and and act as a status symbol of a
rain and from all external anti-social family.
elements. 10. Housing contributes to national
2. A house is a physical structure income, national wealth and national
consisting of walls, doors, windows, employment.
roofs, etc. in which human beings
UNIT 5 Housing and Interior Decoration 124

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5.1.2 Classification of residential building
Detached house Semi-detached Row of houses Apartments or Skyscrapers

house flats
This is an This is preferred These are multi-
independent house A common for low-income This consists of storeyed building.
surrounded by its boundary wall to group of families. three to seven This is common in
own land on all the form a structural These rows of storeys and each big cities where the
sides. barrier and divides houses, have a floor or storey may price of the land is
an independent common wall accommodate two very high.
plot into two units. between two or four tenements.
houses, with The land and other
This helps
minimum amenities are
in achieving
requirements such shared by all the
economy by
as living room, and occupants.
sharing expenses
kitchen.
on amenities such
as water lines,
drainage lines, and
electric cables.
Types of residential buildings
5.1.3 actors affecting choice

F A family in the expanding stage will
of house need a larger house than a family in the
beginning or contracting stage.
The following points should be kept zzPermanence of residence: There are
in mind while looking out for a house. two types of family in this regard.
zzPhysiological needs: The house should 1. Transient family - which has to
have adequate ventilation and proper move from place to place, because
orientation so that there is proper of occupational or other needs.
temperature balance, adequate fresh air
2. A Permanent family - which is
circulation and light.
reasonably sure of staying in the
zzPsychological needs: The house should same place for a long time. This
provide privacy and safety. factor should be considered while
zzFamily size: A large family with more making decision to rent or own a
than six members have to go for a larger house.
house than a small family with four zzCost of living: The cost of living in a
members. particular area should be taken into
zzFamily type: Families can be classified account while deciding on the locality
as nuclear, extended or joint families. of the house.
The size of the house will vary according zzCost of building: The financial status of
to the type of family. the family should be considered while
zzStage of family life cycle: The stage in selecting a house.
which the family is should be considered.

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5.1.4 Owning or renting a house
In general, many families feel that owning a house is far better than renting.
Owning: This is buying a house outright Renting: Rent is the compensation that
in order to secure it services. is paid to the owner, generally in terms
of money, by the user for the services of a
house, from month to month.
Advantages of Owning Advantages of Renting
1 People who own a house will Renting is cheaper.
feel secure and have a feeling of
belongingness.
2 Can develop long standing Can change the house according to the
friendship with neighbours. needs and income of the family.
3 Become a means of compulsory Money spent on buying the house can
saving. be invested in other business to get more
money returns.
4 Can stay in a house for a long period. No responsibility of maintaining the
property.
5 Changes or improvement in the Freedom of mobility.
house can be made whenever
needed.
6 Gives a feeling of happiness, pride Higher living standards can be achieved
and sense of security during old age.
7 Credit can be acquired easily. Can take advantage of different
occupational opportunities.
8 It is a good investment. Gives financial freedom.
9 Have tax benefits. The family will not get affected if the
property value decreases.
10 Better furniture and furnishing can No need to invest on furnishings and
be purchased. furniture as furnished house can be rented.
5.2 Site Selection

change one’s residence often. Hence it
Each family attempts to meet its becomes essential for each one of us to have
housing needs through the selection of adequate knowledge about selection of a site
a suitable dwelling unit. The house is and house planning. A site in a good locality
undoubtedly the largest single investment should be selected.
you will make in your life. One cannot

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iii. Sanitary Facilities

5.2.1 actors to be
F
considered while a) There should be no stagnant pools or
selecting a site for the water tanks and unused wells around
construction of a house the site.
b) The site should not be surrounded by
i. Physical Features public drainage and toilet.
a) The site should be regular in shape and c) The site should not be selected near
should have exact boundaries marked cattle sheds, poultry farm and factories
on the land. for health reasons.
b) A low lying ground is unhealthy d) Reclaimed land filled with debris
because it is capable of causing and refuse is unhealthy for building
dampness during rainy season and it purposes, as it will give out obnoxious
becomes a breeding place for flies and gases. During rainy season it becomes
mosquitoes. a good breeding place for flies and
c) The site should be on an elevated mosquitoes.
ground for drainage of water especially e) The site should have fresh air, ample
during rainy season. lighting and good water supply.
d) A site on an elevated ground gives f) A site in a busy locality may not be
wider and brighter view of the house. suitable for health reasons because
Site which faces South/North direction of dust and the constant smoke from
is preferable. vehicles.
g) A site with modern sanitary facilities is
ii. Soil Conditions the most suitable.
a) The best soil is one where soft soil is at
the surface and hard soil beneath 3 or iv. Practical Convenience
4 ft.
a) The value of the site depends upon the
b) A mixture of sand and gravel is good.
convenience available around it.
c) Rocky surfaces afford good foundation,
b) The site should be within easy reach
but poses difficulty while levelling
to school, market, bank, hospital or
or excavating the ground due to its
nursing home, railway station, bus
hardness. On rocky surface, laying
terminus and post office.
drainage pipe is very costly. Besides, it
is not suitable for growing plants.
v. Good Neighbourhood
d) Clay and sandy soils are unsuitable
a) The site should be selected near a
because clay surface holds water for a
developed area for safety.
long time and sandy soil absorbs water.
b) Good neighbourhood adds to the
permanent happiness of the family.

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c) The site in the neighbourhood of a sea zzThe living room can be north-east or
commands pleasant sea breeze. But south-east in its aspect.
one disadvantage is that sea breeze
carries with it a thin spray of salty ii. Prospect
water, which corrodes all iron articles. It is the impression that the house
creates on a person who views it from
vi. Legal Characteristics outside. It must be attractive in appearance,
a) The legal description of the plot and modern, cheerful and comfortable.
the exact location of the plot must be zzA beautiful window, carved pillars,
known. modern design on the walls and roof
b) The site should be a freehold land may add to the charm of the house.
without encumbrance.
c) A legal advisor should be consulted, iii. Privacy
the place surveyed and the boundaries Privacy is of two kinds-privacy of the
marked on. entire house from the road side; privacy of
each room from other rooms and from the
5.2.2 Principles of Organising entrance.
Rooms While Planning zzPrivacy from outside can be gained by
a House planting trees and growing creepers or
having a compound wall.
The principles to be considered for
zzPrivacy within the house can be obtained
organising rooms while planning a house
by proper arrangement of doors and
are aspect, prospect, privacy, grouping,
windows.
roominess, furniture requirements,
circulation, flexibility, sanitation and zzPrivacy to bedrooms, toilets, water
practical consideration. closets and dressing room is of utmost
importance.
i. Aspect
Aspect
Aspect is the arrangement of doors Praccal
consideraons Prospect
and windows on the outside walls of a house
which allows good breeze, sunshine and
a good view of the nature. Aspect is also Sanitaon Privacy
PRINCIPLES
needed from hygienic point of view. OF
ORGANISING A
HOUSE
zzWith careful placement of windows, it Flexibility Grouping
is possible to admit sun’s rays into any
desired room. Kitchen should face the
Circulaon Roominess
eastern side so that the morning sun’s
rays can purify air. Furniture
arrangement
zzBed rooms should have southern

aspect-either southeast or south west to Principles of organising rooms
facilitate enjoyment of good breeze. in a house

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iv. Grouping zzIt should provide privacy to the members

and not to disturb any member doing
It is the arrangement of rooms in the
his/her work in the room.
house in respect to their relative positions
and activities towards each other. zzStraight, short, direct passages must be
provided.
zzThe dining room close to the kitchen
and living room, the living room near zzCirculation can be achieved by proper
veranda, the toilet near bed room and placement of the doors, grouping of the
so on. rooms and furniture arrangement.
zzGrouping is based on convenience. viii. Flexibility

v. Roominess This means making use of a room
It is the spacious effect a room gives originally designed for one purpose, for
to those who live in. The available space different purposes at various occasions.
should be fully made use of. zzConverting a living room to a dining hall
zzOne can have built in wall cupboard, during function, a back veranda near
shelves and storage area so that the the kitchen can be used as play centre
floor of the room is left free for various for children, a dining room converted
activities. as child’s study centre or play centre are
examples.
zzThe space under the staircase, window
sill, area below the ceiling (attic/loft) zzScreens, cupboards, folding partitions
can be made use of for storage. may help to make a room flexible and
serve more than one purpose.
zzIn addition the size and shape of the
room, the furniture arrangement as ix. Sanitation
well as the colour scheme used, have a
bearing over the roominess of the house. It includes provision of light and
ventilation and attention to general
vi. Furniture Requirement cleanliness and sanitary conveniences.
The rooms must be planned with due zzThere should not be any room in a house
thought to the furniture to be placed there. without enough light.
zzThe type, the position, size and the zzVentilation must be adequate. It means
number must be planned earlier in supplying fresh air and evacuating
respect to the size and placement of polluted air.
doors, windows and built-in cupboards zzOpposite windows and doors as well as
in the room. ventilators must be provided for easy
movement of air.
vii. Circulation
zzSanitary conveniences as provision
The circulation from room to room
for drainage of waste water, disposal
must be good. Good circulation means
of refuse and human waste must be
independent entry to each living space
planned ahead.
through a common space.

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x. Practical Considerations Table 1 Activities In The House And

Space Allocation
One may have to take into
consideration, while planning the house, Household Space Allotted
the following practical points as strength, Activities
convenience, comfort, simplicity, beauty, 1. Sleeping Bed room
possibilities of extending the house in 2. Cooking food Kitchen
future and above all economy.
3. Eating meals Dining area
4. Washing clothes Laundry area/
bathroom
5.3 A
ctivities in the House 5. Washing utensils Kitchen
and Space Allocation
6. Studying Study room/
A number of activities are carried out Children’s room/
at home. Space is required to carry out these bed room/Dining
activities. Limited space is available for room
carrying out various activities within home. 7. Staying of guests Guest room
It is therefore essential to manage space 8. Bathing Bath room
for efficient household work. Some of the 9. Recreation Living room
household activities and space allocated for
them are as follows:
It is sometimes not possible to assign of separate area for these activities. Space
space for these activities. In small houses, a management therefore plays a vital role in
number of activities can be carried out in a carrying out different household activities
particular place for example: Bed room can efficiently.
be used as study or dressing room in absence
ACTIVITY 1
List the household activities your family members do in each room of your house.
S.No Living Bed Study Children’s Kitchen Bath Veranda
room room room room room
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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is a place for keeping shoes, walking sticks,

5.3.1 ffective Space
E
umbrellas and a place to store vehicles. It
Allocation in a House
provides place for business, the postman,
The house and its grounds can be the newspaper boy, milkman, and the
divided into three major areas based on the vendors to call on the family members at
various activities of the house. the entrance. It serves as a passage to other
rooms of the house. It protects the walls of
the house from the direct rays of the sun. It is
a place for pets and also a place for growing
Social or
public area plants.
The Back Veranda/ Balcony
Service or
work area It serves different functions such as
grinding, drying clothes etc. A veranda/
Rest or balcony facing south or west is comfortable.
private area
Living Room
Division of major areas in the house Living room is placed adjacent to

veranda. The living room should provide
1) Social or public area - The rooms place for many of the family activities as
allotted are, veranda, living room, reading, conversation, get together, indoor
reception, dining, music, reception games and light music. It is a place to receive
and games room. friends and also to hold social functions.
2) Service or work area - The rooms In a small house, it can serve as a study
allotted are kitchen, serving, laundry, room for children, sleeping area for one
drying yard, ironing room, garage, or two members. It can be a dining room
storage areas, office and study room. during special occasions. At times it can
3) Rest or private area - Bedroom, accommodate guests. Thus it may serve
dressing room, bathrooms, prayer multi various functions, depending upon
room etc. It is not possible to allot room the type of the family. A living room should
for each and every activity separately, express cordial welcome to the friends of the
but it is important to allot spaces for family. The furniture and furnishing that are
the more important ones. used in the living room must be comfortable
and suitable for the room. For example,
5.3.2 Rooms in the House Conversation - Sofa, chairs
Hospitality - Centre coffee table
The rooms in the house and various
activities carried out there are discussed in Reading - Table, chairs and
the following paragraphs: bookcase
Recreation - Radio and television
A veranda serves many purposes. It
cabinet, table and
is a place for stranger or a visitor to wait. It
chairs

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There should be enough wall space zzFurniture with sharp edges should be
for hanging pictures and for display of avoided in children’s room. The height
decorative articles. Flower arrangements of the furniture such as bed, chair, table
add beauty to the room. A shelf may be etc, should be low and it should be light
provided for art objects. weighted.
Bed Room zzThe storage cupboards should be low
in height for easy accessibility by the
A bed room is included under the
children.
private area of the house. It is used for
sleeping, relaxing and studying. It can Kitchen
provide place for dressing and storage Kitchen can be aptly described as
of clothes. An individual spends about the hub of the home. It is the nucleus of the
one third of her/his day in a bed room. house, a place where we cook food, store our
Therefore, it is important to plan the bed food, utensils and provisions. It can provide
room efficiently. Bed rooms should not be space for eating too. The comfort, health
located around the busy area of the house and happiness of the family mainly depends
such as kitchen. on the activities carried out in the kitchen.
A rectangular room is more Kitchen should well lit and ventilated and
convenient than a square one. Ventilation is should never be a suffocating chamber of
of utmost importance in bedroom. It should pungent smoke irritating the eyes, nose,
be on the side of the direction of prevailing and lungs of the housewife. Kitchen should
wind. The door of the bedroom should be have chimney/exhaust fan to exhaust smoke
located in such a way that when opened the and fumes out of the kitchen. The floor of
bed is not visible fully. Bathroom attached the kitchen should be selected properly so
to a bedroom would add to the convenience that it is easy to clean. It is very essential that
of the family members. Adequate storage one gives enough thought to the kitchen
space should be provided in the bedroom. arrangements.
Built-in cupboards for clothes and bed
i. Location: The best location will be
linen save space. A chest of drawers could
eastern or north-eastern corner of the
also be provided. A small table and a chair
house. This is helpful in having purified
may find a place to keep some of the books
air and also warmth in the morning
for light reading, table lamp, and flower
and coolness during the other part of
arrangements etc.
the day.
Children’s Room ii. Size and shape: For actual efficiency
As children grow up they need a the kitchen should be neither too small
separate room for studying, playing etc. nor too large. A rectangular kitchen is
children’s room should be planned wisely. step saving.
Bunk beds (beds one above the other) can iii. Activities and work centres: The
also be provided to save space. main activities in the kitchen are food
preparation, cooking and cleaning
of food items and equipment. The

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work area for these three activities two wall arrangements are suitable
should be carefully planned. The for small kitchens.
kitchen should have the preparation, zzCooking centre: The range with
cooking and washing centres the storage of utensils needed for
adjoining each other at comfortable cooking occupied an important
heights to form a triangle. This work place in the kitchen. A peg board
triangle ensures convenience and for frying pans and sauce pans, a
safety. holder for knives and spoons and
zzThe various shapes in which the all the food items and equipment
major work centres can be arranged must be placed within easy reach
are ‘U’ shaped, ‘L’ shaped, one wall in the cooking centre. The main
and parallel walls. The ideal shape appliance in this area is a gas
for the kitchen arrangement is burner or stove. The gas burner
‘U”. It consists of preparation and or stove is placed on top of the
cooking centres on either side and counter at an appropriate height
the cleaning centre in the middle. to carry out cooking.
This is a compact arrangement
zzWashing centre: Washing area
and labour saving too. In the
should be near the cooking area. It
‘L’ shaped kitchen arrangement of
should have proper arrangement
the work centres are placed on two
for water and proper drainage
adjoining walls. The one wall and
system. Storage cupboard for
L-Shape U Shape
One wall Kitchen types Two wall

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dishcloth and brushes can be hung Bathroom

in convenient place provided there.
The purpose of a bathroom is to
Sink should always be placed in
provide facilities for bathing, washing and
front of a window. Garbage pail
dressing too. The main bathroom should
should be kept near or under the
be in the ground floor not far away from
sink.
the main rooms. It can be attached to the
zzPreparation centre: Placement of bedroom for convenience. There should
a refrigerator in the preparation be good ventilation in the bathroom.
centre facilitates easy handling A window at the usual level with frosted
of vegetable, milk, egg and glass shutters, admitting light but keeping
fruits during preparation. The privacy, is good. Loft can be provided to
equipment like blenders, beaters, store things if necessary. Small built-in shelf
sifters, saucepans, measuring cups, may be used for keeping oil, soap, brush,
spoons, knives, and ladles should paste, etc. The flooring finish should be easy
be stored here. This area should to clean. It should never be slippery. The wall
have adequate electrical points to should have a polished surface to a height of
use various appliances. 90cms from the floor. There should be good
zzStorage facilities in the kitchen: drainage facilities for removal of waste water
Built-in cupboard or cupboard from the bathroom.
with drawers and rack can be Storage
provided. Care should be taken to
avoid insects. The wall area above Successful housing needs the
and below the counter should be provision of adequate storage facilities
fully used. throughout the various parts of the house.
Good storage facility with closed doors is
needed for the following reasons.
zzGives a neat and orderly background for
a family living.
zzAvoids unnecessary waste of time and
energy.
zzTo have easy access to things.
zzTo have maximum use of space allotted.
zzTo preserve and protect the things
against mice, flies, ants etc.
zzTo keep things away from dust, sunlight,
moisture, obnoxious gases and adverse
temperature.
zzTo prevent pilferages.
zzTo keep things out of reach of children.
Peg board

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Some of the things in the house that Interior decoration is a creative art
need to be stored are clothing, bedding, of adjusting the space and equipment to suit
food supplies, kitchen equipment, sports the fundamental and cultural needs of the
equipment, garden and yard tools, cleaning inhabitants. Use of colours and accessories
agents, cleaning equipment, books, is one of the key ways of decorating the
medicines, disinfectants and recreational house. Proper selection and arrangement
equipment. Provision for storage in a house of accessories and colours helps in interior
can be made in lofts, shelves and built in decoration of the house. Accessories such as
cupboards. curtains, lamps, carpets, upholstery, flower
The following points should be kept vases, potted plants and other art objects
in mind when planning storage. like statues etc. can be used in interior
1. Store materials and equipment near decoration. Designs in the art objects make
the place of work. them individualistic and beautiful.
2. Store materials at proper heights Design
to avoid unnecessary stooping and
Design is selecting and arranging
stretching.
of materials with two aims – order and
3. Arrange articles properly.
beauty. In which, the order denote structure
4. Group articles of similar nature
and beauty show character through the
together.
interpretation of an idea by an individual.
5. Label the items stored.
While creating the design in this way, the
designer express various ideas, moods and
5.4 Interior Decoration
values and such expressions evoke some
Decoration aims at beauty, response in the minds of the viewers.
functionalism and expressiveness. Beauty is Design can thus be defined as the selection
a quality which is pleasing to the eye and ear, and arrangement of elements of art such as
functionalism represent usefulness, whereas lines, form, colour and texture of an object
expressiveness indicate definite idea or or a drawing of it on a piece of paper. A good
theme. The ideas expressed in a house are design shows an orderly arrangement of the
warmth, coolness, sophistication, intimacy, materials and creates beauty in the finished
naturalness and delicacy. product.
A house constructed with floors, There are general characteristics
walls, and roof can be made to look found in beautiful art objects that establish
attractive and comfortable by decorating certain principles. Any piece of art that
its interior tastefully. When our home satisfies these principles is always admired
looks beautiful, we feel happy and satisfied. by all. One should have the knowledge of the
“A thing of beauty is a joy forever”. All of us principles fundamental to good taste. Based
enjoy beautiful things be it our possessions on this, one can identify and appreciate
or surroundings. One’s imagination, good beauty in art objects. Now let us deal with
taste and aesthetic sense are very much the elements of art.
needed to have a beautiful and functionally
useful interior.

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Design can be classified into two types.

DESIGN
Structural design Decorative design
Structural design is the design made by the Decorative design is the surface enrichment
size, form, colour and texture of an object. of a structural design. This adds luxury to a
Structural design is essential to every object. design.
Requirements of a good structural design Requirements of a good decorative design
1. It should be simple and beautiful. The decoration should be in moderation.
2. It should be suited to its purpose. It The decoration should be placed at structural
should strengthen the shape of the points. It should strengthen the shape of the object.
object.
3. It should be well proportioned. There should be enough background space to give
an effect of simplicity and dignity to the design.
4. It should be suited to the material of Surface patterns should cover the surface quality.
which it is made.
5. It should have originality. Designs, based on their source can be classified
into natural, geometric and abstract designs.
5.5 Elements of art width. Line is capable of communicating

emotion, movement, direction, growth and
Elements of art are parts of a work of
states of mind through its character.
art that can be defined. These elements are
the building blocks of a design. All art work Types of lines
is created by combining the elements of art
i. Horizontal lines: Horizontal lines
guided by principles of design. Elements
suggest a feeling of rest and repose. It
and principles of design are foundation of
also creates the effect of width as they
all visual matter.
carry eye from left to right or vice
The elements of art are as follows: versa and make objects appear broad
1. Line and fat.
2. Shape and form
3. Texture
4. Space
5. Colour
5.5.1 Line
Line is the basic element of art. It is

a series of points joined together in two- ii. Vertical lines: Vertical lines are
dimensional form. It has length but no associated with upright position

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of human body which signifies

alertness and stability. Vertical lines
communicate a sense of height. They
also suggest the feelings of strength,
regularity, loftiness, spirituality and
action. They move the gaze from top
to bottom or vice versa.
b) Deep acute curved lines: Deep

acute curved lines suggest
confusion, turbulence, even
frenzy.
iii. Diagonal lines: Diagonal lines

suggest a feeling of movement or
direction, restlessness and excitement.
They also suggest lack of stability.
Diagonal lines are associated with
running posture and signifies action
and movement.
5.5.2 Shape and forms
Shape is an area enclosed by lines.

Shapes are flat and generally considered two
dimensional. Basic shapes are rectangles,
iv. Curved lines: There are two types of
squares, triangles and circles. Form is the
curved lines.
organization of visual elements in three
a) Soft shallow curved lines: Soft dimensions. In addition to height / length
shallow curved lines suggest and width, form also has actual depth or
grace, joyful feelings, comfort, illusion of depth. Basic forms are spheres,
safety, familiarity and relaxation. cubes and cones.

