Notas Curso Herbalismo

Unit 1
Introduction
and Herbal Review
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LESSON 1: LET'S GET STARTED!
Visit the course to download the Welcome to the Intermediate Herbal Course video transcript as a PDF.
HERE’S HOW THE COURSE WORKS

Units and Lessons
Every unit contains multiple lessons that can be accessed by clicking on the Lesson tabs in the
righthand sidebar. The subsequent unit will be accessible as soon as you pass the unit quiz, located at
the bottom of the righthand sidebar (it will pop up once you read through each of the lessons in the unit).
If you wish to return to the main course page from any lesson, simply return to your student dashboard
to locate your courses.
Downloadable Booklets
The beautiful downloadable and printable Herbal First Aid booklet in Lesson 3 of Unit 1 contains many
recipes plus need-to-know information on making herbal preparations including tea, tinctures, salves,
oils, and more. When in doubt, check the Herbal First Aid booklet! Lesson 5 in Unit 7 contains our
Holistic Skin Care Guide, also available as a downloadable and printable PDF.
© Herbal Academy Intermediate Herbal Course: Unit 1 theherbalacademy.com | page 2

Herbal Safety
We do not recommend experimenting with herbs until you have read the important safety information we
provide in Lesson 6 of this unit. Unit 10 contains information on herbs, safety, and dosing for children.
Note that honey should not be administered to children less than 1 year of age.
Hands-on-Projects
This is an online course, but it’s also a hands-on course. You should spend as much time in your kitchen
laboratory playing with herbs and outside with the plants as you do reading the lessons! There is no
better way to learn about herbs than by using them and studying them in-person. Just dive right in and
get started!
There are numerous recipes in this course and we would love you to try as many as possible. Please
choose to make at least one recipe from each unit (Unit 1 recipes can come from the Herbal First Aid
booklet). Getting hands-on is one of the best ways to learn and get to know the plants, and making and
trying various herbal preparations is just plain fun. Set aside a special journal or notebook and take time
to write about your experience making various recipes. What did you make and why? What are the
ingredients? How did you make it? Did you tweak the recipe, and if so, how? How was the experience?
How did the preparation taste? How did it feel when you used it? This journal will become a valuable
record of your herbal journey. (Note: All herbal recipe ingredients are in dried form, unless otherwise
indicated.) To enable you to plan your preparation of these herbal recipes and to provide convenient
access to recipes in the future, we have compiled all course recipes into one document, organized by
unit.
Visit the course to download the Herbal Recipes PDF.
We also encourage you to go outside and sit with plants and trees, looking and listening deeply with
your eyes and heart. Grab a magnifying glass and get up in their leafy, flowery business! Observe their
botanical features and physical characteristics. Make note of their growing environment, which can give
you hints about their properties. Read about them in a plant identification guide. Collect notes and any
drawings in a notebook as you observe the plants throughout the year. If you have any questions, we’ll
be here to answer them.
Experiential Exercises
You will find experiential exercises throughout the course lessons. These short explorations are
designed to help you explore topics presented in those lessons as a way to reinforce and expand your
knowledge of the concepts. We encourage you to delve into these experiential exercises, working
through them on paper that you include in a binder or designating a special notebook for them.
Quizzes
Each unit contains lessons, videos, and other material, as well as a quiz. Before you can proceed to the
subsequent unit, you must pass the quiz with a score of 80% or higher.

Materia Medica
Lesson 5 of Unit 2 explains how to create your own materia medica, which is a system for organizing
and documenting what you learn about the plants you study. We encourage you to develop your
personal materia medica to help you centralize all the wonderful things you discover!
What’s with All the Anatomy?

As you will soon see, the Herbal Academy loves anatomy! Our contributors include multiple herbalists
with lots of anatomy and physiology training as well as two physicians. It is important for herbalists to
gain an understanding of the remarkable, miraculous, magical human body in order to confidently use
herbs in support of its workings in an appropriate, safe, and effective manner. By the time you leave this
course, we hope you will be enamored with your body, all it does for you, and how you can reciprocate
with caring and nourishing holistic and herbal support!
Herbal Monographs
Each unit contains many herbal monographs: profiles of herbs that include their common name,
botanical name, plant family, part used, actions, energetics, information specific to the body system in
question, safety, and preparation/dosing suggestions (amounts given are for an adult). Note that the
ratio given after a tincture dose (e.g., 1:3) indicates the recommended ratio of herb to menstruum and
that the percentage given (e.g., 50%) indicates the percentage of alcohol used when preparing the
tincture. You will notice we talk about certain herbs more than once. We talk about ginger A LOT! This is
because the same herb can have many different actions, and we would rather you know 20 herbs
inside-out and upside-down than learn a multitude of herbs superficially. In addition, we’ve included
plant folklore to pass on the colorful lore and knowledge passed down from our ancestors.
While the monographs are presented throughout the course, we have also compiled all of the course
monographs into one document for easy reference and printing. Enjoy!
Visit the course to download the Herbal Monographs PDF.
Offshoots
The Offshoot lessons, found at the end of every unit, contain some juicy extras such as information
about mushrooms, aromatherapy, flower essences, and other goodies. This material will not be on the
quiz, but we encourage you to explore it.
Recommended Resources
A list of recommended books and/or websites is included at the end of each lesson to provide additional
resources for exploring the lesson topics. While not required reading, we encourage you to check these
out if a particular topic catches your fancy and you want to pursue further study!

References
At the end of each lesson, you will find a list of references for the lesson content. Our lessons are
thoroughly referenced to substantiate the concepts and information and to give credit where it’s due. As
a general rule, any statement that is not common knowledge or that relies on other sources to develop is
attributed to the author with a citation in the text and a reference in the bibliography. We encourage you
to consult any of the references that are of interest to you to further your study of the topics and ideas
presented in the course. Learning from multiple sources is a great way to cement your understanding of
a subject, as there are many ways to explain even similar concepts. Additionally, taking the time to look
into the clinical trials and research studies that are referenced in the course is a great way to practice
reading scientific papers and interpreting/understanding the results.
MyHerbalStudies Community
A wonderful part of herbalism is community! Each individual brings their own unique way of working with
plants to the table and we all learn from each other through sharing our experiences. Here at the
Academy, the MyHerbalStudies Facebook Community is the place to engage in our school’s special
herbal community. We hope you will join us!
MyHerbalStudies is a thriving Facebook group exclusively for students and alumni of the Academy. The
mission of this space is to provide a place to ask questions and share tips, projects, ideas, and news
that might be of interest to the community. While there are many Facebook groups where people
discuss health advice and personal health challenges, it is our hope that the themes that will grow and
blossom within this community space focus on the lifelong herbal studies of our students and graduates,
and their personal relationships to herbs and herbalism. As such, it is a unique space that will foster
herbal creativity and celebrate the ways we all continue to learn and grow as lifelong students.
Our teachers will answer questions in the MyHerbalStudies Community when possible, but the best way
to get teacher feedback will continue to be through the contact us form on our website.
We know that herbalism is a lifelong journey of learning and growing, and by participating in this
community, you will always have an online “home” for your studies and a way to connect with other
students for inspiration and support.
Please do not ask for individual assistance with health issues in this community. After reviewing our
Group Guidelines (https://theherbalacademy.com/new-myherbalstudies-policy-guidelines/) and Tips for
Receiving and Sharing Information
(https://theherbalacademy.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/MHS-GROUP-DO-NOT-ASK-FOR-RECO
MMENDATIONS.pdf), please join us here: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1460100857651579/.
Everything is Printable (Except the Videos!)

Booklets, lessons, charts, and video transcripts are printable! To print the course text for each unit, click
the “Download PDF” button at the top of the course navigation menu on the far right. To print individual
PDFs of charts or booklets, click on the “Download PDF” button below that item in the lesson text. Note
that we have compiled all recipes and all monographs into PDF documents for easy downloading. You
can find those above. Please note: Internet browser behavior may vary. If your browser displays the date
or other extraneous information when you go to print, try switching off headers and footers in your
browser printing options.

Course Contributors and Teachers
If you haven’t already, please get to know us! You can learn about the Academy team and our fabulous
contributing herbalist-writers here: https://theherbalacademy.com/about-us/.
More Information
For answers to commonly asked questions about logging in, course navigation, printing, and more,
please check out our Student FAQ page here: https://theherbalacademy.com/student-faq/.
Visit the course to download the Student Dashboard Demonstration video transcript as a PDF.
Disclaimer: The information presented in this course is for educational purposes only and is not
intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Check with your healthcare provider
first if you have concerns about your health. In addition, you should speak with your healthcare
provider or pharmacist before making adjustments to your diet or lifestyle and prior to
introducing herbal and nutritional supplements as they may affect any treatment you may be
receiving. You are advised to disclose any and all nutrient and herb supplements you are using to
your healthcare team.

LESSON 2: INTRODUCTION TO THE
INTERMEDIATE HERBAL COURSE
WHY HERBS? AN ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
Whether hiding as weeds in our yards, growing
along roadways, sprouting through the cracks of
sidewalks, or carpeting fields and the forest floor,
the plants we pass by each day are innumerable,
and unless unusual or heavy with flower, they are
often not given a second glance—or even a first.
Among these plants teems a tiny world of insects,
microscopic organisms, bacteria, and fungi and
their millions of dramas invisibly playing out as life
feeds on itself, composting and turning under and
over, again and again, to sustain itself and
continue the cycle.
Whether we are aware of it or not, we are part of

this cycle. Our smallest action affects our fellow
earthlings: plants, insects and larger animals,
microorganisms, and our human communities.
Consider the mycelial network spreading beneath
the ground on which you walk. As you pass by a
humble brown mushroom (the visible fruiting body
of a much larger network), the weight of your foot
is sensed by its sensitive mycelial fibers
underground, immediately transmitting
information through the greater web (Stamets,
2005). Or contemplate a clover field that
collectively increases its toxic cyanogenic
compounds to protect itself from overfeeding by
sheep (Buhner, 2002). Marvel at plants that drive
away aphid infestations by producing volatile
aromatics from their leaves to essentially trick
aphids into thinking that predators are
approaching when they are not (Buhner, 2002).
From the moment life began on this earth, we have all been interconnected. We are inextricably linked in
partnership, relationship, and communication with each other at all times. Our relationship with the plant
kingdom is ancient and timeless—a significant percentage of our genes are shared with plants (Acton,
2012), an indication that we’ve evolved together over eons. Plants and herbs have sustained the health
and wellbeing of humankind for many tens of thousands of years, and our predecessors before that.
Plants are our food, medicine, shelter, clothing, jewelry, and our creative inspiration. We are their
caretakers and cultivators. Together, we are part of the beautiful and mysterious cycle of life.

“Our very humanness depends on them, and in return, they depend on us... Their out-breath is our
in-breath, our exhale, their inhale.” — Stephen Harrod Buhner (2002, p. 278)
Herbalism is a practice found in every culture worldwide that uses plants to help people as an effective
part of a holistic approach to mind-body-spirit care. Wherever there are people, there are herbal
traditions—each blossoming independently around the globe, each uniquely influenced by the
indigenous plants and climate of their bioregion as well as cultural traditions and perspectives. While
choices should, of course, be well-informed and not solely based on tradition, it is noteworthy that the
first written records of herbal medicine appear on Sumerian clay tablets dated over 5,000 years old
(Borchardt, 2002), and archaeological evidence suggests that medicinal plants were used as far back as
60,000 years ago (Lietava, 1992). We’re old friends, for sure. Quite simply, people and plants are meant
for each other.
A DIFFERENT WAY
Many herbal traditions from across the globe remain intact and are even celebrated as an integral part of
modern medical practice. Significant and popular examples include Ayurveda from India (Chandra, 2012;
Patwardhan, 2014) and Chinese medicine (Keji & Hao, 2003), whereby traditional practices, inclusive of
the use of herbs, are integrated not only into the treatment of disease, but also as preventative strategies
for maintaining health. This integration invokes a very specific holistic attitude towards healthcare that
focuses on the uniqueness of each individual patient or client, collaboration within the client-practitioner
relationship, each individual’s responsibility for their own self-care, and finally, society’s responsibility to
promote and disseminate information about self-care or healthy living practices that are socially,
culturally, and economically accessible (Gordon, 2012).

This paints a very different picture than what many people experience within Western medical culture in
general and American medical culture in particular. The current Western allopathic medical model has
been referred to by some as a disease-care system rather than a health-care system, and although it is
undoubtedly life-saving in many circumstances, it is overtly focused upon the molecular nature of
disease and its symptomatic suppression with the use of pharmaceutical medications (Pizzorno, 2017).
In this medical system, there is also an underlying assumption that the burden of responsibility for health
is upon the shoulders of the medical professional and the pharmaceutical and private insurance
industries, rather than on those of the patient or client; there is an externalization of both cause and
effect, or locus of control, on the part of the person seeking care (Stewart, 2003). There is also often a
lack of compassion and understanding for cultural, social, and economic circumstances that can impact
perceptions of personal health and wellness as well as access to healthcare (Benson, 2006).
Unlike other aforementioned medical systems wherein traditional practices and modern methods are
successfully integrated into the same medical system and philosophy, the Western medical model is
almost completely devoid of herbs and the worldview that comes with their integration. When botanical
medicine is utilized, it is most often in the form of isolated, pharmacologically active constituents—e.g.,
digoxin from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), salicylates (precursors to aspirin) from willow (Salix spp.) bark,
or paclitaxel from the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia)—as opposed to the whole plant, the benefit of
which is often dependent upon the synergy and potentiating effects of multiple constituents
(Wachtel-Galor & Benzie, 2011). Often, research into the clinical efficacy and use of herbs is tainted by a
“guilty until proven innocent” attitude towards their safety and their role in supporting human health and
vitality. In America, this overt distrust for herbalism and the cultural bias against practitioners of clinical
herbalism or other “alternative” practices is deeply seated in the historical evolution of both the modern
American medical system and the pharmaceutical industry at large (Berman & Flannery, 2001). In this

way, there is a cavernous divide between what is considered modern Western medicine and that which
is considered “holistic,” “alternative,” or “complementary.”
In contrast to the Western allopathic medical model, Western herbalists work with clients to holistically
restore balance and build strength in a way that best suits the individual’s constitution, lifestyle, and
particular cultural, social, and economic circumstances. This is where the use of herbs for health and
wellbeing moves beyond the symptomatic approach or suppression of symptoms; herbs are one set of
tools used to provoke vix medicatrix naturae, the self-healing power of nature that innately exists within
every human body. Therefore, embracing the art and science of herbalism is a journey of education and
empowerment, taking back responsibility for personal health, and approaching the use of herbs as a tool
for self-care.
HOW HERBS WORK

“Herbs” in a culinary sense typically refer to the leafy parts of plants, but in the context of herbalism,
“herbs” encompass leaves, berries, roots, outer and inner barks, rhizomes, twigs, flowers, seeds,
mushrooms, and fruits. Herbs support a wide scope of wellness for humans, and can reestablish
balance through the action of their many chemical constituents, vitamins, minerals, and energetic
qualities. Until relatively recently in human history, there was not a focus on plants’ specific constituents,
but instead on the observations that certain plants had obvious affinities for specific illnesses, tissues,
constitutional imbalances, and so on, and this understanding led to the earliest practices and systems of
medicine.
Herbalism may have developed through trial and error, although many indigenous people say they
gained knowledge of plant medicine by watching animals self-medicate (Huffman, 2001); others say
herbal knowledge was transmitted intuitively or through spirit (Tirodkar, 2008). Along with hands-on
healing, using plants to nourish the body and support healing was one of humanity’s first forms of
medicine.
The fact that some herbs are used in different parts of the globe for the same conditions is no
coincidence. An excellent example is that of holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), used traditionally
throughout Southeast Asia, the Himalayas, and North and West Africa, and used worldwide today. Holy
basil is valued in many cultures for an overlapping range of actions, from digestive and pulmonary
support to nervous system and adaptogenic actions (Dzoyem et al., 2017; Mondal et al., 2009).
All plants synthesize and use chemical compounds to promote growth, protect themselves from insects,
attract pollinators, heal themselves, and communicate; and undoubtedly for other reasons still being
discovered (Molyneux et al., 2007). Plants are not passive beings, existing merely to color the landscape
green and provide forage for animals. They constantly manufacture and emit chemical compounds that
interact with their plant communities and with those that consume them. Chemical constituents
synthesized by the plant can be classified into two categories: primary metabolites and secondary
metabolites.

Primary Metabolites
Primary metabolites are chemical compounds that the plant uses to maintain functions essential to
survival—respiration, photosynthesis, growth, and development (Hoffmann, 2003). Primary metabolites
include starches, proteins, and lipids, among others, and are produced via metabolism of chemical
building blocks: sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids (Hoffmann, 2003). In turn, primary metabolites
serve as precursors to secondary metabolites. Some primary metabolites are used as supplements by
allopathic and alternative health practitioners, among them enzyme CoQ10 and vitamin K (Pengelly,
2004).
Secondary Metabolites
Secondary metabolites are chemical compounds used by the plant to protect itself from or adapt to
outside forces. While not essential to survival like primary metabolites, secondary metabolites are still
important. These chemicals can be used to protect the plant from browsing herbivores or invading
microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and fungi), to attract pollinators, or adapt to stressors in the
environment (Hoffmann, 2003). As such, secondary metabolites are chemically active and sometimes,
although certainly not always, quite toxic. It is through these secondary metabolites that herbs work to
affect the human body (Briskin, 2000; Wink, 2015).
The three main classes of secondary metabolites are alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics. Below is a
brief overview of each—secondary metabolites will be discussed in detail in the Unit 2 offshoot.

Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogen-rich secondary metabolites and include some chemical compounds familiar to
most of us. Morphine, for instance, is an alkaloid synthesized from the opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum). Caffeine from the coffee (Coffea spp.) bean and nicotine from the tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum) leaf both are alkaloids that have insecticidal qualities. Alkaloids are often very bitter, which
discourages potential munching on the plants by insects and herbivores. Often this bitterness is not just
an unpleasant taste, but indicates the presence of poisonous compounds used by the plant for
protection—hence the reason predators avoid them (Castells & Penuelas, 1997).
Terpenoids
Terpenoids are the largest group of secondary metabolites, and are enlisted by plants for growth
regulation and defense (Hoffmann, 2003). Terpenoids include such plant chemicals as monoterpenes
(aromatic oils), which repel insects and herbivores. Many people are familiar with the flavors and scents
of aromatic, oil-rich plants such as peppermint (Mentha x piperita) and lavender (Lavandula spp.), which
are appealing to our noses and taste buds, and may also attract pollinators to these plants.
Phenolics
Phenolics include compounds such as phenolic acids, salicylates and salicins, tannins, lignans,
quinones, and flavonoids, which are produced in response to environmental stressors and defend
against herbivores and pathogenic microorganisms. Lignans strengthen cell walls, providing structure for
the plant (and making it less palatably tender to insects), flavonoids are the brightly colored pigments
that attract pollinators as well as the animals who eat the fruit and disperse the seeds, and quinones
provide aromatic elements, which are important in therapeutic herbal preparations (Ghasemzadeh &
Ghasemzadeh, 2011; Ozeker, 1999; Pengelly, 2004).
Salicin is a phenol used by plants to protect themselves against fungus. Once consumed by humans,
salicin converts to salicylic acid, which has analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Various Native
American groups were observed using willow (Salix alba) bark and root for fever reduction, sore throats,
and pain relief. (In fact, willow has a long history of use in many ancient cultures (Mahdi, 2010)!) In the
early 1800s, scientists isolated salicin from the willow tree, and it was this compound that became the
basis for aspirin. Interestingly, aspirin needs to be buffered or it will cause stomach problems, but willow
bark used as a traditional decoction does not. It is believed that the whole herb contains chemical
compounds that act as a natural buffer (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis, 2003). This natural synergy within a plant,
as well as the synergy that exists between plants when consumed together, is a key component of
herbalism that is recognized in traditions throughout the world.

