y Ao jntroduction The development of lasers and optical fibers has brought q revolution in the field of communication systems. The on carried by light waves through an propagation of informati cted due to atmospheric conditions like open atmosphere was affe rain, fog, etc., ptical communication system, light To have an efficient © edium. waves should be transmitted through some guiding m This guiding medium is called optical fiber. The communication through optical fiber is known as optical communication or light-wave communication. js capable of carrying A light beam acting as a carrier wave and microwaves due More j. wi information than that of radiowaves ' . larger bandwidth at the speed of light. the world, fiber optics C ed ty in the most part of ; oval sed to transmit voice, video and digital data signals Ying 4; the light waves from one place to other place Here, i . . ic: “enal, t wave is some times called light signal or opt8.2 Engineering Physics - Structure of Optical Fiber ‘The optical fiber is a wave guide. It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core. The core has high refractive index n,. This core is surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called cladding (fig. 8.1). ‘The cladding has low refractive index ny. This cladding is covered by a jacket. It protects fiber from moisture and abrasion. Polyurethane jacket Cladding a x Core wy. wG Step ae Guiding mechanism ‘The light is transmitted through the fiber by the principle of total internal reflection. ‘The light which enters from one end of the fiber strikes the interface of core and cladding at a larger angle of incidence (Fig. 8.2). (greater than critical angle) Cladding Core (SANDY Fig 8.2 Guiding mechanism in an optical fiber Ss phis light beam undergoes tota} j, 83 nt aes 0108 the length of the fiber. ternal Teflection ang it Most of the light propagates along the vg out at the other end of the fiber (f we, the light waves to travel over a Jo o ia : wit loss of energy and optical fiber act, length of fiber ang 5 Pe Thus, fiber MB distance without © a8 a wave guide optical fiber cable i consists of a bundle of optical fibers ( , th | fiber as thin as human hair), Eanes of individual Total jnternal reflection in optical fiber ‘The optical fiber obeys the laws of reflection and refraction of light waves. Let us consider a light ray AO in a medium of higher refractive index n, incident on another medium of lower refractive index n, at the boundary XX’ This light ray is either reflected back into first medium or refracted through second medium (fig. 8.3). Denser medium \A ion Fig. 8.3 Total internal reflectior —a aA Engineering Physics - | SS The reflection or refraction of the light at the interface depends on angle of incidence and the difference in the speed of light in two media having different refractive indices. Case -1 The incident ray AO makes an angle 8, with normal in the medium of refractive index n,. This light ray is refracted into the medium of refractive index n,, a ~ ‘The refracted ray bends away from normal because the refractive index n, of first medium is greater than the refractive index n, of second medium. ie, n, > ny. Let 0, be the angle between the refracted ray and normal, thon @, > 0,. Case - 2 If the angle of incidence ‘0 is increased for a certain value equal to critical angle (8), the incident ray BO is refracted tthe interface and it just emerges along the boundary of Sanam te as OB’ If 6, = 6, then 0, = 90° If the angle of incidence ‘0; is greater than the critical angle of incidence ‘0,’, then the incident light ray CO is reflected back into the same medium as OC’ by total internal reflection (fig. 8.3). ae. Expression for critical angle 6, For the refraction of light, a relation between the angle of incidence (6,) and angle of refraction (8,) is given by Snell's law. — ver Optio : 85 7, sin 8,=n, sing (1 For total internal reflection 8,=8, and 9 = 99° (2) Substituting expression (2) in expression (1), we have fF. sin 90° = 1] Conditions for total internal reflection Total internal reflection occurs in the walls of optic fiber only in following two conditions: * The material of the fiber (core) should sare refractive index (n,) than that of the mate surrounding the fiber (74). : (between the * The light should be incident at an angle IL) greater path of the ray and normal to the fiber ws than critical angle 0, ——,Engineering Physics - | PRINCIPLE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBERS [Derivation for Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture] Consider the light propagation in an optical fiber (Fig. 8.4), The incident ray AO enters into core at an angle 0, to fiber axis. This incident ray is refracted along OB at an angle 6, in core. The refracted