PROFESSOR SERIES

Professor easy notes for

CHAPTER NO 06

“chemical bonding”
Class 11th
“Solved Exercise + Old papers of board"

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 55 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

Important Short questions (Exercise is also added)

1) Define dipole moment. Give its various units. (2007) (2013) (2018)
OR
Define dipole moment. Give it’s mathematically expression. (2008) (2013) (2015)
It can be defined as “The product of the electric charge (q) and the distance between the positive and
negative centers (r)”.
µ =q×r
Units:
SI unit of dipole moment is mC (meter coulomb). For a unit negative charge at a distance of 100 pm
from a unit positive charge we have
µ = (1.6022 × 10-19) × (100 ×10-12 m) = 1.6022 × 10-29 mC.
mC is a bigger unit. The other unit of dipole unit Debye. Muhammad Shahid
A-One Professors Academy of
1D = 3.336 × 10-30 mC
sciences Jauharabad
1.6022 ×10−29
µ= = 4.8 D
3.366 ×10−30
2) Define bond order. Calculate the bond order of nitrogen molecule. (2007)
OR
Define bond order. Give an example. (2017)
The number of bonds formed between two atoms after the atomic orbitals overlap, is called the bond
order. It is taken half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons and anti-bonding
electrons.
Number of electron in bonding MO orbitasl − Number of electron in anti−bonding MO
Bond Order =
2
The bond order of nitrogen molecule can calculated as
Number of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals =8
Number of electrons in anti-bonding molecular orbitals =2
8−2 6
Bond Order = = =3
2 2
So nitrogen can make three bonds.
N N2 N

σ* (2px)
A.B.M.O It has been made to make idea clear
about bonding and anti-bonding
π* (2py) π* (2pz) molecular orbitals. Student can
Energy

2pz 2py 2px 2px 2py 2pz make it in final exam to ensure
A.O A.O their full marks. Thanks
σ (2px)
B.M.O

π(2py) π(2pz)

A.B.M.O
σ* (2s)

2s 2s
A.O A.O

σ (2s)
B.M.O

3) The radius of anion is always larger than its parent atom. Why? (2007) (2008) (2017)
The ionic radii of negative ions are always larger than the size of their parent atoms because number of
electron increases but the nuclear charge on the nucleus remains same, moreover the addition of one or
more electrons in the shell of a neutral atom increases the repulsion b/w the electrons causing expansion
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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 56 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

of the shell. Therefore hold of nucleus on outer electrons decreases resulting the increase in the ionic
radius e.g. radius of F atom is 72 pm while that of F- ion is 136 pm.
4) Why the energy of anti-bonding molecular orbital is higher than corresponding bonding
molecular orbital? (2007)
In anti-bonding molecular orbital, the electron density is concentrated outside the region between two
nuclei. Thus, an electron in an anti-bonding molecular orbital is actually repelled from the bonding
region and have higher energy and is less stable. While in bonding molecular orbital the electron
density is concentrated between two nuclei. Thus an electron in bonding molecular orbital is strongly
attracted by both nuclei having lower energy and are more stable. Hence energy of A.B.M.O is
greater than B.M.O.
5) Sigma bonds are stronger than pi (π) bond. Why? (2008) (2011) (2012) (2013) (2015) (2018)
Sigma bond is formed by linear overlap of atomic orbitals while pi (π) bond is formed by parallel
overlap of atomic orbitals. Greater the area of overlapping stronger will be the bond. The overlapping
area in sigma bond is more than pi (π) bond. Hence Sigma bonds are stronger than pi (π) bond.
6) Ionization energy increases along the period of periodic table. Why? (2008)
In the period of periodic table the outer shell remains the same, atomic size decreases and effective
nuclear charge increases which makes the removal of an electron difficult hence ionization energy
increases in the period of periodic table.
7) Why the first electron affinity for most of the element is negative while the second electron
affinity for all the element is positive. (2009)
The first electron affinity for most of the element is negative because 1st electron is added in neutral
atom. When second electron is added in a uni-negative ion, the incoming electron is repelled by the
already present negative charge and energy is absorbed therefore the first electron affinity for most of
the element is negative while the second electron affinity for all the element is positive e.g.
O + e-  O- E.A = -141 kJ/mol
O- + e-  O2- E.A = +780 kJ/mol
8) Why atomic radius increase down the group? (2009) (2016)
The increase in atomic radii from top to bottom in a group is due to increase in the number of
shells and the screening effect. Thus electrostatic forces of attraction between nucleus and
valence shell electrons decreases in result atomic radius increases.
9) How MOT justifies that Helium atoms cannot make He2? (2009) (2013) (2015)
The electronic configuration of Helium is 1s2. The 1s orbitals of He-atoms combine to form two
molecular orbitals. The two electrons enter in B.M.O and remaining two enter in A.B.M.O.
The bond order for He2 is zero. Thus He2 molecule does not form.
The bond order of helium molecule can calculated as
Number of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals =2
Number of electrons in anti-bonding molecular orbitals =2
2−2 0
Bond Order = = =0
2 2