Whole Plants
In general, the activity of the whole herb is safer and more effective than using isolated chemicals
extracted from a few of its parts. Other compounds naturally buffer many potentially toxic chemical
compounds found in a plant. For example, meconic acid molecules found in Papaver somniferum—the
opium poppy—“trap” morphine, codeine, papaverine and other alkaloids and bind to them, reducing
their bioactivity in the body (Wink, 1997). It’s the isolation of chemicals, like morphine from the poppy
plant and cocaine from the coca plant, that can lead to toxicity. Therefore, herbalists typically use the
whole plant, meaning the entire plant part indicated for the intended use (e.g., root, leaf, flower). Liquid
extracts, especially alcohol-based tinctures, can extract a wide array of the chemical constituents from
herbs and preserve their potency for long-term storage (Easley & Horne, 2016).
Formulation Synergy
Synergy refers to the process of using multiple herbs formulated in a specific way so that they work
together harmoniously. An elegant formula is accomplished when one or more herbs buffer the potential
side effects of each other, and/or enhance the activities of another, allowing the body to respond
positively to the intended actions of the herbs. Synergy can also occur among chemical compounds
within the same plant. It is a concept that is found in herbal traditions around the world, and multiple
studies indeed confirm that herbs used together help synergize each other and are often therapeutically
superior (Wang et al., 2012). One well-researched example is that of the synergy between St. John’s
wort (Hypericum perforatum) and passionflower (Passiflora incarnata), in which combining the two herbs
allows lower dosing and a greater antidepressive effect than either taken alone at higher doses (Fiebich
et al., 2011). You will learn more about synergy and herbal formulation later in this unit.
“Simpling” is the art of using just one herb at a time. Simpling is a great place to start for newer
herbalists who want to acquaint themselves deeply and intimately with individual herbs. This familiarity
with each plant also comes in handy when creating a formula, as the depth of knowledge the herbalist
has with each plant helps guide the selection and proportion of plants in a formula. It is worth noting that
simples can be very effective on their own, as well.
HERBAL TRADITIONS
Many cultures organized their observations of seasonal cycles, the elements, plants, and animals into
elaborate modalities. Ayurveda and the Five Element Theory of Chinese medicine are examples of
systems of medicine organized around these observations, although there are countless others. Thus,
the art of herbalism was also organized into a contextual scientific framework. Traditional herbalism
approaches health differently than the Western allopathic medical model to which many are so
accustomed. In the allopathic model, a patient may be evaluated using lab work, scans, or physical
examination and diagnosed with a specific condition such as osteoarthritis and then prescribed
medication to suppress symptoms, such as pain.
In contrast, in a traditional whole-body approach to healing, let’s say, Ayurveda, the root cause of the
same condition could be determined to be caused by lack of digestive fire, which causes the buildup of
ama, an excess of undigested particles that can accumulate in the joints and results in stiffness and pain
(Khalsa & Tierra, 2008). The root cause could then be addressed, eliminating both the symptoms and the
imbalance itself.

In Chinese medicine, arthritis is considered a wind-damp-cold condition, characterized by stagnation in
the joints (Yan et al., 2013). Like Ayurveda, the point of Chinese medicine treatment is not to suppress or
numb, but to restore balance. These views may appear esoteric, but they offer an entire framework on
which to base an effective approach to wellness. Practitioners of earth-based systems address
deficiencies and correct imbalances within the context of someone’s entire body and lifestyle. Herbs
may not necessarily be what someone needs most: perhaps what would be most appropriate is
massage, acupuncture, stress-reduction exercise, better sleep, or a change in diet. Modern holistic
practitioners should evaluate from all possible angles—diet, lifestyle, and mental and spiritual health.
Many systems of healing, including but not limited to Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, are still used
today and continue to influence health and healing alternatives around the world. Concepts vary from
tradition to tradition, yet one common thread throughout is the emphasis on re-establishing balance not
only in the body, but also in one’s diet and way of life. In contrast to merely masking symptoms,
traditional practitioners employ modalities such as massage, prayer or spiritual rituals, dietary changes,
and herbs to encourage the body/mind/spirit to heal itself. This is still apparent in Western herbalism as
practiced today, and the healing systems that have influenced it.
As you continue on your own herbal journey, you may find that one system speaks to you over the
others. Or you may find yourself combining scientific literature with elements of different systems into
your own approach. We encourage you to explore your curiosity and will provide recommendations for
further reading at the end of this lesson. To follow is a brief overview of some of the systems that have
influenced herbalism as currently practiced in the West.
It’s important to remember that Western herbalism has many roots and not all are discussed here. Even
though the Greco-Roman, Persian, Indian, and Arabic roots of Western herbalism are often the focus in
herbal and historical literature, the development of what has become “Western herbalism” in North
America has also been influenced by the integration of knowledge from Indigenous, African, and
Caribbean people and practices with the knowledge of European colonists. American medical botanists
and physicians learned a great deal from Indigenous healers, while enslaved people brought both their
remedies and their knowledge of traditional healing practices. The inevitable intermingling of these
different approaches has helped create a rich and complex set of American herbal traditions. But it is
important to acknowledge that this melding of traditions was often not a consensual collaboration; even
when knowledge was shared freely, it occurred in the context of colonization, slavery, and other social
forces that created a massive imbalance of power. The “discoveries” published by celebrated
physicians, botanists, and herbalists of the day may often have been based on appropriated and
uncredited knowledge, and many practices that have since been incorporated into the established body
of Western herbalism derive from these roots.
As you read, understand that this discussion is just a very brief overview of some of the concepts that
have influenced modern Western herbalism, and there are concepts from many rich herbal traditions
beyond this to explore.
The Doctrine of Signatures

While much of the ancient Greek and Roman knowledge that influenced Western herbalism was lost in
the Middle Ages, concepts such as the Doctrine of Signatures and the Four Humors continue to guide
some Western herbalists today.
Originating in medieval times, the Doctrine of Signatures states that nature imbues plants with clues
(signatures) to guide us in finding the appropriate herb for our needs and that there is a connection

between a plant’s appearance and the body parts or ailments it can balance. While the original
practitioners of this system honored the divine and its gift of signatures, some contemporary herbalists
see it as an example of nature’s economical approach that repeats the same structures and patterns
over and over again.
This like cures like concept of the Doctrine of Signatures applies to habitat, size, color, and shape
(Efferth & Greten, 2016). For example, reddish herbs tend to be thought of as “blood cures,” and plants
growing in watery areas often have an affinity for the bladder.
The Doctrine of Signatures is a fun, folky aspect of herbalism that is often relegated to the realms of
magical thinking and superstition. The concept is not always accurate and sometimes leads to
oversimplification. At the very least, the Doctrine has often proved itself as a useful mnemonic tool for
learning herbs, their actions, and even some botany. Here are some examples of plants that illustrate the
Doctrine of Signatures:

Join herbalist Julia Graves for a tour of the Doctrine of Signatures!
Visit the course to download the Doctrine of Signatures video transcript as a PDF.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES

The Doctrine of Signatures has ancient roots, but modern herbalists can still learn a lot by observing
the unique structures and patterns of plants. In this exercise, you will discover whether and how herbs
around you reflect the Doctrine of Signatures.
Identify three herbs that you can observe in their living form. Keep your eyes open while hiking, doing
yard or garden work, or shopping at a farmers market or grocery store. You may want to take a photo
or small clipping or make a sketch of the plants that you choose. Choose something that you know is
used in herbal practice (hint: a huge number of culinary herbs fit this description and should be
relatively easy to find).
Record the common and binomial name of each plant, and then take note of its features using the
table of signatures in this lesson as a guide. Based on what you know about each plant’s herbal
actions, tissue affinities, and traditional and modern uses, can you see if and how the Doctrine of
Signatures speaks through this herb—or how historical understandings of certain herbs may have
formed?

The Four Humors
Image: PD-US
The Four Humors is a notion developed by Galen in the

2nd century, based on the Hippocratic theory of four bodily
humors or fluids (yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood)
and their interrelatedness with their counterparts, the four
seasons. In this worldview, as in traditional approaches
globally, illness was a sign of disharmony and imbalance in
the humoral system. Herbs, categorized as hot, dry, cold,
or moist, could be applied to correct these imbalances. For
instance, cayenne (Capsicum annuum), a hot spice, is often
used for cold, damp, or stagnant conditions like colds
(Wood, 2013).
While modern science has disproved the existence of the

humors in the literal sense, the underlying metaphor of
balance and the classification of herbs is still used
successfully by many herbalists today as a way to
conceptualize larger patterns of imbalance and determine a
rationale to correct that imbalance. Indeed, working with
the energetics of herbs (hot, dry, cool, moist, stimulating,
relaxing) is a theme that runs through many herbal
traditions, and is part of a framework for an effective approach to wellness. Modern herbalism has
integrated older ideas of energetics into current practice: we see this in the language we use to describe
herbal actions and in theories like that of the six tissue states, adapted from earlier medical models.
Matthew Wood writes, “This theory, based as it is on actual physiology, is more compatible with the
modern perspective, yet it is not incompatible with the ancient. It can serve as a language of energetics
and a conceptual bridge” (Wood, 2013, pp. 57-58).
Chinese Medicine
The philosophy and practice of Chinese medicine were first recorded in the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of
Internal Medicine between 200 BCE and 100 CE. To the ancient Chinese, this healing tradition went
beyond prescribing medicines or behaviors; rather, it was a way of imagining and understanding
humanity’s place in the cosmos. Chinese medicine is a complicated system that requires years of study.
Image: PD-US
Chinese medicine is rooted in the concepts of yin and yang. In a nutshell, yin
is earth energy flowing up to heaven; yang is heaven energy flowing back
down to earth. Everything in between, including us, is a channel for this flow
of energy or qi (chi). Yin and yang cannot exist independently and they feed
into each other in a continuous cycle. The qualities of yin are soft, slow, and
feminine, and are associated with the earth, moon, night, and water (Osgood
& Richards, 1973). The organs associated with yin are the Liver, Heart,
Spleen, Kidney, and Lung, as they are considered to be solid, deeper, and
associated with fluid and substances. Yang i s fast, hard, and masculine, and
is associated with the sky, sun, day, and fire (Osgood & Richards, 1973). Yang organs are Stomach, Gall

Bladder, Large Intestine, Small Intestine, and Bladder. In general, yang organs are hollow, more
superficial, and are associated with actions like excretion and dividing. You may wonder why the names
of these organs start with capital letters—it is to distinguish them from Western organs. For example, the
“Liver” in Chinese medicine does not refer to the actual liver organ as we know it, but to a conceptual
process or system in the body.
The Five Element Theory of Chinese medicine incorporates the concepts of yin and yang, and views
humanity as a microcosm of nature. The elements are Wood/Spring; Fire/Summer; Earth; Metal/Autumn;
and Water/Winter. Most Westerners associate Chinese medicine with acupuncture, a technique that
uses tiny needles placed in specific points to treat imbalances in qi, which is the life force that circulates
in all living beings. Acupuncture is emphasized (perhaps overly so) in the West, but traditional treatments
also include dietary changes, complex herbal soups and teas, cupping, and massage. A more detailed
introduction to Chinese medicine will be given in Lesson 4 of this unit.
Ayurveda
Like Chinese medicine, Ayurveda is a complex, earth-based healing system encompassing the idea of
humanity as a microcosm of the universe. Thus, what exists in the universe is also expressed within us.
Indigenous to India and Nepal, ayurveda is a Sanskrit word that translates to “science of life,” and is
closely tied with the cultures and belief systems of that geographic area. You may already be familiar
with the concept of ayurvedic constitutions or doshas: vata, pitta, and kapha. Similar to the other
systems discussed, Ayurveda presents a framework of elements, including earth, water, fire, air, and
ether, which comprise the doshas as well as seven “tissues”: plasma, blood, muscle, adipose, bone,
marrow, and reproductive. As in the humoral and Chinese medicine systems, the metaphorical organs
correspond to different energies that can be affected by changes in diet, herbs, massage, and yogic
exercises (Lad, 2009). Like Chinese medicine practitioners, ayurvedic practitioners employ pulse
diagnosis to evaluate their clients, as well as facial, tongue, lip, nail, and eye diagnostic techniques.
Balancing the doshas and elements is addressed through the elimination or neutralization of toxins, both
of which can be directed physically and emotionally. A more detailed introduction to Ayurveda will be
given in Lesson 4 of this unit.
HERBAL ENERGETICS
Throughout this course and additional herbal studies, you will encounter a special language used by
herbalists who might refer to people’s underlying constitutions or body types as excess or deficient and
herbs that are dry, warming, moist, cooling, stimulating, or relaxing. Herbal energetic theories can vary
widely from approach to approach. In Lesson 4 of this unit, we will explain energetics in more depth.
Working with herbs and people within the theoretical framework of traditional herbalism with an
awareness of underlying energetics may offer a much greater potential for wellness or enhancing quality
of life than choosing herbs based on their physical actions alone.

A WORD ON HEALTH AND HEALING
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete physical, emotional, mental
and social well being and not merely the absence of disease” (Grad, 2002). To be healed means to be
whole. As you will see in Unit 5 on the nervous system, the mind is an important aspect of healing, which
is evident in the placebo response as well as the effectiveness of hypnosis and meditation and relaxation
techniques.
Stress, depression, and anxiety often manifest in somatic ways, including joint pain, muscle tension,
compromised immunity, and digestive disturbances (Maes, 2009). Sometimes physical pain or nutritional
deficiencies can cause depression and anxiety (Leyse-Wallace, 2013). It is crucial to address the root
cause of illness whenever possible. However, the body also communicates with the mind, as is
demonstrated by studies showing that just the act of smiling can induce feelings of happiness (Zariffa et
al., 2014)! Surrounding yourself with a supportive community, breathing fresh clean air, getting enough
exercise, not sitting too much, and eating healthy food form a strong foundation for wellness.
Lastly, those in the healing profession sometimes mistake the healing process with the healer. A humble
herbalist remembers that the true healer is the human body itself, and any supportive protocol, whether
it’s massage, herbalism, or acupuncture, is merely enhancing the body’s own healing abilities.

CHALLENGES TO HERBALISM: QUALITY, EFFICACY,
AND SUSTAINABILITY
Rather than herbs, sometimes what someone may need is a massage to address structural issues, a
change in diet to eliminate allergens, a medical intervention, acupuncture, surgery, or yes, even an
antibiotic. In these cases, an herb or herbal formula may not be what is needed.
Sometimes an herbal product isn’t effective because it contains the wrong plants or even just rice starch
and nothing else. A study published in the science journal BMC Medicine revealed that of 44 herbal
products from 12 companies (study did not identify which), 59% of the products contained plants that
were not listed on the label. Of the nearly half (48%) of products that were authenticated, one-third
contained contaminants or fillers not listed on labels (Newmaster, 2013).
Sometimes herbal products are ineffective for other reasons. When herbs are not prepared in an
appropriate menstruum (for example, infusing an herb in water when its key constituents are soluble in
lipids or alcohol), the herbal preparation may have little or no effect.
Sometimes herbal products can be harmful because they are contaminated with adulterants. Out of 44
products tested in the Newmaster study, 30 showed evidence of product substitution. Some of the
contaminants in the herbal products pose serious health risks (Newmaster, 2013). In another study,
around 24% of over 2,600 traditional Chinese medicines assessed were adulterated, with over half
containing two or more pharmaceuticals including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and diuretic agents
(Huang, 1997). Among ayurvedic herbal products, a 2012 study found lead, mercury, and arsenic
contamination in 20% of remedies from both Indian and U.S. suppliers (Saper, 2008).

As raw materials, plants are also susceptible to mold and fungus, and if not grown organically, can
contain pesticides and other agricultural chemicals. These issues underscore the importance of knowing
where your herbs come from and how they are grown and manufactured. In the U.S., look for companies
that implement the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) current Good Manufacturing Practice
(cGMP) regulations, which help to ensure some measure of quality control and assurance. Some
industry organizations, like the American Botanical Council and the American Herbal Products
Association, have programs that monitor the safety of herbs in commerce and make their findings
available to the public. Better yet, whenever possible, make your own herbal products—we’ll show you
how in the following lessons.
Organoleptic testing—that is, judging an herb’s quality according to its appearance, color, taste, odor,
and texture—is a helpful skill to develop as an herbalist. Herbs lose potency over time or when exposed
to the elements, so seeking out excellent quality herbs is of utmost importance to ensure an effective
final product. There are many other factors that can optimize herbal preparations including formulation
and synergy, both of which you will learn about in the upcoming lessons. Also of critical importance is
ensuring that an herb doesn’t interact negatively with a pharmaceutical or even enhance its action.
Another challenge in choosing an effective herb is that often herbs work differently in different people:
for example, some people respond better to chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) than to lemon balm
(Melissa officinalis), even though they have similar actions. In addition, some herbs show signs of
therapeutic activity (including side effects) within 2 weeks, while others may take months to effect
obvious shifts. Adaptogenic herbs often take time to have an effect, while herbs like elderberry
(Sambucus spp.) and echinacea (Echinacea spp.) act much more quickly. Teas are generally gentler and
slower acting than tinctures because water extracts are not as concentrated as alcohol extracts. Some
herbs require special preparations or specific solvents. All of these factors should be kept in mind before
deciding that an herb isn’t effective.
In addition to quality and efficacy, a challenge which plagues the heart of herbalism is the sourcing and
supply chain of herbs and other raw materials used in the creation of herbal or cosmetic products. For
example, many herbs are not grown in the U.S., yet the U.S. has one of the most robust natural products
markets in the world (Zion Market Research, 2017). Even very common and easy-to-grow herbs such as
nettle (Urtica dioica) are grown afar and shipped thousands of miles across the oceans to finally end up
in the American marketplace. The carbon footprint is rather large, and when considering the price per
pound of a single herb and subtracting the expense of getting it to the marketplace, there is often little
money left over for the farmers or harvesters in the herb’s country of origin!
There are also other common raw materials such as beeswax, coconut butter, or Himalayan pink salt
that may harbor unethical extractive practices and pose a serious threat to the people and ecosystems
from which these materials are sourced. Lastly, there are many herbs that are considered “at-risk” by
organizations such as United Plant Savers (http://www.unitedplantsavers.org), International Union for
Conservation of Nature (https://www.iucn.org/), and FairWild (http://www.fairwild.org) because they are
facing significant threat or extinction due to a variety of factors such as pollution, habitat loss, and
overharvesting for the natural products market. As herbalists, and ethical consumers of herbs, it is
important to investigate and understand the sustainability and dynamics of the supply chain, which
define, for better or worse, the origins of the herbs and raw materials we cherish and enjoy. The
Sustainable Herbs Project (http://sustainableherbsproject.com) was created by an herbalist who is doing
just that and is a good resource for those interested in further investigating this important issue.

MAKING THE (RE)CONNECTION
We are always fascinated to hear how people first became interested in herbalism—after all, it is an art
and science whose traditions are not as likely to be passed down from previous generations as in days
of old, and is an often controversial and tenuous topic in today’s world.
Among herbalists and students of herbalism, the story often starts out the same: perhaps you had
eczema that didn’t clear until you tried a burdock tincture from the health food store. Maybe your friend
takes care of her family with herbs from her garden. Some of you may be disillusioned with the Western
medical system, or you’re interested in homesteading and self-sufficiency. If you’re lucky, maybe your
grandmother shared her comforting tea recipes and home remedies. Whatever the reason, when we
begin learning about plants, we may also eat more healthfully, reconsider what we put in and on our
bodies, and act with more awareness towards our land, water, and other beings. We notice how all of
that is connected. We start to recycle and compost, use less plastic, walk more, and drive less.
“Nature deficit disorder” is a term coined by Richard Louv, author of Last Child in the Woods. Louv
passionately promotes the experience of nature for healthy child development, as well as mental and
physical health (Louv, 2008). Research continues to validate this idea, as evidenced by studies showing
that time in nature can strengthen immunity, decrease stress, and increase concentration and attention
(Hansen et al., 2017).

As we spend more time outside with plants and tune in to the rhythm of the seasons with our hands in
the soil, herbalism can help to heal the broken bond between humanity and nature. We find ourselves
stopping to look at the plantain (Plantago spp.) growing in dusty urban lots, the mugwort (Artemisia
vulgaris) along country roadways, and the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in the sidewalk cracks.
Walking in the woods is a whole new experience when you begin to notice, recognize, and name the
green plants growing all around you—this reconnection with nature is one of herbalism’s many gifts.
“Can we teach children to look at a flower and see all the things it represents: beauty, the health of
an ecosystem, and the potential for healing?” — Richard Louv (2008, p. 137)
For many of you, taking courses with the Herbal Academy is the first step in a life-changing journey into
a holistic system that reminds us of our interdependence on the life around us, communities of plants
and people, and the food and water we take into our bodies. It has been a joy to prepare this course for
you. Go forth and learn. We hope that you will leave this class inspired to continue your walk along the
green path—studying, learning, and sharing your love of plants with others!
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
Books We Love
Adaptogens by David Winston
Ayurvedic Medicine by Sebastian Pole
Body into Balance by Maria Noël Groves
Botany in a Day by Thomas J. Elpel
Guide to Afro-Cuban Herbalism by Dalia Quiros-Moran
Healing with Whole Foods by Paul Pitchford
Hoodoo Medicine: Gullah Herbal Remedies by Faith Mitchell
La'au Hawai'i: Traditional Hawaiian Uses of Plants by Isabella Aiona Abbott
Making Plant Medicine by Richo Cech
Medical Herbalism by David Hoffmann
Native American Herbal Apothecary: Herbalism Encyclopedia & Herbal Dispensatory by Tamaya
Kawisenhawe
Native Plants, Native Healing by Tis Mal Crow
Nutritional Herbology by Mark Pederson
The Energetics of Western Herbs: A Materia Medica Integrating Western and Chinese Herbal
Therapeutics (Volume One and Two) by Peter Holmes
The One Earth Herbal Sourcebook: Everything You Need to Know About Chinese, Western, and
Ayurvedic Herbal Treatments by Alan Tillotson
The Lost Language of Plants by Stephen Harrod Buhner
The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism by Matthew Wood
The Traditional Healer's Handbook: A Classic Guide to the Medicine of Avicenna by Hakim G.M. Chishti
The Web That Has No Weaver by Ted J. Kaptchuk
The Yoga of Herbs by David Frawley and Vasant Lad
Western Herbs According to Traditional Chinese Medicine: A Practitioner’s Guide b y Thomas Avery
Garran
Working The Roots: Over 400 Years of Traditional African-American Healing by Michele E. Lee

Supplies
Pint and quart-sized canning jars
Cheesecloth
Mesh strainers
Graduated cylinders
Knives
Cutting boards
Large bowls
Funnel
Natural waxed paper
A kitchen scale
Small 1 or 2-ounce glass bottles - ideally dark-colored glass
Raw wildflower honey
Apple cider vinegar
Olive oil
Glycerin
High proof brandy or vodka

LESSON 3: HERBAL FIRST AID BOOK
Your very own Herbal First Aid Book is an indispensable guide for this course and includes a review on
such topics as how to choose good quality herbs and properly store them, tea making instructions, and
the folk and mathematical methods of tincturing. We’ve packed in instructions on making infused oils,
salves, syrups, and poultices as well as numerous recipes for common first aid needs. You can print out
the Herbal First Aid Book by downloading the PDF version and head right to the kitchen for some
hands-on discovery while making herbal preparations!
As you begin to experiment with recipes in this book and throughout the Intermediate Herbal Course,
you will notice that all of the herbal preparation recipes we have included are written using metric
measurements—dry ingredients are measured in grams (g) and wet ingredients are measured in
milliliters (mL). Because the Herbal Academy is an international school of herbalism and many herbalists
and herbal texts use the metric system for herbal formulas, we have chosen to use this internationally
adopted system of measurement throughout the course.
To follow metric system recipes, you’ll need a kitchen scale that measures in grams (most do!) and a
graduated cylinder or liquid measuring cup that measures in milliliters. It can be intimidating, at first, to
switch from teaspoons and cups to grams and milliliters, but once you get the hang of it, we expect that
you will be expertly wielding your scale and graduated cylinder to weigh roots and flowers and measure
out glycerin and vinegar. With practice, you may also start feeling more empowered to take on more
complex recipes and work out your own original formulations.
We have included ounces and fluid ounces in parentheses for each ingredient to ease the transition for
those of you not yet familiar with the metric system. In addition, you will find a conversion table below,
with handy unit conversions as well as equivalency measurements for ingredients like honey and
beeswax, if needed. We invite you to start practicing with these recipes and gaining familiarity with the
metric system!