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Types of shapes and forms

i. Naturalistic shapes/forms:
Naturalistic shapes or forms are
found in nature and are irregular or
asymmetrical forms such as mountains,
flowers. Man-made objects may also
imitate the naturalistic shapes.
5.5.3 Space
It is the area around, between, above,

below or within object. Space can be two-
dimensional as well as three dimensional.
Two dimensional space has only height and
width whereas three-dimensional space also
has a depth.
Implications of space
ii. Abstract shapes/forms: Abstract
zzLarge spaces without boundary give a
shapes of forms are stylized or
feeling of being exposed and lonely.
simplified versions of natural shapes/
forms. Abstract shapes are usually zzSmall spaces may lend a feeling of
used to convey meaning or identity protection and privacy.
without the use of written language.
zzSpace be judiciously used in design for
Many signs, icons and logos found in
best impact.
advertisements, posters use abstract
shapes and forms. zzToo much empty space is as bad as too
little space.
5.5.4 Texture
Texture refers to the tactile quality of

an object which may be felt by touch or may
be identified through visual examination.
The different kinds of texture are furry,
fuzzy, satiny, silky and rough. Texture helps
in adding beautification to the objects.
Textures are very important in designing
iii. Geometric shapes/ forms: These any artwork as it helps in creating emphasis
corresponds to mathematically shapes or unity between different components.
and forms such as circles, squares,
cubes, cylinders and cones etc.

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ROUGH MEDIUM SMOOTH
Texture can be of two types:

5.6 Principles of Design
1. Visual texture is what you see through
The principles are concepts used
sight.
to organize or arrange the structural
2. Actual/tactile texture is what you can elements of design. The principles of design
feel by you. help in determining whether an object is
aesthetically good or poor. They are just
Effects of texture guidelines in creating an effective art work
or design. The principles of design are as
1. Rough textures suggest informality.
follows.
2. Smooth textures suggest formality.
1. Balance
3. Textures are helpful to create emphasis, 2. Proportion
harmony or separation between parts 3. Rhythm
of a whole. 4. Emphasis
5. Harmony or unity
5.5.5 Colour
5.6.1 Balance
Colour is an important element of
art. It is defined as the impression formed Balance is equalization of attraction
on both sides of the centre. It is rest or
by the mind according to stimulations of the
repose. Balance is the fundamental principle
retina. Objects in the environment absorb
of design. Balance is the arrangement of
certain wavelengths of light and reflect
elements so that all is equalized. Visually all
back others, the reflected wavelengths enter the weight is equal and no part dominates
the eye, act upon the optic nerves cause completely. It is a way to compare the right
sensation of light and colour. Light waves and left side of a composition. The placement
with different wavelengths produce different of elements of design should be in such a
sensations and appear as different colours. way so as to make them look appealing on
a particular space. Balance can be of three
types:
a) Formal balance
b) Informal balance
Green Blue Orange Yellow c) Radial balance

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c) Radial Balance: Radial balance is

obtained by arranging elements
equally around a central/focal point.
Formal balance Informal balance

a) Formal balance: Symmetrical or
formal balance is referred to as when
sides of a composition from a centre/
focal point, are similar in visual weight 5.6.2 Proportion and scale
and almost mirror. Formal balance
Proportion is the feeling of unity
gives a sense of formality, stiffness,
created when all parts relate well with each
precision, exactness and carefulness. other. Proportion means the relationship of
sizes or areas to one another or to a whole.
The principle of proportion is sometimes
called ‘the law of relationships’.It also
refers to the relative size and scale of the
various elements in a design. Proportion is
achieved when the different sizes of objects
are successfully grouped in an arrangement
the elements making up the structure having
a pleasing relationship for the whole and to
one another. For example, a very small sofa
would be ‘out of scale’ in a very large room.
b) Informal balance: Informal balance
is achieved when both sides of a
composition from centre/focal point,
are dissimilar in visual weight and
also not mirrored. Informal balance
is more subtle, casual, dynamic, active
and suggest informality and flexibility.
REMEMBER
Scale refers to the size of an object.
Proportion is part of an object in relation
to whole.

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Greek oblong or Golden Oblong

refers to proportions of parts to one another 5.6.4 Emphasis
and to the whole. Golden section is a
Emphasis is the art principle by
standard of good proportion and divides
which the eye is carried first to the most
the space interestingly. This oblong uses the
important thing in any arrangement
ratio of 2:3 or 3:5 in case of flat surfaces and
and from that point to every other detail
5:7:11 in case of solids.
in order of importance. Emphasis is the
2 3 PARTS part of the design that catches the viewer’s
P attention. In a particular composition,
there are things which the artist wishes to
A
highlight and these things should dominate,
R whereas there are other things which play
T just a supportive role and hence should not
S be emphasized. By emphasis one can stress
important parts of an artwork.
5.6.3 Rhythm
Rhythm is organized movement

in continuity. It is one of the fundamental
principles in any design. Rhythm is created
when one or more elements such as colours,
shapes, forms and size are used repeatedly
to create a feeling of organized movement.
Variety is essential to keep rhythm exciting
and active and moving the viewer around
the artwork. If a piece has a rhythm the work
should flow freely without interruption.
Rhythm can be achieved through four
Emphasis can be created by various
ways. They are continuous line, repetition,
ways.
progression of sizes/gradation and
radiation. zzIt can be done by using different colour,
size, texture and shape.
zzAnother way of creating emphasis is by
the use of decoration, contrasting colour,
by grouping objects, by placing things
with sufficient space as background.
zzEmphasis can also be created by making
a focal point.

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5.6.5 Harmony or unity When white light falls on an opaque

object, selective absorption occurs. The
Harmony is the fundamental surface of the object absorbs certain
requirement of any piece of work. It means wavelengths of light and reflects others. Our
a single idea or impression. All objects eyes pick up the colour of the reflected light
in a group have a ‘family resemblance or as the colour of the object. Pigmentation of
friendliness’. Unity is the feeling of harmony a surface determines which wavelengths or
between all parts of the artwork creating a bands of light are to be absorbed and which
sense of completeness. It is used to create a are reflected as object colour. For example,
feeling of completeness where everything a red surface appears red because it absorbs
flows together. According to Goldstein
most of the blue and green light falling on
and Goldstein V., Harmony is the art
it and reflects the red part of the spectrum,
principle which produces a feeling of unity
similarly, a black surface absorbs the entire
through the selection and arrangement of
spectrum, and white surface reflects all of
consistent objects and ideas. One element
it. This distribution of colour in light rays is
should merge with another in terms of
reflected as a rainbow on a rainy day when
line, shape, form, colour, idea, texture etc.
the light ray passes through a water droplet,
Unity can be achieved through the effective
and consistent use of above mentioned which acts as a prism.
elements. Pattern is the most fundamental
element for a strong sense of unity. 5.7.1 Dimensions of colour
There are three properties or qualities

which may be called the dimension of
colour, and which are just as distinct from
one another as the length, breadth, and
thickness of an object. All three of these
dimensions-hue, value and intensity-are
present in every colour, just as every object
has length and breadth and thickness.
These colour dimensions are Hue,
Value, and Intensity or chroma.
5.7 Colour and Colour

Schemes Hue
Colour is an inherent visual property

of all forms. It is an essential part of our Value
environmental settings. The colours we
attribute to objects, however, find their Intensity
source in the light that illuminates and
reveals form and space. Without light,
colour does not exist.

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DIMENSIONS OF COLOUR
HUE VALUE INTENSITY / CHROMA
zzHue refers to the name zzIt indicates the lightness zzIt refers to the brightness
of the colour such as or darkness of a colour or dullness of a colour.
red, yellow and blue in relation to white or zzIt also refers to the
and it describe the black. degree of purity or
kind of colour and also zzLight values are called saturation of a colour
represents the difference tints and dark values are with respect to grey.
between the colours. called shades. zzIt can be said it is the
zzThe hues or colours zzTints are made by property describing the
can be divided into addition of white and distance of the colour
warm and cool colours. shades are made by from grey or neutrality
The colours that have addition of black. line. e.g as in the case
more of yellow, red are of the lemon which is
zzThe lightness and
considered to be warm brighter than the banana
heaviness are given by
colours as they represent though both of them are
the use of the different
the colours of fire, sun of the same colour.
colours.
and heat.
zzRed and yellow seem zzA colour in its purest
zzThe colours which to be heavy colours form has the greatest
have more of blue are brilliance or intensity.
while blue or purple are
considered to be cool considered to be light zzAdding more of
colours as they represent colours. hue strengthens the
the sky and water.
zzHeavy colours are used intensity, adding grey or
zzWarm colours make the at the lower part of the complementary colour
objects appear bigger lowers it. Hues that are
room and light colours
and closer where as cool neutralized or greyed are
are used on the upper
colours make the objects called tones.
side of the room.
appear smaller and far
zzLight values increase zzWarm colours like
away.
the size of the rooms/ yellow, orange and red
zzWarm colours are objects and dark values with high intensities
cheerful and stimulating are stimulating, visually
reduce the size.
where as cool colours are active and therefore
calm and restful. should be used in small
zzAdvancing colours such areas.
as yellow, red are those zzCool colours like blue,
that tend to advance purple and green with
towards one by reducing low intensities are
the distance. subdued and relaxing,
zzThe advanced colours can be enjoyed in large
make the room smaller. areas.
zzReceding colours are
those that tend to recede
or go back by increasing
distance and make the
room larger.

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use of pigment. They are the only hues

Case Study in pigment that cannot be obtained by
1. Sharmila’s study room looks mixing other hues.
YELLOW
small. The walls are painted with YELLOW YELLOW
GREEN ORANGE
dark purple colour paint. What
GREEN ORANGE
change can she do to make that
room look bigger? SECONDARY
COLOUR
PRANG
2. In Raji’s house, the living room
ORANGE
COLOUR
GREEN
RED
BLUE
is too narrow and long. How WHEEL
can she make the room to look PRIMARY
approximately square? COLOUR
BLUE RED
Answers BLUE
PURPLE
RED
PURPLE
PURPLE
1. The walls can be painted with
light colours as they give the
2. Secondary colours: When two
feeling of spaciousness e.g banana
primary colours are mixed in equal
yellow, light pink etc.
proportions, we get secondary colours.
2. The two narrow walls in the
living room can be painted with
light value colours to make them
recede/go back, while other two
walls can be painted with full
bright intensities to advance. GREEN ORANGE
Thereby making the room look
like a square room.
5.7.2 lassification of
C
colours-Prang VIOLET
colour chart
In the Prang System, colours may be

divided into five classes: Primary, secondary, Yellow + Blue = Green.
intermediate, tertiary and quaternary. Blue + Red = Violet or Purple.
Red + Yellow = Orange
1. Primary colours: All colours may
be obtained by mixing in various The primary and secondary
proportions three fundamental hues: colours together are called basic
red (R), Yellow (Y), and blue (B). These colours.
are called the three primary colours,
because they are the elements in the

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3. Intermediate Colours: When Orange + Violet = Grey Red or

a primary and an adjacent Old brick Red.
secondary colour is mixed an Green + Violet = Grey Blue or
intermediate colour is produced. Slate Blue.
There are six intermediate colours.
They are 5. Quaternary Colours: When two
tertiary colours are mixed a quaternary
Yellow + Green = Yellow Green.
colour is produced. There are three
Blue + Green = Blue Green. quaternary colours. They are
Blue + Violet = Blue Violet Smoky Yellow + Old Brick Red=
Red + Violet = Red Violet Grey Orange or Buff.
Red + Orange = Red Orange Smoky Yellow + Slate Blue = Grey

Green or Olive Green
Yellow + Orange = Yellow
Orange. Old Brick Red + Slate Blue = Grey
Violet or Prune.
The three primary colours,
three secondary colours and six
intermediate colours form the ACTIVITY 2
outer circle of the Prang colour
Take red colour pencil and yellow
chart.
colour pencil and fill up the circles.
In the third circle apply both red
and yellow colours at the same time
yellow
yellow-green yellow-orange
in equal proportion and see the
colour change. For the second one,
green orange take red and blue colour pencils and
apply simultaneously in the third
circle.(Answer: Refer Classification
blue-green orange-red
of colours-Prang colour chart-
Secondary colours)
blue red
1. Red + Yellow = ?
blue-violet red-violet
violet
+ =
4. Tertiary Colours: When two
secondary colours are mixed a tertiary
colour is produced.
2. Red + Blue = ?
There are three tertiary colours.
They are
+ =
Green + Orange = Grey Yellow
or Smoky Yellow.

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The three tertiary and three d) It results in less vibrant colour

quaternary colours form the inner circle scheme compared to other
of the prang colour chart. Grey colour harmonies.
is in the centre of the Prang colour
chart.
5.7.3 Colour Harmonies/
Schemes
Harmony can
be defined as a pleasing
arrangement of various
parts in to a complete
one. In visual experiences,
harmony is something that is pleasing to
the eye. It engages the viewer and it creates
an inner sense of order, a balance in the
visual experience. Colour harmony delivers
visual interest and a sense of order. Colour
ii. Analogous colour harmony:
combination or colour harmonies can be
classified into related and contrasting colour a) In this colour scheme the colours
harmonies. which are lying adjacent to each
other in the prang colour chart
1. Related colour harmony: They are are used.
obtained by using colours which b) They provide interesting variety
are similar. They are classified into than monochromatic harmony.
monochromatic and analogous
colour harmony.
i. Monochromatic colour
harmony:
a) This is also known as one hue
colour harmony. It involves use
of tints, shades and tones of the
same hue. Example: yellow.
b) In a monochromatic colour
scheme, charming effects can
be obtained through contrast in
textures of the materials used.
c) Neutral colours such as white,
black and grey can be integrated Yellow, yellow green and green Orange.
into the colour scheme. Yellow orange, yellow

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c) The colours should be of different

intensities and values. Examples:
Red, Red Orange, Orange.
d) One colour is used as dominant
while others are used to enrich
the scheme.
e) It is used widely in creating art
work.
2. Contrasting colour harmonies:
Contrasting colour schemes are based
on opposing colours and tend to be
stimulating and balanced because they
include both warm and cool colours.
i. Complementary colour scheme: Red, red orange, blue green and green
a) Two colours that are directly ii. Double complementary colour
opposite in the Prang colour harmony:
chart are combined. Example:
a) Two adjacent colours and
Yellow and Violet, Blue and
their opposite colours in
Orange.
the Prang colour chart are
b) In this colour scheme, one colour
combined. For example: Yellow,
should be dominant, other colour
Yellow Green, Violet and Red
should be used as the subordinate
Violet.
colour.
b) In this colour scheme, one colour
c) This scheme makes use of one
warm and one cool colour. should be dominant, other
colours should be used as the
d) High degree of contrast in this
subordinate colours.
scheme makes it striking drawing
maximum attention. c) Attention should be given to
balance between warm and cool
colours.
iii. Split complementary colour
harmony:
a) In this scheme, one dominant
colour and two subordinate
colours that lie on either side of
its complementary colour are
combined. For example: Yellow,
Blue Purple and Red Purple.
b) Due to the contrast, this colour
Blue and orange scheme is attention seeking.

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d) We get four triads namely

primary, secondary and two
intermediate triads.
Primary Triad - Yellow, Blue and
Red.
Secondary Triad - Green, Orange
and Violet.
Intermediate Triad
a) lue Green, Red Purple and
B
Yellow Orange
b) ellow Green, Blue Purple and
Y
Red Orange.
Orange, purple and blue green
3. Triad colour harmony:

ACTIVITY 3
a) In this, three colours which are
at equal distance in the Prang Match the following
colour chart are combined. 1. Analogous three colours
b) It is a rich colour scheme which which are at
offers plenty of possibilities for equal distance
variations. 2. Monochromatic Directly
opposite hues
c) Utmost care is required to
3. Complementary Hues lying
balance the colours in a pleasing
adjacent
triadic colour harmony.
4. Double one dominant
complementary colour and two
subordinate
colours either
side of its
complementary
colour
5. Split Two adjacent
complementary colours and
their opposite
colours
6. Triad Four hues
equidistant
Secondary Triad - Green, Orange and
Violet 7. Tetrad One hue

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zzColours of other existing furniture and

furnishings in the house.
zzOnly one colour should dominate.
zzThe basic colour should occupy at
least 60-70% of the whole colour
scheme. Second hue should be used
in lesser quantity and if a third colour
is used, it should be used in least
quantity.
zzFollow ‘Law of areas’ that is, larger the
Green, Yellow Orange, Red and Blue Purple area lighter the colour and smaller the
area brighter the colour.
4. Tetrad colour harmony: zzThe current trends and fashions.
a) This is formed by any four hues
equidistant on the Prang colour 5.8 Flower Arrangement
chart. Example: Green, Yellow Flowers are nature’s gift to mankind.
Orange, Red and Blue Purple. Flowers are artistically arranged along
b) It works best if one colour is with other plant materials in receptacles
dominant and organized into compositions having
c) Attention is to be paid to the harmony of form, texture and colour.
balance between warm and cool Flowers brightens up any room in the house
colours in the design. and provide variety and interest. Flower
arrangements are used at various locations
5.7.4 actors to be
F such as tables, window sills, walls and
considered while corners to suit the space and occasions.
planning colour scheme
5.8.1 aterials used in flower
M
The following points must be taken arrangement
into consideration while planning colour
scheme for the interiors. There are three basic materials are
zzThe expected effect in size, shape and needed for creating flower arrangements:
direction of the room. 1. Flowers, foliage, fruits and berries
zzThe mood to be created in the room. 2. Vases/containers
Example: Masculine, feminine, 3. Stem holders, knife, scissors and wire
traditional, formal, etc.
1. F
lowers, foliage, fruits and
zzIndividual preference of the family
berries:
members.
zzThe activities to be carried out in each Any kind of flowers, foliage, fresh,
room. dry or artificial ones can be used in this art.

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Selection and preservation of to the flower arrangement. It should be of

flowers the right size, shape, colour and material.
1. Flowers should be collected either Types of vases or containers
early morning or evening. zzJars, attractive bottles, tins.
2. Select buds or flowers just blossoming zzTall cylinders, narrow necked vases,
than flowers in full bloom. These flat round dishes, deep trays, low round
flowers are liable to shed their petals bowls.
or droop and wither fast in a short
zzBottles of different colours.
period.
zzBlock of wood or bamboo baskets.
3. The stems should not be broken with
the hand. It should be cut with scissors zzHousehold pots, vessels, tumblers,
or a sharp knife. The stem should be as shallow dishes.
long as possible. 3. Flower Holder
4. The cut portion of the stem should
A flower holder is one which has sharp
be immersed in water. Only the
spikes upon which the stems can be firmly
petals of the flowers should be
placed. This is known as pin type holder.
exposed.
Other than this we also have crumpled
5. The leaves close to the base of the stem wire, split twigs etc. Flower holders must be
should be removed. strong and flexible, so that any type of stem
6. The flowers should be wrapped either can be easily fixed.
in a piece of paper or a broad leaf, such It should also be rust proof. Pin
as the banana leaf, above the stem ends holders can be fixed to the bottom by clay
and stored in dark corner of a room or candle. This fixing must be done when
in a bucket of water, to protect them the vase as well as the holders are dry. Large
from sunlight. If they are not going flowers and foliage can be arranged at the
to be used soon, polythene covers bottom so that the holders are concealed.
may also be used to cover the cut Oasis is a trademarked name for wet floral
flowers. foam, the spongy phenolic foam used for
7. The container or the vase should be real flower arranging. It soaks up water like
filled with warm water. The water a sponge and acts both as a preservative to
should be changed every day. Add prolong the life of the flowers and a support
sugar or salt to enable the flower to to hold them in place.
last.
2. S
election of Vases/ 5.8.2 tyles in flower
S
Containers arrangement
The main function of the vases or 1. The traditional style: Where a mass
container is to support the flowers and of flowers of all kinds, colours and
foliage. The container should be subordinate size are used together. This produces a
multi-coloured mass effect.