ray falls on the interface of core and cladding at the critical angle of incidence (0, = 90 -@,) and it moves along BC. . Acceptance angle Core ny Cladding 4 [a Re iced car RSS Xa Light eay, OY \ Qr> 2 a Ss 7 Any light ray which enters into core at an angle of incidence less than 0, has angle of refraction less than 6,- Therefore, the angle of incidence (90° — @,) at the core - cladding interface is more than the critical angle of incidence. Thus, the light ray is totally reflected back into core. OO ae a7 However, the light ray which enters a incidence greater than 0, at O, incident at B angle less than the critical angle, Now, this lj into the cladding region and it is absorbed, tan angle of strikes it at an ght ray is refracted Let n, and ny, and n, be the refractive indice of the core adding and surroundings respectively. Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point of incidence of the ray AO into core, ie, at O we have n, sin 0, =n, sin, a ny sin @, = —sin9, at . fea ae 2) sin’0, +0080, = 1 ' sin’ 0, = 1 - cos 8, 7 sing, = Vio ore and cladding, At the point B on the interface of © ‘Angle of incidence @, = 90- 8 . t B, we have Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the Poin mn sin (90° -0)="2 81090 or nn, 005 8,="2 = cos 6, once -yeot [ and sin oor= 1 asA 88 Engineering Physics - : iver Optics Thus, the light that enters within a o eceptance angle is confined and guided. This i ae : = ped Py) stsperty of light Propagation in = fiber. This cone is cat preptance cone. (In fig. 8.4, cone AA’ OA) called n, 89 cos 8, = ~ @) nm Substituting for cos 0, from eqn (3) in eqn (2), we have 2 s API sin 0, = = ie i (33) NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA) 0 ny The sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber is known as numerical aperture (NA). It denotes the light gathering capability of the optical fiber. sin 8, = — It is given by NA = sind, a sin 0, Substituting sin ®, from eqn (4), we have sin 8, . 5) If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n=l Tt ) NA=\m—n L___ — | This angle 6, is known as acceptance angle. If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n,=1. Sx Condition for propagation of light = 6) at the @,=sin* | Let 0, be the angle of incidence of 8" incident a only f yh the onl} fiber end. Then, the light ray will propagete throug! | ACCEPTANCE ANGLE | if 6, < 6, The maximum angle 0, at which a ray of light co” or sin 0, < sin 0, enter through one end of the fiber and still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fibe™ sin 0, < Veo 2 eee8.10 Engineering Physics . | sin@, < NA (10) This is the condition for propagation of light wi Ge the fiber. 2 The fig. 8.5 shows the variation of numerical aperture with acceptance angle. It is noted that numerical aperture for the fibers in short distance communication is in the range of 0.4 to 0.5 whereas for long distance communications numerical aperture is in the range of 0.1 to 0.3. Y ™ 10° 20°80" ——=E Acceptance angle . 8.5 Variation of NA with acceptance angle Fractional Index change (A): It is the ratio between refractive index difference between core and cladding and refractive index of core: It is denoted by A. cS Refractive index difference between core and cladding Refractive index of core of an optical fiber a per Optics Sa elation between NA and 4; Rearranging eqn. (1) My Ngan (2) We know that (fot NA=Vmow NA= Vin, +n,) (a, -n) Substituting for (n,~n,) from eqn (2), we have NA=Von,+n,)n,0 since n, 1a My (ny tng)=2n, NA = inn, NA=\2n08 =n, 2 NA=n,\24 S ‘Thus, an increase in the value of A increases NA and = enhances ng capacity of the fiber. We canna the light gathering capacity ce increase A to a very large value since it leads to ‘intermodal dispersion’ which causes signal distortion ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM Problem 8.1 on tance Compute the numerical aperture and sete? Pf an optical fiber from the following = 155 0 Refractive index of cladding "2 = 15 a gle Refractive index of core ™ in 2013) F (aw. Ja “rounding medium (air), "o8.12 Engineering Physics . pes Given data Optical fibers Refractive index of core n= 1.55 Refractive index profile Refractive index of cladding n, = 1.50 Refractive index of surrounding medium (air) n, = 1 Solution: Numerical aperture NA=Vn,—n, NA=V1.55 - 1.50 = V2.4025 2.25, Fig. 8.6 Classification of optical fibres Classification based on material 0.1525 Optical fibers are classified into two types on the basis of materials used for their fabrication, They are i) Glass fib Acceptance angle @) Glass fiber @,=sin *Vm-n, i lass fiber 6,=sin”' 0.39 = 23° If the optical fiber is made up of mixture of silica and metal oxides, then it is called glass fiber. 