The recipes in this book range from basic and beginner level, such as simple botanical sprays and teas,
to more complicated (but fun!) recipes like salves, tinctures, and syrups. Please choose at least one or
two to try out at home, and if you’d like, share your projects with your classmates and teachers in the
MyHerbalStudies Facebook Community, ask questions, and post photos of your creations. We’re
excited to see what you make!
HERBAL FIRST AID: SAFETY NOTES

The following are a few tips to consider before getting started on your herbal first aid adventures!
Before making any herbal recipe, be sure that you have researched the known contraindications for each
herb. You will find much of this information in the monographs throughout this course. For herbs not
covered in the Intermediate Herbal Course, the American Herbal Products Association’s Botanical Safety
Handbook and The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety are two great references to have on hand.
Always label your herbal preparations! At the very least, include the ingredients and the bottling date.
Many herbalists also label their preparations with a unique batch identification number and keep a
record of many details associated with that number, including the source of all of the ingredients and the
process used to make that particular batch.
The suggested doses given in the recipes below are for adults. Because not all herbs are appropriate
for children, we do not recommend using these recipes for children until you complete Unit 10, the
Children’s Unit, which reviews important safety guidelines. When you know that a particular
preparation is safe for your child, Clark’s Rule is one method that can be used to determine a suitable
dose.
Clark’s Rule: Divide the child’s weight by 150 to get the fraction of the adult dose that you should
use. For example, if a child weighs 50 pounds, divide 50 by 150 to get ⅓. Thus, if the adult dose of an
herbal infusion is 1 cup 3x/day, you would use ⅓ cup 3x/day for the 50-pound child.
GETTING STARTED…THE METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

YOU NEED TO KNOW!
Herbalism, which is the use of plants to support the body’s own healing, is practiced by almost everyone
in some way, consciously or unconsciously.
Herbalism has been carried down to us from generation to generation. This is most definitely true for
women who have traditionally been the food preparers and caregivers for their families and
communities, but holds true for anyone involved in these roles. People practice herbalism when they
tend their gardens, feed their families whole foods, or comfort the ailing with teas and other home
remedies. Cultures all around the world practice and rely heavily or solely on herbalism, and have done
so for many thousands of years.
Herbalism is nothing more than using what grows on the earth as food and as herbs to support
wellness.

There are so many ways to use plants to support wellness and we will dive into many of these methods
in this handbook. We can eat plants whole as dried or fresh food; consume plants infused in vinegars
and oils; drink plants in the form of infusions, decoctions, cordials, and wine; and take plants in capsule,
pill, tincture, or powder form. We can use herbs externally as poultices, ointments, salves, liniments,
soaps, and lotions. We can make toothpaste, shampoo, conditioner, bath salts, and herbal oils. We can
make sachets out of aromatic herbs to use for sleep or insect repellent. The list goes on and on.
So it is here where we will begin the process of creating herbal first aid preparations to stock our herbal
toolkit. We must begin with the basics:
● Buying and gathering herbs

● Teas
● Syrups
● Tinctures
● Capsules
● Infused oils
● Salves and balms
● Crushed/chewed herbs
● Poultices
Buying and Gathering Herbs

What to Look for When Buying Bulk Herbs
● Organic. Organically grown herbs are highly preferable to those grown with pesticides and other
chemicals. Choosing herbs grown using organic farming practices is better for us and for our
soils, waterways, and fellow inhabitants of the planet. When possible, buy organic!
● Local. Buying locally produced herbs and herbal products, when possible, is a great way to
minimize the carbon-footprint of your purchase and support your local farming community!
● Sustainably wild-harvested. Plant populations can be decimated from overzealous foragers, so
when choosing wild-harvested plants, it is important to be aware of harvesting practices and
ensure they are being harvested with consideration for their long-term sustainability. Better yet,
choose cultivated over wild-harvested herbs when possible.
● Tightly sealed lid. Exposure to air causes degradation of dried plant material and a poorly
sealed container may cause moisture to seep inside, causing mold growth.
● Vibrant, fresh-looking color. As dried plant matter ages, it starts to fade. Herbs should be
bright and vividly colored.
● Fresh, strong scent. Rosemary should smell like rosemary; peppermint should make your nose
tingle; chamomile should have a mild apple smell. Some herbs are naturally mild, but if
something is 100% odorless, it is likely past its prime.
● Characteristic taste. Herbs have a wide range of tastes, including bitter, earthy, sweet,
pungent, sour, etc. As you gain experience, you will grow familiar with the characteristic tastes
and scents of individual herbs.
Growing and Gathering Herbs – Some Guidelines

When you grow herbs in your garden or in pots, offer them nourishment through organic methods.
Fertilize them with compost, kelp, compost tea, or alfalfa meal; never use herbicides to kill the weeds
where you want to establish your garden. If planting near your home, plant raised beds located away
from the roof drip line to minimize exposure to potential roofing chemicals that may contaminate the soil.
“Weeds” can be a wonderful source of herbs for your home apothecary. A plant’s beneficial qualities are
often stronger when they grow in competition with other herbs, as they produce more constituents that
are intended to serve as self-defense mechanisms (Boege, 2010). Interestingly, these same constituents
are often the ones that make herbs beneficial to our health and wellness.
When wild-harvesting, gather plants that are at least 50 feet from the edge of the road in order to avoid
contamination from exhaust fumes, road salt, and herbicides, never gather near telephone lines or
railroad tracks (herbicides are usually sprayed along this route), and you may want to steer clear of
public parks unless they are dog-free. In general, you will want to know the land use practices for any
land from which you harvest. Also, be aware of legal restrictions for harvesting on federal or state land
and always get permission when harvesting on private land.
Please remember that you are visiting the plants in their home, and be mindful of your consumption. If
there are only a few plants in a stand, it is better to leave them untouched; instead, harvest only where
you find herbs are growing abundantly. This is a more sustainable practice that better supports the
ecosystem as well as our health in the long run. When you do find a plentiful patch, limit your harvest to
no more than 5-10% of individual plants and the patch as a whole. Think like a steward! These
considerations will help to ensure that plant populations remain abundant and thriving for the health of
the ecosystem and for use by future generations.

Teas: Infusions and Decoctions
Herbal tea is an infusion of plant material into water, and is a simple and soothing way to introduce
supportive plant compounds into our bodies. Gathering fragrant herbs from our gardens or kitchens and
inhaling aromas of flowers and leaves in the steam rising from our teacup reconnect us to the living
world. There’s something empowering about using our own hands to create herbal preparations with the
humble tools of water and heat.
While some herbs can be taken in their whole form, preparing an herb with a solvent such as water,
alcohol, vinegar, or glycerin serves to extract constituents from fibrous plant material that would
otherwise pass through the body. Quite simply, extracting plant constituents into an easily absorbed
medium grants our bodies easier or more convenient access to their beneficial properties.
Using water, the universal solvent, to make tea is a time-honored tradition of herbalism: a simple,
enjoyable and effective way to deliver the water-soluble properties of plants to the body.
Infusions
An infusion is a steeping method used for the more delicate parts of a plant such as flowers, stems, and
leaves. An infusion can use hot water, cold water, or sun-warmed water to extract the water-soluble
constituents from herbs.
In the following video, we’ll give you a quick infusion making tutorial!

Visit the course to download the Making Infusions video transcript as a PDF.
Supplies
● Fresh or dried herbs

● Mortar and pestle (optional)
● Kettle or stainless steel pot for boiling water (stainless or enamel are good choices; avoid the
use of aluminum or Teflon™-coated pots or utensils)
● Teapot, French press, or heat-safe glass jar (optional)
● Stainless steel tea strainer (unless using a French press or a teapot with a built-in strainer)
● Your favorite mug
Hot Water Infusion Directions
1. Bring water to a boil in a teapot or pot.

2. While the water is heating, crush herbs in your hand or with a mortar and pestle to help weaken
the plant’s cell walls. Place herbs in a mug, heat-safe glass jar, French press, or teapot.
3. Pour hot water (wait until it stops boiling) over the herbs.
4. Cover the vessel to prevent the herb’s volatile oils from escaping with the steam.
5. Steep for 5-20 minutes (and up to 8 hours for a long-steeped infusion, sometimes called a
nourishing infusion or super infusion, or to extract minerals). Steeping time can vary depending
on the herb and other factors such as desired flavor and desired strength of the extract. Note:
Some highly aromatic herbs like chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) and lavender (Lavandula
spp.) will only need to be steeped for a few minutes so that important volatile compounds are
captured and to prevent the tea from becoming bitter.

6. Filter, after steeping, using a tea strainer and a heat-safe vessel. Press down on the herbs with a
spoon to squeeze out as much liquid as possible. If using a French press, just press and pour
into your mug!
7. Consume immediately, or within 24 hours after straining if refrigerated.
Solar Infusion Directions
Solar infusions employ heat from the sun to gently extract plant compounds. This will provide milder
results, but there is something quite special about drinking sun-infused tea!
1. Crush herbs in your hand or with a mortar and pestle. Place herbs and water in a glass jar, and
cover tightly.
2. Place in a sunny spot for an hour or more (up to 8 hours).
3. Strain as directed above.
Cold Water Infusion Directions
Cold water infusions are preferable when infusing mucilaginous herbs such as marshmallow (Althaea
officinalis). Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) and mint family plants like lemon balm (Melissa officinalis)
and peppermint (Mentha x piperita) also infuse beautifully in cold water, and are lovely teas for a summer
day when you don’t feel like firing up the kettle.
1. Crush herbs in your hand or with a mortar and pestle. Place herbs in a mug, glass jar, French
press, or teapot.
2. Pour room temperature or cool water over the herbs and cover.
3. Steep several hours or overnight on the counter or in the refrigerator.

Decoctions
A decoction is a slow simmer used more often for tough roots and hardy barks or seeds that require
more time and work to extract constituents. There are some dense plant materials, however, that can be
prepared as infusions with excellent results, such as licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root, cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp.) bark, and valerian (Valeriana officinalis) root.
In the following video, we’ll give you a quick decoction making tutorial!
Visit the course to download the Making Decoctions video transcript as a PDF.
Decoction Directions
1. Optional: soak herbs overnight prior to decocting to help soften the plant material.
2. Bring water and herbs to a boil in a covered pot, then lower heat.
3. Simmer for 20-45 minutes. Monitor the pot closely and turn down the heat if the water starts to
boil.
4. Remove from heat and strain into heat-safe vessel.
Note: Roots can be decocted several times before being composted or discarded.
Infusion-Decoction Blends
An infusion-decoction blend can be used if your tea recipe includes both leaves/flowers AND
roots/barks.

Infusion-Decoction Directions
1. Decoct the roots/barks as instructed above.

2. Meanwhile, crush leaves/flowers in your hand or with a mortar and pestle. Place leaves/flowers
in a mug, heat-safe glass jar, French press, or teapot.
3. After 20-45 minutes of decocting, pour decocted herbs and hot water into the vessel with the
leaves/flowers.
4. Cover and steep for 5-20 minutes (and up to 8 hours for a long-steeped infusion, sometimes
called a nourishing infusion or super infusion, or to extract minerals). Steeping time can vary
depending on the herb and other factors such as desired flavor and desired strength of the
extract.
6. Consume immediately, or within 24 hours of straining if refrigerated.
Proportions
Recommended herb-to-water proportions for infusions and decoctions vary from herb to herb;
considerations of personal constitution and age, as well as herbalist style, can also vary. For many teas,
approximately 2–5 grams of herb per cup of water is the norm for adults. Use what works well for you,
and don’t be afraid to experiment! Some popular proportions are:
● 1 ounce of dried herb per quart of water for a strong infusion or decoction
● 1 tablespoon dried herb per 8 ounces water
● 1/4 cup dried herb per quart water
Rather than brewing each cup separately, it is often more practical to make a quart of tea at a time,
because in general, it is recommended to drink 3-4 cups of an infusion or decoction throughout the day.
Fresh or Dried Herbs?

Dried herbs lack the moisture content of fresh plants, and thus are considered more concentrated. As a
general rule, one can double or triple the amount of herbs if using fresh herbs for tea. Always check
safety information to determine whether your herb is safe to consume fresh, as some plants, like cascara
sagrada (Frangula purshiana) are toxic unless they are dried.
Suggested Dosage
The factors determining dosage include a person’s constitution, desired effect, weight, age, illnesses,
and medications. Below is a general dosage guide for adults (see note about children above).
Chronic conditions (e.g., long term support for stress management using adaptogens): For adults, 3-4
cups of tea a day, consumed one at a time throughout the day.
Acute conditions (e.g., using nervines for periods of acute restlessness): For adults, ¼–½ cup of tea,
every 30 minutes to an hour, up to 4 cups total a day. Or, 1-2 cups as needed.
Note: You will see in the monographs throughout this course that infusion and decoction doses are
given in grams/day. The amount of grams recommended can be used in one large batch of tea or

divided up into several smaller batches. Remember that the amount of water and steep time for each
batch of tea is dependent on personal preferences and desired taste and strength, as mentioned above.
Syrups
Syrups offer a simple (and delicious!) way to adapt teas for a longer shelf life and quicker administration
using just a couple of additional ingredients. Herbal infusions or decoctions are the primary ingredient,
becoming more concentrated as the volume is reduced for a syrup. Honey or another sweetener is
added to sweeten them and increase their shelf life. The higher the sugar content, the longer the shelf
life—a syrup made using 2 parts decoction to 1 part honey, for example, will last several weeks in the
refrigerator (Gladstar, 2012), whereas a syrup made using 1 part decoction to 2 parts honey will last
approximately one year in the refrigerator (Cech, 2000). Adding alcohol will also extend the shelf life. If
your syrup is aging, be sure to check for mold growth or a fermented aroma before consuming.
Supplies
● Fresh or dried herbs

● Honey or sugar
● Knife and cutting board, or blender/food processor (if using fresh plant material)
● Mortar and pestle (if using dried plant material, optional)
● Saucepan – 1½ quart or larger
● Wire strainer, cheesecloth, or French press
● Candy thermometer, if desired

● Clean, sterilized glass jar or bottle – ideally, dark-colored glass
● Funnel
● Permanent marker and labels
Directions
1. Garble herbs to remove the fresh or dried herbs off of the stalks OR rinse and scrub dirt off of
freshly dug roots. Chop or grind fresh herbs or grind or crush dried herbs in your clean hand or
in a mortar and pestle.
2. Prepare a concentrated herbal decoction or infusion, as follows:
3. Decoction: Combine 60 g (2 oz) of dried herb or herb blend or 120 g (4 oz) of fresh herb per 950
mL (32 fl oz) of water in a saucepan (Cech, 2000; Gladstar, 2012). Bring to a simmer and cook
gently until the liquid volume reduces by half. Keep an eye on the decoction to ensure it stays at
a gentle simmer and to be sure to remove it from the heat on time. This may take a couple of
hours!
4. Infusion: Make a strong infusion by pouring 475 mL (16 fl oz) of hot (but not boiling) water over
60 g (2 oz) of dried herb or 120 g (4 oz) of fresh herb. Steep for at least 1 hour and no more than
8 hours.
5. Strain decoction or infusion with a tea strainer, cheesecloth, or French press and return the
liquid to the saucepan. Add 340-1,360 g (12-48 oz) honey or 200-800 g (7-28 oz) sugar to the
liquid in your saucepan.
6. Warm mixture just slightly to enable the liquid and sweetener to mix. Cech (2000) recommends
not heating above 110 degrees F.
7. Transfer syrup into a clean, dry, sterilized glass bottle(s) or jar(s) (ideally, a dark-colored jar or
bottle to protect from light exposure) using a sterilized funnel. At this point, you can add tincture
or alcohol if desired, cap jar, and shake it to combine.
8. Label and store in the refrigerator.
Note: See section above on proportions and using fresh versus dried herbs.
Suggested Dosage
Syrups are delicious and designed to take frequently. A general rule is 1 tablespoon for adults, up to 5
times per day (Cech, 2000).

Tinctures
Tinctures are herbal preparations that use alcohol as a solvent. Depending on the plant and the specific
phytochemicals to be extracted, alcohol serves as a solvent that allows the most effective extraction of
properties while preserving the herbal preparation much longer than an infusion or decoction.
Extractions made with vinegar, glycerin, or other solvents are called extracts, but are not considered
tinctures as alcohol is not the predominant menstruum.
Two basic parts combine to form the tincture: the menstruum, or liquid component which extracts, and
the herbal material. The herbs should be clean, vibrant, and have all unusable parts removed from them
by garbling. Garbling is the process of removing fibrous stems, seed heads, and other unwanted
material by stripping them away from the desired parts of the plant. Fibrous plant parts are discarded
because they tend to have a lower concentration of beneficial qualities—they consist mainly of insoluble
fiber and water.
At least 25% alcohol is required to preserve a tincture. When tincturing dried herbs, this means that an
80-100 proof alcohol, such as brandy, gin, or vodka is sufficient. When using fresh herbs, which contain
water, use 150-proof (or higher) alcohol.