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2. Oriental style: This is Japanese mode arrangement: 1) rikka (standing

of flower arrangement. Ikebana which flowers); 2) nagarie (throw
means «living flowers» is the Japanese in); 3) moribana (piled-up);
art of flower arrangement. Ikebana and shokai (living flowers).
can be divided into two styles - the 3. The modern style: A combination of
moribana shallow vase style and the traditional and oriental style.
nageire tall vase style. It gives an
4. Floating arrangement: This
impression of a natural growing plant.
arrangement can be made in
The stems are so arranged that their
shallow bowls and trays with short
lines form an attractive pattern. The
stemmed flowers. The largest, highest
flowers are placed in such a way so as
and most attractive flower can be
to produce balance. The flowers are
allowed to float in the centre and
always in odd numbers, three, five,
others grouped around. Flowers
seven or eleven.The Japanese oriental
should not completely cover up
style usually follows three principles
the water.
at different levels. The highest level
signifies heaven (shin), the middle Points to be considered while
refers to the man (soe) and lowest arranging flowers
indicates the earth (hikae). 1. Have an idea about the arrangement.
zzHeaven- 1 ½ times to 2 times the 2. Arrange the flowers first and then fill
height or width of the vase. up with leaves and twigs.
zzMan - 3/4th the height of heaven. 3. Have big bright flowers at the bottom
zzEarth - 1/2 the height of man. and small light coloured flowers on
The arrangement of these higher levels.
branches and the kenzan or spiked 4. Work from centre and then deviate
metal holder are drawn in a simple from that to one points in the
diagram, called a kakeizu. Today arrangement.
there are four main styles of flower
15
Frontal
45 View
75
90
Shin
Soe
hikae
Overhead Kenzan
View
Ikebana KakeizuMoribana (piled-up flowers)

Source: Sogetsukai Foundation

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5. Fill the flower vase with enough water Combination arrangement: A

to dip the stem ends. combination of line and mass arrangement
6. Sprinkle salt, sugar or suitable gives rise to geometric shapes as cone,
preservative to keep up the freshness crescent, circle, triangle, ‘L’ shape and so on.
of flower for long. Foliage arrangement: Arrangements
7. Display the flower arrangement using leaves or branches of plants are foliage
beautifully in a place to be seen arrangements, (e.g.) ferns, crotons, cannas,
and enjoyed. Select suitable cactus, weeds can also be arranged effectively
accessories to go in with the with a touch of imagination.
arrangement. Miniature arrangement: They are
8. All the principles of design should be small arrangements usually within four
followed for pleasing effects. inches in height arranged in small containers
like egg shell, small bottles, lids, etc.
5.8.3 Types of Flower Dry Arrangement: These are

Arrangements particularly useful during rainy season when
there are very few flowers, Dry arrangements
Mass Arrangement: A group of with fruits, vegetables, seed pods, bare
flowers of all kinds, colours, size and textures branches, flower plumes of tall grasses,
are combined in a container. Usually sugar cane, roots, stems of money plant, a
decorative container is used. small dead tree, the clustering, especially
Line arrangement: This arrangement peacock feathers if well-arranged presents
is simple, meaningful, beautiful and a unique appearance and are suitable for
informal. This arrangement gives an interior decoration. Dry arrangements with
impression of natural, free growing plant. wood can be painted in silver, white or gold
Odd numbers of flowers are used at various for variation in style.
levels.
Arrangement of Flowers
Mass arrangement Line arrangement L-shape arrangement Crescent arrangement Foliage arrangement
Miniature arrangement Dry arrangement

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zzRangoli: Coloured dry powder which

5.9 Floor Decorations are usually made from kolam powders
Floor decorations are essential part are used. They are mixed with either
of the rich heritage of Indian culture and sand or salt.
imparts colour, joy, and happiness. The zzAlpana: Alpana is a traditional art
various types of floor decorations are: where the design is painted with white
zzKolam: Kolam is a free hand drawing of paint. Usually zinc oxide and gum are
various designs. It can be either dotted or mixed to keep it for a longer duration.
in various designs. For drawing kolams, zzFlower Carpet: Different coloured
either white stone or chalk powder, flowers, petals and leaves are arranged
enamel paint, white or coloured salt, over the design. Wet sand may be evenly
sand or powders and solutions prepared spread beneath the flower carpet to have
by mixing rice flour and water is used. a raised effect.
Red mud solution is used as painting
to give added brightness. In rural areas,
people spray cow dung mixed with
water as base on floors before putting
Kolam.
1 3
2 4

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S U M M A RY z Shape is an area enclosed by lines.

Shapes are flat and generally considered
z House is a shelter made of floors,
two dimensional. Basic shapes are
walls, windows, roof etc where family
rectangles, squares, triangles and circles.
members live together and spend
maximum part of their life. z Form is the organization of visual
elements in three dimensions. In
z The residential buildings may broadly
addition to height/ length and width,
be classified into five categories
form also has actual depth or illusion
– namely detached houses, semi-
of depth. Basic forms are spheres,
detached houses, row houses,
cubes and cones.
apartments and sky scrapers.
z Texture refers to the tactile quality of
z While selecting a site for the
an object which may be felt by touch
construction of a house the factors
or may be identified through visual
such as physical features, soil
examination.
conditions, sanitary facilities, practical
convenience, good neighbourhood z The principles of design are harmony
and legal characteristics are to be or unity, proportion, balance, rhythm,
taken into consideration. and emphasis.
z The principles to be considered for z Harmony is a single idea or impression.

organising rooms while planning a z Proportion means the relationship of
house are aspect, prospect, privacy, sizes or areas to one another or to a
grouping, roominess, furniture whole.
requirements, circulation, flexibility, z Greek oblong or Golden Oblong
sanitation and practical consideration. refers to proportions of parts to one
z Design is selecting and arranging of another and to the whole. Golden
materials with two aims – order and section is known as law of relationship
beauty. which helps in dividing the space
z Structural design is the design made interestingly. This oblong uses the
by the size, form, colour and texture of ratio of 2:3 or 3:5 in case of flat surfaces
an object. Structural design is essential and 5:7:11 in case of solids.
to every object. Decorative design is z Balance is equalization of attraction
the surface enrichment of a structural on both sides of the center. Rhythm
design. This adds luxury to a design. is organized movement in continuity.
z The elements of art are line, shape and Emphasis is the art principle by which
form, texture, space and colour the eye is carried first to the most
important thing in any arrangement
z Line is the basic element of art. It is
and from that point to every other
a series of points joined together in
detail in order of importance.
two-dimensional form.
z All colours may be obtained by
mixing in various proportions three

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fundamental hues: red (R), Yellow z In Complementary colour scheme,

(Y), and blue (B). These are called the two colours that are directly opposite
three primary colours, because they in the Prang colour chart are
are the elements in the use of pigment. combined. Double complementary
They are the only hues in pigment that colour harmony include two adjacent
cannot be obtained by mixing other colours and their opposite colours in
hues. the Prang colour chart are combined.
z When two primary colours are mixed z Split complementary colour harmony,
in equal proportions, secondary combines one dominant colour and
colours are obtained. When a primary two subordinate colours that lie on
and an adjacent secondary colour either side of its complementary
is mixed an intermediate colour is colour. Triad colour harmony makes
produced. There are six intermediate use of three colours which are at equal
colours-Yellow Green, Blue Green, distance in the Prang colour chart are
Blue Violet, Red Violet, Red Orange combined. Tetrad colour harmony is
and Yellow Orange. formed by any four hues equidistant
z When two secondary colours are on the Prang colour chart.
mixed a tertiary colour is produced. z Flower arrangement is defined as an
When two tertiary colours are mixed a art of arranging flowers with other
quaternary colour is produced. There plant materials in receptacles and
are three quaternary colours. organized into compositions having
z Warm colours with dark values and harmony of form, texture and colour.
in bright intensities make the objects z Floor decorations are essential part of
appear bigger and closer where as the rich heritage of Indian culture and
cool colours, light values and dull imparts colour, joy, and happiness.
intensities make the objects appear The various types of floor decorations
smaller and far away. arekolam, rangoli, alpana and flower
z Related colour harmony is obtained carpet.
by using colours which are similar. z In Kitchen/ terrace gardening greens,
Monochromatic colour harmony also fruits and vegetables can be grown at
known as one hue colour harmony. It the backyard or terrace/ balcony of the
involves use of tints, shades and tones house by using kitchen waste water.
of the same hue. Analogous colour
harmony involves colours which are
lying adjacent to each other in the
prang colour chart are used.
z Contrasting colour schemes are based
on opposing colours and tend to be
stimulating and balanced because they
include both warm and cool colours.

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G L O S S A RY
zz Peg board - Perforated hardboard zz Complementary- opposite

which is pre-drilled with evenly spaced zz Tint-light value
holes. The holes are used to accept
zz Shade- dark value
pegs or hooks to support various
items, such as frying and sauce pans zz Tactile quality–texture felt by touch
zz Loft- roof storage space zz Florist foam-oasis/ spongy foam used

for flower arranging
zz Built-in- cupboard - cabinet attached
with wall
E VA L U AT I O N
I. Choose the correct answer 5. ______________ shapes of forms are

1. ______________ is the impression stylized or simplified versions of
that the house creates on a person natural shapes/forms.
who views it from outside. a) Abstract
a) Aspect b) Natural
b) Prospect c) Geometric
c) Flexibility d) Actual
d) Grouping 6. ______________ balance is more
2. The best location for subtle, casual, dynamic, active and
kitchen will be ______________ suggest flexibility.
corner of the house.
a) Informal
a) East b) Formal
b) West c) Bilateral
c) North d) Radial
d) South
7. ______________ is organized
3. This ______________ design adds
movement in continuity.
luxury to a design.
a) Rhythm
a) Structural
b) Decorative b) Emphasis
c) Natural c) Proportion
d) Artistic d) Harmony
4. The ______________ lines suggest the 8. White, black and grey are
feelings of strength, regularity, ______________ colours.
loftiness, spirituality and action. a) Neutral
a) Horizontal b) Secondary
b) Vertical c) Tertiary
c) Diagonal d) Primary
d) Curved

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9. ______________ refers to the 14. Give examples of naturalistic,

brightness or dullness of a colour. geometric and abstract shapes.
a) Hue 15. Define space as an element of art.
b) Value 16. Name two types of space.
c) Prang 17. Name two types of texture.
d) Intensity 18. What do you understand by tactile/
10. This colour scheme involves two visual texture?
colours that are directly opposite in 19. Name three qualities of colour.
the Prang colour chart. 20. Define value.
a) Complementary 21. Define intensity of colour.
b) Double complementary 22. Name tertiary colours.
c) Split complementary 23. Name two neutral colours.
d) Triad 24. Name any two light colours and two
heavy colours.
II. Write Very Short Answers(2 marks)
25. What is the difference between shade
1. Define housing. and tint?
2. What do you mean by owning a 26. Name two warm colours.
house?
27. Name two cool colours.
3. What do you mean by renting a
28. Name any two intermediate and
house?
quartnery colours.
4. List the type of furniture that can be
29. Define prang colour chart.
used in a living room.
30. What are the types of balance?
5. What are the different types of kitchen
arrangements? 31. What is symmetrical or formal
balance?
6. What is design?
32. Name any two asymmetrical or
7. What is structural design?
informal balance .
8. What is decorative design?
33. What do you understand by
9. What are the various types of lines? proportion?
10. What does vertical and horizontal 34. What is meant by harmony?
line suggest?
35. What is flower arrangement?
11. Name three common shapes.
36. What is floor decoration? Give two
12. Give the meaning of naturalistic examples.
shapes.
13. What do you understand by geometric
shapes?

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III. Write Short Answers (3 marks) 13. What do you understand by Greek/
golden Oblong?
1. List various activities carried out and
space allotted for them at home. 14. Bring out the significance of
proportion in designing.
2. Classify major areas based on various
activities carried out at home. 15. What are the ways of bringing
emphasis in interiors?
3. What points should be kept in mind
while making arrangement in living 16. What are the various styles of flower
room? arrangement?
4. What are the requirements of 17. What are the points to be considered
structural design? while arranging flowers?
5. What are the requirements of 18. What are the different types of floor
decorative design? decorations?
6. Highlight the importance of veranda.
7. What do understand by colour
harmonies? 1. Explain the importance of housing.
8. Give an account of the following 2. Give an account of various types of

colour schemes. residential buildings.
a) Monochromatic colour scheme. 3. List the factors affecting choice of

house.
b) Analogous colour scheme.
4. Compare the advantages of owning
c) Complementary colour scheme.
and renting a house.
d) Split complementary colour
5. How kitchen should be organized?
scheme.
Discuss in detail.
e) Triad colour scheme.
6. Explain the points to be considered
f) Double complementary colour while making arrangements for bed
scheme. room?
g) Tetrad colour scheme. 7. Explain the factors to be considered
9. Write short note on dimensions of while selecting a site for the
colour. construction of a house.
10. Blue and green are considered to be 8. Discuss the principles of organising
receding colours. Why? rooms while planning a house in detail.
11. Which colours are considered to be 9. Enlist the various elements of art.
advancing colours? Where can be used? 10. Elaborate on the various principles of
12. Highlight the importance emphasis design in detail with suitable
as a principle of design. examples.
11. Bring out the effect of vertical and
horizontal lines in interiors of home.

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12. Pavithra is short and obese. What

REFERENCES
type of lines she should choose in her
dress to overcome height and why?
Books
13. Elaborate on different types of colour
schemes. 1. PremavathySeetharaman, Sonia
14. What do the diagonal and curved Batra, PreethiMehra, (2015), An
lines represent? Introduction to Family Resource
Management, CBS Publishers and
15. Explain the different types of shapes Distributors (P) Limited, New Delhi.
and forms.
2. Varghese M.A, Ogale M.N, Srinivasan
16. Differentiate between formal and K, (1985), Home Management, New
informal balance. Age International (P) Limited,
17. In Sheela’s house, there is a room Publishers, New Delhi.
with dark coloured walls. How can 3. PremavathySeetharaman and
we make the room bigger? ParveenPannu (2009), Interior
18. What are the different colour Design and Decoration, CBS
harmonies? Give suitable examples. Publishers and Distributors (P)
19. Differentiate triadic and tetrad colour Limited, New Delhi.
schemes. 4. Narayana Tanthry, (2002), Practical
House building Manual, Tantry
Associates, Bangalore.
5. Pratap Rao M, (1998)Interior Design
Principles and Practice, Standard
Publishers Distributors, Delhi

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UNIT
6 Preschool
Organisation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
zz To know the importance of preschool education.

zz To understand the different needs of preschool children.
zz Helps the student to understand the importance of inculcating good habits among
preschool children.
zz To enhance the knowledge of students about different types of pre school.
zz Helps the students to understand the need of day care center and the procedure to
start a crèche/ day care center.
UNIT 6 Preschool Organisation 160

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in child’s development. The emotional,

6.1 Introduction social and physical development of young
Modern thinking on preschool children or preschoolers has a direct
education concentrates on “how to effect on their overall development and
learn”. This process initiates the child to on the adult they will become. That is why
explore,discover and practice thinking pre-school education is so important to
skills. And also to process information to maximize children’s future well-being.
understand the world around them. This
cannot be taught, but also has to be learnt. 6.2 Need for pre-school
The preschool years are one of the organization
most important stages in a child’s life, Preschool age (2 yrs – 5 yrs) is
since it is rapid. The child’s cognitive and the most suitable age for acquiring skills.
physical growth lays the foundation for If this period is not utilized properly for
social and personal habits and values. the all-round development of the child,
Ninety percent of the child’s brain growth the damage cannot be easily rectified.
occurs during this period, which is mostly Cleanliness and healthy habits can be
influenced by environmental experiences. taught very effectively at this age.
Hence, varied experiences should be
zzGood habits and moral values can
provided during this period. These
be developed through preschool
experiences and skills will be acquired in
education by means of interesting,
an ideal pre-school. Preschool education
entertaining and goal-oriented
is the foundation for a child’s education.
play activities. Thus, we can mould
It is described as an important period
children in the right direction.
161 Preschool Organisation UNIT 6

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zzto help children in expressing,

understanding, accepting and
I have the Right to a good
controlling their views, feelings and
education and everyone has the
emotions.
Responsibility to encourage all children
zzto develop good physique, adequate
to go to school.(Article 28, 29, 23).
muscular co-ordination and basic motor
skills.
zzChildren can be provided with a healthy
zzto observe and identify interests, needs
and progressive environment.
and capabilities.
zzThe feeling of security and self-esteem in
zzto observe the pace of child’s
children can be strengthened.
development.
zzThe best foundation for lifelong learning
zzto organize a supportive learning
can be laid in this period.
environment by taking care of the
zzDevelopment of children of educationally
physical environment, equipment,
and economically backward families can
scheduling of learning experiences,
be facilitated.
events and the grouping of
children.
6.3 Objectives of preschool
zzto interact with children in a calm,
education
positive, respectful and friendly manner.
The broad objectives of preschool
zzto provide numerous activities for co-
education aim at the overall development
ordination and concentration.
of the child namely physical, social,
zzto encourage the child to experiment
emotional and intellectual. The
and investigate their immediate
objectives are:
environment.
zzto sharpen aesthetic sense of the children
zzto develop the child’s ability to express
by encouraging them to appreciate the
spontaneously their thoughts and
beauty of nature by observing flowered
feelings in fluent, correct, clear speech.
plants, trees, birds, green grass lawns,
etc.,
zzto develop healthy habits in the child and
Behavioural problems like
necessary skills for personal adjustment
nail biting can be controlled among
like putting on clothes, eating on his
preschoolers in preschool.
own, observing cleanliness etc.,
6.4 Types of preschool

Preschools vary greatly. One type
of school may emphasize social and
personal growth, getting along with others
and gaining a feeling of mastery over the
environment. While, another may stress on

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the importance of the senses and developing

motor abilities. Still some other preschools
may concentrate on cognitive growth in one
or many ways. But many preschools claim
that they have goals in all these areas.
The types of preschool included are,
(i) Day care
(ii) Montessori school
(iii) Kindergarten
Day care center have trained staff
(iv) Nursery school
and their work is supervised. Care is still
(v) Balwadi available even when a staff member is absent/
(vi) Anganwadi on leave. More resources and equipment
(vii) Laboratory nursery school are available. In day care center, children’s
cognitive development is enhanced. This
may be because of day care children have
ACTIVITY I opportunities to interact with other children
zzVisit a nearby preschool and and are exposed to more learning materials.
observe the children. The only drawback of day care center
zzWrite a report on it. is that is quite costly and permanency of
staff is doubtful.
Family child care providers
(i). Day care
Family child care providers offer care
Day care means day time care for for children in the provider’s home. This is
preschoolers who are dependent. This is also a part of day care for children. Parents
provided in the absence of child’s parent. often make this child care choice because
Parents are employed and are not available they prefer their children to stay in a home
to cater to the needs of their preschoolers. like environment. This arrangement may
Day care refers to the care provided be less expensive than day care centers.
for toddlers, preschoolers and school-aged Moreover, the children’s groups are small
children, either in their own homes, in the so better care is given.
home of a relative or other care givers, or
in a center-based facility. Center based care
is also called child care centers or day care The medium of education at
centers.These facilitate care for groups of preschool must be in mother tongue
children. Many parents prefer center-based or in regional language of the child.
care because they want their children to be Because, it helps the preschooler to
safe and have a better learning environment. learn the language that lays foundation
for their future learning.

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In-home care givers Training the senses is the basis for

reading and writing in Montessori school
In-home care is given in the child’s
education. Every activity in the school has
own home. Children receive one-on-one
an educational purpose. Many activities
care. Children may be safer and feel more
are self-correcting so that children can
secure in their own home. Parents have
proceed at their own rate and no pressure
more control over the type of care their
is placed on them. There is no punishment
children receive. However, this care is often
for not finishing an exercise. In Montessori
more expensive. The parent may bear the
classroom, each item has its proper place
burden of conducting background checks
and children are expected to pick-up and
and constant supervision.
keep it back in its place once the activity is
completed.
The significant features in Montessori
school training are as follows:
zzIt is a process of unfolding of the
children inherent potentialities to learn
and to acquire knowledge.
zzIt attempts at educating children
based upon the desire of the child to
Importance of Day care center learn spontaneously. The classroom
environment is planned to meet the
Children’s eating habits are improved
interest of the child, and to guide the
by giving them good nutritious food. It helps
child.
in keeping the body and mind, fit and fresh
all through the day. Day care center has a
crucial role in making a child’s future.
Items arranged neatly

(ii). Montessori school
zzSelf-activity by the child is given
The concept of Montessori schooling emphasis as it leads to better and more
was developed by Maria Montessori and permanent learning.
has gained popularity all over the world.
zzExercises in practical life is an essential
Montessori believed that there is a close
part of the programs.
relationship between senses and intellect.

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zzExercises are mainly focused on helping

“Children are like tiny flowers; they
the child become self-reliant and efficient.
are varied and need care, but each is
eg.,reading, writing and number Work.
beautiful alone and glorious when seen
in the community of peers.” - Froebel
FA C T
To develop confidence among At Kindergarten, the child
children, encourage them to perform grows socially and emotionally. Most
individually before other children. E.g., importantly, the child learns the art of
story telling, reciting rhyme, narrating becoming an effective learner. This form
an experience and free conversation. of education helps children develop
and extent their communication skills,
The drawback of Montessori training build their self-confidence and learn to
is that which does not consider on play be creative. It helps children to develop
activities which play an important role in a skills that assist with reading, writing and
child’s development. mathematics.
(iii). Kindergarten
Friedrich Froebel was the originator
of the “Kindergarten”.Kindergarten
means“children’s garden” in German. It is
a preschool where educational approach is
based on playing, singing, practical activities
such as drawing and social interaction as
part of the transition from home to school.
Children drawing
(iv). Nursery School

The Macmillan sisters started the
first nursery school in London, in 1911.
In India, a preschool located in an urban
area is called nursery school. This form of
schooling emphasises the following :
zzCreativity- It is developed in children
Friedrich Froebel by providing them with expressive
activities, play, art and movement.
“Play is the highest expression of
zzImagination - This grows naturally
human development in childhood for
in young children and if fostered
it alone is the free expression of what is
will help them advance in all areas of
in a child’s soul.” - Froebel
development.

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Balwadi
zzDevelopment of self-caring skills, (vi) Anganwadi
perceptual motor learning as well as
activities for academic readiness is Anganwadi is a rural child
acquired. care center. It was started by Indian
government in 1975 as part of the ICDS
program to eliminate malnutrition among
ACTIVITY 2
preschoolers. The preschool children are
Provide children with multicolor given education non-formally. No specific
beads and string. Ask the children curriculum is followed to educate the
to thread the beads under the children. Songs and stories are taught to the
supervision of the teacher. children .As a part to alleviate malnutrition
and deficiency diseases, supplementary
(v). Balwadi food is supplied throughout the year to
the preschool children.
Grewal defines balwadi as “A rural
pre-primary school run economically (vii). Laboratory Nursery School
but scientifically and using as many Laboratory nursery schools are run
educational aids as possible, prepared by Home Science departments which aims
from locally available material” at the all-round development of a child.
Balwadi is a preschool in rural Non-formal education system is adopted.
areas. It is run by the state government It helps the Home Science students to
and funded by the Social Welfare Board. observe the children and their various
Free meal is provided for all the children. aspects of development, without being
Regional language is used as a medium aware of.
of instruction. Education is provided free
in Balwadi’s and teaching is done mainly Why start a crèche?
through play way method. Balwadi also
Families with two working parents are
offer crèche services for children below
common. Creche is an alternate place
2 years. Balwadi is run for economically
to provide the essential need of the
weaker sections. The purpose of balwadi
child to meet out.
is to provide a child, facilities for physical
and mental growth at school and at home.