He He2 He
Muhammad Shahid
A-One Professors Academy of
Energy

A.B.M.O sciences Jauharabad

σ* (1s)

1s 1s
A.O A.O

σ (1s) B.M.O

10) Bond distance is the compromise distance between atoms. Justify it. (2010)
When two atoms come close to each other, both attractive and repulsive forces are developed
between them simultaneously. However, at the time of bond formation, attractive forces dominate the
repulsive forces and two atoms are bonded to each other having minimum energy. Thus it is called
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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 57 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

the bond length or bond distance or compromise distance of two atoms. So Bond distance is the
compromise distance between atoms.
11) Why atomic radius cannot be measured accurately? (2010)
The atomic radius cannot be measured accurately because
 There is no sharp boundary of an atom.
 The electronic probability distribution is affected by nearby atoms.
12) Define ionization energy. How does it vary in the periodic table? (2010)
Ionization energy can be defined as “The minimum amount of energy which is required to remove an
electron from the valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom to form a positive ion is called ionization
energy” e.g.
Na  Na+ + e- I.E = 496 kJ/mol
Trend in Group:
Ionization energy decrease down the group because with increase in size, there is more shielding,
hence the force of attraction between nucleus and valence shell decreases, so removal of an electron
becomes easy with less use of energy.
Trend in period:
In the period of periodic table the outer shell remains the same while effective nuclear charge increases
which makes the removal of an electron difficult hence ionization energy increases in the period.
13) Define coordinate covalent bond and give its two example. (2010) (2013)
It can be defined as
“A coordinate covalent bond is formed between two atoms when the shared pair of electrons is
donated by one of the bonded atom”. The atom which donates the electron is called “donor” and the
atom which accepts the electron is called an acceptor”. For example the formation of ammonium ion
(NH4+) and Hydronium ion.
+ H
H H O + +
x
+
x
H
+ H O
+ H H
H x N H x N H H H
x x
H H Hydronium ion
,
14) Define polar covalent bond with example. (2011)
A covalent bond between two different atoms in which the shared electron pair is more attracted
towards the more electronegative atom and the bonded atoms acquire partial positive and negative
charge is called polar covalent bond. For example bond in HCl (Hδ+- Clδ-) HF H2O etc.
15) Why MOT is superior to VBT? (2011) (2013) (2015) (2016)
Molecular orbital theory (MOT) explains the no bond formation between noble gases. It also
accounts the observed paramagnetic behaviour of O2. The excited states in molecules can easily be
explained by MOT. While Valence bond theory (VBT) does not give such answers thus MOT is
superior to VBT.
16) Differentiate between bonding molecular orbital and anti-bonding molecular orbital? (2012)
Sr.No Bonding molecular orbital Anti-bonding molecular orbital
In bonding molecular orbital the In anti-bonding molecular orbital, the
1 electron density is concentrated electron density is concentrated outside
between two nuclei. the region between two nuclei.
An electron in bonding molecular An electron in an anti-bonding molecular
2 orbital is strongly attracted by both orbital is actually repelled from the
nuclei having lower energy. bonding region.
Bonding molecular orbital is more Anti-bonding molecular orbital is less
3
stable. stable.
4 For example σ and π bond. For example σ* and π* bond.