Folk-Method Tinctures
Effective folk-method tinctures are reliably made straight from the garden to the kitchen using only a few
simple tools: a sharp harvest knife, a cutting board, a canning jar with lid, cheesecloth, a funnel, and
some natural waxed paper. Depending on the herbal parts you are using for your tinctures, a food
processor or blender may speed up the process, but is not crucial. This method requires very little
measuring and no weighing.
Supplies
● Herb of choice
● Alcohol (see note above on proof)
● Knife and cutting board or blender/food processor (if using fresh plant material)
● Mortar and pestle (if using dried plant material) (optional)
● Wire strainer (optional)
● Cheesecloth, or finer cloth such as a nut milk bag, muslin, or an old (but clean!) T-shirt, or coffee
filter
● Clean, sterilized wide-mouth glass jar with tightly fitting lid – ideally, dark-colored glass
● Natural waxed paper
● Dark-colored tincture bottles
● Funnel

Directions
1. Garble herbs to remove the fresh or dried material off of the stalks OR wash and rinse and scrub
dirt off of freshly dug roots. Chop fresh herbs or grind/crush dried herbs into small pieces to
expose the most surface area for maceration.
2. Place herbs in a sterilized, wide-mouth glass jar. Fill the jar nearly full with fresh herbs or about
half full with dried herbs (which will expand as the plant material absorbs the menstruum).
3. Add enough alcohol to cover the herbs by 1 inch. Check back the next day to see if the alcohol
needs to be topped off a bit due to expansion of the herbs. All plant material should stay below
the surface of the menstruum by at least an inch during the entire maceration process. Herbs
above the surface of the menstruum can oxidize and begin to decompose or mold. (Note that
the menstruum and fresh or dry herb can be blended together in a blender or food processor to
reduce the volume of the herbs and then poured into a glass jar. Blending time should be
minimized to avoid overheating the herbs).
4. Place a square piece of natural waxed paper on top of the jar, then seal jar with a lid (this
protects the tincture from any chemical coating that may be on the lid).
5. Cap tightly and give a shake to ensure that the herbs and alcohol are thoroughly mixed. Focus
your intention and gratitude for the herbs during the mixing process.
6. Label jar and store in a cool, dark location (such as a cupboard) and visit every few days, giving
the jar a shake and reestablishing your intention.
7. Let macerate (steep) for 4-6 weeks.
8. Line a wire strainer with a few layers of cheesecloth, or simply place the cheesecloth within a
funnel placed in the mouth of the jar, and decant the mixture.
9. Strain the mixture through the cheesecloth and with clean dry hands, gather the cloth up and
squeeze strongly, squeezing as much liquid from the herbs as possible.
10. Transfer the liquid into a glass jar and let settle overnight in a cool, dark location.
11. Strain the tincture through a finer filter such as a coffee filter.
12. Transfer the tincture into dark-colored glass bottles using a funnel.
13. Label and store in a cool, dark place.
Mathematical Tinctures
This type of tincture making relies upon the use of a scale and a graduated cylinder. The clearest
benefits to this method include producing tinctures that can provide consistency batch after batch
based on the same measured recipe. To achieve consistency from batch to batch, the herbs must
continue to be of dependably high quality, which can be achieved most easily when herbs are sourced
from the same supplier or physical location.
Using a weight-to-volume ratio is a helpful method in that it relates the weight of the herb to the volume
of menstruum. It is usually calculated using the metric system whereby 1 gram (g) of water is equated to
1 milliliter (mL) of water.
If you are using fresh plant material with the mathematical method, consider that herbs range widely in
their water content, which will affect their weight and the menstruum volume calculations. For the most
accurate results, consider wilting or dehydrating fresh plant material in order to ascertain the percentage
of water that is in the plant material by measuring its weight before and after drying.
Note that sometimes the mathematical method creates a situation whereby there is more volume of
plant material (either fresh or dry) than menstruum and the menstruum doesn’t cover the plant material.
In this situation, mixing the herb with the menstruum in a blender will decrease the volume of the herb

enough so that it stays below the surface of the menstruum. Occasionally, this does not solve the
problem and you may need to adjust the weight:volume ratio.
Follow the directions above for the folk method, but instead of eyeballing the amount of herbs and
menstruum, use the method described below to calculate their relative amounts.
How to use the Weight-to-Volume Ratio Method
● Herb Weight: Weigh the herbs once they’re garbled and record their weight in grams.
● Herb:Menstruum Ratio: Choose the ratio you would like for your tincture. The typical ratio for
fresh herbs is 1:2 or 1:3. The typical ratio for dry herbs is 1:4 or 1:5. Just remember, the higher
the menstruum volume number, the weaker the tincture. Thus, a 1:2 tincture is roughly twice as
strong as a 1:4. This will affect the dose. (The late herbalist Michael Moore provides an extensive
list of recommended ratios for particular herbs in his Herbal Tinctures in Clinical Practice
guidance at http://www.swsbm.com/ManualsMM/HerbTinct3.txt.)
● Menstruum Volume: Calculate the total amount of menstruum your tincture requires. Since you
measured the weight of your herb in grams, you will measure the volume of your menstruum in
milliliters. So, if you are making a 1 to 5 (1:5) tincture and have 50 g of burdock root, you will
need 250 mL of menstruum, because for every one part of herb (by weight) you are using 5 parts
of liquid (by volume).
● Alcohol:Water Ratio: This ratio represents the proportions of the liquids that devise your
menstruum. For example, 80-proof vodka contains 40% alcohol, and thus 60% water. 100-proof
vodka contains 50% alcohol, and thus 50% water. The basic menstruum for a dry herb, e.g.,
100-proof alcohol, consists of 50% grain alcohol combined with 50% water. The alcohol:water
ratio is expressed as 50A:50W. If a higher percentage of alcohol is desired, you can mix pure
grain alcohol with distilled water to reach the correct percentage. Note that grain alcohol
contains 95% alcohol and 5% water, and if you want the alcohol percentage to be accurate, you
will want to consider the percentage of water in your ratio. If you are not concerned about the
exact percentage of alcohol, you can call it 100% and remain very close to the intended ratio.
Note that a higher alcohol percentage is not appropriate for all herbs—some can be damaged by
too high of an alcohol content.
Easley & Horne (2016) give the following guidelines for choosing alcohol percentages:
● For most dried herbs, 40-60% alcohol is ideal. This type of menstruum will extract both the
alcohol-soluble and water-soluble constituents.
● Fresh, juicy herbs require a higher alcohol content as the herb already contains water, so they
are often tinctured in 95% alcohol. (On the other hand, some herbalists feel that 70-80% alcohol
is better to ensure extraction of the water-soluble constituents from fresh herbs.)
● Resins also require a high proof grain alcohol of 90% for successful extraction.
Sample Tincture Recipe for a 1:5 Tincture
For a 1:5 tincture in 50% alcohol, for each 30 g (1 oz) of dried passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) aerial
parts you will need 150 mL (5 fl oz) of menstruum at 50% alcohol.
If you are using 100-proof (50% alcohol) vodka, simply measure 150 mL and add to the 30 g of
passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) aerial parts.

If you are using 190-proof (95% alcohol) grain alcohol, you can use 75 mL grain alcohol and 75 mL water
and say “close enough!” Because the grain alcohol is 95% alcohol instead of 100%, the resulting
menstruum will be slightly less than a 50%:50% ratio of alcohol:water.
If desired, you can calculate the additional volume of grain alcohol needed to create a menstruum that
contains exactly 50% alcohol. We include this here for the mathematically minded herbalist who wants
to be entirely accurate with the alcohol percentage in the tincture; however, for most of us the
aforementioned “close enough” method will do!
Calculation to Determine Amount of 95% Alcohol to Use in a Tincture (from Cech,

2000):
% of Grain Alcohol Used to Make Menstruum = 100 x (Desired % Alcohol in Menstruum ÷ Alcohol
Content of Grain Alcohol)
If you want a 50% alcohol tincture and are starting with a 95% grain alcohol, this equation becomes:
% of Grain Alcohol Used to Make Menstruum = 100 x (50 ÷ 95) = 52.6%
So 52.6% of the menstruum will be grain alcohol and the remaining 47.4% will be water. If you need 100
mL of menstruum, use 52.6 mL grain alcohol and 47.4 mL water. If you need 150 mL of menstruum, use
78.9 mL grain alcohol and 71.1 mL water.
Note: Both of the above methods of tincture making (folk and mathematical) can be used to make herbal
glycerites and vinegars, as well. Simply replace alcohol in recipes with glycerin or vinegar!
Blending Tincture Formulas

Once you have made a few herbal tinctures, you may wish to blend two or more together to create a
tincture formula. Join Herbal Academy Assistant Director Jane Metzger in the following video for a
tutorial on blending tincture formulas!

Visit the course to download the How To Blend A Tincture video transcript as a PDF.
Capsules

With the right tools and ingredients you can make quality capsules in your own herbal kitchen!
You will need vegetable-based or gelatin capsules, herbs (dried and ground to powder), and a capsule
machine (optional). Capsules in several sizes can often be found at health food stores; if you cannot find
them locally, they may also be purchased online. A capsule machine makes the process of filling the tiny
capsules much easier and quicker.
When filling capsules, be sure to measure the amount of the herbal powder that goes into each one so
that you will have an accurate dosage when using them. Clearly label and date the container for your
capsules and store in a dry, cool, and dark place. A cabinet works just fine. In the proper environment,
capsules will last up to 12 months.
Herbal Infused Oils

There are a few ways to infuse oil with herbs, and we will go through them here. If you have never made
an herbal infused oil you are in for a wonderfully moisturizing herbal treat! Infused oils are also used to
create salves and balms, which we will introduce in the next section.
When making herbal infused oils, for best results, use good quality dried herbs and oils and always use
sterilized glass jars with tight fitting lids. Consider using dark-colored glass bottles, which will help
extend the shelf life of the oil, and adding a few drops of vitamin E oil to slow oxidation of the infused oil.

Warm Oil Infusions
Supplies
● Dried herbs
● Oil
● Mortar and pestle (optional)
● Natural waxed paper
● Sterilized, dry glass jar with tight fitting lid
● Cheesecloth and/or wire strainer
● Bowl with a spout
● Funnel
● Labels and permanent marker
● Vitamin E oil (optional)
● The sun or a consistently warm area
Directions
This is a folk method, which means we are going to eyeball it and not measure or weigh. If you are more
comfortable using measurements, the ratio is approximately 30 grams (1 oz) of dried herb to 355 mL (12
fl oz) of oil. Be sure not to wash the herb or introduce any water to the process by using a wet jar or wet
spoon for mixing to avoid bacterial contamination or molding.
1. Grind dried herbs in a mortar and pestle or break them up in your clean hands to produce
smaller pieces.
2. Fill a dry, sterilized glass jar half full with dried herbs.
3. Pour room-temperature oil over dried herbs in the jar, nearly to the top, making sure herbs are
completely covered and oil is at least 1 inch above the top of the herbs. Use a clean, dry spoon
or chopstick to mix thoroughly so all surfaces of the herbs are coated and no air bubbles remain.
4. Place a square piece of natural waxed paper on top of the jar, then seal jar with a lid (this
protects oil from any chemical coating that may be on the lid).
5. Roll jar back and forth in your hands to continue to thoroughly mix the herb and oil, focusing
your intention for the infused oil.
6. Place jar in a dark, warm spot, but not directly in the sunlight unless you are using a
dark-colored glass bottle or jar or have placed the jar in a brown paper bag. Let sit for 4-6
weeks. Every 1-3 days, roll the jar in your hands to help mix the contents and release the herb’s
constituents into the oil. Revisit your intention for this herbal preparation.
7. Decant the oil after 4-6 weeks. Place a cheesecloth-lined strainer inside a large bowl with a
spout. Pour the contents from the jar into the strainer. With clean dry hands, gather the ends of
the cheesecloth together and squeeze the remaining oil from the herb into the bowl. You’ll want
to squeeze hard to get every last drop!
8. Pour the oil into a sterilized glass jar, cap, and let it settle overnight or for a few days.
9. Strain the oil again, being careful to avoid pouring out any of the remaining herb particulates that
have settled to the bottom of the jar.
10. Pour the oil into clean and dry sterilized glass bottles or jars (ideally dark colored glass jars to
protect from light) and add a couple drops of vitamin E oil, if desired, to slow down oxidation of
the oil. Cap tightly.
11. Label jar(s) and store in a cool, dark place.

Heated Oil Infusions
Stove Top Method
Seal the herb- and oil-filled heat-safe glass jar and place in a saucepan or crockpot that has been filled
with 2-3 inches of water and place a few jar lids under the jar to protect the base. Heat on very low heat
for 4-8 hours (or more), making sure oil does not get warmer than 120-140 degrees F. (Alternatively, use
a double boiler or makeshift double boiler, see below.) Remove jar from saucepan and allow to cool.
Decant, bottle, label, and store in a cool, dark place.
For a makeshift double boiler, find a large pot or pan that will completely hold another, smaller pot. Place
water in the larger pot. Pour oil and herbs into the smaller pot, and place inside the larger pot with the
water. Be careful not to splash any water into the oil. Keep an eye on the water level and replace water
as needed.
Oven Method
Place herbs and oil into an ovenproof glass or ceramic dish and heat the mixture at a low heat (no more
than 120-140 degrees F) for 4-8 hours (or more). Cool the mixture, then decant, bottle, label, and store in
a cool, dark place.
Note: Most infused oils will keep for approximately one year (grapeseed and sunflower oil may have a
slightly shorter shelf life). Be mindful of oils going rancid and discard if they begin to smell musty, rancid,
or generally “off.”
Salves and Balms

Salves are a mixture of an herb-infused oil and beeswax and have the consistency of lip balm. They are
applied topically and soften when applied to warm skin, providing an emollient, soothing base that
protects and nourishes the skin. Salves can be hard or soft, depending upon the consistency desired.
A salve that retains much of the delightful aroma of the herbs infused into it is called a balm. It is also
acceptable to create a balm by adding a few drops of essential oil(s) as the salve hardens.
Supplies
● 240 ml (8 fl oz) infused herbal oil

● 30-60 g (1-2 oz) beeswax
● Approximately 10 mL (0.3 fl oz) vitamin E oil (optional)
● 20-50 drops (total) essential oil(s) (optional)
● Saucepan
● Grater (if using beeswax that is not pre-grated)
● Sterilized metal spoon
● Sterilized glass or metal containers
Directions
1. Measure 240 mL (8 fl oz) of infused oil and place in a saucepan over low heat.
2. Grate 30-60 g (1-2 oz) of beeswax (depending on the salve consistency you desire) and add to
the warmed oil. (Note: 60 g of solid beeswax is approximately ¼ cup of solid-packed or melted
beeswax.) Continue to heat the mixture (over low heat), stirring with a sterilized spoon until the
beeswax has melted.
3. Dip a sterilized spoon into the formula and place it into a refrigerator so the salve will cool
quickly and you can determine if its consistency is what you desire. If the sample is too soft, add
a little more wax to the warm salve; if the sample is too hard, add a little more of the infused oil.
4. If desired, add vitamin E oil and/or essential oil and stir to mix into the salve. If adding essential
oil, wait until the mixture has cooled down significantly, but is not yet solid.
5. While warm, pour individual portions into appropriate containers and allow to cool at room
temperature.
6. Once cool, put the lids on and label.
Note: To clean wax from equipment, bring a big pot of water to boil on the stove and then turn off heat.
Carefully immerse the waxy pans and utensils in the hot water and let them sit for a few minutes. Skim
any wax that floats to the surface of the water and discard in the garbage—do not put down the drain!
Using canning tongs, remove the equipment from the hot water and use a cloth or paper towels to wipe
down any wax residue. Once this step is complete, skim off any remaining wax from the water bath
before dumping the water down the drain. Then, wipe out the large pot to remove any wax residue.
Once wax residue is manually removed, wash dishes in warm soapy water for a thorough final cleaning.

Visit the course to download the Making A Calendula Salve video transcript as a PDF.
Crushed/Chewed Herbs

The simplest of all herbal preparations, you can make this right in the garden, field, or forest when in
need of a little first aid for a cut, scrape, or bruise. All you need is a little water or saliva and voila! You
have a potent plant preparation.
Chewing is the most reliable method for a good, sticky paste-like poultice. Kids love to do it and feel
empowered when they or their friend gets a bruise—they march right on over to the patch of yarrow and
poultice it up! Of course, if you’re not absolutely sure of the identity of a plant, never put it in your mouth.
Additionally, if the idea of a spit poultice is less than appealing to you, or you are preparing it for
someone else, you can use a mortar and pestle or cutting board and knife to mash herbs with a little bit
of water.
The following are some great herbs for crushing/chewing and applying to the skin:
● Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts – moves blood and soothes bruises
● Plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf – soothes bug bites and stings
● Calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower – soothes stings, cuts, and scrapes
Directions
1. Harvest a small handful of clean herbs and either chew them into a pulp (don’t swallow!), grind
them with a mortar and pestle, or chop them.
2. If you are not chewing the herbs, add a little water and mix and smash so the pulp appears
paste-like.
3. When you have sufficiently pulped the herb, spread it on the skin and leave it there for 10-30
minutes until you feel or see relief.
Poultices

A poultice is a traditional variation on crushed/chewed herbs, with additional water. The herbal material
is made into a paste using hot liquids. It is then spread thickly onto a cloth and applied, while hot,
directly to the body. Moist heat transfers the virtues of the herbs to the body, and because the poultice
relies upon moist heat, it must be replenished every few minutes. Wrapping the poultice with an oilcloth
or plastic wrap can help retain the moisture and heat so that you don’t have to replenish it quite as often.
In the world of herbalism, poultices have evolved to mean a topical application of crushed/ground herbal
matter mixed with a hot or cool liquid. Most commonly, a poultice is applied warm, to ease pain and
relax tissue, but cool poultices can be used for burns and inflammatory conditions.
The actions of a poultice will depend on the type of herb you use:
Emollient poultices supply moisture and a soft and soothing quality to ease inflammation, lubricate
tissues, and support the healing process. Herbs and foods for emollient poultices include: flaxseed meal,
oatmeal, bran, bread and milk, plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf, violet (Viola spp.) aerial parts, marshmallow
(Althaea officinalis) leaf and/or root, and mashed vegetables such as cabbage, turnip, potato, and carrot.
Rubefacient poultices cause skin redness, which is a sign of their primary activity: moving the blood to
the surface of the skin by dilating capillaries. Rubefacient herbs draw blood from within the body to the
surface to move congestion and soothe inflammation. Stimulating herbs used for rubefacient poultices
include: mustard (Brassica spp.) seed, ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome, cayenne (Capiscum annuum)
fruit, garlic (Allium sativum) bulb, and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) aerial parts.
Therapeutic poultices exercise a specific influence on the body and are used for a variety of purposes
such as to stave off infection, calm the pain of wounds or arthritis, and ease swellings. Plants with
astringent, styptic, vulnerary, anodyne, and antimicrobial actions may make effective therapeutic
poultices. Some plants, such as St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) aerial parts, have the tendency
to increase photosensitivity in the skin and should be avoided in poulticing material. Other herbs, while
not photosensitizing, can be strong enough to irritate sensitive skin, so for people with easily irritated
skin, it is a good idea to conduct a patch test before applying herbs topically.
Supplies
● Fresh herbs
● Knife and cutting board or mortar and pestle
● Muslin bag, square of muslin fabric, or clean, white, cotton sock
● String or rubber band (optional)
● Shallow bowl
● Water
Directions
1. Chop herbs or grind in mortar and pestle.

2. Place herbs in a clean white cotton sock (alternatively, you could use a muslin bag or a clean
square of fabric: place the herbs in the middle, gather up the edges, and fasten with a string or
rubber band to make a little pouch). Fill another sock and alternate using this sock while the first
one is reheating.
3. Tie the sock at the top and place it into a shallow bowl.
4. Pour enough hot water over the filled sock to soak the herbs.
5. Once the sock can touch the skin without discomfort, knead the herbs in the sock.

6. Apply this poultice to the skin until it cools down.
7. Continue rewarming the poultice in the bowl of hot water and reapplying it to the affected area
until you have done this for 20-30 minutes.
Solubility of Herbal Constituents

An important consideration when determining which type of herbal preparation to make is what type of
menstruum an herbal constituent is soluble in. The table below presents some common plant
constituents, examples of plants that contain them, and the menstruum that is most suited for extracting
that type of constituent.

Now that you have an understanding of the basic methods of making herbal preparations, it’s time to
dive into the recipes! In the following sections, you’ll find recipes for various common first aid needs:
Bites and Stings; Burns and Rashes; Cuts and Wounds; Cold, Coughs, and the Flu; Pain and Stress; and
Digestion and Hydration. We encourage you to try out several recipes that are suited to your needs! In
the process you will gain experience making herbal preparations and create a well-stocked first aid kit
brimming with herbal support!
BITES AND STINGS

Depending on the source, bites and stings can cause itching, discomfort, pain, and/or swelling. The
herbs we choose can have many helpful actions that work to ease one or more of these discomforts. For
example, an herb may help to decrease inflammation and swelling, reduce histamine production and
release to ease itching, or draw out poisons and venoms from the site of the bite/sting. (Note that
immediate medical attention is needed for serious and/or lethal bites and stings.) We may just want to
avoid bites and stings altogether, in which case we can choose plants high in volatile oils that act as
insect repellents.
Natural Bug-Go-Away Oil

One of our favorite recipes for the herbal first aid kit is a natural bug repelling oil.

Ingredients
60 mL (2 fl oz) olive oil or oil of choice

15 drops citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus) essential oil
10 drops eucalyptus (Eucalyptus radiata) or lavender (Lavandula s pp.) essential oil
7 drops lemon (Citrus x limon) essential oil
7 drops lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus o r C. citratus) essential oil
7 drops rose geranium (Pelargonium roseum) or grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi) essential oil
Directions
● Mix ingredients in a bowl with a spout, being careful not to let undiluted essential oil come into
direct contact with skin.
● Pour into a small spray bottle and shake well.
● Label and store in a cool, dark place.
● Shake well before use and spray every couple of hours.
Shelf life: 6 months
Safety: This oil contains a high concentration of essential oils and should be sprayed on clothing,
rather than skin. Do not apply directly on skin of children under age 12 or pregnant individuals. May be
sensitizing. If irritation develops, stop using immediately.
Bite and Sting Ease Poultice

Fresh plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf and violet (Viola spp.) aerial parts are cooling and anti-inflammatory.
Using a poultice of either on top of a bite or sting will help soothe pain, heat, and irritation.
Ingredients
Fresh plantain leaf and/or violet aerial parts
Directions
● Make a poultice or spit poultice with the fresh plant material following the steps previously
discussed.
● Apply the poultice directly to the area for instant soothing.
● Repeat with a fresh poultice as necessary.