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zzLocation approval: Location must

6.5 Setting up a crèche/ meet specific area, health and safety
Daycare center standards.
In setting up of a day care center zzBackground checks: Check out for

either in the home or in a separate adults help from your family or trained
facility needs to follow certain rules and employees to run the center
regulations. zzTraining requirements: staff may need to
Steps involved in setting up a day undergo an approved training program.
care center: zzBusiness licensing: It may need one or
Identify the kind of day care, that is more licenses namely general license
needed. and a separate license for day care
service.
zzIn-home
zzSeparate place Setting up a crèche:
In home: Creche is a place where small

children can be left to be looked after while
zzIt is cost operative as it does not need their parents are working and away from the
rent. home.
zzOnly limited children can be admitted.
Starting a crèche is challenging
zzIt will be stressful as living and working for several reasons due to the regulations
in the same place. and laws. It is given utmost important
Separate place: because the crèche need to work close
zzNeed to find a suitable commercial relation with children. Financially,
space for the center. running a crèche can also be tough, as
profit margins are low and overheads
zzMay be costly.
high. But running a crèche is a rewarding
zzNeed to enroll more admissions to meet business.
out the expenses.
zzKnow to draw a boundary line between Skills needed for a crèche
your work and personal life. Otherwise employee:
leads to unfavorable changes. zzPatience
Licensing and approval for day zzTime management
care center: zzOn time care provider
Before starting a preschool organisation, zzEnthusiasm
it is important to understand the kinds zzCommunication skills
of permit and licenses needed to start
zzDecision making skills
day care. The following points are
needed to be considered while starting To get approval of a crèche, the
a center. following essential facilities should be met.
These include:

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zzThe amount of space required per

child-food, sleep, play and other
activities.
zzThe ratios of children to staff.
zzMinimum provision of toilets and
washing facilities.
zzPremises safety.
zzAdequate parking.
zzPromotion of children’s emotional, Children spend most of their time during
social and physical welfare. the day in the preschool rooms or grounds.
The elements which characterize the
The parents must research locate
total situation of a building significantly
and select a child care facility. They
influence the behavior of children.
can be confident in their decision and
Therefore the school building, its situation,
know that they have provided the best
design, lighting and ventilation have an
possible setting for their child. The
important role to play in the behavior and
parents also should ensure that the child
welfare of the children.
is comfortable, safe and feels happy in
the selected center. Utmost care for the Essential Requirements for a
emotional and physical well-being should Preschool
be given. Preschool is the place for children
to perform different activities and to
6.6 Infrastructure need for play with their peers. It is the owner’s
a pre-school responsibility to have a well-planned and
good building.
The place and the infrastructure
are both dependent factors required for The essentials of a good preschool
a good preschool. Pre-school is the place building include:
to educate the children about “the art i. Surroundings
of living”, but not the place for formal ii. Site
learning. The environment helps the child
iii. Building Plan
to realize their goals. To meet this, the
place of pre-school must be stimulating
or conducive to the development of (i). Surroundings
children. A child’s health, attitudes and
A clean, pleasant and well- development of personality is greatly
maintained building help the preschoolers influenced by surroundings. So, a
to achieve their “gracious living”. pre-school cannot be built anywhere
and everywhere, if it is to satisfy its
functions efficiently. If the aim of the

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preschool is to bring about mental, moral the school or public park near the school
and physical development of children. The proximity develop children’s appreciation
school building must be in the desirable of beauty.
surroundings. On the other hand, unclean
surroundings are detrimental to the
mind and body. Unclean surroundings Nature walk means taking
have adverse impacts on character children on an outing in a park,
formation. garden, etc., It plays an important role
(ii). Site in children’s language development as
they converse about what they see/
Site means the location selected for
watch.
the preschool. Site includes:
a) Vicinity (b). Soil
b) Soil Soil makes the school building
c) Aspect and Elevation strong, safe, congenial and educational.
The soil condition of the preschool should
(a). Vicinity
have a raised area, dry and have natural
Vicinity indicates the area. The drainage free from water-logging.
preschool area must constitute a refreshing
environment. But should avoid stagnated (c). Aspect and Elevation
pools, swamps, sewers or other settings zzSouth facing is ideal for the preschool.
which are sources of disagreeable odour,
mosquitoes, flies and harmful micro-
organisms. It is essential for the preschool
zzsouth facing helps to
to have a good water supply.
absorb sun’s heat energy, to warm
The preschool may be located at the building during winter.
a short distance from the towns to get a zza system of shading or an overhang
fresh air and have less risks of epidemics. can be made to keep the building
This will also reduce the cost of the cool during summer.
land to be purchased or the building to
zzconstructing building in this way,
be rented.
can reduce its heating and cooling
The preschool must be close to a costs by 85%
road, but not on its brink. It should be well
back from the road. It should not be in close zzVerandah should be planned on only
to the proximity of a burial or cremation one side of the rooms to allow free
ground. The selected location must permit light.
any expansion in future. The preschool must
be away from industrial noise, dust, smoke zzPlanting trees and herbs on the
and pollution. It should also avoid physical otherside will act as a sun-breakers
dangers such as factories, rail-roads or especially during very hot climate
bus services. A garden in the vicinity of

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Building plan zzRooms should have outlet and inlet.

Building plan would vary according zzRooms for indoor play should be large
to the type of preschool. Blue print can be enough for children.
decided based on the following. zzThe area must be adequate for the child
zzthe building plan should strictly adhere to move around.
to the laws of sanitation, hygiene, zzThe area specification must be 1.5 square
ventilation and lighting and allows the meter per child and 3 meters above for
sun rays to reach all the rooms. ceiling.
zzto permit free and easy access of fresh
Walls
air to all parts of the building.
zzto fulfill the minimum requirements zzThe wall space should be functional
of play rooms, laboratories and wash and lend itself to promote
rooms. activities
zzsingle storey building is preferable for zzPinning space should be available at

convenience and safety. the eye level of the child to have picture
boards.
zzfirst aid facilities and place for
isolation of sick child should be zzWalls should be painted with pleasant
provided. colours.
zzSafety exits and fire extinguishers should

FA C T
be available.
Black board in preschool should be at
Table: 6.1 Space requirement of a low height, at the level of children to
preschool based on play allow them for drawing, scribbling, etc.,
rooms
zzThe windows and doors of the room
Plinth area of Total
Types should have large spaces for bulletin
built up space area
boards for attaching things.
Preschool with 218sq.m 318sq.m
two play rooms zzThe walls should be coated with suitable,
washable material to deaden the noise.
Preschool with 164sq.m 264sq.m
single play
Floors
rooms
zzFloors should be made of such material
Source: Sushila Srivastava, Sudha Rani k,
that can be cleaned easily and maintained
Textbook of Human Development-A
in a good sanitary condition.
Lifespan Developmental Approach (2014)
Windows and doors
Rooms
zzThe place to fix windows and doors
zzRectangular rooms ease the activity of
need careful consideration.
the children.

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zzThe windows should be low enough zzAll storage space should be well
to enable a child to look out and ventilated and kept free from insects
should be fitted with shades or and cobwebs.
blinds. zzPlace for large toys and blocks should be
zz Light weight doors must be provided.
installed to facilitate easy handling
by the children. Outdoor space
zz The knobs in the door should be Children’s most important need is

in easy reach of the children. playground. It should be large enough and
safe. A minimum of 2 square metre is a
zz The door can be operated without desirable play-space for a child. In case of
being hurt. limited space, schedule should be planned
Sanitary facilities and provided to avoid all children out doors
at the same time.
zzWater facilities are essential
for cleaning up activities in the Some specifications can be adhered
preschool. for a play area. They are:
zzOne toilet for every ten children is

important.
zzspace for sand play.

zzspace for water play.
zzspace for wheel toys and bouncing
zzToilet fixtures with seats varying at balls (usually the area needs to be a
heights from 25-30 cm from the floor hard surface).
are desirable. zzgreen lawns for the children to romp
around.
zzToilet floor should be of washable but
not slippery tiles. zzan area for pets and gardening.
Storage space 6.7 Safety Precautions In

zzStorage space is necessary in the Indoor And Outdoor
preschool for keeping play equipment, zzThere must be child-friendly and
linen, books, teaching aids and disabled-friendly functional toilets
records. separate, both for boys and girls.

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zzThe classroom should have adequate mushrooms, bee or wasp nest and depth
space for movement; the play space of area under swings.
should ensure safety of children i.e.
prevent children from running out and Identity Cards
getting hurt from grievous injury. zzEvery center must provide photo
zzThe furniture and toys need to be child identity card to each child.
–friendly and free from any sharp edges. zzWho so ever is coming to pick and drop
zzDoors should be light in weight and children must carry their identity cards
should not be of self locking or swinging issued by the school administration.
type. Security guards must check their
zzThere should be mesh in all the windows Identity cards every time they enter in
to prevent mosquitoes coming in. the school premises.
zzNo toxic paint should be used for play Pickup and Drop off Facility
material/ equipment. The equipment zzThere should be a designated place to
should not have any sharp corners, drop and pick up the children by the
jutting nails etc. and should be sturdy. parents. Teachers of their respective
zzPlay material should not have any loose classes must be present at one side of that
parts which children may swallow by area and should themselves, handover
mistake. the children to their parents/ guardians.
zzMaintenance of outdoor equipment zzThe place must be restricted with door/
should be regularly attended to, in order screen or rope. Any outsider and parent
to protect children from injury. should not be allowed to cross the
zzElectric outlets which are accessible to restricted area.
the children must have protective caps Closed-Circuit Television
when outlets are not in use. (CCTV)
zzAny arrangement made by the school
zzCCTV cameras should be installed in all
for transporting children should be safe,
the classrooms. So that, the entire center
comfortable and convenient.
could be monitored video surveillance.
zzItems of potential danger or cleaners
zzCamera should also be installed at the
like: flammable liquids, toxic material,
entry and exit gates, at reception area,
soaps and detergent etc. must be kept
waiting area, play ground, outside the
in original container with original label.
toilets, and corridors.
These should be stored in an area not in
zzAt least one security guard should be
use by the children and is away from the
assigned duty to continuously observe
kitchen.
the activities on TV screen.
zzDuring cleaning, daily inspection of
Child Abuse and Rights
indoor and outdoor area must be done
to search for sharp objects (needle, zzNo physical or emotional abuse. No
pins, branches), poisonous foliage and corporal punishment. Children should
not be neglected.

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zzAll teachers must be trained to identify, zzNormal and emergency exits must be
understand and respond appropriately well marked with approved ‘EXIT’
in case they observe any signs of child signs. Exit points and ways should also
abuse /neglect. be kept free from obstacles.
zz Fire safety
6.8 Handling Emergencies There must be fire safety equipments
Emergency protocol installed such as fire extinguishers at
appropriate places
zzAll centers must have clear written
Availability of First Aid Kit
procedures in the event of emergency.
The staff must follow the following Medical kit must be updated regularly and
procedure: kept in one designated place that should be
readily accessible to staff, but kept out of the
zzOne staff stay with injured child. reach of the children
zzOne staff to telephone for an ambulance zzBandages
and child’s parents. zzSticking Plaster
zzSterilized surgical cotton wool.
zzIf possible transport the children zzGauze
directly to the hospital. zzThermometer
zz2-3 staff stay to take care of other zzScissors
children. zzPincers
zzAntiseptic ointment
zzAll accidents or incidents should be
recorded in an accident or incident 6.9 Preschool Lesson Plan
register with time and nature of
accident/incident and the action taken. Every individual child needs to be given
attention while planning a lesson plan. The
zzAccidents that do not require any plan should include a variety of experiences
medical treatment must be reported to such as interpersonal relationships,
the parents or guardians on the day that sensory experiences, exploration of natural
occurred. and physical surroundings, intellectual
Pest control stimulation development of large and small
muscles and opportunities to hear and use
zzThere has to be Periodic pest control language. Active play and quiet play also
to prevent dengue, chikungunia and should be considered. National festivals and
malaria like diseases. community festivals, celebrations need to be
Disaster management: included.
zzA diagrammatic building evacuation To make a very good lesson plan, the
plan should be displayed near exit in following points must be considered.
each center. Also, fire and earthquake zzThe plan must be simple.
drill/building evacuation may be
zzProper time must be allocated to
practiced regularly.
experience one idea. After the child

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is familiarized with the idea, new Types of curriculum

experiences can be added gradually.
Careful and creative planning is
required in carrying out the appropriate
ACTIVITY 3 learning programmes for preschool children.
To inculcate creativity among

children, allow the child to do the ACTIVITY 4
following activity without teacher’s
instruction except providing the basic During the visit to nursey school,
need or arranging the area:- encourage the child to perform
the activities for finer motor skill
zzProvide the children with colour development.
chalk and allow them to draw on
a slate or board. zzClay activity _Provide the child
zzPrepare wet mud area and provide with clay and allow them to make
them with a stick. Ask them to any shape or design that they want.
draw shapes/scribble on the wet zzVegetable printing on a fabric or
mud as they like. paper.
-provide the child with vegetable
cuttings, paper/fabric and paints/
zzThe teacher needs to refresh the child
water colours. Ask the child to
at frequent intervals.
print the paper/fabric with cut
zzPlanning above the level will frustrate vegetables after it is smeared with
the child and planning below his level paint/water colour.
bore him.
(cut vegetables like lady’s finger,
zzThe readiness of children must be brinjal, potato, etc., can be used
identified and programs should be to print).
planned accordingly.
zzPlanning should include free play (both
indoors and outdoors), creative time to PRE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
explore and express their feelings, music
and story time, muscle development LONG TERM SHORT TERM
and language development. For the academic Dividing the en re year plan
year. to pics into smaller ones to
zzPlans should not be rigid. Allow to achieve the long term plan.
include changes or additions.
WEEKLY PLAN DAILY PLAN
zzTo encourage independence and
creativity, play equipment and materials
should be placed in easily accessible Considering the age, interest,
levels. abilities of the preschool children, a
flexible plan can be planned. The table
below is an example of a daily program.

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In the daily program, music, dance, Records

discovery learning, excursion, etc., can be
Essential
suitably included.
zzAdmission Records
Table 6.2 T
he daily programme for a
preschool zzRegistration forms
Hours Activities zzPersonal data sheet of the child

8.30-8.45 am. Arrival and zzDetailed background information of the
preparation of the child
teacher Progress Records (Portfolio)
8.45-9.00am. Arrival of the children Records of progress of children in the
9.00-9.15am. Morning prayer and various developmental aspects at given
exercise period of time on the basis of:
9.15-9.45am. Independent, creative
zzChildren's work
activity
9.45-10.30am. Group work-drawing, zzTeachers observations
coloring Teacher Diary
10.30-11.00am. Break-snack Monthly and Daily program diary of
11.00-11.30am playground teachers
11.30-11.50am. Writing work
Registers
11.50-12.10am Reading/oral classes
zz Attendance Register of Staff, Children
12.10-12.50am Lunch break
12.50-1.00 Story time zz Accounts Register
1.00-2.00 Sleep/quiet activities/ zz Stock Register
dispersal zz Staff Profile
zz PTM Register
6.10 Records And
Registers
For efficient management of
Preschool program there is a need for
maintaining systematic records and
registers. These should be simple in format
to facilitate their maintenance. The filling
of records and registers should not be so
cumbersome as to be done at the cost of
the actual implementation of the program.
Given below are some essential records and
resisters which each Preschool centre must
keep and maintain regularly.

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S U M M A RY
zz Modern thinking on pre-school zz Creativity is developed among children

education concentrates on “how to by providing them with expressive
learn”. activities, play, art and movement.
zz The preschool years are one of the zz Balwadi is a pre-school available in
most important stages in a child’s life, rural areas where rural preschoolers
since it is rapid. given opportunity to learn basic skills
zz Preschool age is the most suitable age in their local languages at free of cost.
for acquiring skills. zz The place and the infrastructure are
zz Cleanliness and healthy habits can be both dependent factors required for a
taught very effectively at this age. good preschool.
zz The objectives of preschool education zz Building plan would vary according
are focused on over all development of to the type of preschool. Blue print
children in physical, social, emotional can be decided based on sanitation,
and intellectual. hygiene, Ventilation, lighting, play
rooms, laboratories, etc.,
zz Day care, Montessori school,
kindergarten, Nursery school zz Careful and creative planning is required
and Balwadi’s are various types in carrying out the appropriate learning
of preschool available to impart programs for preschool children.
preschool education. zz Curriculum can be long term and
zz Day care means day time care for short term.
preschoolers who are dependent to zz Creche/Day care center is an alternate
meet their needs. arrangement for the preschoolers and
zz Training the senses is the basis for school going children to meet out their
reading and writing in Montessori needs in the absence of their parents.
school education. zz Safety premises, enough toilet and
zz In Kindergarten, the educational washing facilities, adequate parking,
approach is based on playing, singing, good and spacious rooms are essential
and practical activities. to start a crèche/day care center.
G L O S S A RY
zz Rapid- Fast zz Security-defence

zz Cognitive-Mental process of knowing, zz Self-esteem-self respect
learning and understanding zz Aesthetic sense-appreciation of beauty
zz Preschool-learning space for the zz Physique-physical structure of the
children of yrs to 5 years body
zz Preschoolers-below the age of 6 years.

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zz Interact-communicate and react zz One-on-one-Individual

zz Supervise-watch over zz Unfolding-to open
zz Doubtful-Not clear zz Drawback-disadvantage/Hindrance
E VA L U AT I O N
I. Choose the correct answer 3. I have the right to a good education

1. Pick out the correct statement and everyone has the responsibility
to encourage all children to go to
a) Good habits and moral values can school. Select the article, that assures
be developed through preschool this right to the children.
education.
a) 28,29,23
b) Cleanliness and healthy habits
b) 27,28,29
need not be taught during
preschool education. c) 26,27,28
c) Preschool education is not d) 25,26,27
important to maximize the 4. Preschool education aims at
children’s well-being
a) Physical and social development
d) Preschool education is not
b) Social and emotional development
described as an important period
in child’s development c) emotional and intellectual
development
2. Choose the correct option, that
supports the statement. Preschool d) physical, social, emotional and
education helps to intellectual development
i) strengthen the preschoolers. 5. Pick out the wrong statement. Healthy
habits of preschool children include
ii) lay best foundation for life -long
learning. a) putting on clothes
iii) educate economically back ward b) muscular co-ordination
children. c) eating on his own
iv) Provide a healthy and progressive d) observing cleanliness
environment. 6. Day care means care provided to children
a) (i)&(ii) is correct a) in the absence of mother
b) (iii)&(iv) is correct b) in the absence of father
c) (i)&(iii) is correct c) in the absence of parents
d) (i),(ii),(iii),(iv) is correct d) All the above

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7. One-on-one care given to 2. To set an objective is an important task

preschoolers in in any organization. If you feel so, write
a) In-home care any two objectives of preschool
education.
b) Day care
c) Creche 3. List out any four activities that help the
d) All the above preschooler for finer muscular co-
ordination.
8. Montessori system of pre-school 4. Many parents select center-based care
education establishes the relationship for their children in their absence.
between Justify.
a) Physique and physical activity 5. What do you understand by the term
b) reading and learning family child care providers. Justify the
c) Writing and drawing reasons for selection of this care option
d) Senses and intellect by parents.
9. Balwadi is a preschool in 6. List out the different types of preschool
that are available .
a) rural areas
7. Surrounding of pre-school building
b) urban areas
plays an important role in child’s health
c) Sub-urban areas
and attitudes-Explain.
d) All the above
8. Write the components of site?
10. Choose the correct match 9. Write the space requirement of a
preschool?
A B
10. Fill in the empty boxes with correct
(i) Kindergarten Macmillan words.
(ii) Nursery Maria
school Montessori Playing
(iii) Balwadi Friedrich
Froebel
Kinder garten
(iv) Senses and Grewal
intellect
a) (i), (ii),(iii)&(iv)
b) (ii),(iii), (iv)&(i) III. Write Short Answers (3 marks)
c) (ii), (iv),(i)&(iii)
1. Balwadi plays an essential role in rural
d) (iii),(ii),(i)&(iv) preschoolers’ education. Support the
given statement with your justification.
II. Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) 2. List the emphasis focused by nursery
1. Preschool years are so important in school?
one’s life.How? 3. Soil type plays a major role in preschool
building. Why?

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4. Storage space is needed in preschool. Explain the statement.

5. Curriculum is an essential component of preschool. Classify the curriculum.
6. Crèche employees must have a skill. What are they? How does it help in upbringing of
preschoolers.
7. How should the walls of preschool classroom be?
8. Why are certain specifications needed for windows and doors in preschool classroom?
9. Aspect and elevation is an essential criteria for a preschool building. Explain.
10 How will you handle emergencies in a preschool.