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 58 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

17) Dipole moment of CO2 is zero but that of H2O is 1.85D. Why? (2012) (2017)
CO2 has linear structure. In this structure the individual bond moment cancel the effect of each other
therefore dipole moment becomes zero. While H2O has angular or bent structure in which individual
bond moments do not cancel the effect of each other. Hence it has dipole moment 1.85D.
CO2 µ = 0 H2O µ = 1.85 D
δ-
O
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ+ Muhammad Shahid
O C O H H
A-One Professors Academy of
Resultant Dipole Moment
sciences Jauharabad
18) Define bond length and bond energy. (2012)
Bond length:
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms forming a covalent bond is called bond length. For
example the bond length of C-C bond in aliphatic hydrocarbons is 154 pm.
Bond energy:
The average energy required to break one mole of similar bonds in a substance is called bond energy.
Or it can also be defined as “Bond energy is a measure of strength of a bond”.
19) Why the ionization energies values decrease down the group although nuclear charge increases. (2012)
The ionization energy decrease in a group. Because when we move down the group, the atomic
size increases and more shells are added between nucleus and valance shell electrons. These
additional shells decreases the electrostatic force felt by electrons present in the valance shell. As
a result the removal of electron becomes easy so ionization energy decreases down the group
although nuclear charge increases.
20) The bond angles of H2O and NH3 are not 109.5o like that of CH4. Although O and N-atoms are
sp3 hybridized. (2012) (2014)
CH4, H2O and NH3 undergo sp3 hybridization. All should have bond angle 109.5o.
In CH4, there is no lone pair of electron so it have regular tetrahedral structure and bond angle is
109.5o.
In NH3, there is one lone pair of electron which exert repulsion on bond pair thus bond angle is
reduced 109.5o to 107.5o.
In H2O, there are two lone pair of electron which exert more repulsions on bond pairs thus bond
angle is reduced 109.5o to 104.5o. Hence the bond angles of H2O and NH3 are not 109.5o like that of
CH4.
21) The bond energy of multiple bonds are higher than single bond. Why? (2012)
The multiple bonds are stronger than single bond. For example the triple is stronger than double bond
which is stronger than single bond.
C C > C C > C C
Greater the number of bonds greater will be the bond energy. Therefore the bond energy of multiple
bonds are higher than single bond.
22) Explain that ionization energy is the index of metallic character. (2013)
Metals have low ionization energies because the electron of metals are loosely held due to their large
size. Thus, metals can lose electron easily when they undergo chemical reaction. Elements having
high values of ionization energy are non-metallic in nature. So ionization energy is the index of
metallic character.
23) Why the lone pair of electrons on an atom occupy more space? (2013) (2016)
A bonding pair of electron is under the influence of two nuclei of bonding atoms. It is attracted by
both nuclei of atoms. While lone pair electrons are under the influence of only one atom. Because a
lone pair experiences less nuclear attraction, its electronic charge is spread out more in space than for
bonding pair. Therefore the lone pair of electrons on an atom occupy more space.
24) Write the Lewis structure of CS2 and CCl4? (2014)
The Lewis structure of CS2 and CCl4 is given following.