Raw Honey
Raw honey works wonders on insect bites! Honey’s anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial actions
counter inflammation and potential infection (Mandal & Mandal, 2011) while it soothes the skin. Place
a small amount of honey on area and let it absorb. Reapply as needed.
A Drawing Salve
A drawing salve is traditionally used to “draw out” foreign substances such as splinters, glass, boils,
thorns, or even insect venom. (Note that immediate medical attention is needed in the case of
potentially serious foreign substances, foreign substances of unknown origin, or serious injury.)
Mucilage-rich herbs such as plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf and chickweed (Stellaria media) leaf soften
the skin, allowing pus and foreign material to be expelled.
Ingredients
355 mL (12 fl oz) olive oil infused with dried plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf and/or chickweed (Stellaria
media) leaf
120 mL (4 fl oz) castor oil
30 g (1 oz) beeswax
18 g (0.6 oz) activated charcoal
70 g (2.3 oz) bentonite clay
Directions
● Combine infused oils with beeswax on low heat until beeswax is melted.
● Remove from heat.
● While still warm, add the remaining ingredients and stir until combined.
● Pour into containers.
● Label, and store in a cool, dark place.
● Apply the salve to affected area and bandage. Reapply every 2 hours as necessary.
Shelf life: 6-12 months
Soothing Aloe Spray

Hydrosols, sometimes called flower waters, are byproducts of the essential oil steam-distilling process.
An herbal hydrosol often has similar properties to the herb’s essential oil, but hydrosols are less
concentrated and gentler on the skin. This recipe combines two soothing hydrosols with cooling and
anti-inflammatory aloe gel. A perfect herbal spray for bug bites, rashes, and sunburns.

Ingredients
60 mL (2 fl oz) aloe (Aloe vera) gel

30 mL (1 fl oz) lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) hydrosol
30 mL (1 fl oz) lavender (Lavandula spp.) hydrosol
Directions
● Mix ingredients together.

● Pour into a 4-ounce bottle with spray nozzle.
● Apply as needed to bug bites, rashes, or sunburns.
● Label and store in refrigerator.
Shelf life: 1 month
Anti-Itch Skin Mask

A recipe for insect bites, poison ivy, and other itchy skin problems.
Ingredients
5 mL (0.2 fl oz) carrier oil (olive, almond, jojoba, etc.)

3 drops lavender (Lavandula spp.) essential oil
3 drops peppermint (Mentha x piperita) essential oil
6 g (0.2 oz) fine sea salt
3 g (0.1 oz) baking soda
6 g (0.2 oz) bentonite clay
Approximately 15 mL (0.5 fl oz) water (more or less to make a creamy consistency)
Directions
● Combine carrier oil and essential oils in a small bowl with a spout.
● Add sea salt, baking soda, bentonite clay, and water and stir until creamy.
● Transfer to a small, airtight container and label.
● Apply to skin as needed.
Shelf life: 1 week
Safety: Do not use with children under the age of 12 or pregnant individuals.
Use only on affected area. If irritation develops, discontinue use immediately.

BURNS AND RASHES
Immediate Minor Burn or Sunburn Care

A quick, cooling preparation applied directly to burns and sunburn.
Ingredients
15 mL (0.5 fl oz) thick aloe gel

1-3 drops lavender (Lavandula spp.) essential oil
Directions
● Mix aloe gel and essential oil thoroughly.

● Apply directly to affected area.
● Continue care with Plantain Burn Spray listed below.
Plantain Burn Spray

Anti-inflammatory plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower provide a
cooling treat for the skin after a day in the sun.
Ingredients
240 mL (8 fl oz) water

Small handful plantain leaves
Small handful chamomile flowers
Directions
● Heat water to boiling.

● Make an infusion by pouring boiling water over plantain leaves and chamomile flowers. Steep
for 15-20 minutes and strain.
● Cool, pour into a small glass bottle with a spray nozzle, and apply to burns or rashes as
needed.
● Label and store in refrigerator.
Shelf life: 1-2 days

Oatmeal Bath Blend
A soothing bath blend for burns, rashes, and other inflammatory skin conditions.
Ingredients
180 g (6 oz) plain oatmeal, ground fine

15 g (0.5 oz) lavender (Lavandula spp.) bud
120 g (4 oz) baking soda
4 g (0.1 oz) green tea (Camellia sinensis) leaf
240 mL (8 fl oz) dairy milk (optional)
Directions
● Grind the oatmeal into fine grains using a blender, food processor, or spice/coffee grinder.
● Add dry ingredients to a muslin drawstring bag or a square piece of cheesecloth and tie off.
● Tie bundle of bath blend to faucet to let water pour through or place in tub.
● Fill bath with hot water and add milk (optional).
● Soak and enjoy this soothing bath for burns and skin inflammation!
Itchy Skin Tea

A seasonal or dietary change can often instigate patches of itchy or dry skin. This tea approaches the
imbalance internally with gentle lymphatic herbs. In addition, the saponins and resins in calendula
(Calendula officinalis) flower can help to decrease tissue swelling and inflammation.
Ingredients
1 g (0.04 oz) violet (Viola spp.) aerial parts

1 g (0.04 oz) calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower
1 g (0.04 oz) red clover (Trifolium pratense) aerial parts
Directions
● Bring water to a boil, then remove from heat.

● Infuse herb blend in hot water for 20 minutes.
● Strain herbs from tea.
● Sweeten with raw honey if desired.
● Drink throughout the day.

Diaper Rash Ointment
Adapted Medical Herbalism by David Hoffman (Hoffmann, 2003).
These herbs help to nourish and soothe the skin while protecting it from harmful bacteria and other
pathogens. Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) root stimulates the growth of new tissue cells and
goldenseal (H
ydrastis canadensis) powder is a topical antimicrobial.
Apply ointment to diaper area after changing. If there is no improvement, other factors such as cloth
diaper disinfection, potential irritants in disposable diapers, diet, and skin disorders should be
considered.
Ingredients
2 g (0.07 oz) chickweed (Stellaria media) leaf

4 g (0.14 oz) marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root
2 g (0.07 oz) comfrey (Symphytum officinale) leaf
2 g (0.07 oz) cultivated goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) leaf
240 mL (8 fl oz) almond oil
40 g (1.4 oz) beeswax
Directions
● Place sweet almond oil in a crock pot or double boiler with the herbs.
● Steep on very low heat for 4-8 hours (or more), being careful not to let herbs scorch or burn
(keep temperature below 140 degrees F).
● Strain mixture through cheesecloth and return to crock pot/double boiler.
● Add the wax and allow it to melt.
● After wax is melted, mix with a sterilized metal spoon, and pour into a glass jar with a
tight-fitting lid.
● Label and place in fridge until mixture solidifies.
● Store away from heat near infant’s changing area.
CUTS AND WOUNDS
Aloe Gel
Aloe vera is not only good for burns, it is also soothing to sores, cuts, and scrapes. Apply every few
hours to soothe and support the affected area.

Spray for Minor Cuts and Scrapes
A tincture-based antimicrobial spray to keep minor cuts and scrapes free of infection.
Ingredients
15 g (0.5 oz) yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts

15 g (0.5 oz) thyme (Thymus vulgaris) aerial parts
15 g (0.5 oz) echinacea (Echinacea s pp.) root
270 mL (9 fl oz) vodka
Directions
● Make a tincture with the above ingredients following tincture instructions as previously
discussed.
● Fill a small spray bottle with the tincture and use as needed to clean scrapes and cuts. You
may wish to apply a layer of raw honey after spraying the skin—raw honey also has
antimicrobial properties and will help to keep the wound covered and the wound spray from
washing off.
Shelf life: 2 years+
Safety Notes: If irritation develops, stop using immediately.
Crushed Calendula
The simplest of all herbal wound care, you can make this right in the garden when in need of a little
first aid for a minor cut, scrape, or bruise.
Harvest a small handful of calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower heads and chop/chew the petals into
a pulp. Mix into a paste with water if needed. When you have sufficiently pulped the herb, spread it on
the wound and leave it there for 10-30 minutes.
Homemade Waterless Hand Cleanser

A germ-fighting cleanser handy when water and soap are not available!
Ingredients
15 mL (0.5 fl oz) witch hazel extract

20 mL (0.7 fl oz) thick aloe gel

10 drops tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil
3 drops eucalyptus (Eucalyptus radiata) essential oil
Directions
● Add all ingredients into a small squirt bottle and shake until combined.
● Label and use as needed, shaking before each use.
Shelf life: 1 month
Safety: Do not use with children under the age of six or pregnant individuals.
COLDS, COUGHS, AND THE FLU

Echinacea Tincture
The immune-stimulating action of echinacea (E chinacea spp.) kicks the body into action when first
exposed to a cold or flu virus, while taking echinacea during a cold or the flu may decrease the
duration of illness.
Ingredients
Finely chopped fresh or dried echinacea (Echinacea spp.) aerial parts and/or roots
Vodka or grain alcohol (150-190 proof for fresh plant material; 80-100 proof for dried plant material)
Directions
● Follow the folk method of tincturing (as previously discussed), eyeballing the amount of herb as
well as the amount of alcohol.
● Alternatively, you can use the mathematical tincturing method if you want to have a better
sense of your tincture strength for dosing purposes.
Dosage: Typical adult suggested use for echinacea tincture (1:5 in 40% alcohol) is 1 to 4 mL, 3 times
a day (Hoffmann, 2003).
Shelf life: 2+ years
Elderberry Syrup
This is an easy recipe and one that you may want to have on hand all year round, but especially during
the cold and flu season. This recipe is safe for children and adults. As an antiviral, you may take a dose
once a day every day, but if you have come down with symptoms it is best to take a dose every 2-3
hours. Elderberries have been shown to ward off the flu as well as hasten the recovery for those who
have become sick with the flu.
Ingredients
60 g (2 oz) dried elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis) berry

15 g (0.5 oz) dried echinacea (Echinacea s pp.) root, optional
8 g (0.3 oz) fresh grated ginger (Zingiber officinale) root or 6 g (0.2 oz) dried ginger root
3 clove (Syzygium aromaticum) buds
3 cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) sticks
12 g (0.4 oz) dried rose (Rosa spp.) hips, optional
340 g (12 oz) raw honey

Directions
● Follow directions for making syrups as previously discussed.
Dosage: Typical adult dose is ½ – 1 tablespoon, daily for immune support.
Shelf life: Approximately 3 months
Safety: Do not give honey to children under 1 year of age
Onion and Raw Honey Oxymel

An oxymel is a vinegar and honey mixture that balances the intensity of strong-tasting herbs. This
recipe is a good base for a cough syrup or an immune tonic.
Ingredients
1 small onion
240 mL (8 fl oz) vinegar (many herbalists prefer raw apple cider vinegar)
450 g (16 oz) raw honey
Directions
● Chop onion.
● Add onion and vinegar to a clean glass jar, making sure vinegar covers onion completely.
● Let infuse for 2 weeks in a cool, dark cupboard.
● Strain vinegar from the onion.
● Gently warm onion-infused vinegar in a pan.
● Remove from heat and whisk honey into vinegar until smooth.
● Bottle and cap tightly.
● Label and store in the fridge or in a cool, dark cabinet.
Dosage: Typical adult dose is 1 teaspoon to 1 tablespoon, a few times a day.
Shelf life: 6 months, refrigerated
Immunity Support Tincture

Taken immediately at the first sign of a cold or the flu, this tincture may support the immune system in
warding off sickness. Note that you can halve or quarter this recipe to make a smaller amount of
tincture, if desired.

Ingredients
60 g (2 oz) echinacea (Echinacea spp.) root

60 g (2 oz) elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis) berry
15 g (0.5 oz) horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) root or ginger (Zingiber officinale) root
15 g (0.5 oz) yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts or elder flower
Approximately 600 mL (20 fl oz) vodka, depending on method used
Directions
● Follow previous directions to make a folk or mathematical tincture.
Dosage: Adult dose is generally 30-60 drops a few times a day.
Cough Support Tincture

This tincture is indicated for coughs associated with respiratory congestion from colds, the flu,
bronchitis, and other pulmonary and bronchial infections. Note that you can halve this recipe to make a
smaller amount of tincture, if desired.
Ingredients
30 g (1 oz) wild cherry (Prunus serotina) bark

30 g (1 oz) reishi (Ganoderma spp.) mushroom
7 g (0.25 oz) licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root
7 g (0.25 oz) skunk cabbage (Lysichiton americanus) rhizome and root (optional)
Approximately 400 mL (13.5 fl oz) vodka, depending on method used
Directions
● Follow previous directions to make a folk or mathematical tincture.
Dosage: Adult dose is generally 30-60 drops a few times a day.

Congestion-Moving Cough Syrup
This recipe is indicated for moist, phlegmy coughs. The herbs in this formula have a drying energy, are
antimicrobial, and have aromatic compounds that stimulate expectoration.
Ingredients
45 g (1.5 oz) elecampane (Inula helenium) root

5 g (0.2 oz) white pine (Pinus strobus) needle
340-1,275 g (12-45 oz) honey or 200-800 g (7-28 oz) sugar
Directions
● Follow syrup-making instruction previously discussed.
Dosage: Typical adult syrup dose is 1 teaspoon to 2 tablespoons several times a day.
Shelf life: Several weeks to a year, depending on ratio of decoction to honey
Safety: Do not give honey to children under 1 year of age.
Moistening Cough Syrup

This recipe is indicated for dry, stuck coughs. The herbs in this formula are moistening, expectorant,
anti-inflammatory, and help to soothe dry, unproductive coughs.
Ingredients
30 g (1 oz) wild cherry (Prunus serotina) bark

15 g (0.5 oz) calamus (Acorus calamus) root
10 g (0.3 oz) horehound (Marrubium vulgare) aerial parts
5 g (0.15 oz) cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) chips
120 mL (4 fl oz) elecampane (Inula helenium) root tincture
340-1,275 g (12-45 oz) honey or 200-800 g (7-28 oz) sugar
Directions
● Follow syrup-making instructions given previously, using all ingredients except for elecampane
tincture. Note that wild cherry bark is often prepared as a cold infusion (although some
herbalists do decoct the bark), thus the wild cherry bark can be cold infused separately,
strained, and then added to the strained decoction of calamus, horehound, and cinnamon or it

can be decocted along with the other herbs. It’s worth experimenting to determine which
preparation method is most effective for you.
● Add elecampane tincture. Shake to mix.
● Separate into smaller portions if desired, label, and store in the refrigerator.
Shelf life: Several weeks to a year, depending on ratio of decoction to honey
Diaphoretic Tea
When infused in water and drunk hot, diaphoretic herbs encourage circulation to the skin’s surface,
inducing perspiration; evaporating moisture cools the body, and can help ease a fever.
Ingredients
2 g (0.05 oz) elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis) flower

1 g (0.025 oz) yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts
1 g (0.025 oz) peppermint (Mentha x piperita) leaf
Directions
● Follow instructions for infusions discussed previously.

● Drink while hot.
● Keep the body and feet insulated and warm for 1 hour after drinking.
Dosage: Typical adult usage is 240 mL (8 oz), 3 times a day.
Cough Drops
Cough drops are an easy way to take soothing, expectorant herbs. Experiment with your favorite
lung-loving herbs and keep these on hand for cough and cold season.
Ingredients
100 g (3.5 oz) granulated sugar

60 mL (2 fl oz) rice syrup
60 mL (2 fl oz) strong water infusion or decoction of single herb or blend of choice (e.g., horehound
(Marrubium vulgare) aerial parts, hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) aerial parts, thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
aerial parts, licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root, valerian (Valeriana officinalis) root)

Directions
● Mix ingredients together in a pot. Bring mixture to a boil, and continue boiling until it
reaches the hard ball stage (when a spoon dipped into the syrup is removed, the syrup
will form threads and when spoon is plunged into cold water, the syrup can be rolled
into a firm ball—generally between 250 and 266 degrees F).
● Drop little pieces on a plate to harden. You can also use the cold water method to cool
each spoonful of syrup enough (just a few seconds) to shape it into a drop.
● If drops don’t harden all the way, you can roll them in powdered herbs or rice flour to
shape and dry them up a bit.
Dosage: Adults can take a drop a few times a day to soothe coughs.
Herbal Cold Care Capsules

This combination of warming, immune-stimulating, diaphoretic, and vitamin C-rich herbs pack a
powerful punch when it comes to supporting an immune system battling the common cold.
Ingredients
8 g (0.3 oz) echinacea (Echinacea s pp.) root powder or elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis)
berry powder
3 g (0.1 oz) rose (Rosa spp.) hip powder
3 g (0.1 oz) elder (S. nigra or S. c
anadensis) flower or catnip (Nepeta cataria) aerial parts powder
1 g (0.03 oz) ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome powder
Directions
● Mix together the herbs. Follow instructions for capsules as previously discussed.
● This recipe will make approximately 30 “0” size or 20 “00” size capsules.
Dosage: Adults may take 1-2 capsules every 2-3 hours and no more than 8 capsules per day. May be
continued for 2 days—after that reduce the dosage to 2-3 capsules, 2-3 times a day (taking no more
than 6 capsules a day) for up to 5 days.
Aromatic Clearing Salve for Congestion

The volatile oils in this salve help to open up congested sinuses.
Ingredients
120 mL (4 fl oz) olive oil

30 g (1 oz) beeswax

75 drops total of the following essential oils in any proportion: eucalyptus (Eucalyptus radiata),
peppermint (Mentha x piperita), clove bud (Syzygium aromaticum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
Directions
● Follow instructions for making a salve as previously discussed.

● Apply under the nose, to the chest, back, and/or bottoms of the feet.
Safety: Do not use with children under the age of 12 or pregnant individuals. Do not use clove bud
essential oil if you are taking blood thinning medication or have a bleeding disorder.
PAIN AND STRESS
Stress-Be-Gone Tea
This calming tea blend can be a bit sedating; for a daytime blend, reduce the amount of linden (Tilia
spp.) bract and flower or add one part peppermint (M entha x p
iperita) leaf.

Ingredients
13 g (0.4 oz) linden (Tilia spp.) bract and flower

13 g (0.4 oz) skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) aerial parts
13 g (0.4 oz) lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts
7 g (0.2 oz) chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower
5 g (0.17 oz) catnip (Nepeta cataria) aerial parts
Directions
● Blend dried herbs together and follow instructions for making an infusion as previously
discussed, using 12 g (0.4 oz) herb per 1 L (34 fl oz) water or 3 g (0.1 oz) herb per 240 mL (8 fl
oz) water and steeping for 15 minutes, covered.
● This recipe will make enough tea blend to make a little over 4 L (136 fl oz) of tea.
Dosage: Typical adult usage is 240 mL (8 fl oz), 3 times a day.
Headache-Ease Tea
While headaches can have many root causes, this tea and the tincture recipe below are ideal for
headaches associated with tension and stress.
Ingredients
15 g (0.5 oz) lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts

15 g (0.5 oz) meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) aerial parts
12 g (0.4 oz) catnip (Nepeta cataria) aerial parts
Directions
oz) water and steeping for 15 minutes.
● This recipe will make enough for 4 liters (136 oz) of tea.

Headache-Ease Tincture
Note that you can halve or quarter this recipe to make a smaller amount of tincture, if desired.
Ingredients
45 g (1.5 oz) skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) aerial parts

40 g (1.3 oz) valerian (Valeriana officinalis) root
40 g (1.3 oz) cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) bark
15 g (0.5 oz) blue vervain (Verbena hastata) aerial parts
15 g (0.5 oz) ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome
Approximately 800 mL (27 fl oz) vodka, depending on method used
Directions
● Follow directions to make a folk or mathematical tincture.
Dosage: Adult dose is generally 1 teaspoon at first sign of headache, continue with ½ teaspoon every
hour until headache subsides, up to 3 teaspoons total per day.
Pain-Be-Gone Herbal Liniment

A liniment is a topical liquid herbal preparation—some liniments are alcohol-based, some are
oil-based, and some are made with both alcohol and water. This alcohol-based pain liniment contains
anti-inflammatory and analgesic herbs. Experiment with the list below and find what herbs work best
for you!
Ingredients
Vodka or rubbing alcohol

Any of the following fresh or dried herbs, in any proportion:
● St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) aerial parts

● Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) aerial parts
● Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) leaf
● Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) leaf
● Cayenne pepper (Capscium annuum) fruit
● Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) aerial parts
● Lavender (Lavandula spp.) bud
● Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower
● Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome

Directions
● Follow previous directions to make a folk tincture.

● Apply to pain, bruises, and sore muscles as desired.
Safety: For external use only!
Simple Calendula Herbal Oil

There are many uses for calendula (Calendula officinalis) oil including sore and inflamed muscles,
chapped or chafed skin, bites, scrapes, and bruises. Depending on your intended application, you may
prefer to keep your calendula infused oil as-is, or make it into a salve (recipe below).
Ingredients
300 mL (10 fl oz) olive oil or carrier oil of your choosing

5 g (0.2 oz) dried calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower
Directions
● Follow directions for making an infused oil as previously discussed.
Simple Calendula Salve

Ingredients
240 mL (8 fl oz) calendula herbal oil (see above)

30-60 g (1-2 oz) beeswax
Directions
● Follow instructions for making a salve as previously discussed.

DIGESTION AND HYDRATION
Tummy Ache Soother

Chamomile (M atricaria chamomilla) has antispasmodic, carminative, and digestive tonic actions that
have made it famous for easing upset stomachs. Fennel (F oeniculum vulgare) is an antispasmodic
particularly useful for easing the pain and bloating associated with stuck flatulence. Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale) has bitter properties that stimulate secretion of digestive juices and aid the
digestive system in functioning efficiently. All three are combined in this tummy-soothing recipe that
will keep longer than an infusion, but has a more pleasant taste than a tincture.
Ingredients
30 g (1 oz) chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower powder

30 g (1 oz) fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed powder
30 g (1 oz) dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root powder
180 mL (6 fl oz) glycerin
90 mL (3 fl oz) apple cider vinegar

Directions
● Mix ingredients together in a glass pint jar with a lid.