9, = 23° Example TYPES OF OPTICAL Fibers tn eee | combination of core and cladding. (ii) Plastic fiber glasses y any one of the following Optical fibers are classified into different types based on ee, ere ~ GeO, ~ SiO, (a) Material Gi) core - SiO, lading - P,05~ 52 Dinko (b) Number of modes eve? ee Plastic fiber frert : ( | a ‘c) Refractive index profile. If th eae of plastics, then it is e optical ris A general classification of optical fibers is shown in fig. 8-6 called plastic fiber. eeeEngineering Physics 8.14 1 Example ‘The plastic fiber is made of any one of the follow, i in combinations of core and cladding. if (i) core - polystyrene, cladding - methyl methacrylate (ii) core - polymethyl methacrylate cladding - co-polymer « The plastic fiber is very cheap and flexible. * It can be handled without any special care due to its toughness and durability. (b) Classification based on the number of modes In optical fiber, the light propagates in many modes. Depending on the number of modes of propagation, the optical fibers are classified into two types. The modes are the allowed paths inside the fiber (i) Single - Mode (SM) fiber (ii) Multi-Mode (MM) fiber (Many mode) Single - mode fiber If only one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is known as single - mode fiber. Characteristics of single mode fiber * In a single-mode fiber, the light rays can travel only at one discrete path through the core. It can support only one mode of propagation. * ¢ Its core diameter is small in the order of a few times the wavelength of light. (Fig. 8.7) * It is designed to have small refractive index difference between the core and cladding yy Fig. 8.7 Single - mode fibre + The single-mode fiber must be used along with laser diodes. Multi mode fiber If more than one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is known as multimode fiber. « In multimode fiber, the light can travel many different paths through the core of the fiber and can enter and leave the fiber at various angles. * The large core radii of multimode fiber makes it easier to launch light into the fiber. (Fig 88) pe es * It can support many modes. RRS ULL LLL an a Fig. 8.8 Multimode fibre Ree : efractive index profile am refractive ifort adding has & UM mains In any optical fiber, cli x of core either ™ index. However, the refractive inde: Constant or vary in a particular way: ———StAe Engineering Physics . The curve which denotes the variation of refractive index with respeet to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber i called refractive index profile. (©) Classification based on refractive index profile Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and cladding, the optical fibers are classified into two types They are (i) Step - index fiber (ii) Graded - index fiber. (i) Step - index Fiber In step index fiber, the variation in refractive indice of core and cladding vary step by step. Hence, this type of fiber is known as step index fiber. Based on the refractive index profile and the number of modes, step - index fiber is classified further into two types, They are () Step index - single mode fiber Gi) Step index - multi mode fiber. (i) Step - index single - mode fiber The basic structure of the step-index single-mode fiber is shown in fig. 8.9. It consists of a thin core of uniform refractive index of a higher value. This core is surrounded by a cladding of uniform refractive index lesser than that of the core. A typical step-index single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 5 to 10 um and an external diameter of cladding of 50 125 wm (fig. 8.9 (a) The refractive index changes abruptly (in step) at the core-cladding boundary. Its refractive index profile takes the shape of a step (fig. 8.9 (a)), a A Optics per 8.17 SOTO a 4 srfove ---4 Fibre cross-section 1 1 1 iRetractive 1 index 1 ' ' ' Retractve index protie <_—__ Pediat distance @) — Fig. 8.9 Step - index single-mode fibre ght Due to its small core diameter, only a single-mode of hi! Tay transmission is possible as shown in fig. 8.9 (b). Characteristics bout 10 * It has a very thin core diameter, typically of # wm, 7 * Its numerical aperture is very small light he entire * It supports only one mode in which the energy is concentrated. By eeei. Engineering Physics | + Because of single mode of propagation of light, there ig no signal loss due to intermodal dispersion. « It has higher bandwidth than multimode fiber Advantages « It has a very high rate of data transmission capacity. No degradation of signal takes place. * About 80% of optical fibers manufactured are of this type. Disadvantages * The manufacturing and handling of this type of fiber are very expensive. Applications ¢ This type of fiber is used in under-sea cable for long distance communication. « It is used in submarine cable system. (ii) Step -index multimode fiber The geometry of normal cross-section of a typical step-index multimode fiber is shown in fig. 8.10 (a). Its core has a much larger diameter which makes it easier to support propagation of large number of modes. A typical step-index multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 to 200 um and an external diameter of cladding 125 t° 300 um. It has a core material with uniform refractive index and a cladding material of lesser refractive index than that of the core. a Se oer Optics here is a sudden increase in the valy from cladding to core. Thus, its refractive the shape of a step (fig 8.10 (a) 8.19 © of refractive index index profile takes Because of larger diameter of the core, the propagation o many modes within the fiber is possible (fig 8.10 by, 125 0 80 50 10 200 ym Fire cross-seton Relracine 1 ' 1 u 1 index 1 1 1 1 Ray propagation 0) i bre Fig. 8.10 Step-index multimode a Characteristics * It has large core diameter. * Tt has low bandwidth. Tight ng 8 ode fiber ¥5” * Light is passed into a multim emitting diode.Engineering Physics gz0__—————— rineering Physi» Tt has larger numerical aperture in the order of 03 * It has high attenuation. Advantages * Since LEDs are used as the source of light, they ary easier to operate. + LEDs have longer life than laser diodes, thus making them more suitable in many applications. + They are less expensive and require less complex cireuitry. * It is easier to couple the fibers. Disadvantages * They suffer intermodal dispersion loss * Low band width. * Data transmission is less efficient. Application * They are widely used in data links which require low band width. 2. Graded - index Multimode Fiber In this fiber, the refractive index of the core varies radially from the axis of the fiber ; and it gradually decreases towards core~ cladding interface, Thus, it is called graded index fiber- The geometry of jcatl graded-index fiber is normal cross-section of a tyPl shown in fig 8.11 (a), ver Optics. 821 A typical graded-index multimode fiber has « core diameter 1.50 to 200 wm and an external diameter of cladding 100 1, d 250 HID. ‘The refractive index of the core is maximum at the axis of the fiber and it gradually decreases towards the cladding ‘he refractive index profile is shown in fig. 8.11 (a), Ray propagation (O) i fiber Fig 8.11 Graded - index multimode 1 aae ee, Enginee : 8.22 ing Physics . | a ‘The light ray propagation for this fiber is shown in fig 823 8.11 (b). Differences between single mode fiber and If the diameter of the core is larger, the intermod multi mode fiber dispersion loss must be high. But, because of the gradual eo decrease in the refractive index of the core, the intermodg| 8] Single mode fiber Multimode fiber No. 1, Jin single mode fiber, only one] Multimode fiber allows a lage mode can propagate through|number of paths or modes for dispersion loss is minimised. the fiber the light rays travel Characteristics through it 6 « It has a small numerical aperture. 2. |It has smaller core diameter|It has larger core diameter and 2 ee and the difference between the|refractive index difference e It has intermediate bandwidth. refractive index of core and|between the core and cladding| aaa: cladding is very small. is larger than the single mode * It has low attenuation. ba 3. |No signal dispersion. ‘There is signal degradation. * The source of light is either a laser or LED. | | 4 |Pabrication is difficult and | Fabrication is less difficult and costly. cheap. Advantages Table 8.2 * Intermodal dispersion is reduced with this type of fiber Di + index fiber * It is a high quality fiber and has good band width. ifferences between step index and graded inde S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber Disadvantages as The refractive index of the Th e r the @ refractive index of the varies gradually suet | core is uniform throughout |core parse * It is the most expensive of all types of fibers. and undergoes an abrupt (or)|that it attains mit step change at the core|the centre o! the cladding boundary 2 ter of the core 8 | F The diame ; * Coupling of fibers and light source is difficult. The diameter of the core is f e amet a awe i about 10 um in the case offabout 501 multimode fiber * Its fabrication is difficult. Single mode fiber and Applications 50 - 200 um in the case of| + It is widely used in intra-city trunks between cen! 3 Attenuation is more for stop telephone offices. index multimode fiber but for “ | step index single mode —— . ' in is used in medium-distance applications. | aes fe ss ..rrr—“—CO ‘Attenuation is Tessriver Opties — 8.43 ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS problem 8.3 Jn an optical fiber, the core material has a refractive index 1.6 and refractive index of cladding