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 59 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES
Cl
x

Cl x C x Cl S xx C xx S
x

Cl
25) Why repulsive forces are less between bond pairs than lone pair? (2014)
A bonding pair of electron is under the influence of two nuclei of bonding atoms. It is attracted by
both nuclei of atoms. While lone pair electrons are under the influence of only one atom. Because a
lone pair experiences less nuclear attraction, its electronic charge is spread out more in space than for
bonding pair. Therefore repulsive forces are less between bond pairs than lone pair.
26) Why the atomic radius decrease along period and increase along group? (2015)
The atomic size decreases in a period because
i. With increase in atomic number, the effective nuclear charge increases gradually because of
addition of more and more protons in the nucleus.
ii. On the other hand addition of electron take place in the same valance shell i.e. shell number do not
increases.
While atomic radius increases along group
27) Define ionic bond. Give one example. (2015)
It can be defined as “The bond formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons form an
atom with low ionization energy to another atom with high electron affinity is called ionic bond”. For
example the formation of NaCl.
Na  Na+ + e-
Cl + e-  Cl-
Na+ + Cl-  NaCl
28) What factors influence ionization energy? (2015)
Ionization energy depends upon the following factors.
 Atomic size
 Shielding effect
 Effective nuclear charge
 Nature of orbital.
29) What is paramagnetic character? Give the reason for paramagnetic character of oxygen. (2015)
The substances which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic field are called paramagnetic
substances and this phenomenon is known as paramagnetic character. This is arises due to presence
of unpaired electrons. Oxygen shows paramagnetic character because it has two unpaired electrons.
O O2 O

Unpaired
electron causing
σ* (2px) paramagnetic
A.B.M.O behaviour

π* (2py) π* (2pz)
Energy

2pz 2py 2px 2px 2py 2pz

A.O A.O
π(2py) π(2pz)
B.M.O

σ (2px)
Muhammad Shahid
A.B.M.O A-One Professors Academy of
σ (2s)
* sciences Jauharabad
2s 2s
A.O A.O

σ (2s)
B.M.O

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 60 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

30) How the % ionic character of the polar bond can be determined? (2016)
In order to determine the %age of ionic character of polar bond, we should know the actual dipole
moment µ obs of the molecule and actual bond length.
μ
%age of ionic character = obs × 100
μ ionic
µ ionic is obtained by multiplying the bond length with the charge of electron i.e. µ ionic = q × r
31) Cationic radius is smaller than parent atom. Why? (2017)
The cationic radius is smaller than parent atom because the removal of one or more electron from
neutral atom usually result in loss of outermost shell, it disturbs the proton-electron ratio, moreover
the effective nuclear charge increases, which reduces the size of orbit by pulling the electron inwards.
Hence the size decreases.
32) What is octet rule? Give one example. (2017)
OR
Explain the octet rule with one example. (2017)
Octet rule:
It can be defined as “The tendency of atoms to attain a maximum of eight electrons in the valence shell
or outer most shell is known as the octet rule”. Having 8 electrons in the valance shell is a sign of
stability. For example noble gases.
33) Why NH3 can form co-ordinate covalent bond with H+ but CH4 not? (2017)
A coordinate covalent bond is formed between two atoms when the shared pair of electrons is
donated by one of the bonded atom.
In NH3, nitrogen has a lone pair of electron so it can make bond with H+ by donating pair of electron.
While in CH4 there is no lone pair of electrons so it cannot make coordinate covalent bond with H+.
34) Draw the geometry of SO2 and SO3 on the basis of VSEPR theory. (2017)
According to VSEPR theory SO2 and SO3 are AB3 type molecules with multiple bonding. In SO2,
one corner is occupied by a lone pair and two corners each by S=O double bond. It has bent or
angular structure. While in SO3, each corner is occupied by S=O double bond. It has perfectly
triangular structure.
O
S S
O O, O O
35) How electron affinity changes in a group? (2018)
Electron affinity decreases in a group due to increase in number of shells and shielding effect.
Because due to successive increase of electronic shells atomic radii increases in a group. This exerts a
shielding effect on the force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electrons.
36) How a co-ordinate covalent bond differs from a covalent bond? (2018)
Sr.No Coordinate covalent bond Covalent bond
A coordinate covalent bond is formed
A covalent bond is formed by mutual
between two atoms when the shared
1 sharing of electrons between two
pair of electrons is donated by one of
the bonded atom.
atoms.
There should be at least one lone There is no need of presence of lone
2
pair of electron. pair of electron.
One of the bonded atom is known
3 as “Donor” and other is known No idea of donor or acceptor.
“Acceptor”.
For example of formation of
4 For example formation of Cl2, F2 etc.
ammonium ion etc.