● Store in a cool, dark place. Shake to mix every few days.
● After 1 month, strain out the herbs and store in a cupboard or refrigerator.
Dosage: Adult dosage is ½ – 1 teaspoon before meals.
Ginger
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome is carminative and a go-to for bloating, nausea, and stomach pain.
Keep ginger tea bags, ginger tincture, or ginger candies in your first aid kit for upset tummies.
Happy Tummy Tea

A pleasant-tasting carminative tea to enjoy after a hard-to-digest meal or during digestive upset.
Ingredients

15 g (0.5 oz) ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome
12 g (0.4 oz) meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) aerial parts
12 g (0.4 oz) peppermint (Mentha x piperita) leaf
Directions
oz) water and steeping for 15 minutes, covered.
● This recipe will make enough tea blend to make 4 L (136 fl oz) of tea.

Natural Electrolyte Drink
Our bodies need electrolytes to perform many essential functions, including transmitting nerve
impulses and muscle contractions, and they’re easily lost through sweating. No need to buy
mass-marketed sports drinks, though—you can make your own electrolyte drink right at home!
Ingredients
1 L (34 fl oz) warm water

2 lemons, juiced
1 lime, juiced
1.5 g (0.05 oz) sea salt
Raw honey or maple syrup to sweeten
Directions
● Mix all ingredients until combined and enjoy!
Jump Start Tea

A tea to jump-start circulation and support the liver!
Ingredients
1 L (34 fl oz) hot water

1 lemon, juiced
Dash of cayenne powder
Dash of ginger root powder
Raw honey or maple syrup to sweeten
Directions
● Mix all ingredients until combined and enjoy!
ADDITIONAL FIRST AID ESSENTIALS

Along with your favorite herbal preparations, your herbal kit should also include the following supplies:
● Bandages in multiple sizes

● Gauze and tape for handmade bandages, wraps, and compresses
● Alcohol for sterilizing equipment
● Scissors

● Tweezers
● Thermometer
● List of emergency phone numbers
● Herbal First Aid Handbook
CONCLUSION
With a solid working knowledge of how to make a variety of herbal preparations, you are ready to
develop the herbal support best suited for you and your loved ones and stock your first aid kit! Take
some time to get familiar with the how-tos of making your own teas, tinctures, syrup, salves, etc.—and
feel free to experiment as you do. The previous recipes are guides to get you started, and you will
inevitably make ingredient additions and substitutions based on the herbs that you have on hand or are
called to work with. We encourage you to get creative! This is the art of herbalism, which is deeply
personal, intuitive, and inspiring. Just a tip—make sure to make notes as you go to capture your
process, experience, and any important tweaks or measurements! These notes will become a valuable
part of your herbal learning and a documentation of your journey. Enjoy!
Making Plant Medicine by Richo Cech
The Herbal Medicine-Maker’s Handbook by James Green
The Modern Herbal Dispensatory by Thomas Easley and Steven Horne

LESSON 4: HERBAL ACTIONS AND
ENERGETICS
HERBAL ACTIONS
What Is An Herbal Action?
A plant and the constituents within it can interact with the human body in many ways. To categorize
plants and constituents according to their effects on the body, herbalists use specific terms, called
herbal actions. For example, if a plant lowers blood pressure, it is called a hypotensive. Herbal actions
are sometimes used as nouns and sometimes as adjectives (i.e., one could say hawthorn is a
hypotensive, or hawthorn is hypotensive). An individual plant or part of a plant can have multiple actions
and many different herbs will have the same action. Below is a list of actions along with a few herbal
examples of each.

Experiential Exercise: Make Flash Cards
With a solid command of herbal actions, you will find that understanding how herbs are used and how
to choose the most appropriate herbs in different situations will be much easier. Some of these terms,
such as anti-inflammatory, will likely already be familiar, but others may be new to you.
The more you see and hear these words, the more ingrained they’ll be in your thinking as you begin to
learn about herbal formulation. Studying (or playing!) with flashcards is an effective way to reinforce
this learning.
Choose 15 herbal actions from the table in the lesson. Then, using plain 4” x 6” index cards, write the
following information on each side of the card:
Herbal action
Definition of herbal action
3 herbs that notably show this action
● Herb 1 (Binomial name)

Now that you have these cards, test yourself (or have a friend or family member test you) until you can
answer the following questions with confidence:
● Given the definition, what is the name of the action?

● Given the name of the action, what is the definition?
● What are two examples of herbs with this action?
● Given three examples of herbs that share the same action, can you name the action?
Once you’ve mastered these 15 actions, create more cards from the table to continue your learning.
ENERGETICS
If the next time you saw your doctor you were diagnosed with diabetes, the doctor may prescribe a
medication (along with dietary and lifestyle guidelines). If your neighbor also developed diabetes, they
might get the same medication and advice. Your uncle, your friend—same thing. Pharmaceuticals are
given to treat specific diseases. Herbs are used a bit differently.
Herbs support the body in its work to maintain balance. A long list of herbs could potentially be used for
one health condition. However, different herbs are chosen for different people with the same condition,
depending on the constitution of the individual and the specific way that the condition is manifesting in

their body. When choosing an herb, or a set of herbs, to support an individual, the energetics of that
person and the energetics of herbs should be considered.
The energetics, or energetic qualities, of an herb refer to the sometimes subtle shifts that an herb
induces in the human body, mind, and/or spirit. When we consider the energetics of a plant, we are able
to find a more appropriate herbal match for an individual. For example, if we are choosing herbs for
someone with a stuck, congested cough, we might consider giving them an expectorant. Pull any herb
book off a shelf, and you'll find a long list of expectorants! How do you know which to choose? To pare
down the list, consider the nature of that particular cough (and of the energetic constitution of the
individual with the cough—more about this later).
Choosing herbs that balance the energetics of both the person and the condition or illness is a great
strategy. Imagine yourself uncomfortably hot, sweaty, and maybe a little grumpy on a sweltering summer
day. Given a choice, would you prefer hot or cool tea? Most of us would chose a cold beverage,
because adding cooling liquid to a hot body helps us feel that the temperature of the body is back in
balance.
Back to our cough example: if the cough presented with excess mucus, we would consider the cough to
be moist and choose a drying expectorant, like thyme (Thymus vulgaris) aerial parts. If there is little
mucus and the throat is dry, licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root might be a better choice because of its
moistening (demulcent) effect on tissues.
Temperature
Some herbs have a cooling effect on the body. If
the body is physically hot (from sunburn,
inflammation, fever, etc.), cooling herbs are able
to help tame that heat. Place aloe (Aloe vera) juice
or a poultice of comfrey (Symphytum officinale)
leaf on a sunburn or a nettle sting and “ahhhhhh.”
Cooling herbs soothe hot conditions.
Sometimes, the physical body isn't literally heated

up, but there might be an energetic quality of heat
(more about this in constitutions below) and
cooling herbs can be useful here as tonifying
agents—bringing the energetic temperature of the
body back to balance. Anti-inflammatory and
bitter herbs tend to be cooling.
Some herbs have a warming effect on the body.

They may cause sweating, increase circulation, or
balance out a generally cool constitution.
Diaphoretics, rubefacients, circulatory stimulants,
and adaptogens tend to be warming.
Moisture
Just as some illnesses create cold or heat in the
body, some create too much or too little moisture (e.g., excess moisture might result in edema and

deficient moisture might result in dry skin). Herbs are helpful in restoring this balance—individuals with
drier constitutions or with a dry condition may benefit from incorporating moistening foods and herbs
into their diet. Individuals with a moist constitution or condition may benefit from using drying herbs and
foods.
Tension
Herbs can be relaxing or stimulating. They can also be located on a continuum between the two
extremes, or be strongly both at once. Think of a vigorous, stimulating massage that results in a deeply
relaxed state as tension is dissolved, or the relaxant action of milky oat (Avena sativa) seed on the
nervous system, which allows the flow of nourishment and energy to help increase vitality (Rose, 2009).
We often think of herbal relaxants and stimulants in terms of their effects solely on our nervous
system—for example, chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower at bedtime and coffee (Coffea spp.)
bean to wake us up in the morning. However, herbal relaxants and stimulants can support us in more
ways than our mental state; we also see them reflected in the state of tissues throughout the body.
Imbalances in the body can be caused in part by too much tension (e.g., muscle spasms, headaches,
digestive cramping, or anxiety) or by laxity (e.g., poor digestion, cold clammy skin, or poor circulation).
Individuals with excess tension can benefit from relaxing herbs, such as nervines for a calmer mental
state, carminatives to relax digestive cramping, or vasodilators to ease constriction in blood vessels.
Individuals with excess stagnation can benefit from stimulating herbs to increase mental alertness,
bitters to stimulate digestion, and warming herbs to stimulate circulation.
Remember that finding balance can be a tricky thing, and giving drying herbs and foods to a moist
person will eventually dry them out too much. Dryness and moisture, coldness and heat, and relaxation
and tension are not bad qualities to have, they just need to be balanced.
The Four Elements

One of the oldest Western energetic systems known is the Greek Four Element theory. This theory was
used during the time of Aristotle to describe the attributes of medicinal plants, rocks, and just about
everything else (Wood, 2004)! The four elements (fire, air, water, and earth) were further divided into four
degrees, or categories of intensity.
Fire – Fire gives heating and drying properties to an herb. According to Matthew Wood (2004), nettle
(Urtica dioica) leaf is hot and dry to the first degree, mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) leaf to the second
degree, catnip (Nepeta cataria) leaf to the third degree, and mustard (Brassica spp.) leaf to the fourth
degree, the fourth degree being the hottest and driest. Fiery herbs can be used to balance watery (moist
and cold) conditions.
Air – According to the Greek theory, air has heating and moistening qualities. Herbs that are warm and
moist include fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seed, dong quai (Angelica sinensis) root and leaf,
codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) root, and elecampane (Inula helenium) root. These herbs can be used
to balance cool and dry conditions or constitutions.
Water – Water is moist and cool. Herbs containing the water element include violet (Viola spp.) leaf and
flower, Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum) rhizome, chickweed (Stellaria media) leaf, and
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root. These herbs can be used to balance hot and dry conditions or
constitutions.

Earth – Substances composed of the earth element are drying and cool. Herbs in this category include
raspberry (Rubus spp.) leaf, lady’s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris) aerial parts, plantain (Plantago spp.) leaf,
and rose (Rosa s pp.) petal. These herbs can be used to balance moist and hot conditions or
constitutions.
Taste
The taste of an herb is another way to consider the herb's energetics. The following tastes tell us
something about the qualities of an herb:
Sour – A sour taste indicates that a substance may be astringent, stimulating to digestion,
anti-inflammatory, and/or antioxidant. Lemons, fermented foods, and herbs such as hawthorn
(Crataegus spp.) berries, rose (Rosa spp.) hips, and schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) berries have a
sour taste.
Bitter – A bitter taste indicates that a substance may be useful to help stimulate digestion. Bitter herbs
include dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) leaf and root, gentian (Gentiana lutea) root, Oregon grape
(Berberis aquifolium) root, and motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca) aerial parts. An herb with a bitter taste
may also be cholagogue, choleretic, and/or alterative. Bitter herbs and foods are generally cooling and
drying. Bitterness can also indicate toxicity, one reason it's important to have an accurate plant
identification before consuming plants with which we are not familiar.
Sweet – Sweet herbs are often nutritive and tonic, and can also be adaptogenic, demulcent, and/or
immunomodulant. Sweet herbs include licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root, astragalus (Astragalus
membranaceus) root, and burdock (Arctium lappa) root and have a moistening quality in the body.
Salty – Salty herbs are generally nutritive—rich in both major and trace minerals—and include nettle
(Urtica dioica) leaf, seaweeds, and chickweed (Stellaria media) leaf. Salty herbs may also be diuretic,
tonic to the kidneys, and astringent. According to Western herbal energetics, salty substances are
cooling and drying to the body.
Pungent – Pungent herbs such as garlic (Allium sativum) bulb, onion (Allium cepa) bulb, horseradish
(Armoracia rusticana) root, ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome, elecampane (Inula helenium) root, and
cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) seed have a strong taste and powerful odor and are typically
warming and drying. They may be used as diaphoretics, circulatory stimulants, or digestive stimulants.
Spicy – Volatile oils and terpenes lend herbs such as cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum) fruit and mint
family plants like rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaf, thyme (Thymus vulgaris) leaf, and oregano
(Origanum vulgare) leaf their spiciness. Many spicy herbs have an affinity for the digestive, circulatory,
respiratory, and nervous systems; they also tend to have an antimicrobial action. Note that many cultural
traditions such as the six tastes of Ayurveda or the five tastes of Chinese medicine do not differentiate
between pungent, spicy, and the following taste, acrid, though there are subtle differences.
Acrid – More of a sensation than an actual taste, the acrid nature of plants is felt as an irritation in the
mouth or throat, from mild to intense. Kava kava (Piper methysticum) root, lobelia (Lobelia inflata) herb,
and black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) root are all examples of acrid herbs, which are often analgesic and
antispasmodic.

Astringent – Herbs get their astringency from tannins, which can cause both local and systemic
dryness. Astringent herbs include black tea (Camellia sinensis) leaf, red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) leaf,
bayberry (Myrica cerifera) root, witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) bark and leaves, and rose (Rosa spp.)
petal. Astringent herbs are toning to the skin and mucous membranes and can help stop bleeding
(externally or internally) as well as diarrhea.
Bland – Herbs that are classified as bland often have a slippery texture associated with mucilage, such
as slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) bark and marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root. These herbs are cooling,
demulcent, and can also be anti-inflammatory and laxative in nature.
Experiential Exercise: Taste & Energetics

All you will need for this exercise is a cup of tea, your physical senses and observation skills, and a
desire to connect with a plant of your choosing. Experimenting with herbs in this way allows you to
experience the physical and energetic properties of a plant and connect with it on a deeper level.

Prepare a cup of a simple herbal infusion, using a single herb rather than a blend of herbs. While the
tea is brewing, you might choose to gather a journal and pen for writing down your observations. Find
a comfortable, quiet place to sit and take a sip with your eyes closed. Take a moment to observe after
each sip.
What tastes do you experience? Is the herb sweet, salty, pungent, or bitter? Or, perhaps you would
describe the taste as earthy, swampy, mustardy, or floral. Later, you can look back at the taste chart
above and gather an idea of what actions the herb might have based on its taste.
Is there a particular place in your body that you feel the effects of the tea? If your attention is drawn to
your stomach, this gives you a clue that the herb might be a digestive stimulant. If your attention is
drawn to your tailbone or your feet, the herb might have a grounding nature.
Does the herb have a warming or a cooling effect on your body? Does it feel moistening or drying to
you? Is it stimulating or relaxing? Remember, not all herbs are on one end of the spectrum or another.
Some are neutral in one or more qualities.
Does the plant have a personality that is revealed to you? Do you experience it as light, joyful, somber,
or wise? You might even ask the plant if it offers any particular support for you and then notice if your
awareness settles on any particular part of your body.
If you like, keep a notebook in which you jot down your experiences tasting and observing different
herbs. This will become a valuable record of your own firsthand experience with the plants you choose
to taste. Feel free to share your observations in the MyHerbalStudies Facebook community—you
might be surprised at how similar your own observations are to those of your fellow students!
The Six Tissue States

In 1900, physiomedicalist Samuel Thurston organized previous observations of energetics on the body’s
tissues into the Six Tissue State Model to expand upon the Four Element theory and the Four Qualities
of cold, hot, dry, and damp (Wood, 2004). The Six Tissue State Model has more of a focus on the
energetics of the human body, rather than on plants, and characterizes physiological imbalances
according to tissue state. Once the tissue state of an imbalance is understood, herbs that
counterbalance that tendency can be chosen.
Excitation – “Excited” tissues are functioning on high speed. Any imbalance preceded by the word
“hyper” likely reflects an excited tissue state (e.g., hyperthyroidism, hypertension, hypersensitivity).
Excitation is associated with heat, and symptoms include allergies, sharp pains, fever, swellings,
redness, rapid pulse, and increased blood pressure. Herbs with a cooling or anti-inflammatory effect,
such as licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower, are indicated.
Depression – Depression in tissues is a result of under-stimulation and leads to reduced function;

depressed tissue states are often preceded by the word “hypo” (e.g., hypotension, hypothyroid, etc.).
Depressed tissues are energetically characterized as being cold, often accompanied by a lack of
circulation to the extremities of the body. Other symptoms include low blood pressure, a deep and slow
pulse, bluish color to the skin, and poor immune function. Because tissue depression is associated with
cold in the body, warming herbs that stimulate circulation, such as cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) bark

and ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome, are indicated.
Constriction – Constricted tissues are tense, and related imbalances may result in spasming, twitching,
intermittent symptoms (e.g., diarrhea followed by constipation), nervousness, and/or indigestion.
Constricted states are typically caused by tension in the nervous system. Herbs that relax the body
(nervines, diaphoretics, sedatives), such as lavender (Lavandula spp.) bud and skullcap (Scutellaria
lateriflora) aerial parts, are indicated.
Relaxation – Relaxed tissues lack tone and are less able to hold in fluids. Symptoms may include pale,
moist skin, swollen glands, prolapsed organs, and cysts. Astringent herbs such as lady's mantle
(Alchemilla vulgaris) aerial parts and raspberry (Rubus spp.) leaf are indicated.
Stagnation – In stagnant tissue states, fluid collects within the body, rather than leaking from the body,
as in relaxed tissue states. Symptoms may include swollen tissues, dull/achy pain, slow metabolism, and
excessive mucus. Herbs that help move the blood and lymph, such as mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris)
aerial parts and calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower, are indicated.
Atrophy – Atrophic tissues are under-functioning typically because they are dry and undernourished.
Symptoms include a weak pulse, dry skin, nails, and hair, eczema or psoriasis, and dry, creaky joints.
Because atrophy is associated with dryness and lack of nourishment, moist, nutritive herbs such as
violet (Viola spp.) aerial parts and marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root are indicated.

AYURVEDA
Ayurveda, literally translated as the science of life, has roots that extend deep into ancient Vedic culture.
Among the Vedic sciences are teachings on astrology, health, ecology, poetry, business, and ethical
living. Ayurveda is one of the oldest healing systems that is still practiced today and is gaining
recognition in the West. Though it originated in the land now known as India, Ayurveda is a universal and
ever evolving system. This rich healing system has influenced the traditional medical practices of many
lands and cultures, including Tibet, Sri Lanka, Burma, and China (Tirtha, 1998). Records indicate that the
Vedic sciences, including Ayurveda, were in practice as far back as 4000 BCE, or perhaps earlier
(Frawley, 2000).
Ayurveda is built upon the five element paradigm of physiology, in that all things in nature are comprised
of the five great elements. These five elements are earth, water, fire, air, and ether. They exist in a
material way, in that these elements are literally found in nature. However, the elements are also
symbolic. They represent qualities, and pertinent to our understanding, qualities within each individual.
The qualities, or attributes, that correspond to each element are understood in the following way
(Svoboda, 1999):
Earth: stability, rigidity, the solid state of matter
Water: instability, receptivity, flow, the liquid state of matter
Fire: light, heat, transformation, the ability to metabolize and digest
Air: mobility and dynamism, the gaseous state of matter, existence without form
Ether: the distance between matter, the field from which everything else is manifested, possibility
The Three Doshas: Vata,

Pitta, and Kapha
Taking this foundational understanding one step
further, the five elements combine to form the
three doshas: vata, pitta, and kapha. Dosha
literally means fault (Pole, 2013). In fact, the
Caraka Samhita, one of the cornerstone historical
texts of Ayurveda, describes vata, pitta, and
kapha as “pathogenic factors in the body.”
Yet, it is wise to not be misled by these literal

definitions. According to ayurvedic teachings, all
of us are comprised of a particular balance of the
doshas, known as our prakruti, or inherent
constitution, and our vikruti, or current balance of
doshas. Ayurveda teaches that prakruti is fixed
and does not change throughout one’s life.
However, our current state, or vikruti, can and

does shift. Factors such as stage of life, seasonal changes, diet, and lifestyle all impact vikruti.
Though our unique doshic balance is natural and unchanging, when a dosha becomes excessive or out
of balance, health issues are the imminent result. Thus, for the cultivation of optimal health, it is
important to keep one’s doshas in check and thus prevent their accumulation (Pole, 2013).
Vata: That Which Moves

Though dosha literally means fault, the common and practical view of the doshas is that they are
constitutional types, or mind-body types. The doshas are also understood to be vital forces (Pole, 2013).
Vata is the principle of kinetic energy in the body, and is the result of the combination of air and ether.
Vata is the force behind movement of the body and the mind. The nervous system and all movements of
the body are governed by vata dosha (Svoboda, 1999).
Since vata is comprised of air and ether, it embodies the qualities of those elements. Thus, vata is
characterized as cool, dry, light, mobile, rough, subtle, and irregular (Svoboda, 1999). These
characteristics manifest in the physiology and psychology of individuals who are predominantly of vata
nature or who are experiencing a vata vikruti. Thus, those with a vata constitution are generally lighter
boned, have a naturally thin and narrow frame, a tendency toward dry skin, an irregular appetite, and are
prone to nervousness and anxiety. Vata types also possess a natural effervescence. They are drawn to
travel and creative pursuits, and can be quite adaptable. However, due to their irregular nature, seeing a
project to its completion and staying the course under stress can be challenging for those with a vata
constitution. Vata types particularly benefit from oil massage and warm, moist, oily foods (Svoboda,
1999).
Pitta: That Which Digests