1. Objectives help us to focus and reach our aim. Explain how the objectives of preschool
education help preschoolers to reach their different needs?
2. Day care is an alternate for parents-Justify.
3. What are the various types of preschool that are available. List out and explain any two.
4. Different factors ensure good preschool building- Enumerate and explain?
5. Vicinity determines the selection of the preschool. Is it true? Explain.
6. Systematic program planning plays an important role in educating the preschoolers. Plan
a model daily program for a preschool child.
7. Nirmala is interested in starting a crèche to supplement her family income. Guide her on
steps to be taken to start a crèche.
8. List the records and registers to be maintained in a preschool.
REFERENCES
1. Mina swaminathan& premaDaniel . Play Activities for Child Development A guide to

preschool teachers.. National Book Trust, India, First Reprint Green park, New Delhi-110
016(2005)
2. Padma yadav, Exemplar Guidelines for Implementation of Early childhood care and
Education Curriculum, 2015, NCERT, New Delhi
3. Romilasoni, Theme Based Early childhood care and Education programme- A resource
book., NCERT-2015
4. Elizabeth B.Hurlock, Developmental psychology-A Life-span approach, fifth Edition,
TATA Mcgrow Hill publishing company Ltd.,New Delhi. 1980
5. Srivastava, Sushila, and Sudha Rani K. Textbook of Human Development - A Lifespan
Developmental Approach. S. Chand & Company Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi, 2014.
6. www.child.encyclopedia.com/.
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/early childhood education.
8. www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood
9. pt.slideshare.net
10. https://www.workspace.co.uk/
11 https://smallbusiness.chron.com/

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UNIT
7
Entrepreneurship
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This chapter will enlighten students about

zz Learn about various definitions of entrepreneurship
zz Understanding the characteristics, importance and function of entrepreneurs
zz Developing knowledge on the steps for starting a small scale industries
zz To develop the traditional cuisine of the cottage industry
7.1 Introduction countries. Entrepreneurship is the process of

Over the past few decades exploring the opportunities by an individual
entrepreneurship has assumed great or group of individuals in the market place
importance for accelerating economic and arranging resources required to exploit
growth both in developed and developing these opportunities for long term gain. This
UNIT 7 Entrepreneurship 180

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systematic process requires proper planning Difference between Entrepreneurship

and forecasting in order to promote capital and Entrepreneur
formation and create wealth in country. Process Person
It also helps to pave the way to reduce Organization Organizer
unemployment and poverty. In view of Decision making Decision maker
this in recent times entrepreneurship has Creation Creator
become the hope and dreams of millions of Administration Administrator
individuals around the world.
Management Manager
Leadership Leader
7.2 Meaning of
Entrepreneurship Women Entrepreneur
The word Entrepreneurship has been Women entrepreneur may be
defined as the women or a group of
derived from French word ‘Entrependre’
women who initiate, organize and
which means ‘to undertake’.Today, people operate a business enterprise. Women are
call it by various names, e.g., Adventurism, expected to innovate, imitate (or) adopt
Risk taking and Innovating. an economic activity to be called “woman
entrepreneurs”.
Definition of Entrepreneurship The Government of India has
Higgins defines, ‘Entrepreneurship defined a women entrepreneur as “an
as the function of seeking investment and enterprise owned and controlled by a
production opportunity, raising capital, hiring women having a minimum financial
labour, arranging the supply of raw materials, interest at 51% of the capital and giving at
finding site, introducing new techniques and least 51% of the employment generated in
commodities, selecting top managers of day- the enterprise to women.”
to-day operations of the enterprises’.
A.H. Cole defines, Entrepreneurship

as “The purposeful activity of an individual or
zzAugust 21st is the world entrepreneurs’
a group of associated individuals undertaken day. The purpose of the day is to
to initiate, maintain or aggrandize profit create awareness for entrepreneurship
by production or distribution of economic innovation and leadership throughout
goods and services”. the world.
zzWomen’s Entrepreneurship day-
Definition of Entrepreneur November 19.
According to Joseph Schompeter,
“Entrepreneur is an innovator who brings
economic development through new
7.2.1 Concept of
combinations of factors of production”.
Entrepreneurship
• An entrepreneur is a person who has • It has assumed super important for
already started or is in the process of accelerating economic growth both in
starting an enterprise. developed and developing countries.
181 Entrepreneurship UNIT 7

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• It promotes capital formation and creates zzCreates competition in the market

wealth in country. Entrepreneurship can create competition
• It is the hope and dreams of millions in the market thereby enabling customers
individuals around the world. to acquire new products with greater
• It reduces unemployment and poverty variations at competitive prices.
and it is a pathway to prosper. zzUtility of the local resources can be used
• It is the process of planning, organising, Entrepreneurship development ensures
opportunities and assuming. uses of local resources and it increases
local cash flow.
zzImproves the living standard
7.3 Scope of
Successful business endeavours improve
Entrepreneurship
the financial status of the individual and
The scope of entrepreneurship is this subsequently improves the standard
very great in a developing country like of living.
India. Entrepreneurship is powerful tool
that can combat unemployment and zzEconomic Independence
under employment. The Labour Bureau Entrepreneurship gives economic
reports that the unemployment rate was independence which can help in the
5 % in 2015- 2016 which was highest in the overall development of an individual.
last five years. Entrepreneurship offers itself
as the only solace to encourage people to 7.3.2 Functions of
start their own business that would in-turn Entrepreneurs
lead to financial independence. Particularly, The main functions of an
entrepreneurship can be emphasized among entrepreneur are classified into four broad
young people as they are ambitious, bold categories:
enough to take risks, equipped with skills (1) Entrepreneurial Functions
and information acquired though the wide (2) Managerial functions
array of information available through (3) Promotional function
technological advancement. It also gives (4) commercial functions
them the opportunity to be their own boss
and pursue their own ideas. 1. Entrepreneurial functions
The major entrepreneurial functions
include organizing, risk bearing, and
7.3.1 Importance of
innovation.
Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is important for An organizer mentally first of all
the following reasons: decides certain things like what, how and
zzDecreases Unemployment how much to produce. This is based on the
Development of entrepreneurship can demand for the commodity. The location
reduce unemployment dramatically of the industry, scale of production is
as it creates opportunities for self- then determined by the availability of raw
employment. materials, labour, capital etc.

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Functions of Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurial Managerial Promotional Commercial

Functions Functions Functions Functions
Organising Planning Identification and Production /

Election of Manufacturing
Business Idea
Risk Bearing Organising

Marketing
Preparation of
Business Plan or
Innovation Staffing Project Report
Accounting
Directing Requirement for

Finance
Controlling
An entrepreneur not only organizes According to Henri Fayol (1949) who

the entire production process but also is known as the father of principles
undertakes risks and uncertainties. of management, “management is
Successful entrepreneurship involves an to forecast, to plan, to organize, to command,
anticipation of demand for the new product. to co-ordinate and to control.”
Sometimes, there may or may not be demand The managerial functions performed
for the new product. This is a non-insurable by entrepreneur are classified into the
risk an entrepreneur has to undertake. Thus following five types:
a brave organizer has to shoulder certain
(i) Planning
insurable and non-insurable risks also.
(ii) Organising
An entrepreneur must be an
(iii) Staffing
innovator to survive in the market and to
retain the same position for his product. (iv) Directing
One cannot be assured of innovation always. (v) Controlling
It appears, disappears and reappears. This
(i) Planning:
unpredictable outcome calls for boldness,
Planning is a pre-determined course
confidence and perseverance for an
of action to accomplish the set objectives.
entrepreneur to be successful in his mission.
An entrepreneur has to make decisions as
2. Managerial Functions to what is to be done, how it is to be done,
Management is the art of getting when it is to be done, where it is to be done,
things working with and through others. by whom it is to be done and so on. Proper

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planning prevents confusion which, in 3. Promotional Functions:

turn, affects the smooth performance of
(i) Identification and Selection
job what so ever it may be.
of Business Idea:
(ii) Organising: The selection of a profitable and
The organizing function of an rewarding business project involves a
entrepreneur involves the bringing together the process. This is based on the knowledge
men, material, machine, money, etc. to execute and prior experience of the individual as
the plans. Thus, organizing function of an entre- well as information gathered from friends
preneur ultimately provides a mechanism for and relatives. The information acquired can
purposive, integrated and co-operative action enable the individual identify new profitable
by many people in a joint and organized effort innovative ideas which can be examined
to implement a business plan. and pursued as a business enterprise.
(iii) Staffing: This process is also described as

Staffing involves human resource ‘opportunity scanning and identification’.
planning and human resource management. The generated ideas are analyzed in terms of
Thus, staffing function of an entrepreneur costs and benefits associated with them and
includes preparing a list of: the most beneficial idea is finally selected to
zzAvailable personnel be pursued as business enterprise.
zzRequirement of personnel
(ii) P
reparation of Business
zzSources of manpower recruitment
Plan or Project Report:
zzSelection of personnel and
The entrepreneur prepares a
remuneration,
statement called ‘business plan’ which
zzTraining, development and periodic
is a well evolved course of action devised
appraisal of personnel working in the
by entrepreneur to achieve the specified
enterprise.
objectives within a specified period of time.
(iv) Directing: It contains information about
Direction is the process, by which the intending entrepreneur, location of
the entrepreneur guides, counsels, teaches, enterprise, requirement for land and
stimulates and activates his/ her employees building, plant and machinery, raw material
to work efficiently to accomplish the set utilities, transport and communication,
objectives. manpower, requirement for funds
(v) Controlling: including working capital along with its
Controlling is the last management sources of supply, break-even point and
function performed by the entrepreneur. implementation schedule of the project.
It is the comparison of actual performance (iii) Requirement for Finance:
with the target or standard performance The entrepreneur should plan
and identification of variation between the requirement for funds with its detailed
two, if any, and taking corrective measures structure. Long term as well as short term
so that the target is accomplished. requirements is to be identified separately.

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Then, the sources of supply to acquire the namely, packaging, people, and process are
required fund are also to be mentioned. also added to ‘marketing mix’.
The share capital in terms of equity and
preference shares and how much will be (iii) Accounting:
borrowed capital from different financial The main objective of any business
institutions and banks are to be clearly enterprise is to earn profits and create
determined. wealth. This is ascertained through
accounting. Accounting is the art of
4. Commercial Functions: recording, classifying and summarizing
(i) Production / in a significant manner and, in terms of
Manufacturing: money, transactions and events which are,
Goods are produced once the in part at least, of a financial character
enterprise is finally established. Production and interpreting the results thereof.”
function includes decisions relating to the The Profit and Loss Account is
selection of factory site, design and layout, prepared for ascertaining whether the
types of products to be produced, research business earned profit or incurred loss
and development, and design of the product. during a particular accounting period.
The additional activities include The Balance Sheet is prepared to know
production planning and control, the financial position of business on a
maintenance and repair, purchasing, store- particular date hence, the Balance Sheet is
keeping, and material handling. Proper also called ‘Position Statement.’
production planning and control are crucial
for the effective performance of production 7.3.3 Characteristic of
function. Entrepreneurs
In order to be a successful entrepreneur
(ii) Marketing: one should possess the following qualities:
Marketing is the performance of those
business activities that direct the flow of goods zzMental Ability: Entrepreneurs must
and services from producer to consumer have creative thinking and must be
or user. Thus, marketing essentially begins able to analyse problems and situations
and ends with the customers. Marketing is and be able to anticipate changes.
not just selling. It includes other marketing zzBusiness Secrecy: Entrepreneurs
activities such as market or consumer should guard business secrets from
research, product planning and development, competitors.
standardization, packaging, pricing, storage,
zzHuman Relations: Entrepreneurs
promotional activities, distribution channel,
must maintain good relation with
etc. The success of marketing function is
customers and employees.
linked with an appropriate ‘marketing mix’.
Traditionally, marketing mix is referred to 4 zzC o m m u n i c at i o n Ab i l i t y :
P’s, namely, product, price, promotion, and Entrepreneurs should have good
physical distribution. Of late, 3 more P’s communication skills.

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zzTechnical Knowledge: Entrepreneurs

should have sufficient technical
knowledge.
zzInnovative Ability: Entrepreneurs

should possess creative ability to
search for new opportunities.
zzRisk Taking: Entrepreneurs takes (i) Micro Enterprise:

moderate risks to achieve their goals zzMicro enterprise generally refers to a
small business employing 10 number
zzPerception of Good ideas:
of peoples or less.
Entrepreneurs should have the
ability to collect and analyse facts for zzIt is an enterprise in which investments
accomplishing the tasks in plant and machinery is between
5 lakh to 25 lakh.
zzFuture oriented: Entrepreneurs
zzThese enterprises works and operates
should be able to plan and think for
not by choice but by art of necessity.
the future.
zzFlexibility: Achievement oriented

entrepreneurs should be adaptable
and flexible to adjust with the changed
circumstances.
7.3.4 Types of enterprises

1. Manufacturing Enterprises
(ii) Small Enterprise:
Manufacturing based enterprises
zzSmall enterprise generally refers
produce goods, implement machines and
to a business employing 50 persons
items for different purposes.
or less.
Enterprises
Manufacturing Enterprises Service Enterprises
(Ceiling on investment in (Ceiling on investment in

plant and Machinery) Equipment)
Rs.25 Lakhs Micro Rs.10 Lakhs
Rs.5 Crores Small Rs.2 Crores
Rs.10 Crores Medium Rs. 5 Crores

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zzIt is an enterprise in which investments

in plant and machinery is between 7.4 Steps for Starting a
25 lakh to 5 crores. Small Industry
zzThese enterprise works and operates
to earn a small amount of profit.
An enterprise involves a large

(iii) Medium Enterprise: number of formalities which are
zzMedium enterprise refers to a grouped under preliminary stage and
business employing maximum to 250 implementation stage.
employees.
Preliminary Stage
7.4.1
zzIt is an enterprise in which investment
in plant and machinery is between The preliminary stage consists of
5 crores to 10 crores. 9 steps. They are:
zzThese enterprises works and operates to Step-1: Decision to be Self-employed

earn a fair amount of profits to increase All new entrepreneurs should have
their standard of living. technical and commercial knowledge
of their product along with required
(2) Service Enterprise education, technical qualification,
The service based enterprises training etc. He should have capacity
provide services to the customer. to raise the required resources and
These services may be related to field managerial skills. The decision to become
such as education, health, banking, entrepreneur is influenced by internal and
communication etc., external factors. Internal factors include
educational background, occupational
zzMicro enterprise in which investment in
experience, desire to work independently
plant and machinery is upto 10 Lakhs.
in manufacturing line, desire to branch
zzSmall enterprise in which investment in out to manufacturing and family
plant and machinery is from 10 lakhs to background. The external factors include
2 crores. assistance from government assistance
zzMedium enterprise in which investment from financial institutions, availability
in plant and machinery is from 2 crores of technology and raw material, demand
to 5 crore.

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for the product utilization of excess funds agreement creating the partnership firm is
and other factors. known as partnership deed.
Step-2: Scanning Business Environment Co-operative Society: Cooperative
The new entrepreneur should society is a voluntary association of
plan administrative frame work, policy persons who work together to promote
guidelines, rules and regulations pertaining their economic interests. It works on the
to their enterprise. principle of self-help and mutual help. The
Step-3: Selection of Idea primary objective is to provide support to
The third step in setting up the the members.
enterprise is selection of idea. The Joint Family Business: The Joint
entrepreneurs has to consider whether family business is a form of business
idea is: organization run by the family members
zzInnovative and competitive in the area of three successive generations own the
zzIn tune with the availability of raw business jointly. The head of the family
materials known as Karta manages the business. The
other members are called coparceners. All
zzConforms to available infrastructural
of them have equal ownership rights over
facilities.
the properties of the business
Relevant experience, government
Company: A company is either a
policies and availability of profit margin will
private limited company or a public limited
help in selection of ideas. The analysis of
company. A private limited company is
these factors helps the entrepreneur to select
formed with a minimum of two persons and
the right idea for its implementation.
a maximum of 50 persons. A public limited
Step-4: Deciding Organization Structure company is formed with a minimum of
The entrepreneurs should decide 7 persons and maximum number of persons
type of organizational structure for the is unlimited.
proposed business. Depending on the suitability of
Proprietary Unit: Sole proprietorship business organization, the entrepreneur has
is a form of business concern in which to select and decide to setup organizational
single individual introduces his own capital, structure for his proposed business.
enjoys the profits and bears the risk and Step-5: Preparation of Project Report
losses. No specific document is required to Next the entrepreneur has to prepare
be created except obtaining trade license a project report which provides detailed
from municipal authorities. information about the proposed business.
Partnership Firm: Partnership is an The project report covers introduction
association of two or more persons who pool of the proposed project brief history, the
their financial and managerial resources constituents of the unit, nature of the unit, key
and agree to carry on a business and share personnel, product information, marketing
its profit or losses. No partnership firm details, competition, manufacturing
can have more than 20 persons. A written processes, machinery, details of raw

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materials, land, building requirements, power connection is given, the machinery is

general management, technical staff, installed, and application may be made for
cost of the project, cost of production, the conversion of provisional registration
profitability, repayment schedule and into permanent registration.
securities needed.
The documents required for
Step-6: Project Appraisal Stage provisional registration are application form,
To provide financial assistance duly filled in and signed by the proprietor
banks and financial institutions examine or partner or directors, prescribed court fee
the viability of a project and to ensure that stamp, 3 pass port size photos, copy of project
the project will generate adequate return profile, photo copy of ration card, affidavit on
on the investment of resources. The the stamp paper, copy of partnership deed/
project must repay the principal amount memorandum of association.
and interest on terms of the loans within
the reasonable period. Project appraisal Step-9: Enquiry for Machinery and
undertaken by financial institutions Technology
will be based on the technical, financial, The entrepreneur has to make
economic, managerial operation and the assessment of size of the plant and
organizational appraisals. machinery. The name of suppliers of the
plant and machinery and quotations should
Step-7: Selection of Location and Site be obtained. After careful comparison of
The selection of location and site specifications, quality, delivery time and
depends upon the nearness to market and price, a decision should be taken to purchase
raw materials, availability of power and the required machinery
water, transportation, industrial estates,
required skilled personnel, prevailing Implementation Stage
7.4.2
climatic conditions, Government incentives
and subsidies, distribution channels etc. The implementation stage consists
of 12 steps. They are:
Step-8: Provisional Registration
Provisional registration application Step-1: Statutory Licenses Arrangement
should be submitted with the district The small scale and ancillary units are
industries centre. The issue of provisional required to be registered with Directorate
registration is normally automatic and of Industries in the State for obtaining the
is given within 7 days on the receipt of license. The new entrepreneur has to get
the application. The initial validity of the different types of clearances from different
provisional registration is 6 months. It may authorities such as district health offices,
be renewed for a further period of 6 months director of public health chief inspector
on submission of satisfactory proof that the of factories, state electricity boards,
party has taken effective steps to establish municipality, state pollution control board,
the unit but could not complete the same. local sales tax authorities, superintendent of
When all steps to establish the unit have central excise etc.
been taken. i.e., the factory building is ready,

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Step-2: Arrangement of Finance by the inspector of factories. In some cases

The new entrepreneur after obtaining a pre-build factory shed is obtained from
license and clearances from competent state government and industrial estate.
authorities has to make arrangement of Step-5: Placement of Order for Plant and
finance. They require loans and working Machinery.
capital to set up is business. The orders for Plant and Machinery
and other fixed assets are placed with
selected suppliers. The timing of placing
the order should be synchronized with the
Small Industries Development
completion of the building construction.
Bank of India (SIDBI), State Financial
Corporation (SFC), National Small Industries Step-6: Installation and Commissioning
Corporation (NSIC), Small Industrial of Plant and Machinery
Development Corporation (SIDCO), The entrepreneur should formulate
Regional Rural Banks, Cooperative banks, a suitable layout which would facilitate
Commercial Banks provide financial production operations in the best possible
assistance to set up the new ventures. manner. They have to pay attention to
the provision of adequate workspace and
Step-3: Application for Financial ventilation for each worker to perform his
Assistance operations effectively. The entrepreneur
The entrepreneur has to submit should formulate a blue print converting
an application for financial assistance the actual layout of factory and segregate
along with project report to the agency the areas allocated based on the installation
or financial institution for obtaining the and commissioning needs of plant and
required loan. Along with the application equipment.
he has to submit, project report, partnership Step-7: Power and Water Connection
deed, quotations in respect of plant and The formalities for water and
machinery, copy of lease agreement of land electrical connection are obtained. A
and proposed building plans, architect consumer can avail LT (Low Tension)
estimates of factory building etc. supply if the connected load is less than
Step-4: Building Construction and 75 HP. If connected load is between
Civil Works 75HP - 130 HP the consumer has an
The construction of work-shed option of either availing LT supply or HT
should be done with the consultation with (High Tension) supply. If the connected
an architect by a good civil contractor. load exceeds 130HP the unit is classified as
Before commencing construction activities, HT consumer.
the entrepreneur should obtain necessary Step-8: Recruitment of Personnel and
license from the corporation or municipal their Training
authorities or other local authorities and The personnel should be selected on
should also ensure that the plan of the the basis of their ability, knowledge of the
building conforms to the norms stipulated job and other skills required in execution

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of the job. The entrepreneur should adhere programmes, international exhibition, fairs
to Employees State Insurance (ESI) and trade centers.
Act. Minimum Wage Act, Payment of
Step-11: Permanent Registration
Bonus Act, Workmen’s Compensation
Permanent Registration is obtained
Act, Employees provident Fund Act
from District Industry Centres (DIC’s) when
etc. Entrepreneur can avail the facilities
the entrepreneur has taken all the steps to
of the various training institutes to
establish the unit i.e., readiness of factory
provide necessary training needed to their
building, availability of power supply,
employees.
installation of the machinery etc. Within
Step-9: Raw Material Procurement 7 days of the receipt of application,
Entrepreneur should have to ensure the district industries officer or other
timely flow of raw materials before launching designated officer informs the party of
their new product into the market. They the date and time for inspection of unit.
should have more sources of supply of the The inspection includes an assessment
required raw materials instead of depending of installed capacity of the unit. On
on a single source of supply. Imports of raw being satisfied that the unit is capable
materials are being controlled as per the latest of production activity a permanent
import trade control policy. SSI units should registration certificate will be issued by the
apply to the State Directorate of Industries Directorate of Industries. For permanent
in the prescribed form enumerating their registration the entrepreneur has to submit
requirements. They in turn recommend the various documents to the directorate
such cases to the concerned Joint Chief of industries which includes municipal
Controller of Imports and Exports. license, application in prescribed form,
rent receipt or no objection certificate
Step-10: Marketing
from land lord, copy of sale bill of each
Marketing is the complex process of
item purchased, affidavit attested notary
creating customers for products and services.
public etc.
It involves knowing and reaching out to
customers, listening very carefully to their Step-12: P rofit Generation and
needs and preferences and acting to serve Repayment:
them better every time. Effective marketing Entrepreneurs should be ever
planning and promotion begin with gathering vigilant about the cost of production
factual information about the market place. and profit generation. If profits are not
A very important part of marketing plan generated, they should find out the reasons
should be overall promotional objectives to and try to minimize costs and adjust
communicate message, create an awareness production volume. Then should also adopt
of product or services, motivate customers cost control measures and minimize waste.
to buy and increase sales. The entrepreneur Then should maintain profits chart per
should develop marketing strategies which month and workout profits by calculating
help to face the competition effectively in the total sales revenue per month minus total
market based on knowledge of regulations cost per month. At the end of year they
of the governments, store purchase should also see what the profit rations are

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by calculating their return on investment 4. Political instability or hostile

and profitability ration on sales. Government attitude towards
industry.
ACTIVITY 1 5. Excessive redtapisum and corruption
To establish an Enterprise- and corruption among government
to meet - Steps to be taken to meet agencies.
an entrepreneur who has recently 6. Ideological and social conflicts.
established the enterprise and discuss
7. Unreliable supply of power, materials,
the steps in establishing the enterprise.
finance, labour and other inputs.
8. Rise in the cost of inputs.
Entrepreneurs should also be
prepared to have contingency plans 9. Unfavorable market fluctuations.
regarding the repayment of loan amount.
10. Non – cooperative attitude of banks
Normally banks and financial institutions
and financial institution.
insist on its payment along with interest
charges by the borrower as per the
repayment schedule formulated in respect Important role that
7.4.4
of the project. The period normally entrepreneurship plays
permitted for repaying the instalments of in the economic
the principle amount varies from 12 - 24 development
months from the date of the first release • Entrepreneurship promotes capital
of the loan. formation by mobilising the idle
saving of the public.
If proper precautions are taken in
these two stages, the entrepreneur will • It provides immediate large-scale
be highly successful in his endeavour employment. Thus, it helps reduce
to sustain in the market and attains the the unemployment problem in the
desired goal. country, i.e., the root of all socio-
economic problems.
7.4.3 Environmental • It promotes balanced regional

factors affecting development.
entrepreneurship
• It helps to increase the concentration
Some of the environmental factors of economic power.
which hinder entrepreneurial growth are
given below. • It stimulates the equitable distribution
of wealth, income and even political
1. Sudden changes in Government policy.
power in the interest of the country.
2. Sudden political upsurge.
• It encourages effective resource
3. Out-break of war or regional conflicts. mobilisation of capital and skill.