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 61 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

37) Reactions between ionic compounds are very rapid. Give reason. (2018)
The ionic compounds exist in the form of ions in an aqueous solution. The chemical reactions
between ions occur rapidly. Because on mixing two solutions, no bond have to be broken, only a new
bond is formed. The ionic compound have already been broken while forming their aqueous solution.
For example, addition of silver nitrate solution to sodium chloride solution produces a white
precipitate of silver chloride instantaneously.
38) Bond angle in water is 104.5o instead of 109.5o. give reason (2018)
In H2O, there are two lone pair of electrons which exert more repulsions on bond O
pairs thus bond angle is reduced 109.5o to 104.5o. Therefore Bond angle in water is +
104.5
+
o
o o
104.5 instead of 109.5 . H water H
39) π bond is more diffused than sigma (σ) bonds. Give reason. (2018)
Sigma (σ) bond is formed by head to head overlap of atomic orbitals of atoms and the electron
density is present between the nuclei. While π bond is formed by sideways overlap of atomic orbitals
and electron density is present above and below the line joining of two nuclei. Hence π bond is more
diffused than sigma (σ) bond.
40) Define ionic radii and covalent radii. (2018)
Atomic radius is defined as “The average distance between the nucleus and outermost orbit of an
atom, while considering the atom spherical e.g. Na has atomic radius 157 pm. While ionic radii is
defined as “The radius of the ion while considering it spherical” e.g. Na+ ion has ionic radii 95 pm.
41) In many cases, the distinction between a co-ordinate covalent bond and a covalent bond
vanishes after bond formation in NH4+, H3O+ and CH3NH3+. Explain with reason.
In many cases, the distinction between a co-ordinate covalent bond and a covalent bond vanishes
after bond formation in NH4+, H3O+ and CH3NH3+ because in NH4+, H3O+ and CH3NH3+ ions, it has
been experimentally found that all bonds are equal. Thus there is no distinction between a co-ordinate
covalent bond and a covalent bond.
42) No bond in chemistry is 100% ionic. Justify it.
The difference of electronegativity between the bonded atoms help us to decide the %age of ionic
nature in a compound. The maximum difference of E.N between two atoms for CsF is 3.2.
Calculations tell us that CsF has 92% ionic character and NaCl has 72% ionic character. No bond in
chemistry has ionic character more than 92%. Hence no bond in chemistry is 100% ionic.
43) The species NH2-, NH3 NH4+ have bond angles of 105o, 107.5o, and 109.5o respectively. Justify
these values by drawing their structures.

Sr.No NH2- NH3 NH4+

- 3 In NH3 nitrogen is sp3 In NH3+ nitrogen is sp3
In NH2 nitrogen is sp
hybridized, it forms three hybridized, it forms three
hybridized, it forms two
covalent bonds with covalent bonds and one
covalent bonds with
hydrogen atoms. There is coordinate covalent bond
hydrogen atoms. There are
one lone pair on nitrogen with hydrogen atoms. There
two lone pairs on nitrogen
atom. Hence according to is NO lone pair on nitrogen
atom. Hence according to
VSEPR theory, it will atom. Hence according to
1 VSEPR theory, it will have
have a triangular VSEPR theory, it will have
a bent structure. Since two
pyramidal structure. a regular tetrahedral
lone pairs exerts more
Since lone pair exerts structure. Hence the bond
repulsions on bond pairs.
more repulsions on bond angle will be 109.5o.
Hence the bond angle will
pairs. Hence the bond
be reduced to 109.5o to
angle will be reduced to
105o.
109.5o to 107.5o.