material is 1.3. What is the value of critical angle? Also calculate the value of angle of acceptance cone. (A.U. May 2012) Given data Refractive index of core 7, = 1.6 Refractive index of cladding 7, = 1.3 Solution Critical angle is given by n : 2 sin 0, =— eo ny n oeain "(7 mM _-1( 1.8 0, = sin [x3] 0, =sin * (0.813) 0, = 54.3° Acceptance angle Gal eat, ) = sin [ vata? |ae 8.45 given data Accoptance angle 0, = 30° Refractive index of core n, = 14 Solution Problem 8.6 ance of a given optical fiber, ‘Calculate the angle of accept: he cladding are if the refractive indices of the core and t 1.563 and 1.498 respectively. n eeptance AU, Jan 2010) an, “4. ©, Ble . ‘alculate ta 80° and a core rn ; efractive index! ‘ Given data (AU. May 2019) Refractive index of core Refractive index of cladding nm, = 1498 R a aSolution We know that si z at sin 0,=Vnb a = 2 = V1.563" ~ 149g” sin 0, = 0.446 Se 0, = sin (0.446) = 26.49° Given data (ALU, Jan 200 Refractive Index of core = 1.563 5 Refractive Index of cladd ing n, 0 Solution 2 = 1.498 Fractiong: index chan, A x gC 0 1, e 1.563 = 2.065 1.563 = 0.0416 e numerical aperture of an optical fiber and cladding are made of materials of e index 1.6 and 1.5 respectively. (AU, Jan 2012), Given data Refractive index of core n,=16 Refractive index of cladding 1, =15 Solution Numerical aperture of the optical fiber is given by 7 NA=Vn,-1, we have Substituting the given values, Ses nazis 1s = 128 NA = 0.557 ence acceptance adding bas Problem 8.9 Calculate numerical aperture langle for an optical fiber whose refractive index of 1.59 and 1.40 ¥ and bi core and cl Given data = 189 Refractive index of the core ™ 2 140 Refractive index of cladding "2 Solution aperture We know that numericaleae te e ring on both sides 849 sque} 0.2" = 1.61" - n n= 1.617 9.9 n. \2.56 - 0.04 = sin’ (NA) ny = V2.52 a Refractive index of claddi 0, = sin ' (0.75) a adding n, = 1.59 Problem 8.11 silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 150, find a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine 7 (a) critical angle at the core cladding © maxim | | " is 11.54° Find the a of acceptance for an optical fe | 4) NA. at i | . © reflective index of cladding if the cor | | ee bergen . ©) acceptance angle in air for the fiber. Problem 8.10 refractive index is 1.60 (AU. May 00 .U. May 2019 Given data (A.U. April 2010, Jan 2011, Jon 201| ps Acceptance angle 0) = 1] 54° von , | Core refractive i . clive index m= 150 Refractive index of core n, = 1.60 | _ ae oe i ladding refractive index nm, = 147 Soluti ion We know that NA = sind, = tone 9 6 itical angle, 0 NA=sin (11.549) = \pg07 2a ; 2 _ 1 147). 78.8 sin | 1.50 0, = 78° 30° 0.2 = Vio" =ny Marks Q&A 1. Define acceptance angle. A ve ad "the meximum angle at which a ray of ligne though one end ofthe fiber and still be total internals 7 is called acceptance angle of the fiber. 2. Define numerical aperture of a fiber, (A.U. Dee 2010, May 2011, It is the light collecting efficiency of the 4) measure of the amount of light rays that can be the fiber. It is equal to the sine of the acceptance May 2012, ber. It is , accepted by angle, ie, NA =sin 0, = Vn2—n2 17M, where n, and n, are the refractive indice of core and cladding. 3. What are types of optical fibers based on number of modes? (AU, Jan 2013) (a) Single mode fiber - one mode (>) Multi mode fiber - many modes 4. What is single mode fiber? If only one Single mode Core diameter, (AU, Jan 2010) nit mode is transmitted through a fiber, the fiber, Gener: all ally, single mode fiber has isa 5. What is multi, 013) if more 2 mode fiber? (AU, May than one mode i, ther t S transmitted through a fibe whe? e The core diameter is laré' ibe: 8.53 9 Fs = poet tion types of optical fibers based on, the refractive 6 Mee profile. ip (AU. Jan 2011) tive index profile, the ‘thers are on refrac e classified Based into (a) step-index fiber (b) graded-index-fiber what are the differences between single mode fiber iL and multi mode fiber? (A.U. Jan 2010) ingle mode fiber Multimode fiber jin No. llows a large . nly one| Multimode fiber al exerele mode her “through number of paths or aes mode can propag the light rays travelling the fiber Eee diameter and (i) It has smaller core diameter |It has larger a asec a and the difference between the|refractive in oeer refractive index of core and|larger than cladding is very small, pe \.