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• It also induces linkages which stimulate involved and the production is carried out
the process of economic development entirely by hand. The produce generally
in the country. consists of handicraft, wollens, carpets,
handlooms articles, earthenware, jewelry
Entrepreneurs are
Born or Made? and food products etc. The products are
generally unique. Any Industry where
Entrepreneurs are not born. the creation of product and services are
Entrepreneurs are not like athletes, home based rather than factory based
they don’t need natural inherent body and specific skills is required is called as
and muscles. An athlete’s child may cottage Industry.
grow up an athlete, but it would happen
in an entrepreneur’s family. However Tamil Nadu is rich for its cuisine
entrepreneurs are nurtually made, with most of the districts having their
and they own some special qualities own Signature dish and hence giving out
and also need some trainings and unique dishes from each and every corner.
experiences as athletes. Many people Aims of cottage industry
form non – entrepreneur’s families Cottage industries are generally
start their own business and become small scale house hold industries,
entrepreneur’s every day. producing goods to full fill the demand
of the local community. Their main
7.5 Cottage industry aim is to provide employment to rural
preparation people.
of Importance of cottage
traditional industries
foods • Cottage industries are considered to be
Cottage Industries the backbone of rural economy as the
have helped to preserve generate employment in rural areas.
the cultural heritage of the country. Certain • Employs both skilled and semi skilled
products made in the cottage industry are workers.
based on skillful production. The skill
• It also makes optimum use of the local
for making such products is passed on
resources available.
through generations in the family. The
products have a distinct identity of its • These industries have helped in
own and bear the impression of the Indian improving standard of living of the
culture. people in rural areas.
• These industries have allowed women
In rural regions of India many also to exhibit their skills.
families engage in small production
activities from their homes. There scale Characteristics of Cottage
of operations is very miniscule and the Industry
workers are generally the family members zzUse of traditional skill
themselves. There are rarely any machines zzSmall scale production

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zzUn organized sector the hot Vada Curry gives you an

zzEmployment generation amazing taste.
zzPreservation of culture
Madurai Jigarthanda
zzUse of agricultural resources
The Jigarthanda from
zzEco- friendly industries Madurai is a cold
zzFlexible in the operation drink. It is a dish with
zzUse of indigenous raw materials a heavenly taste. It
is a popular drink
7.5.1
Traditional Foods
during the summers.
zzTraditional Foods are foods and dishes Almond Pisin, reduced
that are passed through generations milk, Ice Cream,
or which have been consumed many and Nanari syrup
generations. are the main ingredients for this drink.
Take a glass, add some Almond Pisin,
zzTraditional foods and dishes are then add the reduced milk and Nanari
traditional in nature and may have a syrup and mix it well. Add a spoonful of
historic precedent in a national dish Ice Cream. The Ice Cream used also plays
regional cuisine or local cuisine. a role in enhancing the taste of the Jigarthanda.
Tamil Nadu has 37 districts and It is a refreshing drink during the hot
many small villages. Each location is summer days.
famous for its authentic food. The native
Srivilliputhur Palkova
people have magic in their hands that
Srivilliputhur is the
make these recipes world famous.
birthplace of Andal.
Let us take a sneak peak at some of the
People visiting Srivilli-
traditional dishes.
puthur never leaves
Preparation of Traditional the place without having a bite of the tasty
Foods Palkova. It is a sweet dish. Boil the milk in big
Chennai Vada Curry earthen pots lit with firewoods or Cashew
Vada Curry is one of the nut shells and when it begins to solidify, add
popular dishes in the sugar and mix it well. People get pure milk
hotels of Chennai. It is a from the local farmers. Still, the traditional
side dish suitable for Idly, method of cooking the Palkova is followed.
Dosa and even Chapathi. They use good quality ingredients which
Set dosa and Vada curry add a unique taste to the Palkova.
is the best combination. The vada mixture
Kovilpatti Kadalamittai
contains channa dal, chili powder, and Onions.
Kadalamittai is
People use Coconut milk in making the gravy.
a candy made
The vadas are mixed with the gravy and cooked
from Peanut.
for some time. Vada Curry is a famous
Kadalamittai is
street food in Chennai. Set dosa and

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famous all over Tamil Nadu. In Kovilpatti Kancheepuram Idly

they use good quality ingredients which Idly is one of the
make the Kovilpatti Kadalamittai regular foods for the
different from other sweet candies. people of Tamil Nadu.
Heat Jaggery and make syrup out of it. The Kancheepuram
Add glucose water, Vanilla essence and idly or the Kovil idly
Peanuts to it. Then cut it into rectangular is different from the
slabs and allow it to cool. usual recipe of idly. It
is offered as a holy food in the Varadharaja
Sattur Kara Sev Perumal temple in Kancheepuram.
Kara Sev is a famous Rice, Urad dal, and Fenugreek seeds are
snack in Sattur. It ground together to make a thick paste.
is popular for its Add pepper, Cumin seeds, and Ginger
perfect balanced to the batter. People in the temple
combination of cook the idly in Mantharai leaves,
spices and Garlic. Usually, Channa dal which gives a flavour to the idly. It is a
flour is the main ingredient in making healthy food.
Kara sev, but in Sattur they use rice flour
along with Channa dal flour. To this When traditional foods were
flour add Cumin seeds, Asafetida, Chili included in the diet, benefits
Powder and Garlic paste. Pour the batter were:
into the perforated ladle, long strands of Less Calories – Helpful for weight
Kara sev fall into the oil, then cook it for control
some time. The snack is crispy and has a Less Saturated Fat – Better for the heart
delicious taste. People and Sattur usually More Lean – Meats and fish
have curd rice and Kara sev together
More Iron – B
etter for muscles
which makes it a heavenly food.
and blood
Nanjilnaadu Fish Curry More Zinc – B
etter for wound
Nanjilnaadu comprises healing and
of the Kanyakumari fighting infection
and Nagercoil districts. More Vitamin A – B
etter for vision
Since these places are and fighting
near sea shores, they are famous for sea disease
foods. It is a very delicious dish. People use
More Calcium – B
etter for strong
raw Coconut paste to cook the fish. It is the
bones and teeth
specialty of the Fish curry. The Fish is well
soaked in the masalas and has a unique taste. Strengthened cultural capacity and
The smell of Coconut oil adds a different well-being.
flavour to the dish. Nanjilnaadu Fish curry
along with rice makes the best combination
for a perfect meal.

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ACTIVITY 2 G L O S S A RY
Collect recipe for any two traditional
z Aptitude: (மனப்பான்மை) It is the
dishes. Prepare and calculate the cost
ability of entrepreneurs to learn new
of the product you prepared. Compare
competencies related to enterprise
the selling price of same products
management.
with you cost. Analyse and present the
percentage of profit by selling it in a z Beneficiary: (பயனாளி) A person or
suitable market. group of persons taking benefits from
the enterprise.
z Enterprise: (நிறுவனம்) A well-
S U M M A RY designed and established organization
to achieve specific goals serving
Entrepreneurship contributes for the customers, clients and beneficiaries
the social and economic development of
the country. Entrepreneurship makes the z Feasibility: (சாத்தியக்கூறு) It is a
people self-dependent. An entrepreneur systematic investigation of relevance,
is a person who establishes the enterprise merit and quality of any significant
in planned manner to earn profit. The enterprise idea.
small enterprises are operated using z Firm: (நிறுவனம்) Business (or)
local resources. The operation of small enterprise, such as a corporation
enterprises does not require much of limited liability company or
machines, resources, money and training. partnership, that sells goods or
The amount of profit and rate of profit services to make a profit.
is less in small enterprise. Enterprises z Profit: (இலாபம்) It is expressed in
are classified on many criteria such terms of net gain from entrepreneurial
as technology, techniques, business, activities through legal means.
work area, motivation, ownership etc.
z Working Capital: (மூலதனம்) It is the
Careful planning, forecasting, sustained
money required to be invested in day-
motivation and perseverance are key
to-day operations of the enterprise.
factors that will ensure successful
entrepreneurship and will also enable z Techniques: (நுட்பங்கள்) The scientific
the entrepreneur to be highly successful systematic and tried out methods
in his endeavour to sustain in the market used in establishment, operation and
and attain the desired goal. evaluation of enterprise.

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(c) August 21
E VA L U AT I O N (d) August 29
I. Choose the correct answer 7. Women Entrepreneurship

Day_____________.
1. The word entrepreneurship is derived
(a) Novemberr 9
from ____________ word.
(b) Novemberr 19
(a) English (c) Novemberr 29
(b) Italy (d) Novemberr 30
(c) Germany
(d) French 8. Head of the Joint Family
Business_____________.
2. The Bureau of Labour reported that
(a) Karta
the unemployment rate in 2015-2016
(b) Coparceners
was high ________.
(c) Proprietor
(a) 5% (d) Partner
(b) 6%
(c) 7% 9. Permanent Registration is obtained from
(d) 8% _____________.
(a) SSI
3. The father of principles of Management
(b) DIC
________________.
(c) NSIC
(a) Henri Foyol (d) SIDCO
(b) A.H. Cole
(c) Higgins 10. Growth of Entrepreneurship ________
(d) Joseph Schompeter helps to reduce the problem.
(a) Money
4. The last management function to be
(b) Poverty
studied by entrepreneurs
(c) Unemployment
(a) Planning (d) Resource
(b) Organizing
(c) Arranging
II. Write Very Short Answers (2 marks)
(d) Controlling
1. What is the meaning of Entrepreneurship?
5. The balance sheet is also called________.
2. Define Entrepreneurship.
(a) Business Plan
(b) Profit and Loss Account 3. Define Entrepreneur.
(c) Position Statement 4. Difference between Entrepreneurship
(d) Accounting Period and Entrepreneur?
6. World Entrepreneurship Day_________. 5. “ What are the concepts of
(a) August 2 Entrepreneurship?
(b) August 11

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6. What is 4 Pcs and 3 Pcs in the Market 4.

E numerate the steps involved in
Mix? starting a small industry.
7. What is Accounting? E xplain the important role of
5.
Entrepreneurship in Economic
8. What are the Balance Sheet?
Development.
9. What is an Accounting Period?
What are the Traditional Foods?
6.
10. What are the institutional agencies Describe the traditional cuisine in any
providing financial assistance to of the three districts?
entrepreneur?
11. What are the Aims of Cottage REFERENCES
Industry?
12. Define - About Traditional Food. 1.
Paul J., Kumar A.N., Mampilly P.T.,
Entrepreneurship Development,
Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai
(1999).
1.
Write about Women Entrepreneur? Kumar P., Aggarwal S.P., Business
2.
2.
Tell about the types of Entreprises? Entrepreneurship and Management,
Wisdom Publication, New Delhi
3.
“Entrepreneurs are made, not born” -
(2013).
Discuss.
M anjunatha,
3. Goudar A.K.,
4.
What are the environmental factors
Management and Entrepreneurship
that affect the growth of
University science press, New Delhi.
entrepreneurship?
(2011)
5.
What is the Cottage Industry. Give
S harma K.C., Entrepreneurship
4.
some examples?
Development, Regal publications,
6.
C haracteristics of the Cottage New Delhi (2012)
Industry?
5.
Moorthy K.S., Small Scale Industries,
7. W
hat about the importance of the Orient Publishing House, New Delhi
Cottage Industries? (2002).
6.
K hanka S.S., Entrepreneurial
IV. Write in detail (5 marks) Development, S.S. Chand & Co. Ltd.,
1.
D escribe the Importance of New Delhi (2002).
Entrepreneurship. 7.
Sharma V., Veluri S., Surender Y.,
2. Nickle is a successful entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship Development and
Explain what is the functions of his Business Ethics, Professional Book
success? Publishers, Hyderabad (2017).
3. What are the basic characteristics of

an entrepreneur?

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ICT Corner
Entrepreneurship
Innovation is the root of all success story. This activity enables the students
to read more about the innovative and success stories of other people. Thus
by make them more knowledgable and self confident. Another aspect is GST.
Steps:
A page opens with the app ‘vazhar ..in”.
zzThen the page open into many titles.
zzWhen we touch the titles it opens with the image of the person or the
object with the success story.
zzYou select your story and read. Lastly some tips on business and GST also
is given.
URL:
h t t p s : / / p l a y. g o o g l e . c o m / s t o r e / a p p s /
details?id=appymaker.jkavin&hl=en

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UNIT
8 Community
Development
COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This chapter will enlighten students about
zz Understanding the need for Rain water harvesting and learn the different methods
of rain water harvesting
zz Understanding the need for safe drinking water
zz Learning the different methods of water purification
zz Creating, awareness on waste management
zz Importance of Organic food and Organic farming
zz Gaining knowledge on the use of medicinal plants to cure common ailments
zz Understanding the various income generating schemes by government
zz To bringing awareness about the rights of a girl child
UNIT 8 Community Development 200

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5. Setting up of cooperative
8.1 Introduction societies for carrying developmental
Community development is works.
a professional discipline that brings
sustainable development, provides The Community Development
economic opportunity, rights,equality and programme is focused on selected areas
social justice, promotes education and such as rain water harvesting, water safety,
empowerment of people with their skills waste management, organic food and
within their communities, creates identity organic farming, use of medicinal plants
or interest in urban and rural settings”. to cure common ailments, protecting the
rights of a girl child and various Income
The United Nations defines generating schemes.
community development as “a process
where community members come
together to take collective action and 8.2 Rain Water Harvesting
generate solutions to common problems. Water is a precious natural resource
Community development practitioners that needs to be managed and used wisely.
work along side people in communities Rainwater has nearly neutral pH, and is
to help build relationships with people to free from disinfection by products, salts,
identify common concerns. minerals and other natural, manmade
contaminants. The time, duration and
the amount of rainfall varies from place
to place. With rising population the
demand for water is increasing day by
day. Modern lifestyle demands more
amount of water. This leads to shortage
of water in many parts of the country.
Hence water must be conserved for
The Community Development future use. One method of conserving
Programmes are based on the following water is to collect rainwater and store
principles: it for later use. This is called rain water
1. Planning programmes and harvesting.
developmental activities by involving
the people to fulfill the various needs
of the community.
2. Bringing psychological betterment
of the individual.
3. Creating the local leadership and
developing socialism.
4. Creating awareness about national
policies and political setup in
democracy.
201 Community Development UNIT 8

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Rainwater harvesting is gathering, zzWater is free, only cost is for collection

or accumulating and storing of rainwater. and use.
It has been used to provide drinking water, zzRain water is sodium free and is
water for livestock, water for irrigation. therefore important for persons on
Rain water collected from the roofs of low sodium diets.
houses, tents and local institutions or from zzRain water is superior for landscape
specially prepared areas of ground makes irrigation.
an important contribution to drinking zzRain water harvesting reduces
water. Roof rainwater is usually of good consumer’s utility bills.
quality and does not require treatment
before consumption.
Methods of Rainwater
8.2.2
8.2.1 Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting
Harvesting Broadly there are two ways of harvesting
zzRainwater supplements our rainwater.
domestic,industrial and other water 1. Surface runoff harvesting
needs. In urban area rainwater flows away
zzGround water is constantly getting as surface runoff. This runoff could be
depleted or polluted in large areas. caught and used for recharging aquifers
by adopting appropriate methods.

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2. Rooftop rainwater shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to

harvesting avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable
It is a system of catching rainwater where water by the probable contaminants of
it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It
becomes the catchments, and the rainwater will also help in cleaning of silt and other
is collected from the roof of the house/ material deposited on roof during dry
building. It can either be stored in a tank seasons Provisions of first rain separator
or diverted to artificial recharge system. should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.
This method is less expensive and very
effective and if implemented properly helps Filter
in augmenting the groundwater level of the Filters are used for treatment of water to
area. effectively remove turbidity, colour and
microorganisms. After first flushing of
Components of the Rooftop rainfall, water should pass through filters.
Rainwater Harvesting A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is
The system mainly constitutes of following designed and placed on top of the storage
sub components: tank. This filter is very important in keeping
Catchments the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It
removes silt, dust, leaves and other organic
Transportation
matter from entering the storage tank. The
First flush
filter media should be cleaned daily after
Filter every rainfall event.
Catchments
I N T E R E S T I N G FA C T
The surface that receives rainfall directly
is the catchment of rainwater harvesting Roof top rainwater is the most
system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or common practice in Shillong,
paved or unpaved open ground. Meghalaya. Eventhough Cherapunjee
and Mawsynram situated at a distance
Transportation of 55 km. from Shillong, receive heavy
Rainwater from rooftop should be carried rainfall The state capital Shillong, faces
through down take water pipes or drains acute shortage of water.Hence every
to storage/harvesting system. Water household in the Shillong city has a
pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/ roof top water harvesting structure.
PVC pipes) of required capacity. Water
from sloping roofs could be caught through Why water has to be
gutters and down take pipe. At terraces, purified?
mouth of the each drain should have wire
If water is contaminated many diseases
mesh to restrict floating material.
such as Hepatitis, Cholera, Diarrhoea,
First Flush Typhoid fever, Dysentery, Amoebic
First flush is a device used to flush off the dysentery results. Hence water has to
water received in first shower. The first be purified for consumption.

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8.3 Water Safety 8.3.2 Water Purification

Methods
Safe drinking water is most
Industrial Methods
important for consumption. It is
(Large Scale Methods)
necessary to protect drinking water from
contamination for public health, economic 1. Sedimentation: Water taken from deep
and environmental reasons. borewells and similar underground
sources may be almost free from
8.3.1 Importance of Safe suspended impurities. But river,tank
Drinking Water and lake waters carry a large amount
of suspended matter, causing the water
Safe drinking water is the basic
to be turbid and coloured. Storage
necessity of a community. The availability
in reservoirs makes these impurities
and quality of water determines the quality
settle to the bottom. The settlement
of life. Thus water is a finite resource that
and removal of impurities is effective
has limits and boundaries to its availability
by adding chemical agents to the water
and suitability for use.
such as alum. The chemical hydrolysis
Water purification methods help in water forms flaky, flocculent
to ensure availability of safe drinking precipitates in which the suspended
water. Water purification is the process particles including a large number of
of removing undesirable chemicals, bacteria are trapped and carried to the
biological contaminants, suspended bottom by sedimentation.
solids and gases from water. Purifying 2. Filtration: Sedimentation may not
water may reduce the concentration of remove all suspended impurities in
particular matter including suspended water. Therefore water is further purified
particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, by filtration. For the filtration of water
viruses, fungi, as well as reducing the for human consumption two types of
concentration of a range of dissolved and filters are used. They are Slow Sand
particular matter. Filters and Rapid Sand Filters used in
industries.
Water Purificaon Methods 3. Disinfection: The filtered water
is disinfected. The most common
Purificaon Water disinfectant used is chlorine.
Chlorine is a strong oxidant that
Large scale Domesc rapidly kills many harmful micro-
Methods Methods
organisms.Other possible pathogens
Sedimentaon Boiling include viruses, bacteria, including
Salmonella, Cholera,Campylobacter
Filtraon Filtering and Shigella. Chlorine is added
to water in the form of solution
Disinfecon
of chlorine gas drawn from steel

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Coagulants
Raw water Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation
Home Consumption
Distribution Disinfection Filtration
Water Purification Process

cylinders of liquid chlorine or in the water boiled at lower altitudes. This is
form of bleaching powder. because water boils at lower temperatures
in higher altitudes. Boiled water should
be covered and left to cool before
drinking. Boiling kills bacteria,parasites
and viruses.
2. Use of filters
In household water is purified by
muslin cloth and by reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis is a water treatment
process that remove contaminants
from water by using pressure to
force water molecules through a
22nd March is celebrated as semipermeable membrane. The water
world water day. The theme for 2018 is filtered leaving clean drinking
world water day is Nature for water. water.
The theme focuses on the importance
of water.
Chlorine levels up to 4
milligrams per litre (4 parts per million)
Domestic Methods
are considered safe in drinking water
1. Boiling
Boiling water is the cheapest and 8.4 Waste Disposal
safest method of water purification. Proper waste disposal is essential
In this method, clean water should be for community development if waste is
brought to boil and left at rolling-boil for not disposed properly it will affect the
1-3 minutes. For people living in high community leading to various problems.
altitude areas, boil water for longer than

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Waste management or waste disposal This method causes numerous

are all the activities and actions required contamination problems. Landfills give
to manage waste from its inception to its rise to air and water pollution which
final disposal. This includes amongst other severely affects the environment and can
things collection, transport, treatment and prove fatal to the lives of humans and
disposal of waste together with monitoring animals.
and regulation.
Waste can take any form that is
solid, liquid, or gas and each have different
methods of disposal and management. Waste
management normally deals with all types
of waste whether it was created in forms that
are industrial, biological, household, and
special cases where it may pose a threat to
human health. It is produced due to human
activity such as when factories extract and
process raw materials. Waste management Incineration/ Combustion
is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste Incineration or combustion is
on health, the environment or aesthetics. a type of disposal method in which
municipal solid wastes are burned at high
temperatures so as to convert them into
residue and gaseous products. The biggest
advantage of this type of method is that
it can reduce the volume of solid waste to
20 to 30 percent of the original volume,
decreases the space they take up and
reduce the stress on landfills.
This process is also known as
thermal treatment where solid waste
materials are converted by incinerators
into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Composting
Composting is a easy and natural
Disposal methods bio-degradation process that takes organic
Land fills wastes i.e. remains of plants and garden
Throwing daily waste/ garbage in and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient
the landfills is the most popularly used rich food for your plants. Composting,
method of waste disposal used today. This normally used for organic farming,
process of waste disposal involves burying occurs by allowing organic materials to
the waste in the land. sit in one place for months until microbes