Pitta is the combination of fire and water and is responsible for our digestive power. This translates to
the digestion and metabolism of food, as well as the digestion of information (Svoboda, 1999). The
Caraka Samhita describes pitta as unctuous, hot, sharp, liquid, and pungent. Those with a strong pitta
dosha tend toward intensity, and due to their naturally strong digestive power, have the capacity to
digest large amounts of food and information (fuel for the body and mind). People with a dominant pitta
nature are articulate and are also described as dignified, good leaders (Frawley, 2000). Due to their
innate heat, they tend to have a warm body temperature, robust circulation, and are prone toward anger,
impatience, rashes, and inflammation (Svoboda, 1999). To prevent their innate fire from burning them
out, it is important to find ways of managing, reducing, and expelling their excess heat. Foods that are
sweet, bitter, and astringent are ideal for balancing pitta dosha, as are practices that are cooling,
calming, stress-reducing, and nurturing. Mental rest is especially important for those with a pitta dosha
(Frawley, 2000).
Kapha: That Which Holds Things Together

Kapha is made of earth and water, and its qualities as described in the Caraka Samhita are heavy, cool,
soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile, and slimy. Kapha dosha relates to the fluids and protective lining in our
bodies. It is the great protector and a stabilizing force. In terms of digestion, kapha controls the
secretions that lubricate and protect digestive organs. Kapha also governs the structure of each cell and
provides enough stability of mind for a thought to stick (Svoboda, 1999).
Kapha types are naturally more heavyset than vata and pitta types. Their digestion and metabolism is
generally a bit slower as well, and thus they can thrive on smaller amounts of food than their vata and

pitta counterparts. However, when kapha types stay active and moderate with their food intake, they
have the capacity to be strong natural athletes, and their sturdy constitution gives them great stamina
and endurance (Svoboda, 1999). Kapha types also tend to have strong bones, teeth, and nails, as well
as lustrous hair. When balanced, kapha types are calm, patient, and forgiving. When kapha rises to
excess, lethargy, attachment, and greed may set in (Lad, 2009). A diet that emphasizes spicy, bitter, and
astringent tastes is best for kapha types, as well as self-care practices that are stimulating, drying, and
clearing (Frawley, 2000).
A Constitutional Approach
When choosing an herbal protocol in Ayurveda, it is essential to understand the nature of the individual
at that time. Specific herbs, foods, and lifestyle practices are chosen based upon an individual’s
constitution and current state of balance. The recommendations given should be complementary and
balancing with respect to the energetics of the individual. This constitutional approach is the cornerstone
of Ayurveda.
Join Ayurvedic Doctor Reshma Sinu for an exploration of the way that herbs are used in Ayurveda in the
following video:
Visit the course to download the Use of Herbs in Ayurvedic Medicine video transcript as a PDF.
Experiential Exercise: Doshas

Do you see a predominant dosha in yourself? Is there a second dosha that is also evident in your
constitution? Has your dominant dosha changed over time? Does gaining some insight into your

dosha help explain some of your tendencies and preferences? What type of self-care practices are
best suited for your dosha? Do you notice the manifestation of constitution types in others’
personalities and preferences?
CHINESE MEDICINE
China is considered the world’s oldest continuous civilization due to its continuity in language, culture,
values, and philosophy for the past 10,000 years (Tanner, 2010). The Chinese began to cultivate plants
for food around 10,000 BCE, and by about 1500 BCE there is evidence of a sophisticated culture that
included agriculture, pottery, trade, tools, carved jade, and a developed society in the settled areas
around the Yellow River (Unschuld, 2010).
The Chinese developed a rich culture and advanced scientific, philosophical, and medical fields. This is
documented in the seven volume book series Science and Civilisation in China (Needham, 1965). The
oldest evidence of writing and of medical treatments in China is from etchings on over 150,000 bone
fragments and tortoise shells in the Honan province, dated to around 2000 BCE (Unschuld, 2010).
Archaeologists also found Chinese herbal prescription texts dating from the 3rd century BCE in the
Mawangdui sites in China. These medical manuscripts, inscribed on silk, mention herbs, herbal
preparations, and therapeutic techniques still in use today. The Mawangdui texts are the first known
written descriptions of the circulation of qi t hrough the body (Unschuld, 1986; Unschuld, 2010).
Chinese medicine has its roots in shamanistic traditions dating back to Neolithic times (Unschuld, 1986).
Rooted in systems of correspondences and patterns that are based on close observation of the natural
world, the practice of Chinese medicine evolved a complex system of diagnosis and understanding of
the etiology of disease over time (Needham, 1965; Unschuld, 2010).
Chinese medicine views humans as a microcosm of the macrocosm and as an inherent part of the
natural world. It describes the dynamic interplay of yin and yang, the manifestations and transformations
of qi (vital energy), and human physiology in a unique and fully comprehensive system (Unschuld, 2010).
The primary focus of Chinese medicine is to support and preserve good health. Modern Chinese
medicine itself is a vast field, including numerous modalities and many specialized areas of medicine
including pediatrics, gynecology, obstetrics, and orthopedics.
Yin, Yang, and the Five Element Theory

The theory of yin and yang is codified and expounded in the classical book known as the Yi Jing (I
Ching), which dates back to 700 BCE. The principles of yin and yang were developed further and applied
to medicine around 476-221 BCE (Maciocia, 2015).
Yin and yang r epresent relative qualities and polarities that set up a dynamic relationship wherein they
are constantly interrelating and changing in relation to one another. Yin/ yang theory is applied in all
aspects of Chinese medicine.

Yin Yang
shady side of hill sunny side of hill
darkness light
rest activity
cold heat
chronic disease acute disease
contraction expansion
water fire
receptive active
even numbers odd numbers
The first recorded reference to the Wu Xing (Five Phases or Five Elements) occurs in the Zhou dynasty
(1000 to 700 BCE). During the Warring States period (476-221 BCE), this concept was applied to
medicine, astrology, natural sciences, the Chinese calendar, and other fields of study (Maciocia, 2015;
Needham, 2000). The Five Elements are one of
the many ways that Chinese medicine describes
physiological processes and include Earth, Metal,
Water, Wood, and Fire. The nature of each
element and its correspondences in the natural
world, as well as the relationships and interaction
of the elements all play a key role in health and
disease.
The basic cycle of the Five Elements describes

the nourishing and supporting relationship cycle,
which is one of many interrelationships between
the Elements. In this cycle, Earth nourishes Metal,
Metal nourishes Water, Water nourishes Wood,
and Wood nourishes Fire. Understanding these
relationships allows the practitioner to
recommend appropriate lifestyle changes and
therapeutic measures to restore health when
someone is ill.
The Five Elements also relate to the

organ/energetic systems of Chinese medicine.
Chinese medicine classifies and describes the
function of the organs quite differently than does
Western medicine. Because of this, it is common practice to capitalize the names of the organs when
referencing them in relation to Chinese medicine. For instance, the energetics and functions of the Liver
and Kidney are quite distinct and different than the liver and kidney organ functions described in

Western medicine. The Five Elements in relation to Chinese medicine organ systems will be explored
further throughout the course.
Chinese Medicine Classical Texts

Several of the primary classical Chinese medical texts still used by modern practitioners have their roots
in oral traditions. The Huang Di Nei Jing and the Shen Nong Ben Cao date back to around 100 BCE and
100 CE, respectively. Both are thought to be compilations of orally transmitted knowledge dating to the
Neolithic era (10000 to 2000 BCE) (Needham, 2000; Unschuld, 2010; Wilms, 2013). During the Han
Dynasty (around 220 CE), these texts were reviewed, organized, and annotated, providing the basis for
future editions (Unschuld, 2010; Wilms, 2013).
Over the centuries, many famous Chinese medicine physicians contributed volumes of medical and
herbal treatises that are still highly valued as classical reference material by Chinese medicine
practitioners around the world. This is especially true now, as more and more of these texts are
translated from Chinese each year.
Join Acupuncturist and herbalist Brendan Kelly for an exploration of the way that herbs are used in
Chinese medicine in the following video. Note that because Brendan Kelly is a licensed acupuncturist, he
is licensed to use terms such as treat, diagnosis, prescribe, and medicine when he is referring to herbs.
Without a license in acupuncture, or other medical license, an herbalist is not legally able to use these
terms with clients.
Visit the course to download the Use of Herbs in Chinese Medicine video transcript as a PDF.

CONCLUSION
Plants are rich with chemicals as well as with layers of actions and energies that can affect people in
various ways, depending on individual constitutions and current tissue states. Recognizing and working
with the unique qualities and patterns of both plants and people are part of what makes herbalism such
a beautiful, individualized practice that can offer balance and support wellness on multiple levels. In
addition to becoming familiar with herbal action terminology, we encourage you to continue to open your
senses to the energetics of our herbal allies for an even deeper understanding of the ways in which they
can work within us.
Ayurveda: The Science of Self-healing by Vasant Lad
Ayurvedic Herbology by Vishnu Dass
Ayurvedic Healing: A Comprehensive Guide by David Frawley
Ayurvedic Medicine: The Principles of Traditional Practice by Sebastian Pole
Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics by Paul U. Unschuld
Prakriti: Your Ayurvedic Constitution by Dr. Robert Svoboda
The Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica, Shen Nong Bencao Jing by Sabine Wilms
The I Ching or Book of Changes: The Richard Wilhelm translation by Richard Wilhelm and Cary F.
Baynes
The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism by Matthew Wood
The Web That Has No Weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine by Ted Kaptchuk
The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine: A New Translation of the Neijing Suwen with Commentary by
Maoshing Ni
The Yoga of Herbs by David Frawley and Vasant Lad

LESSON 5: CREATING FORMULAS
INTRODUCTION
Lemon balm aerial parts, rose buds, violet flowers, and other beautiful herbs swirling about while
infusing in a steaming glass jar of water is just one example of the many preparations herbalists can
create with plants. By taking a moment to experience the scent and color of each plant we touch while
partaking in this universal and ancient practice—combining plants with the elements of water and
fire—we can deeply connect to our plant allies as well as with many generations of people who have
practiced this art for millennia. Along with infusions, numerous other herbal preparations exist that
combine multiple herbs into what herbalists generally refer to as formulas. Creating formulas takes the
art of herbal preparations to the next level and requires a thoughtful rationale in choosing each herb
within a formula to achieve overall balance and effectiveness.
RATIONALE: CHOOSING HERBS FOR A FORMULA

When herbalists talk about the “rationale” behind an herbal formula, they are referring to the thought
process that went into determining the goals, actions, and herbs represented in the formula. In order to
create effective herbal formulas, one must move beyond simply assigning herbs to ailments. Instead, an
herbalist should use critical thinking skills and their knowledge about energetics, physiology, and herbal
properties to chart the best course of action to support an individual. Along with considering the

individual’s constitution and manifestation of imbalance when formulating, both short- and long-term
goals should be kept in mind. For example, one might decide to address acute symptoms and the
individual’s current mood and outlook before addressing deeper issues.
Let’s say that your friend approaches you asking about herbs for her list of complaints. She tells you that
she has caught a cold every month for the last 3 months and that recently, she’s been having intestinal
cramping after most meals. She also says that she is stressed out about her acne and her anxiety. She’s
heard that you know a bit about herbs and she’s hoping you can help her support her wellness. As she’s
telling you her health history, several plants pop into your mind and you jot them down:
Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus) root – to strengthen her immune system

Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower – to soothe her indigestion
Burdock (Arctium lappa) root – to support her liver in order to help with her acne
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts – to calm her anxiety
These just happen to be the first four herbs that you think of, although another herbalist’s list could look
completely different! Since you value your intuition, you decide that you want to include these herbs (and
maybe some others) in your suggestions for your friend. She could choose to take these four herbs as
simples: astragalus soup stock, chamomile tincture, burdock decoction, and lemon balm tea, perhaps.
However, it can be beneficial to create an herbal formula designed specifically for your friend that
incorporates all four of these herbs with some additions to balance out the formula. But, how do you
choose the herbs to create a well-balanced formula? Well, you already have your list of complaints. You
already have a rough idea of your friend’s constitution, or you may have to ask some questions to get a
clearer idea (let’s say she is thin and tall, with dry hair, skin, and nails and a lot of nervous energy—a vata
type). You already have a list of herbs that popped into your mind when your friend was talking to you.
Now, it can be useful to backtrack a little bit and come up with a list of goals for your friend. This may
seem redundant, but it is very helpful to reinforce your ideas about which herbs to add to your formula,
and in what proportions. Your list might look something like this:
● Tonify her immune system so that it is better able to fight the monthly cold that she comes down
with (you might also suggest she consider an immune stimulant formula the next time she feels a
cold coming on, but we won’t include that in our example).
● Relax her nervous system (to soothe anxiety) as well as her gut (to ease the intestinal spasming).
● Aid her liver in clearing metabolic waste from her body so it doesn’t result in inflammation and
acne breakouts.
● Decrease her perception of stress.
● Tonify her digestive system to address the root cause of her intestinal spasming.
● Moisten and warm her constitution to prevent vata dosha from becoming excessive and
exacerbating her symptoms.
From here, make a list of what herbal actions you will need in your formula to support the specific needs
of your friend. You can also include the energetic qualities you will need in your formula, based on her
constitution and the nature of her symptoms. You might come up with the following list:
● Immunomodulant (to support her immune system so it is able to fight the cold virus)
● Adaptogen (she mentioned being stressed)
● Nervine (to support her nervous system and soothe her anxiety)
● Carminative and/or antispasmodic (to soothe her intestinal spasming)
● Liver tonic (to aid in clearing metabolic wastes that otherwise are presenting as acne)

● Alterative (to support function in the digestive system and the effective elimination of metabolic
wastes)
● Bitter (to improve digestion)
● Moistening herb (balancing for her dry vata constitution)
● Warming herb (balancing for her cool vata constitution)
Now, on to formulation! Begin by listing herbs that meet your goals and have the desired actions. To
create synergy in the formula (more about this below), choose herbs that cover more than one of the
actions on your list. In fact, the more overlap the better, to keep the daily dose as low as possible! Also,
if one or more actions need to be reinforced, choose more than one herb with the same action—some
herbalists prefer to have at least two herbs with the same action in every formula. In our example, you
might decide that the digestive aspect of the formula is the most important because of the effect of
digestion on other systems in the body. Thus, you are sure to include multiple carminatives and bitters.
As you consider your formulation, be sure to include the list of plants that you originally thought of, as
long as they still make sense! Here is an example of what you might come up with:
● Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus) root – immunomodulant, adaptogen, slightly warming

● Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower – nervine, carminative, mildly bitter, cooling
● Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts – nervine, carminative, cooling
● Burdock (Arctium lappa) root – liver tonic, alterative, bitter, slightly moist, cooling
From the beginning, you’ve covered all of the actions you ultimately sought to achieve with only four
herbs! Since chamomile, lemon balm, and burdock are cooling, however, you may need to add

something warming so as not to aggravate her constitution. Maybe you could add some tulsi (Ocimum
tenuiflorum) aerial parts, which is warming, anti-inflammatory, carminative, nervine, adaptogen, and
mildly bitter—that seems like a good fit! We will return to this formula and fine-tune it, as we continue
through this lesson.
Here is your updated list:
● Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus) root – immunomodulant, adaptogen, slightly warming

● Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower – nervine, carminative, mildly bitter, cooling
● Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts – nervine, carminative, cooling
● Burdock (Arctium lappa) root – liver tonic, alterative, bitter, slightly moist, cooling
● Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum) aerial parts – carminative, nervine, adaptogen, warming
Note: The above example is simplified, to make it easy to follow. Ideally, you would ask your friend many
more questions detailing the nature of her imbalances and thus would need to juggle more goals,
actions, and energetic balancing to come up with a formula well-suited for her needs. However, as you
begin to experiment with formulations and are trying out new herbs, it is best to keep formulas simple
and include no more than six herbs in one formula. Including too many herbs in a formula can obscure
the smaller number of herbs that might be able to do the trick on their own. Also, the more herbs in a
formula, the more difficult it will be to determine the source of any potential side effects that may show
up in the person taking the formula. Keep it simple whenever possible!
SYNERGY
The theory of synergy states that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In herbalism, this means
that taking two herbs together will often have more of a beneficial effect than taking both herbs
separately. For example, someone might have difficulty sleeping and try taking valerian (Valeriana
officinalis) root before bedtime and find that it doesn’t really work for them. They might then try taking
passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) aerial parts instead, and find that passionflower also does not help
them sleep. If they took valerian and passionflower together, however, the valerian-passionflower
formula may be more effective at helping them fall asleep than taking either herb separately.
Synergy works between different plants, but it can also happen within a plant itself, with constituents
working together in balance. This kind of synergy can potentiate an herb’s effects, protect us from side
effects that a single constituent might cause, or have other impacts on our wellbeing. This is why it is
often wise to take a whole herb rather than a supplement containing only one of the herb’s constituents
(and why when we read scientific studies of herbs, we should note whether they used the whole herb or
an isolated constituent).

Because of synergy, doses of individual plants within a formula are often lower than the dose you would
give of the same plant by itself (as a simple). For example, if you were to give someone chamomile
(Matricaria chamomilla) flower tincture separately from lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts
tincture, you might recommend a dose of 4-5 milliliters (mL), 3x/day of each. Together, you could give a
formula of half chamomile and half lemon balm at a dose of 4-5 milliliters (mL), 3x/day, which would offer
2-2.5 mL of each herb, 3x/day.
Multiple studies in the scientific literature point to the ability of herbs and constituents of herbs to
synergize with one another. Wang et al. (2012) report that “clinical trials reveal the multi-herb
prescriptions of herbal medicine often exhibit pharmacological and therapeutic superiority in comparison
to isolated single constituents” (p. 1151). Spinella (2002) wrote of the importance of pharmacological
synergy in psychoactive herbs, especially St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), kava kava (Piper
methysticum), and valerian (Valeriana officinalis). Rasoanaivo et al. (2011) found sweet Annie (Artemisia
annua), turmeric (Curcuma longa) , and black pepper (Piper nigrum) to have synergistic effects against
malaria when taken together. Wheatley (2001) indicated synergistic effects of valerian and kava kava
when used to address stress-induced insomnia, and Scholey & Kennedy (2002) noted the effectiveness
of a ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) and ginseng (Panax ginseng) combination in supporting cognitive function.
These are just a few of the countless examples in the literature revealing the synergistic effects of herbal
formulas.
INTERACTIONS WITHIN A FORMULA

Some compounds, if given together in the same formula, will bind to other constituents in the formula
and affect their bioavailability. For example, tannins bind with alkaloids and mucilage. Thus, tannin-rich
herbs such as raspberry (Rubus spp.) leaf, geranium (Geranium maculatum) leaf, agrimony (Agrimonia

eupatoria) flower, rose (Rosa spp.) petal, and lady’s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris) aerial parts should not be
used in the same formula with herbs containing alkaloids such as goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) root,
barberry (Berberis vulgaris) root, and lobelia (Lobelia inflata) aerial parts or with herbs containing high
amounts of mucilage like marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root or slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) bark. Herbs
that contain a lot of fiber and/or mucilage may also delay or prevent the absorption of minerals and
some other nutrients, so you may want to avoid mixing them with mineral-rich herbs such as nettle
(Urtica dioica) leaf, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) leaf, and raspberry (Rubus spp.) leaf.

CATALYSTS
When healthy blood is flowing properly throughout the body, herbs can be more effectively carried
through the body and to the extremities. Herbal catalysts often work by stimulating the circulatory
system and are utilized to ensure that herbal constituents within a formula will be carried to the place in
the body that you want them to go. Catalysts can be added in small amounts to increase the delivery of
the rest of the herbs in the formula. Herbal catalysts include black pepper (Piper nigrum) fruit, ginkgo
(Ginkgo biloba) leaf, ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome, rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) aerial parts,
lavender (Lavandula spp.) bud, and cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) bark—note that these herbs all
share the quality of warmth, which, in an energetic sense, indicates movement.
Because our vata friend has cold hands and feet (indicating her circulation is perhaps not optimized), we
may want to add a catalyst to her formula. We could add a touch of ginger, since it is also carminative
and antispasmodic.
THE ENERGETICS OF FORMULATION

As far as energetics go, there are two things to keep in mind when creating formulas:
1) The constitution of the person to whom you are giving the formula.
2) The energetics of the disharmony in the body that you are aiming to affect.