|-—-—— degradation due "O)No dispersion i.c., degradation| There is signal de dispersion. of signal during propagation in|to multimode fiber, d ifficult an ee F Fabrication ig difficult and| Fabrication is less costly, L| — Sd a a ween 2P inde s What are the differences be Ja I, May 2011, "aded index fiber? (AU. May 2010 rm (iv) Step index fiber | i The “refractive index of the Ste is uniform throughout end Undergoes an abrupt (or) RP change at the cladding i boundary>< 8.54 Engineering pp = SNe. Stop index fiber Graded indar a Ti |The diameter of the core is/The diameter of yp—— about 10pm in the case of/about 50 um in cone single mode fiber and|multimode fiber, case of 50 - 200 um in the case of | multimode fiber | (iy [Attenuation is more for|Attenuation is less multimode step index fibers | but it is very less for single mode step index fiber | Gv) [Numerical aperture is more|Numerical aperture ise for multimode step index fiber eee but it is very less for single mode step fiber 9. What is meant by attenuation ? (A.U. Dee 2008) Attenuation in fiber means ‘loss of optical power’ suffered by the optical signal in the fiber itself. It is defined as the ratio of the optical power outpul (Po) from a fiber of length ‘L’ to the power input (P;,) Attenuation = P, logo [ | dB/km 10. What are basic attenuation mechanisms ? (AU. May 208) () Absorption loss Gi) Scattering loss and (iii) Radiative loss uu. coal fide 1+ What are the losses that occurs during optic#! ® ) communication 2 au. Jon During th . val fibe™ three © transmission of light through the oPti© 6 major losses wi atte” loss, Bonding Tose Sccur, namely Absorption loss: oD ae 855 pefine dispersion: (AU J # jon means degradation of ical gions) pispersion of the optical signal or signal In fiber optic communication, the si tion. . ignal is | woutim of Light of Pulses with « given wth genet a i acing between pulses : wo During transmission, several effects result in spreading of ig width. This effect is called dispersion il 13, What is optical fiber communication system? (AU. Dee 2011) Tt is a communication system in which information is wmied by the light through the optical fiber. principle in optical fiber (A.U, Jan 2013) 1, What is the basic communication system? The basic principle of optic fiber communication is ‘rnsmission of information by propagation of optical signal through optical fibers over required distance 3 . ical signal at It involves deriving optical signal ae back 0 transmitting end and conversion of optic slectrical signal at the receiving end. e in fiber opti 15. Mention the components involved in " oy m2) communication system. (a) Light source () Optical fiber (c) Photo detector y the ‘6 What are the advantages oF vento Communication system over te au d Bot nt in weight aM Optical fibers are light in al noise . ter * There is no possibility of generation. its * No hazards of short ire ire in metal uM as al ad8.56 : ering + Immunity to adverse temperature and “a Physi m * Lower cost. orsture 17. Give ications of tl er opi 8 Give the applications of the fiber opti ical sy Stem, (AU, May oop, tom is capable « Is. Thus, it finds yi Due to lai to large band width, handling a large number nee system applications in communications. ions It is wide ly used ii is maintained, It is i used for signalling purposes Fiber opties vehicles, is also used 8 in ships and submarine eaten ‘levision: spa @ cable. 18. Why Y are optica Ptical fibers called as wave guides? A wave gui guide sort is (AU. Dee 2 Sort of energy could ® tubular structure th: 20r ‘aves can be guided “ ieee in the form ee which some ‘ough a fiber on *s 19. Wh: at ij is the basic principl ple of Drm es. Since light it is called wave guide. fiber sensor ? (A.U, Jan 2013) t . he gene ransmissign PP detector, ral consists of a light source Ce fiber change the light cordance with _ physica! just " aaa as a wave guide in ysical parameter to be cor ™ponents of optical (A.U, Dee 2011) GD Light detecto a GHD Optical fibop BY = 8.57 eee ers used as a sensor: “ Dee 2012) gi. How are the fiber opti intensity, © sensors are used to detect changes in frequency: temperature, current, polarization of light ir > waves cle. ‘A fiber optic sensor modulates the light passing’ through ge in environment. it, when it is exposed to chan, ed in the fiber optics ? types of sensors us (AU. May 2013) 22, Mention the ‘Tore are two types of sensors used (a) Intrinsic sensors - Here, fiber itself acts 08 sensing element. system collects Separate sensing ly a guidiog (b) Extrinsic sensors - Fiber acts onl the light from the fiber. medium. ensors. 