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decompose it. Composting is one of the zzproduces a valuable vermicast

best method of waste disposal as it can byproduct.
turn unsafe organic products into safe zzeven generates worms as fishing bait.
compost. On the other side, it is a slow
process and takes lot of space.
Vermicomposting
Vermicasting, also called vermicomposting,
is the processing of organic wastes through
earthworms (Figure 1). It is a natural,
odourless, aerobic process, much different
from traditional composting. Earthworms
ingest waste then excrete casts – dark,
odourless, nutrient- and organically rich,
soil mud granules that make an excellent soil
conditioner. Earthworm casts are a ready-to-
use fertilizer that can be used at a higher rate
of application than compost, since nutrients
are released at rates that growing plants prefer.
Recovery and Recycling

Recycling is the process of converting
waste products into new products to
prevent energy usage and consumption of
fresh raw materials. Material for recycling
may be collected separately from general
waste using bins and collection vehicles,
a procedure called kerbside collection. In
some communities, the owner of the waste
Vermicasting can be done on a small is required to separate the materials into
scale by homeowners with household different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals)
organic wastes, on a large-scale by farmers prior to its collection. In other communities,
with manure or by the food industry all recyclable materials are placed in a single
using organic wastes such as fruit and bin for collection, and the sorting is handled
vegetable cull materials. Through proper later at a central facility. The latter method is
design, vermicasting is a method of waste known as “single-stream recycling.
handling that:
The most common products recycled
zzis clean, socially acceptable, with little
include aluminium such as beverage
to no odour.
cans, copper such as wire, steel from food
zzrequires no energy input for aeration. and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or
zzreduces the mass of waste by 30%. equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and

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PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard

8.5 Organic Food and
cartons, newspapers, magazines and light
Organic Farming
paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
Consumers are aware of the
relationship between nutrition and health.
Concerns over food safety and quality
have fuelled the growing popularity of
organic foods, and many people believe
that eating organic is best for their health
and well being.
Recycling is the third component of Organic food is food produce which

Reduce, Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy. has been grown on farms using
The advantages of recycling are to reduce environment-friendly practices and is
energy usage, reduce volume of landfills, free of artificial fertilizers, chemical
reduce air and water pollution, reduce insecticides and pesticides. Organic
greenhouse gas emissions and preserve food does not include any form of
natural resources for future use.
genetically modified crop.
Recycling is very important as waste
has a huge negative impact on the natural The advantages of an organic
environment. diet in enhancing health of individual
zzHarmful chemicals and greenhouse gas and subsequently overall development
are released from rubbish in landfill of community is given below.
sites. Recycling helps to reduce the
pollution caused by waste. zzThe environment benefits because
natural habitats are less threatened.
zzHabitat destruction and global
warming are some the affects caused zzThe soil is in better condition because
by deforestation. Recycling reduces of the manure used.
the need for raw materials so that the
zzBiodiversity increases with use of
rainforests can be preserved.
fewer chemicals which harm bees
zzHuge amounts of energy are used when and other insects.
making products from raw materials.
Recycling requires much less energy zzCrop diversity can be ensured.
and therefore helps to preserve natural
zzOrganic food is more nutritious as
resources.
several recent studies have suggested

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that such food contains higher

amounts of essential nutrients and
8.6 Kitchen/Terrace
minerals, including vitamin C, iron,
Gardening
and zinc. Landscape gardening is an art
of laying out grounds in a way which is
z zOrganic food has no chemical ornamental imitating natural scenery.
additives whereas conventional Such gardening is difficult nowadays, due
farming methods expose foods to to limited space and increased population.
chemicals in the form of pesticides, Kitchen/ terrace gardening is a new option
fertilisers, and preservatives. These available. Kitchen/ terrace gardening is
conventional methods greatly growing of greens, fruits and vegetables
improve productivity but they are at the backyard or terrace of the house by
very harmful to human beings and using kitchen waste water. Even balconies
can cause irreversible damage. can be used for this garden. Old buckets,
z zOrganic food lacks artificial unused bottles, jars can be used for
hormones and antibiotics. To growing plants. Neem oil and Neem seed
maximise productivity, some modern kernel extract can be used to protect the
farms inject their livestock with plants from weeds.
hormones and antibiotics which enter The advantages of Kitchen/ terrace
the human body when products like gardening are given below:
meat, milk, and eggs, are consumed.
zzFresh fruits and vegetables high in
These chemicals, which are proven to
nutritive value.
cause hormonal imbalances and drug
resistant bacteria in human beings. zzFruits and vegetables free from toxic
chemicals.
z zOrganic food has increased
zzHelp to save expenditure on purchase
antioxidants which help in preventing
of vegetables.
cancer and boosts mental health of
children. zzVegetables harvested from home
garden taste better.
zzEffective utilization of kitchen waste
An organic diet decreases the water and kitchen waste materials.
chances for depression and
concentration problems in children
(and adults) thereby enchancing their
mental health. This means the child
will perform better in school, will not
feel tired and will work harder than
others.In addition, eating organic
foods can help with attention deficit
disorder (ADD), a common condition
among children.

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Plants suitable for Kitchen/RTerrace garden

Vegetables Medicinal Plants Flowers Fruits Spices
Tomato Bottle gourd Aloe vera Pirandai Rose Guava Turmeric
Brinjal Amaranthus Vasambu Thoothuvelai Jasmine Papaya Coriander
Chilly Moringa Vallarai Ponnanganni Hibiscus Lemon Fenugreek
Alari
Onion Curry leaf Mint Poduthalai Amla Ginger
(Nerium)
Big Onion Spinach Basil Manathakali Pome granate
Lady’s finger Cowpea Thulsi Vettiver Sapota
Bitter gourd Cluster bean Omavalli Kandanth thippili
Snake gourd Beetroot Karisilanganni Thippili
Ribbed gourd Radish Keela nelli
8.7 Medicinal Plants

Plants have traditionally been used as a source of medicine in India for
the control of various ailments afflicting human and domestic animals thereby
improving the health status and economic development of the community.
Medicinal plants are used for therapeutic properties.
Medicinal value of Plants
1. ALOE VERA (Chirukattali):

Used for skin diseases, anthelmintic.
Leaf extracts inhibits the growth of
mycobacterium tuberculosis.The pulp
of leaves is given in fever and liver
enlargement.

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2. CORIANDER LEAVES
Acts as a tonic for stomach and heart.
Used for treating urinary tract infection.
3. CURRY LEAVES
It has antioxidants which helps in losing
weight, sharpens memory, relieve morning
sickness, nausea, good for hair growth and
eyesight.
4. MINT LEAVES
Contains antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory agent. Used as mouth
freshener.
5. ASAFOETIDA
Used as a spice.It is used to relieve spasms,
indigestion, flatulence, colic, cholera and
whooping cough.

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6. FENUGREEK LEAVES
Controls cough and flatulence. Helps to
cure ulcers and regulates Diabetes.
7. TULSI
Promotes hunger,well known immunity
booster.
8. NILA VEMBU
Bitter, given in fever, malarial fever,
diarrhoea and weakness. Useful for
reducing blood sugar.
9. GARLIC
It reduces blood pressure and cholesterol
thereby reducing risk of heart
diseases,releives stress fatigue and has
anti-inflammatory property.

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10. GINGER
It contains gingerol a substance with
powerful medicinal properties, it treats
nausea and morning sickness, reduces
muscle pain and soreness.
8.8 Income Generating zzTo alleviate poverty and to contribute

Schemes to the development of human
resources.
Income-Generating Programmes
zzTo identify their economic needs and
are those types of vocational continuing
explore ways and means of fulfilling
education programmes which help
those needs
participants acquire or upgrade vocational
skills and which enable them to conduct zzBy developing self-confidence and
income generating activities. ability to undertake income generating
The main purpose of Income- activities through appropriate and
Generating Programmes is adequate training and motivation;
zzVocational skills, knowledge, attitudes zzBy providing opportunities for

and values are developed to promote continuous upgrading of vocational
a better quality of life of all people. knowledge and skills for gainful
employment;
zzTo upgrade work ethics so that
people become useful and productive zzBy developing team spirit for working
members of society. together for sustainable social and
economic growth.

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Followings are some schemes of Poverty alleviation schemes

generating income
Programmes Characteristics
1. PM’s Employment Generation
Initiated on 15th August 2008 by Prime Minister.
Programme:
Started in 1980.
Main aim is to create sustainable opportunities for self-
2. Integrated Rural Development employment in the rural sector.
Programme (IRDP): Finance was provided to poor families for creating self
employment.
Funded by the centre and the state.
Central government started this program in 2004 in 150
3. Food for Work Programme: most backward districts to provide wage employment. Food
grains are supplied to states free of cost.
Started on 1 April 1999.The main objective of this program
4. Jawahar Gram Samridhi is for the development of rural areas and to give out
Yojana (JGSY): sustained wage employment.This is only for those below
poverty line.
Started in 2006. Later modified as the Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
5. National Rural Employment
in October 2, 2009.
Guarantee Act (NREGA):
Aims to guarantee the “right to work”. 100 days of
guaranteed wage employment in a financial year.
It came in existence by merging Jawahar Gram Samridhi
6. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (JGSY) and Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS).
Yojana (SGRY): It was launched in September 2001 to provide additional
wage employment in the rural areas.
7. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar
Started in 1st April 1999 by providing self employment of
Yojana (SGSY)/ National Rural
the rural poor. IRDP and TRYSEM merged in this scheme.
Livelihood Mission:
The Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Department,
Government of Tamil Nadu introduced the scheme.
Aims: To mitigate the unemployment problems of socially
and economically weaker section of the society, particularly
8. Unemployed Youth
among the educated and unemployed to become self
Employment Generation
employed in their native places itself and to prevent the
Programme (UYEGP):
mass migration from rural areas to urban areas due to
unemployment by setting up Manufacturing / Service /
Business enterprises by availing loan up to the maximum of
Rs.10 Lakhs, Rs. 3 Lakhs and Rs. 1 Lakh.
To increase the entrepreneurs in the community through
9. TAHDCO
setting up of petrol/diesel outlet.

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marriages, decreased levels of poverty

8.7 Rights of a Girl Child and heightened participation of women
To achieve true women in socio-economic processes. Educating
empowerment, girl children rights are a girl has far-reaching impacts. When a
important. This is because girls of today woman is educated, an entire generation
are the women of tomorrow. It is the role of benefits from it. Therefore ensuring the
social welfare organizations to support for rights and privilege of a girl child pave
the eradication of female infanticide and way for development of a community.
women empowerment. Some yardsticks of
Literally meaning ‘Educate the
women empowerment are:
Girl Child, Save the Girl Child’ the
Helping women to develop a Beti Padhao, Beti Bachao Scheme is an
positive self-image and increase their ambitious scheme of the Government
confidence level. of India which is intended to generate
massive awareness, improvement of
Enabling them to develop the
quality of welfare services for females and
ability to think critically.
helping them (girls and women) access
Ensuring that they have equal these services better. It was Introduced
participation in decision making, whether in October 2014, It is a joint initiative
it’s in the family or at the community level. of three important Central Government
ministries – the Ministry of Women
Providing economic independence
and Child Development, Ministry of
to women.
Health and Family Welfare and Ministry
of Human Resource Development.It is
Why Girl Children Should be
therefore imperative that both government
Given Rights
and non-government organizations work
The role of education is extremely
in cohesion to spread the message of
important here and goes a long way in
saving and educating the girl child.
empowering women. Girl children need
to be sent to school, provided quality and
holistic education. Numerous benefits
come with educating girls the right way.
Educated girls are able to take the right
decisions in life. For example, when an
educated girl falls sick, she will have
better understanding and awareness
to avail proper healthcare services.
At the same time, a society in which
girls are educated will see less child

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fertilizers, chemical insecticides and

S U M M A RY
pesticides. Organic food does not include
zzThe key areas for developing the any form of genetically modified crop.
community include to provide safe zzMedicinal plants are used for therapeutic
drinking water, Rain water harvesting, properties like aloevera, coriander leaves,
proper waste disposal and sanitation, curry leaves, mint leaves,ginger, garlic etc.
ensuring availability of crops through zzEnsuring the rights and privilege of a
organic farming, use of medicinal plants girl child pave way for development of a
to cure common ailments, protecting community. Some important rights are
the rights of a girl child and alleviation freedom to Education, Freedom to live life
of poverty through income generating freely.
schemes.
zzIncome-Generating Programmes are
zzCommunity development as “a process those types of vocational continuing
where community members come education programmes which help
together to take collective action and participants acquire or upgrade vocational
generate solutions to common problems. skills and which enable them to conduct
zzWater must be conserved for future use. income generating activities.
One method of conserving water is to
collect rainwater and store it for later use.
This is called rain water harvesting.Recent G L O S S A RY
trends in rain water harvesting are Surface
runoff harvesting,Roof top rainwater z Weeds (களைகள்) – wild plant growing
harvesting,Catchments and Filter. in unwanted place.
zzSafe drinking water is most important for z Hormones (ஹார்மோன்) – chemical
consumption. It is necessary to protect substance produced by body.
drinking water from contamination z Antibiotic (ந�ோய் கிருமி கட்டுபடுத்தி)
for public health, economic and - medicine that inhibits or destroys the
environmental reasons. Water purification growth of microorganisms.
methods help to ensure availability of z Anthelmintic (குடல்புழு அகற்றும் மருந்து)
safe drinking water. Water purification – medicine used to destroy parasitic
is the process of removing undesirable worms.
chemicals, biological contaminants,
z Empower (அதிகாரம்) – authority or
suspended solids and gases from water.
power to do something.
Water is purified through large scale and
domestic methods. z Suspended impurities (கசடுகள்) –
constituent which impairs the purity of
zzWaste management or waste disposal
something in suspension.
are all the activities and actions required
to manage waste from its inception to its z Depression (மனஅழுத்தம்) - sadness.
final disposal and prevent the spread of z Antioxidants (ஆக்ஜினேற்றி) –
communicable diseases. substance that inhibits oxidation to delay
zzOrganic food is food produce which has deterioration.
been grown on farms using environment- z Flatulence (வாயு) – Accumulation of gas
friendly practices and is free of artificial in the alimentary canal.

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c) N
ational Rural Employment
E VA L U AT I O N Guarantee Act 1999 (NREGA):
d) FOOD FOR WORK 2008.
I. Choose the correct answer
6.
Cheapest and safest method of water
1. Community development seeks to purification _____________.
empower __________. a) Boiling
a) Individual alone b) Filtration
b) Individual and Groups c) Sedimentation
c) Groups only d) Osmosis
d) Women
7. Match the medicinal use of
2. ASSERTION: Organic foods when
a) Garlic Relieves digestion
served fresh provides maximum problems
nutrients. b) Coriander Improves bowel
REASON: Foods needs to be served
syndrome
always fresh to obtain maximum c) Mint Hair growth
nutrients. d) Curry Reduces
leaves cholesterol
a) Assertion is correct
b) Reason is correct
c) Reason for assertion is correct
d) Assertion for reason is correct
8. Recycling
3. Organic farming needs components
a) Farming with chemicals are
b) Farming without chemicals
c) Farming with the use of pesticides
d) Farming with the use of aritifical 9.
_____________ is celebrated as world
fertilizer water day
a) 2 March
4. pH of rain water is _____________.
b) 22 September
a) Acidic
c) 12 August
b) Basic
d) 22 March
c) Neutral
d) None of the above
II. Write Very Short Answers (2 marks)
5. Match the following
a) P
rime Minister Employment 1.
Write the medicinal properties of Aloe
Generation Scheme 2006 vera and Ginger.
b)
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar 2.
What is the main aim of rain water
Yojana (SGSY): 2001 harvesting?

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3. Define waste management. 3. Vinodhini is a 18 year old village girl.

4.
L ist the barriers which prevents She is ignorant of her rights in the
buying organic food. society. As a friend suggest her the
rights of a girl child.
5.
Write 2 different methods of water
purification. 4.
Girls of today are women of tomorrow.
Brief this statement with women
empowerment.
5. Explain the different methods of waste
1.
How do landfills severely affect the disposal.
environment?
6. Is reverse osmosis water safe for drinking?
2.
What are the aims of income
7.
E xplain the different methods of
generating schemes?
purification of water.
3.
A building which was constructed 20
Write a detailed note on kitchen
8.
years back by your neighbour had no
garden. List the plants that can be
provision to store rain water during
grown in kitchen garden.
rainy season. Suggest ways to store the
rain water effectively.
REFERENCES
4.
What is vermicomposting?
5.
Write 3 positive aspects of organic food. “Disinfection with Chlorine | Public
1.
Water Systems | Drinking Water |
6. Explain the Beti Bacho Beti Padhoa
Healthy Water”. CDC. Retrieved 11
scheme to an illiterate women.
February 2018.
Write the advantages of kitchen
6.
2. Microbiology by Anna K. Joshua, First
garden.
Edition 1971, Popular Book Depot.
3.
Medicinal Plants by S.K. Jain, 1968,
National Book Trust, India.
1.
C ommunity development seeks to 4.
E conomic Botany by B.P. Pandey,
empower individuals – Justify. S. Chand & Company, 2000.
2.
O rganic food does not lead to
hormonal imbalance - explain.

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ICT Corner
Medicinal Plants
This activity enables the students to know more about medicinal plants and
it’s uses. It’s in their own language that is the added benefit.
Steps:
A page opens with the name of the app. (mooligai maram)
zzWhen we touch the app it opens into a page it contains the menu
of the app.
zzWhen we touch the name of the plants.
zzWhen we touch the plant it gives it’s name and all the medical benefits of
the plant.
URL:
h t t p s : / / p l a y. g o o g l e . c o m / s t o r e / a p p s /
details?id=aplic115683.mdj&hl=en
219 Medicinal Plants UNIT 8

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Practicals
PA R T – A 5 X 1 = 5
1. Identify the type of flower 4. Identify the given colour schemes

arrangement. that comes under prang colour chart.
2. Identify the standard mark on the 5. Identify the given medicinal plant
food item and comment on it. and write about it.
3. Identify the given teaching aid used in
the preschool and comment on it.
PA R T – B 1 X 10 = 10
1. Plan a day’s Menu for a diabetic 5. Write a note about tie and dye process.
person prepare and serve any one Dye the sample cloth with tie and dye
item by using millets. technique.
2. Plan a day’s Menu for a person
6. Prepare any one flower arrangement
suffering from Ulcer and prepare any
with locally available flowers.
one item.
3. Plan a label for the pickle you prepare. 7. Draw the prang colour chart to
4. Identify the adulterants used to understand colour harmonies in
adulterate the given food write the rangoli and write about primary,
tests that helps you to Identify the secondary and tertiary colours.
given Food and find whether it is
adulterated or not. 8. Prepare an interesting toy for a
preschool child.
a. Milk
b. Honey 9. Prepare any one traditional sweet or
c. Sugar savoury.
d. Chilli powder 10. Prepare a food items using any one
e. Pepper medicinal herbs to treat cold.
Practicals 220
XII Std - Home Science EM_Practical.indd 220 07-12-2021 12.34.27 PM

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5. Fried items, fat rich food, bakery

Experiment No: 1 items, creams cakes, savouries.
Aim: A days menu – peptic ulcer

To formulate a diet for a person
suffering from peptic ulcer. Meal time Food items
Early morning Milk- 1 cup
Equipment needed:
Breakfast Idly-3 nos, vegetable
Vessels, Bowl, Small container, sambhar -1 cup
Knife (ladysfinger) (less
seasoning) (low
Peptic ulcer: fiber vegetables to be
included
Peptic ulcer is a term used to
describe any localized erosion of the Mid morning Egg custard – cup
mucosal lining of alimentary tract that Fruit juice – 1 cup
comes in contact with gastric juice. This (avoid citrus fruits)
is known as a disease due to hurry, Worry
Lunch Rice-11/2 cup, plain
and hot Curry.
egg omlette. Carrot
poriyal, Dhal-1cup
Principles of Diet:
(less seasoning), Sweet
High energy, high protein, curd, papaya – 1 slice
moderate fat and low fiber diet. Evening Tea- 1cup Vermicelli
payasam-1cup
Permitted foods:
Dinner Idly/ Idiappam, Egg
Cereals – cooked rice; idly; curry, Banana-1
idiappam, milk curd, paneer, Butter milk,
low fiber fruits- papayas, banana, Water
melon, vegetable soups, ladysfinger, Recipe formulation – Egg
potato, light desserts and custard. Custard
Restricted Foods
1. Cereals- Whole wheat flour.
2. Pulse - whole pulses- rajmah cholam,
soyabean, peas.
3. Milk & milk products – milk based
desserts, milk shake.
4. Meat and poultry: spicy meat,
gravies, curries and fried fish.
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Ingredients Quality 3. Put all the mixed contents in a small

container till half
Egg - 1
Milk - 200 ml 4. Steam the content till it is done.
Sugar - 10 gms / or 2 tsp 5. To check the end point insert knife
in the content when taken out. If the
Vanilla Essence - few drops (Optional)
content does not stick on the knife or
if the knife is clean. It is cooked well.
Method:
6. Invert the container to remove the
1. Beat the egg well in a bowl. egg custard and serve in a plate.
2. Add sugar and Milk to the beat egg
and mix well.
Practicals 222