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 62 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

- +

N 109.5 o
2 N
N

107.5 o
o
105

44) The abnormality of bond length and bond strength in HI is less prominent than in HCl. Give
reason.
Chlorine has higher electronegativity than iodine. The bond length and bond energy depend upon the
electronegativity difference of bonded atoms. The E.N difference in HCl is higher than HI. Thus HCl
has higher polarity and greater attractive forces for binding the atoms than HI. Therefore the
abnormality of bond length and bond strength in HI is less prominent than in HCl
45) The dipole moment of CO2 and CS2 are zero, but that of SO2 is 1.61D. Give reason.
CO2 and CS2 have linear structure. In these structures the individual bond moment cancel the effect
of each other. Therefore dipole moment becomes zero. While SO2 has angular or bent structure in
which individual bond moments do not cancel the effect of each other. Hence it has dipole moment
1.61D.
CO2 µ = 0 CS2 µ = 0 SO2 µ = 1.61 D
Muhammad Shahid
δ+ A-One Professors Academy of
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ -
δ
S
δ - sciences Jauharabad
O C O S C S O O
Resultant Dipole Moment

46) Dipole moment of CO2 is zero that of CO is 0.12D. Why?

CO2 has linear structure. In this structure the individual bond moment cancel the effect of each other.
Therefore dipole moment becomes zero. While in CO the electronegativity of oxygen is more than C.
So the CO bond becomes polar and is directed from C to O. Hence the dipole moment of the CO is
0.12D.

CO2 µ = 0 CO µ = 0.12 D

δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
O C O C O

47) The melting points, boiling points, heat of vaporization and heat of sublimation of electrovalent
compounds are higher as compared with those of covalent bonds. Justify it
In electrovalent compounds i.e. ionic compounds the ions are held together by strong electrostatic
forces of attractions. A lot of energy is required to break these forces. While in covalent compounds.
weak intermolecular forces are present. These forces are easy to break than ionic forces. Hence the
melting points, boiling points, heat of vaporization and heat of sublimation of electrovalent
compounds are higher as compared with those of covalent bonds.

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CHAPTER # 6
CHEMICAL BONDING 63 PROFESSOR EASY NOTES

Important Long questions of previous board papers

(1) Write down the essential features of VSEPR theory also discuss the cases of water and
ammonia. (2007)
(2) How the bonding in the following molecules can be explained with respect to valence bond
theory. (2008)
(3) What is electronegativity? Discuss its variation in the periodic table. How it effects the bond
strength. (2009)
(4) Write the postulates of VSEPR theory and discuss the structure of NH3 with reference to this
theory. (2010) (2015)
(5) What is dipole moment? Give its various units also give its importance. (2011)
(6) Give important postulates of VSEPR theory. (2012) (2014)
(7) Define orbital hybridization. Explain the structure of CH4 on the basis of sp3 hybridization. (2012)
(8) What is orbital hybridization? Explain sp3 hybridization with two examples. (2013)
(9) Define bond energy and explain with the help of suitable example the effect of ionic character
on its value. (2013)
(10) Define dipole moment. Give its various units. How does it help to find out shapes of molecules?
Give examples. (2015)
(11) Write a note ionic bond by giving an example of KCl in detail. (2016)
(12) Define ionization energy. How ionization energy varies along the group and across the period. (2017)
(13) Explain Co-ordinate covalent bond. (2017)
(14) Write down main points of valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. (2018)
(15) Draw shapes of following molecules according to VSEPR theory. (2018)
(i) BeCl2 (ii) BF3 (iii) NH3 (iv) H2O

Things to remember:

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