23. Give four applications of fiber optic 5 2011, May 2012) (AU, Dee 2010, May indicator based on the © It is used as a liquid level dex of the medium principle of change in refractive in + Optical displacement sensors are used t0 find the position and displacement of the target " “1 the = Temperature sensors are used 10 mesure temperature accurately. ¢ used to measure «© Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV) es y, Muid surface several physical quantities such as velocit: velocity. = ‘The pressure can be accurately measured usin photoclastic pressure sensorsea Engineerin, ADDITIONAL Q&A 1. What is an optical fiber? Physics Fie rsity Part B - ‘16 Marks Questions 4 the propagation of light through optical fiber and ations of optical fiber as wave guide and wore IA.U. Dec 2011) wumerical aperture and derive an expression for Ei aperture and angle of acceptance of fiber in terms ie aciive index of the core and cladding. Mention am Ge ges of optical fiber for communiestion as wc siggeaventage [A.U, Nov 2010, Jan 2011, Jan 2012) cribe the propagation of light through an optical Optical fiber is a thin hair like structure transparent material which can guide the light. be end to another by total internal reflection. made up 4 am from oni % What are the conditions to obtain total interna reflection? () The ray of light should travel from a denser to a rare medium. (ii) The angle of incidence at the dens What are numerical aperture and acceptance angle of be greater than the critical angle. fiber? ‘ser medium should a fiber. 3. What is absorption loss? (ii) Explain any two applications of optical [A.U. Jan 2009] Absorption loss is relates d to fiber material. It is caused by three different mechanisms, 5 i ture. 4, Define (i) acceptance angle and numerical apert (i) Derive the expression sin 0,=Vm-m Gi) Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition. e ofa Gi) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass (ii) Deseribe a method of measuring the temperature material. rt 1. Jan 2009) Source using fiber optic sensor. (AU. Gii) Intrinsic absor . , - " tion by the basic constituent atoms of se oii the fiber materials, 5. @ Derive expression for acceptance angie oe Sperture of an optical fiber. Bring oe fen step index and graded in ee =a ) Write a note on fiber optic press “an 08 Jon oul) 009, [A.U, Jan 2 so! : TAU. Dee * Diseuss the various types of optical aa ser bd 1 Dis . ification of opt 1 gon 308 uss in detail the classi AU. of © and refractive index profile. in 4. Explain the structure of optical fiber. Optical fiber consists of an inner cylinder made of glass Or Plastic called core of very high refractes sen ny, The cow is surrounded by indri astic calle cladding of lo tical shell of glass or plastic cil : ower refractive index ny. ‘The cladding is cover’! -Y a jacket that Protects the fiber fre ‘om moisture and abrasio® 5. What is princi A we ple behind ¢ i f light W* through optic, fiber? a ansmission of lie! ‘The princi optical fiber is ere a . struction Jon Brplain with basic principle, cons Re type of optical fiber sensor pxplain the “855 Now are fibers classified? Explain aw. Jon 3 ple behind 9, total internal . in a Tansmission of light waves i reflection.8.60 See “i 10. What are the different types of fiber optic gs iL. 12. 13. 14. . A step-index fiber has a numerical aperture 0 » Calculate the numerical aperture and hence th angle for an optical fiber whose core #” refractive index of 1.59 and 1.40 respectively: ie wo f . ens > the working of any two sensors. Ons? Explain Jan 299 numerical Aperture of a step index optical fiber tik ‘tnd between single mode and multi mode fiber. Stinguish & ty (AU, Define and derive an expression for accaptance [A.U. Jan 2010, Jan » Explain fiber optical communication system with a nea block diagram. Write short notes on (a) Endoscope (b) Fiber optic-displacement sensor 1A.U. Jan 2010, Jan 2011, Jan 2013] (i) Describe the classification of optical fibers based on refractive index profile and propagation modes. (AU. Jan 2010, Jan 202) (ii) Give an account on fiber optic temperature sensor and fiber optic displacement sensor. ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 0.16, # sare refractive index of 1.45 and a core diameter 7 “ y Calculate (a) acceptance angle of the aT (b) refractive index of the cladding. Mill 29° 1d, M2” ge al. [Ans: 09 . an Find the numerical aperture and the aeceptan Ng a step-index fiber for which n,= 1.5, My = 1. 0. le % [Ans: NA = 0.244, Acceptance ATE™ * gat @ acct i d claddin# | Jans: NA= 07%| fo Engineering Physig S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fibo, 4, |Numerical aperture is more|Numerical aperture is less for multimode step index fiber but for single mode step index fiber it is less. 5. |Intermodal dispersion occurs|No intermodal dispersion in step index multimode fiber \8. ) LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER (ATTENUATION) When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost through different mechanisms. The output power of the light at the other end is always less than the power launched at the input end. The loss depends on fiber material, wavelength of light and length of the fiber. This loss of optical power is known as attenuation. Attenuation is generally measured in terms of decibel (dB), Definition It