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Restricted Foods:
Experiment No: 2
All simple sugars (Glucose, Honey,
Sweets) dry fruits, cake, candy, jaggery,
Aim
Sweetened Juice,
To plan a days menu for a diabetic
person, prepare and serve any one item by A Days menu- Diabetes Mellitus
using millets.
Meal time Food items
Equipment needed: Early Morning Plain coffee without
sugar – 1 cup
Tawa, Spatula, vessels, measuring
Break fast Multi millet soya rotti,
cups, cutting board, knife.
Tomato chutney -1/2
cup-3
Diabetes mellitus:
Mid morning Araikeerai soup
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic Lunch Rice 1 cup fish
metabolic disorder that prevents the body kulambu- 1 cup
to utilize glucose completely or partially.
Beans poriyal -1/2 cup,
It is characterized by raised glucose
vegetable salad-1/2 cup
concentration in the blood and alterations in
carbohydrate, Protein and fat Metabolism. Evening Channa sundal, plaintea
This can be due to failure in formation of Dinner Idli-3 , coriander
hormone insulin or action of insulin. chutney-1/2 cup
Bed time Skimmed milk without
Dietary principles: sugar -1 cup
1. High protein intake helps to increase
insulin production. Recipe formulation – multi
2. Calories from carbohydrates can be millet soya Rotti
60-65% simple carbohydrates like
sugar and honey are avoided.
3. Vitamin C and E supplements are
essential.
4. Low fat diet is preferred.
5. High fiber is recommended,
vegetable salad to be included.
6. Sprouted grams and whole grams to
be included in diet.
Permitted Foods:
Green leafy vegetables, fruits except Ingredients Quantity
banana, salads, plain coffee, tea, skimmed, Ragi flour - ½ cup
milk and butter milk, Chicken, Fish. Bajra flour - ½ cup
223 Practicals

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Jowar flour - ½ cup 3. Cook for 5 to 7 minutes. Turn rotti,

Soya flour - ¼ cup twice and smearing with oil.
Onion - 1 cup 4. Serve hot with chutney.
Greean chillies - 4
Cumin seeds - 1 tsp Discussion
Salt - to taste
Oil - 2 tsp
Method:
1. Mix all the above ingredients and
add sufficient water to form a soft
dough.
2. Put on a hot tawa into thin circles
using wet hand.
Practicals 224

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3. Batch number
Experiment No 3
4. Date of manufacturing
5. Best before/Use bu
Aim:
6. Retail sale price
Draw a food label with all the
specifications mentioned below for a 7. Vegetarian/Non Vegetarian
pickle you have prepared mask
8. List of Ingredients
Equipment needed: 9. Net content in terms of weight
Pan, laddle, bowl or size
1. Preparing a pickle 10. Certification mark
Pickling 11. Instructions for storing/Usage
Gooseberry pickle 12. Warning (in case of spoiled

food)
Ingredients:
Ingredients Quantity
Gooseberry - 100 gms
Oil - 25 gms
Salt, Chillie powder - To taste
Roasted mustard and - 1/2 tsp
fenugreek powder
Method:
Wash gooseberry and steam for
10 minutes. Cut in to pieces and saute
with oil, salt and chillie powder. When
gooseberry is cooked add mustard and
fenugreek powder finally, saute for
2 minutes and remove from fire. Store
in a dry, clean bottle can be used for
3-4 days
2. Draw a label with following
information for the prepared pickle
1. Registered brand name
2. Manufacturers name and

address
225 Practicals

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Materials required:
Experiment No 4
Milk, honey, Sugar, Chilly powder,
Black pepper, cotton wick of test tube
Aim:
To identify common food
adulterants found in food substances
S.No Food item Adulterant Test Inference

1. Milk Water 1. Lactometer reading should Adulterated/Not
not be less than 1.026 adulterated
2. Drop of pure milk flows
slowly leaving a white trail
behind whereas adulterated
milk with water will flow
immediately.
2. Honey Molasses A cotton wick dipped in Adulterated/Not
pure honey when lighted adulterated
with a match stick burns. If
adulterated the presence of
water will not allow the honey
to burn.
3. Sugar Chalk Powder Dissolve in a glass of water, Adulterated/Not
chalk will settle down at the adulterated
bottom
4. Chilli Stones Any grittiness present may be Adulterated/Not
powder felt by tapping the sediment at adulterated
the bottom of glass confirms
the presence of brick powder or
sand.
5. Black Papaya seeds Papaya seeds give a repulsive Adulterated/Not
Pepper flavour distinct from the bite of adulterated
black pepper
Practicals 226

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Method:
Experiment No 5
zzMix fabric dye with water.
Aim: zzFor darker or brighter colors, use
twice the amount of dye
To equip the children about tie-dye
zzStir well using the metal spoon for the
process
dye to mix well with the water
Tie-dye is a resist dyeing technique
zzAfter the dye solution is ready, make
knots in the fabric and then dip in the
colored solution then the fabric can be
dried.
zzFor cotton items add a cup of salt to
the dye bath to bring out the color
zzFor silk, wool or nylon add 1 cup of
white vinegar to protect the material
Note:
zzHeat adequate water in a water bath
and add required dye color, salt to
The process of tie and dye consists
make dye solution
of folding, twisting, pleating or crumpling
fabric or garment. Then bind with string zzKnots can be made by using rubber
or rubber bands, followed by application band or strings
of dyes. Tie and dye process is called resist zzRubber gloves can be worn by the
dyeing as they partially or completely person to protect the hands from the
prevent the applied dye from coloring the dye and the hot water.
fabric. Bright, saturated primary colors
and bold patterns are used in tie and dye Discussion:
process.
Material used:
Fabric - Either cotton, silk,
wool or nylon
Salt - as required
Water - as required
White vinegar - as needed
Metal spoon
Water bottle
Dye colours / Water colours / Fabric
paint/ink
227 Practicals

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4. Start from centre and move towards

Experiment No 6 periphery in the arrangement.
5. Fill the flower vase with enough
Aim:
water to dip the stem ends.
To prepare a simple flower
6. Sprinkle salt, sugar or suitable
arrangement for a living room with locally
preservative to keep up the freshness
available flower
of flower for long.
Things required: 7. All the principles of design should be

followed for pleasing effects.
Flowers, filler leavers, pin holder,
scissors, water and vase. 8. Display the flower arrangement
beautifully on a centre table.
Method:
1. A simple flower arrangement is mass
arrangement which emphasizes
a large number of flowers as a
whole unit, rather than individual
branches or flowers. A mass
arrangement always represents a
thick full-bodied look.
2. Arrange the flowers first and then fill
up with leaves and twigs.
3. Have big bright flowers at the bottom
and small light coloured flowers on
Mass arrangement
higher levels.
Practicals 228

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colour is produced. There are six

Experiment No 7 intermediate colours.
4. Neutral colours are black, white and
Aim: grey
To draw and learn Prang colour 5. Warm colours are yellow, orange and
chart depicting various colours to red
understand colour harmonies in Rangoli.
6. Cool colours are blue and green
Objectives: Things needed:

a) To identify and understand Prang Paper, colour pencils, ruler, white
colour chart. kolapodi and colour powders.
b) To learn colour combinations by
drawing prang colour chart in the PRANG COLOUR CHART
form of rangoli.
Details:
Prang System is an organization of
colours and shows relationships between
colours. Colours may be divided into five
classes: Primary, binary, intermediate,
tertiary and quaternary.
1. Primary colours: All colours may
be obtained by mixing in various
proportions three fundamental
hues: red (R), Yellow (Y), and blue
(B). These are called the three
primary colours, because they are PRANG COLOUR
the elements in the use of pigment.
They are the only hues in pigment YELLOW
YELLOW YELLOW
that cannot be obtained by mixing GREEN ORANGE
other hues. GREEN ORANGE
2. Secondary colours: When two SECONDARY

COLOUR
primary colours are mixed in equal PRANG

ORANGE
COLOUR
GREEN
RED
BLUE
proportions, we get secondary WHEEL

colours. PRIMARY
COLOUR
3. Intermediate Colours: When a BLUE RED

primary and an adjacent secondary BLUE RED
PURPLE PURPLE
colour is mixed an intermediate PURPLE
229 Practicals

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2. Draw the frock with designs

Experiment No 8
3. Now, take the clay of different
colors, and flatten it according to
Aim: the patterns decided. After flatteing,
To prepare a toy for a preschool shape it
child 4. Fill the flattened and sharpened clay
patterns on the dress as per your
Materials needed: taste
Coloured paper, chart, felt cloth, 5. Place the clay for the body, face and
clay arms also
6. Now a beautiful cindrella is ready to
tell story to the preschool children
Note:
1. Children can be initiated to make
the toy model
2. It helps the children to co-ordinate
their finger, muscle and eye co-
ordination
Method of preparation for toy 3. It helps to focus and concentrate on
1. Draw cindrella picture on a white shapes and patterns
chart
Practicals 230

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Preparation
Experiment No 9
zzDry roast moong dhal for 2 mins, do
Aim: not let it brown. Now add 2 cups of
water to it. Pressure cook for 4 whistles
To prepare any one and traditional in medium flame.
sweet and savory
zzOnce pressure releases by itself, take it
in a blender and blend it until smooth.
Ashoka Halwa
It may look watery but will be perfect
Ashoka Halwa recipe a very famous as it thickness.
sweet in Thiruvaiyuru in Thanjavur
zzSee the texture; it should be smooth,
District. This Halwa is made using moong
Set aside. In a small pan add 2 tsp
dhal (Passiparuppu).
ghee, add cashews and fry until golden
brown, remove it.
zzNow add wheat flour and fry for
2 mins. Switch off and set aside.
zzNow in a thick bottomed kadai, add
moong dhal paste along with sugar.
Switch on the flame and mix it well,
it will be goey at this stage add wheat
flour mixture.
zzMix well then add red and orange food
color, mix it well with a ladle
zzNow keep cooking in low medium
flame and keep adding the remaining
ghee spoon by spoon, keep stirring.
It will start to thicken. Add ghee, and
Ingredients keep cooking.
zzYellow split Moong Dhal –1/2 cup zzIt will start to roll and leave the sides
zzWater – 2cup of the pan and leave ghee at the sides.
zzWheat flour – 1/8 cup After sometime the ghee will be
absorbed. Now add fried cashews and
zzSugar – 1 cup
cardamom powder.
zzMelted ghee –1/3 cup
zzMix well, and cook for few more mins
zzCardamom Powder – ¼ tsp
until the mixture turns glossy and
zzBroken Cashew nut – 1.5 tsp start to roll nicely. This is the correct
zzFood color – Red and Orange 1 drop stage, switch off.
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Notes Ingredients:
zzUse a thick bottomed kadai. Be patient zzRice Flour – 1 cup

and keep stirring. zzUrad Flour – 1 tsp
zzThe halwa will become thick with zzAjwain/ Omam – ½ tsp
time, heat it while serving so that ghee zzButter – ½ tsp
oozes out. zzSalt to taste
zzThe ghee measure should be almost zzOil to Deep Fry
equal or little less than the quantity of
moong dhal. Preparation:
zzIn a bowl mix together rice flour, salt,
Manapparai Murukku: butter and omam.
Manapparai Murukku is very zzAdd enough water to make soft dough.
famous among the varieties of murukku zzLoad a murukku press with dough.
available in Tamil Nadu. Murukku
zzHeat oil in a pan
business is very native to this town and
people earn, as the murukku is so special zzIn a small plate press out small
and people love to have them. murukku and transfer it to hot oil.
zzDeep fry until the sizzling stops.
zzDrain oil and transfer to a plate.
zzWhen completely cool, store in air
tight jar.
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Preparation
Experiment No 10
zzWash the Thuthuvalai leaves nicely.
To prepare two food items using
medicinal plants to treat cold. Common zzSoak all the dried ingredients for 2
cold is a viral infection of nose and throat hours
children younger than six are at greater zzGrind all the ingredients into red
risks of colds. Some medicinal plants are chilies, cumin seeds, pepper and
used to treat common. ginger. Grind it to a fine paste.
zzLeave it aside for 15 minutes
Common cold
zzThen place the dosa pan and prepare
i. Thuthuvalai for cold and cough: This
Adai or dosa based on consistency.
herb is effective for treating cough,
cold and asthma. It works effectively
on throat irritation and itching.
Consumption of Thuthuvalai reduces
the congestion of nose, chest and in
treatment of tuberculosis.
Recipe using Thuthuvalai for
treating cold
Thuthuvalai Adai / Dosai
Ingredients
zzRaw rice – 1 cup
zzParboiled rice – 1 cup
zzGram dhal – 2 tsp
zzToor dhal – 2 tsp ii. Herbal Kashayam:
zzPepper – few
zzCumin seeds – few Ingredients
zzRed chilies – 3 or 4 zzKarpuravalli – 3 leaves
zzThuthuvalai leaves – 1cup zzWater – 2 cup
zzGinger – 1 piece zzTulsi – 3 leaves
zzSalt to taste zzBetal leaves – 3 leaves
zzCrushed pepper – ½ tsp
zzCrushed ginger – ½ tsp
zzJaggery/panarkandu – 1tsp
233 Practicals

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Preparation
zzBoil 2 cups of water
zzAdd all the ingredients together
zzClose with the lid
zzBoil for 5 minutes
zzFilter the mixture
zzServe the Kashayam hot
zzConsumption pattern: Have 2 to 3 times a
day to get maximum relief from cold and
cough.
Practicals 234

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Glossary
Absorbency Capable of absorbing heat, light, moisture etc.

Adulteration when some substances are either added or removed from a
product which changes its composition, nature or quality .
Adulteration Refers to mixing of an inferior and sometimes harmful
quality substances with food or drink intended to be sold.
Aesthetic sense appreciation of beauty
Anthelmintic medicine used to destroy parasitic worms
Antibiotic medicine that inhibits or destroys the growth of
microorganisms.
Antioxidants A group of substances that prevent the damage by free
radicals.
Appropriate suitable for a particular person, place, condition etc.
Appropriate Suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion
Aptitude It is the ability of entrepreneurs to learn new competencies
related to enterprise management
Atherosclerosis Thickening of the walls of blood vessels by deposits of fatty
materials.
Black marketing illicit trade in goods or commodities in violation of official
regulations
Blood clot A semi-solid mass consisting of a mesh of a protein, in
which various blood cells are trapped.
Built-in- cupboard cabinet attached with wall
Calorie Unit used to indicate the energy value of foods. ie.,
kilocalories(kcals)
Cognitive Mental process of knowing, learning and understanding
Commercial Buying and selling
Competencies It is a cluster of knowledge, skills, altitude, experiences and
expertise of a person in a particular context
Complementary opposite
Consumer Is a person who buys goods and services or use of public
utilities or natural resources
Crease A line or ridge produced on paper or cloth by folding,
pressing, or crushing.
Deceptive- misleading believe about something which is not true
Glossary 235
XII Std - Home Science EM_Glossary.indd 235 07-12-2021 12.35.23 PM

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Diuresis Increased secretion of urine.

Doubtful Not clear
Drawback disadvantage/Linderance
Empower authority or power to do something
Epigastric pain- discomfort right below the ribs in the area of your upper
abdomen
Essential fatty acids Fatty acids which are not made in the human body and
(EFA) must be supplied through the diet. They are linoleic acid,
n-6 and alpha linolenic acid, n-3.
Extrude thrust or force out.
Fabian entrepreneur Fabian entrepreneur is one who is very cautious in taking
the decisions, very skeptical and takes calculative steps
Feasibility It is a systematic investigation of relevance, merit and
quality of any significant enterprise idea
Febrifuge medicine used to reduce fever
Flattulence the accumulation of gas in the alimentary canal.
Food contamination presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms in
food, which can cause illness.
Food poisoning The illness resulting from eating food or drinking water
containing bacteria, viruses, pesticides, or toxins.
Food safety A scientific discipline describing handling, preparation,
and storage of food in ways that prevent food-borne
illness.
Food Storage Food storage allows food to be eaten for some time after
harvest rather immediately.
Fundamental -forming the base from which everything else develops
Glomerular the test to measure level of kidney function and determine
filtration rate the stage of kidney diseases
Gruel - a thin liquid food or other meal boiled in water or milk
Hemorrhage- an escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel.
Hormones chemical substance produced by body
Hypermotility- excessive motility of all or part of the gastrointestinal tract
Illegal not according to or authorized by law
Imitation copying or resembling something of better quality
Inflammation The reaction of the tissues to injury, characterized
clinically by heat, swelling, redness and pain.
Interact communicate and react
Ischemia lack of blood supply to a tissue resulting in reduced oxygen
supply.
Glossary 236

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Isoflavones A phytochemical found in (especially, soyabeans) that may

have cancer-preventing properties
Junk food It is food containing high levels of calories from sugar or
fat with little fiber, protein, vitamins or minerals
Loft roof storage space
Malpractice- an injurious, negligent or improper practice
Misleading giving the wrong idea or impression.
Necrosis cell death caused by progressive enzyme breakdown
One-on-one Individual
Peg board Perforated hardboard which is pre-drilled with evenly
spaced holes. The holes are used to accept pegs or hooks to
support various items, such as frying and sauce pans
Physique physical structure of the body
Preschool The place with school building
Preschoolers Those who join and study
Public distribution It is a government chain of shops distributing basic food
agencies and non-food commodities to the needy sections of the
society at very cheap prices.
Purgatives medicine used to get rid of unwanted waste from body
Rapid Fast
Sale gimmicks It is a creative way to attract attention to business, product
or service and to increase urge to purchase in the mind of
customers.
Scarcity shortage in supply
Security defense
Self esteem -self respect
Stroke a sudden condition that results from blocking or bleeding
of blood vessels in the brain, resulting in paralysis
Subsidy Money given as part of the cost of something to help or
encourage it to happen
Supervise watch over
Tweezers a small instrument like a pair of pincers for plucking out
hairs and plucking out hairs and picking up small objects
Unfolding to open
Weeds wild plant growing in unwanted place
Working capital It is the money required to be invested in day-to-day operations
of the enterprise like raw material, finished products etc
Zollinger Elison syndrome – a typical peptic ulcer disease,
characterized by enzyme gastric hyperacidity
Glossary 237

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HOME SCIENCE – Class XII

List of Authors and Reviewers
Reviewers Academic Coordinators
Dr. N. Sowmya, BALASUBRAMANIAN. S.
Associate professor and Head, Deputy Director, SCERT,
Department of Home Science, D.P.I campus,
Quaid-E-Millath Government College for Women, Nungambakkam, Chennai
Chennai 2
THANGAMUNEESWARI. M
Dr. Devi Manohar B.T.Assistant
Associate Professor, SCERT,
Department of Home Science, DPI Campus, Chennai-6
Anna adarsh College, Chennai 40.
Compiled By
R. MYTHILI
Domain Experts P.G.Assistant
Govt Hobart Hr. Sec. School,
Dr. ANNA RANGINI CHELLAPPA Chennai-14.
Associate Professor and Head of the Department,
Department of Home Science, R. MOHANALAKSHMI
Dr. Ambedkar Govt Arts College, P.G.Assistant
Vyasarpadi, Chennai. Sivakasi Hindu Nadar Mat. Hr. Sec. School,
Chennai-8
Authors
Dr. VIJAYALAKSHMI PRIYA . Y
Art and Design Team
Associate Professor, Illustration
Department of Home Science, Muthukumar R
Dr. Ambedkar Govt Arts College,
Vyasarpadi, Chennai.
Layout
Dr. ANNETTE BEATRICE D
Associate Professor, V.S. John Smith
Department of Home Science, Manohar Radhakrishnan
Women’s Christian College, Adison Raj A
Nungambakkam, Chennai – 6. Prasanth C
MUTHU MEENAKSHI .P WRAPPER DESIGN.

Assistant Professor,
Department of Nutrition FSM and Dietetics, KATHIR ARUMUGAM. R.
Ethiraj College for Women
Chennai. In-House
S.VIJAYAPRIYA QC - RAJESH THANGAPPAN,
Assistant Professor,
Deptartment of Home Science, Co-ordination
Queen Mary”s College, Chennai. Ramesh Munisamy
VARALAKSHMI RAJAM Y, Typist
Associate prof and Head Kavitha, SCERT, Chennai
Department of Clinical Nutrition,
Ethiraj College Chennai ICT Coordinator
RAMANABAI G.
P.G Assistant, RUBY PACKIAM
Sarojini Varadappan Girls Hr. Sec School,
Poonamallee, Chennai. B.T.Asst PUMS, K.K.Nagar,
Thiruttani District
SEENITHAI R
P.G Assistant
Chennai Girls Hr. Sec. School, Q.R Code Team.
Rotler Street, Chennai
J.F. PAUL EDWIN ROY, B.T,
Dr. JERIS PRETIMA V.P PUMS -Rakkipatty, Salem.
P.G Assistant,
Chennai Girls Hr.Sec. School, M. SARAVANAN, B.T,
Nungambakkam, Chennai. G.G.H.S.S, Puthupalayam,
Dr. MUTHU MEENAKSHI R Vazhapadi, Salem.
P.G Assistant,
TELC Girls Hr. Sec. School, S. ALBERT VALAVAN BABU, B.T,
Usilampatti, Madurai. G.H.S, Perumal Kovil,
Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.

Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

Home Science_XII_Front.indd 1 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019

Revised Edition - 2020, 2022

(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

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Home Science_XII_Front.indd 3 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

Home Science_XII_Front.indd 4 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

Home Science_XII_Front.indd 5 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

Home Science_XII_Front.indd 6 11-12-2021 10.22.15 PM

1 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

XII Std - Home Science EM_Unit 1.indd 1 07-12-2021 12.25.14 PM

Therefore, normal diet is modified to meet

UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diets 2

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low and is used only for limited periods of ii Soft Diet

Liquid diets may be clear- liquid or

3 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

XII Std - Home Science EM_Unit 1.indd 3 07-12-2021 12.25.15 PM

iv Fibre Restricted Diet Metabolic Changes in Fever

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Principles of Diet Foods to be

5 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

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UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diets 6

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Functions of Small Intestine

7 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

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Stress Ulcer: Stress ulcer may occur

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2 Genetic factors: It is common in zzWeight loss

zzHypermotility- excessive motility of Gastritis is the inflammation and

9 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

XII Std - Home Science EM_Unit 1.indd 9 07-12-2021 12.25.18 PM

Dietary Guidelines Symptoms of Diarrhoea

UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diets 10

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Fluid: Plenty of fluid, 3 to 4 litres of

11 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

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zzAbdominal swelling Sources:

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by the body, glycogen is converted to vi. Detoxification

13 Therapeutic Diets UNIT 1

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Causes of Hepatitis Fats: Fats make the food more

UNIT 1 Therapeutic Diets 14

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NORMAL LIVER LIVER WITH CIRRHOSIS

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1.5.1 Obesity Eating Habits

ADIPOSE TISSUE DISTRIBUTION IN MEN AND WOMEN

Management of diabetes are preferred. Root vegetables can be

E. Other lifestyle modifications