is defined as the lo optical power output (P input (P,,) garithmic value of ratio of the on) from a fiber to the power It is a logarithmic unit. The decib el of loss iy i r in a fiber is calculated by the formal = opHical’ powe! la. P. a= =a | . (D Most fiber manufacturers characterize at the number of decibels loss per kilometer of is calculated by the formula tenuation loss fiber. This si, is value where p., > Optical power coming out of the fiber out p, > Optical power launched into the fiber in L > Length of the fiber in km The loss per kilometer (or dB/km) is a standard unit for describing attenuation in all fiber designs. SOLVED PROBLEM Problem 8.2 to a fiber of length e other end is 40 (A.U, Dec 2012) \A light signal of 100 mW is injected int ll km. The outcoming signal from thi mW. What is the loss in dB? Given data Input power —P, = 100 mW Output power P,,,=40 mW Length of the fiber L=1km Solution 10,,, (| P |as Attenuation loss = - 7, 180] P,, Ww (40 a) =P tos| 700 mW8.26 Engineering Physicg = = - 10 logy) 0.4 Optics tre ») Intrinsic absorption t — Intrinsic absorption is connected with fiber material, Ej ven wyhon the fiber is free from impurities there is @ tendency for r fier material to absorb small amount of light energy. This i gown as intrinsic absorption. But, this loss of light is small = - 10x (- 0.398) Attenuation = 3.98 dB Basic Attenuation Mechanisms The optical power losses occurring in optical fiber are due | Absorption by atomic defects to three mechanisms. They are ‘Atomic defects such as vacancy, imperfections of the atomic structure of the fiber material and cluster of atoms produce a snall absorption loss. 1. Material absorption loss 2. Scattering loss Usually absorption losses arising from these defects are 3. Bending loss regigible compared to intrinsic and extrinsic absorption losses. 1. Material Absorption loss 2, Scattering When the light is scattered by an obstruction, the result pic density variations in fiber Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to fiber material composition. It mainly depends on the wavelength 1 CO} of the light used. is power loss. The local micros: cause local variations in refractive index. The absorption of light by the fiber material is caused by three different mechanisms. —— facturing — i t in the manul ‘These variations which are inheren! ypstructions and Process cannot be eliminated. These act aa is known as Satter the light in all directions (fig. 8.12). Rayleigh scattering. (a) Extrinsic absorption (b) Intrinsic absorption (c) Absorption by atomic defect (a) Extrinsic absorption (by impurity atoms) The important light absorption factor in fibers is tht Presence of impurities in the fiber material. The photons of ligh! energy are absorbed by these impurities. mn mmr ZZZIILILILLILLEDE ILI of 8 sit attenual Fig. 8.12 Rayleigh scattering SHOWIME Tg varia lent stream of photons due to " refractive inde __ During light signal propagation, the light photons inter#¢t with these impurities. The electrons in the impurity absorb thes photons and get excited to higher energy level. Thus, there * loss of light.aon Engineerin (6) BENDING OR RADIATIVE LOSSES Physics . Whenever the optical fibers have bends, then they produce radiative losses. ‘Types of bending losses (a) Macroscopic bending loss (b) Microscopic bending loss (a) Macroscopic bending loss These losses occur when the radius of curvature of bend is greater than fiber diameter. This situation arises when a fiber cable turns in a corner. At the corner, the light radiation does not. satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence the light escapes out of the fiber (fig. 8.13). This is called as macroscopic _ bending losses. ott ES see \ v Fig. 8.13 Macroscopic bending losses | * This type of loss is negligible for small bends. (b) Microscopic bending loss - JI Microscopic bending losses are due to micro-bends (smu bends) present inside the fiber (fig. 8.14). vor otis hese micro bends are due to non-unig rested during the cabling of the fiber or oie Pressures Genufacturing itself. during the his leads to loss of light by leakage through the fer 829 Microscopic bends \ Escaping ray Fig. 8.14 Microscopic bending losses This is also called micro - bending losses. Ways to minimize micro - bending losses jee 70g Microbending losses is minimized by extruding (save out) a compressible jacket over the fiber is applied, the jacket ight and safe In such cases, when the external force © att deforms but the fiber tends to stay relatively Without causing more loss. DISPERSION distortion, In fiber optic communication SH, ve i§ launched in the form of light Puls? ‘mplitude and spacing between the PY to th es js sent Oates is © ropes ar? the pulse spreads °F i the fiber. This P ‘tpersion,