This can get tricky, because often you’ll have a cold person with a hot condition or vice versa. In such
cases, it is best to provide a well-balanced formula that is not too warming or too cooling. The same
could be said for a moist person with a dry condition: the formula should not be too drying or too
moistening.
Generally speaking, formulas should not be freezing cold, blazing hot, sopping wet, or bone dry, anyway!
It is possible to moisten a dry person with a dry condition too much. Most formulas should be well
balanced with a slight leaning toward an energetic shift that you’d like to make. Another good reason to
keep formulas relatively neutral is because it can be very difficult to decipher the root energetic cause of
disharmony in the body.
Let’s take a look at our example formula:
HERB MOISTURE TEMPERATURE
Astragalus root Neutral Slightly warm
Chamomile flower Neutral Cool
Lemon balm aerial parts Neutral Cool
Burdock root Slightly moist Slightly cool
Tulsi aerial parts Dry Warm
Ginger rhizome Dry if using dry ginger, slightly Warm

moist if using fresh ginger
Our formula is fairly neutral in the moisture category (though we might choose to use fresh ginger so that
it is more on the moistening side for her dry constitution). The formula is also fairly neutral in the
temperature category, but is slightly warm, which is what we want!
SEASONAL CONSIDERATIONS
If someone is taking a tonic herbal formula for longer than a few months, it may be a good idea to
change the formula slightly as the seasons change. Just as we crave cooling foods in the summer and
warming foods in the winter, our body is balanced by different energetics and herbal actions as the
seasons change. Adding warming, and maybe even moistening, remedies during the fall and winter
months and more cooling and perhaps drying herbs during the spring and summer can be helpful.
DOSAGE
Now that we know how to choose herbs to create a well-balanced formula, how do we know what
proportion, or dose, to use for each herb? Generally speaking, use larger doses for herbs that are tonic
and nutritive (i.e., if you are feeding the body/organ with the herb, rather than working to direct change in
the body/organ). Nettle (Urtica dioica) leaf, for example, is basically a food—in order to feed the body
with the minerals in nettle leaf, a larger dose is required (sometimes called a physical dose or material
dose).

Herbs that are in a formula to do energetic work should be given at a smaller dose (sometimes called an
energetic dose). Flower essences are typically used this way, but tinctures can be given in drop doses as
well. For example, some herbalists use yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts to bestow
psychospiritual protection to individuals that are negatively affected by their sensitivity to the actions and
emotions of others. In this case, yarrow may be given in drop doses—maybe one drop per day—for its
energetic effect.
Small doses can also be used in the case of a specific remedy. If you plan on using an herb for what it is
specifically indicated, a large dose is probably not needed. For example, a specific indication for the
aerial parts of bee balm (Monarda fistulosa) is nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea from alcohol
over-consumption (Ellingwood, 1919; Felter, 1922). Thus, only a small amount of bee balm is needed for
this purpose. If you are ever unsure about a dose (especially if you’ve never used a particular plant
before), start with a small dose and work up to a larger dose if needed. For any plant, it is best to keep
the sustainability of our green friends in mind and use the smallest amount of herb that will do the job.
The robustness, or constitution, of the client is also a key factor in determining dose. To use the
ayurvedic doshas as an example, a kapha type (or any robust person, for that matter) can take, and
probably needs, a higher dose than a pitta or vata. A vata type, or anyone who is particularly sensitive to
food or medications, should be given a smaller-than-average dose. Lower doses should also be given to
elders, children (of course! – see Unit 10 for more about herbs and children), and people with fast
metabolism.
Clark’s Rule is a handy equation to find a dose for children. According to Clark’s Rule, divide the
weight of the child by 150 to get the fraction of the adult dose. For example, if a child weighs 50
pounds, divide 50 by 150 to get 1/3.
Thus, if the adult dose of an herb is 6 mL 3x/day, use 2 mL 3x/day for a 50-pound child.
Sometimes, frequency is more important than the quantity of the dose, especially in acute situations or if
the formula is meant to level out blood sugar or blood pressure, for example. The suggested dosage/day
should not be exceeded when using a higher dosage frequency, however, and a smaller per-dose
amount is typically used when increasing the dosage frequency. Many herbalists use a dose frequency
of about 2-3x/day. For acute conditions and whenever you want a consistent level of an herb/formula in
the body, use more frequent dosing. Consistent administration leads to more consistent delivery of
herbal constituents to body tissues. If using tinctures, be sure to look at the concentration ratio of the
tincture before deciding on a dose. A 1:2 tincture (this indicates that for every 1 gram of herb, 2 mL of
menstruum was used) should be taken at a smaller dose than a 1:5 tincture.
In addition to the frequency of dosing, the timing of the dose can also impact the effect that an herb or
formula has on the body. Some herbs can be more effective depending on the time of day (e.g., vitex
(Vitex agnus-castus) berry is more effective at modulating hormones when taken in the morning) (Trickey,
2004). Other herbs might be avoided at certain times of the day (e.g., take a stimulating herb like
rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) root early in the day instead of in the evening to avoid overstimulation before
bed).

Back to our formula example, how much of each herb should we use in our formula? It’s often helpful to
start with the recommended simple dose of an herb:
HERB SUGGESTED DOSE (IF GIVEN AS A SIMPLE)
Astragalus root 4-8 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Chamomile flower 1-4 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Lemon balm aerial parts 2-6 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Burdock root 2-4 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Tulsi aerial parts 1-2 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Ginger rhizome 1.5-5 mL 3x/day (1:5 in 40%)
Recommended dosage from Hoffmann (2003), except tulsi, which is from Winston & Maimes (2007).
Reminder - 1:5 refers to the ratio of herb (weight) to menstruum (volume) while 40% refers to the
percentage alcohol in the menstruum (the other 60% being water).
Depending on synergy, and knowing that we have multiple plants with the same action, we can lower the
amount of each plant in the formula substantially. How much we lower each dose depends on the role of
the individual herb in the formula. Generally speaking, herbalists can recommend 1 to 5 mL of an herbal

formula, 1-3 times/day. Because our formula has quite a few herbs in it, we might decide to suggest that
our friend take 5 mL 3x/day, for a total of 15 mL per day.
Note: Both 2.5 mL and 5 mL are convenient doses, because 2.5 mL is approximately a half teaspoon
and 5 mL is a teaspoon. If you are giving a formula in a dropper bottle, each dropper-full is
approximately 1 mL, so you can conveniently create a dosage of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 mL (droppers-full)
however many times a day.
Back to our formula. Dividing 15 mL per day by the number of herbs in the formula (6) results in 2.5 mL
per day of each herb. We can take that average of 2.5 mL and adjust it according to each herb’s role in
the formula.
Let’s go through each herb:
Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus) root – Because astragalus is the only immunomodulant and
the most nutritive/tonifying plant in the formula, we can keep the dose pretty high. We might choose to
give 4 mL/day of astragalus.
Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower and lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts –
Chamomile and lemon balm both have actions that are covered by other plants in the formula, but they
will contribute their actions to the formula and also balance the temperature with their cooling natures,
so we might keep chamomile and lemon balm at the average: 2.5 mL/day.
Burdock (Arctium lappa) root – Burdock has a slightly lower recommended dose than lemon balm, but
we might consider it to be slightly more important in the formula. It is the only liver tonic and we want
there to be plenty of burdock to keep the formula from being too dry. We might choose to use 3.5
mL/day of burdock root.
Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum) aerial parts – Because tulsi was added partly for its energetic effect (to
add warmth to the formula) we should keep the dose relatively small, but not too small because it also
has some useful actions, including adrenal support to help manage the stress response! Being less of a
key player in the formula, we might choose to use 1.5 mL/day of tulsi.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome – Ginger was added to our formula as a catalyst, and it is also
quite warm and dry, so we can keep it at the smallest dose in the formula, perhaps 1 mL/day.
Now we have the proportions for our formula!
4 mL astragalus tincture
3.5 mL burdock tincture
2.5 mL chamomile tincture
2.5 mL lemon balm tincture
1.5 mL tulsi tincture
1 mL ginger tincture
___
15 mL/day total, or 5 mL 3x/day (1 teaspoon 3x/day)

CREATING FORMULAS: MORE EXAMPLES
In addition to thinking through your rationale, you’ll want to consider how you form both short- and
long-term goals in partnership with others. It can be helpful to keep in mind several factors in identifying
and setting goals. The physical processes or functions you’re hoping to address, the length of time a
person may have been dealing with a particular imbalance or illness, and a person’s willingness to
change may all affect the goals that you set.
Some of the body’s functions and cycles can take a longer time to adjust to herbal influences than
others. An herbalist working with someone to address anovulatory cycles, for example, might anticipate
physiological shifts within several weeks, looking in this case toward establishing ovulatory menstrual
cycles as a long-term goal. However, supporting a person who is having temporary insomnia while
working through graduate school applications would call for setting the short-term goal of supporting
sleep.
Example 1
A friend comes to you with a concern about the health of his cardiovascular system. He has recently
been diagnosed with high blood pressure by his doctor, something that runs in his family. He also has a
lot of muscle tension, especially in his neck, due to a stressful work schedule, which he believes leads to
his chronic headaches. He has reddish skin and is warm to the touch when you shake his hand. Here is
an example of what one might come up with for goals/actions/herbs and a formula.

Goals:
Modulate blood pressure
Decrease muscle tension
Decrease occurrence of headaches
Tonify the cardiovascular system
Actions:
Hypotensive
Antispasmodic (to the muscles)
Nervine (to help with the tension headaches)
Cardiovascular tonic
Adaptogen (to help cope with stress)
Anti-inflammatory (to protect vascular health)
Herbs:
Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) berry – hypotensive, cardiovascular tonic, anti-inflammatory
Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) aerial parts – antispasmodic to the muscles, nervine
Linden (Tilia spp.) bract and flower – nervine, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory
Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca) aerial parts – hypotensive, nervine
Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) bark – antispasmodic, mild nervine, hypotensive
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) root – adaptogen, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory
HERB SUGGESTED DOSE PER DAY (IF GIVEN AS A

SIMPLE)
Hawthorn berry 2.5 mL (1:5 in 40%) 3x/day
Skullcap aerial parts 2-4 mL (1:5 in 40%) 3x/day
Linden bract and flower 2.5-5 mL (1:5 in 40%) 3x/day
Motherwort aerial parts 1-4 mL (1:5 in 40%) 3x/day
Cramp bark bark 4-8 mL (1:5 in 40%) 3x/day
Ashwagandha root 1.5-2 mL (1:5 in 40%), 3x/day
Recommended dosage information from Hoffmann (2003); Winston & Maimes (2007)
Formula:
3 mL hawthorn tincture (warm and dry)
2 mL skullcap tincture (fairly neutral)
1.5 mL linden tincture (fairly neutral, slightly moist)
1.5 mL ashwagandha tincture (warm and neutral)
1 mL motherwort tincture (cool and dry)

1 mL cramp bark tincture (cool and dry)
___
10 mL per day (5 mL 2x/day)
Rationale:
Hawthorn is the most tonic plant in the formula, so should be given at a higher dose. Linden, skullcap,
and motherwort are all nervines and are used synergistically for a relaxing, hypotensive effect. Because
they are all similar in their actions, they can be used at a smaller dose than hawthorn, whose main job is
to tonify and protect the cardiovascular system. Ashwagandha is added as an adaptogen to support the
stress response and as a cardioprotective. It is also significantly anti-inflammatory, as is linden; working
together, these herbs can help protect the vasculature and potentially reduce the risk of incidents
associated with high blood pressure. Skullcap is included because of its antispasmodic effects. Cramp
bark is used at a smaller dose because of its stronger antispasmodic effects. The formula is fairly neutral
in temperature, but leaning toward being cool, which is appropriate for your friend’s constitution. The
formula is a little drying, so it would be good to make sure he is getting plenty of hydration and healthy
fats in his diet.
Example 2
A mother comes to you seeking a tea formula to give her 40-pound six-year-old. Her son just caught a
virus and has a mild fever and a very moist, phlegmy cough that seems stuck in his lungs. He is also
experiencing nausea and having trouble sleeping.
Goals:
Diaphoresis
Expectorate phlegm
Decrease nausea
Calm and help him sleep
Actions:
Diaphoretic
Expectorant
Anti-nauseant
Nervine/mild sedative
Herbs:
Catnip (Nepeta cataria) aerial parts – nervine, diaphoretic
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome – anti-nauseant, diaphoretic
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) aerial parts – drying expectorant
Elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis) flower – diaphoretic, expectorant
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts – diaphoretic, nervine

HERB SUGGESTED DOSE PER DAY (IF GIVEN AS A
SIMPLE)
Catnip aerial parts 2-4 g
Ginger rhizome 1-3 g
Thyme aerial parts 2-6 g
Elderflower 3-5 g
Lemon balm aerial parts 2.5-3.5 g
Recommended dosage information from British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983; Kuhn & Winston,
2008.
Formula:
First, we’ll figure out an adult dose for the formula, and then we’ll divide it according to Clark’s Rule to
calculate a child’s dose. Because this is an acute formula without a tonic herb in it, the doses of each
herb will be more proportionate. In this case, since it is a tea for a child, you might use the yummier
tasting herbs at higher doses. Because this is an acute condition, we don’t need to pay too much
attention to the child’s constitution—in this formulation, the focus is on soothing the cough and other
symptoms.
3 g elderflower
2.5 g lemon balm aerial parts
2 g catnip aerial parts
1.5 g thyme aerial parts
1 g ginger rhizome
__
Up to 10 grams of herb blend/day, divided into 3-4 cups of tea.
According to Clark’s Rule we divide the weight of the child (40 pounds) by 150, which gives us: 0.2667.
Then, we multiply each dose by 0.2667 and round off to get the following tea formula:
0.8 g elderflower
0.7 g lemon balm aerial parts
0.5 g catnip aerial parts
0.4 g thyme aerial parts
0.3 g ginger rhizome
__
Up to 2.7 grams of herb blend/day, divided into 3-4 cups of tea.

TRIANGLE FORMULAS
William LeSassier, a 20th century American herbalist and acupuncturist, is credited with creating the
triangle method of formulation. This method is meant as a tool for creating safe and balanced herbal
formulas. LeSassier created an elegant method with multiple triangles for a formula that supports
multiple organs (as described and expanded upon in Secret Medicines from Your Garden by herbalist
Ellen Evert Hopman). A more simplified approach uses one triangle, with each formula containing three
herbs, which correspond to the three points of a triangle.
● Primary/Builder Herbs: The first point of the triangle is called the primary herb and is
designated by a “+” symbol. This is the specifically indicated plant, perhaps the most important
plant in the formula, which addresses the primary goal or problem (Phillips & Phillips, 2005). This
herb usually increases the function and/or the energy of a specific body system, and can be
more than one herb. These might include sweet tonics, demulcents, blood builders, or liver
supportive herbs (Wood, 2003) or any herb that will accomplish the primary goal.
● Supporting/Tonic Herbs: The second point of the triangle is the neutral tonic of the formula,
designated by the number “0.” This herb is meant to soothe, tone, and nourish in order to
support a body system or organ (Phillips & Phillips, 2005) and as a result can improve normal
function. This herb may soothe tissues and act as a harmonizer, balancing the energetics of a
formula. Supporting/tonic herbs might include astringents, demulcents, and herbs that are both
building and eliminating, and thus neutral (Wood, 2003).

● Eliminator/Catalyst: The last point of the triangle, the eliminator (“-”), sometimes referred to as
the catalyst or cleanser, eliminates what the body needs to get rid of in order for the other herbs
to be able to perform their actions. The eliminator might bring warmth and movement to
eliminate tension or stagnation or excess fluid, in effect activating a body system. A catalyst can
also potentiate the other herbs in a formula (Phillips & Phillips, 2005). These might include herbs
like circulatory stimulants, dispersives, laxatives, alteratives, and diuretics (Wood, 2003).
Classically, LeSassier used equal parts of each herb, but many herbalists use a larger amount for the
primary and neutral herbs and a smaller amount for the eliminator. For example, Rosemary Gladstar
interprets LaSassier’s formulation to include primary herbs at 70-80% of the formula, supporting and
nurturing herbs at 15-20% of the formula, and catalyzing herbs at 5-10% of the formula (Niemeyer,
2013; Phillips & Phillips, 2005).
Below are a few examples of triangle formulas from LeSassier. Because he was an acupuncturist, these
formulations reflect Chinese medicine principles; however, his method of formulation translates well to
working with Western herbs and energetic principles.
Digestive Qi Triangle Formula

● Builder [+]: Codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) root (builds digestive qi)
● Neutral [0]: Gentian (Gentiana lutea) root (bitter tonic)
● Eliminator [-]: Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed (eliminates tension in the gut)
Liver Fire Triangle Formula

● Builder [+]: Schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) fruit (improves flow of qi through the liver)
● Neutral [0]: Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root (tonic to the liver)
● Eliminator [-]: Gentian (Gentiana lutea) root (eliminates heat)
Bladder Infection Formula

● Builder [+]: Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root (soothing and healing to the bladder)
● Neutral [0]: Nettle (Urtica dioica) seed (bladder and kidney tonic)
● Eliminator [-]: Juniper (Juniperus communis) (antimicrobial diuretic)
Below are a few examples of triangle formulas, using Western herbs, formulated by the clinical herbalists
here at the Herbal Academy.
Stressful Times Formula

● Builder [+]: Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) root (adaptogen)
● Neutral [0]: Milky oats (Avena sativa) immature fruit (nourishes the nervous system)
● Eliminator [-]: Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts (eliminates tension)
Lung Congestion Formula

● Builder [+]: Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) aerial parts (lung tonic and expectorant)

● Neutral [0]: Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) leaf (lung tonic)
● Eliminator [-]: Elecampane (Inula helenium) root (expectorant)
Insomnia Formula
● Builder [+]: Lavender (Lavandula s pp.) bud (sedative)
● Neutral [0]: Milky oats (Avena sativa) immature fruit (nerve tonic)
● Eliminator [-]: Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) root (eliminates nervous tension)
As you are developing an herbal formulation, it may be best to start simply—your formula can always
evolve with time and experience—as your successes, less-than-successes, and growing knowledge of
the plants and their properties guide you. This is the art of herbalism!
CONCLUSION
In this lesson, we presented a couple of case studies to reveal the workings of an herbalist’s mind while
matching plants with people and creating customized formulas. This process goes well beyond the idea
of “this for that” and asks for observation, sensitivity, and thoughtfulness in addition to clear
understanding of herbal actions and energetics. While there are a number of different ways to formulate
blends of herbs, all of the methods share one goal in common: to create an effective formulation that
considers a person’s entire being.
Helpful resources for determining doses of individual herbs
A Clinical Guide to Blending Liquid Herbs by Kerry Bone
Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, & Stress Relief by David Winston and Steven Maimes
Bartram’s Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine by Thomas Bartram
Herbs & Natural Supplements: An Evidence-based Guide by Lesley Braun and Marc Cohen
Michael Moore’s (SWSBM) Herbal Materia Medica: http://www.swsbm.com/ManualsMM/MatMed5.txt
Principles and Practices of Phytotherapy by Kerry Bone and Simon Mills
The Earthwise Herbal: New World Edition by Matthew Wood
The Earthwise Herbal: Old World Edition by Matthew Wood
Helpful resources for formulation

The Earthwise Herbal Repertory by Matthew Wood
Secret Medicines from your Garden by Ellen Evert Hopman
The Herbalist’s Way: The Art & Practice of Healing with Plant Medicines by Nancy and Michael Phillips
The Modern Herbal Dispensatory: A Medicine-Making Guide by Thomas Easley and Steven Horne

LESSON 6: SIDE EFFECTS AND SAFETY
INTRODUCTION
Compared to plant-based healing traditions, modern medical science is relatively new. Plants and
humans have evolved, migrated, and worked in partnership for thousands of years. While many herbs
have not been clinically tested to confirm safety and efficacy, in many cases their use is supported by
traditional knowledge and the experiential learning of those who have used them for thousands of years.
Herbalism has stood the test of time. In Europe, the recorded herbal tradition reaches back to at least
the 2nd century CE with the work of Galen, whose humoral theory was prevalent throughout medieval
Europe (Ody, 2000). Although European herbalism has evolved since this time, many of the same plants
that were used almost 2000 years ago are still used today in similar ways.
Image: Physician applying ground betony to a

head wound, from Apollodorus de Herbis by
Apuleius, 13th century CE. Image from Wellcome
Images,
https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_images
/6b/c7/6dec633f2aa21575bb60e1024464.jpg, and
used under CC BY 4.0 license, https://creativecom
mons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
The systems of knowledge surrounding the use of

herbs in India and China are vast and
comprehensive bodies of knowledge that have
been built upon for at least five thousand years.
Both Ayurveda and Chinese medicine can be
traced back to at least 2500 BCE (Kaptchuk,
2000; Lad, 2002); other traditions across the globe
may have existed for just as long, or longer, being
passed down from one generation to the next via
oral tradition.
In fact, the therapeutic use of plants has been a

part of the relationship between plants and people
since Homo sapiens e volved as a species—there
is even evidence of the fossil ancestors of Homo
sapiens u sing plants as medicine (Hardy et al.,
2012; Hardy et al., 2013; Weyrich et al., 2017).
However, hominids were certainly not the first or
only animals to self-medicate with plants (Huffman
& Vitazkova, 2018; Rodriguez & Wrangham, 1993; Shurkin, 2014).
There is no doubt that people living close to the land use plants for a variety of ailments. In general,
many herbs can be considered relatively safe not only because they have been used by humans for a
long time, but also because many are food-like.

Most whole plant herbal preparations contain a broad array of chemical constituents. Unlike isolated
constituents found in pharmaceutical drugs, plants contain a variety of chemicals. That being said, one
should not assume that all herbs or herbal preparations are safe at all times and for all people. There are
certainly exceptions to the record of herbal safety, and some plants need to be taken with caution or
avoided in certain individuals or imbalances, and some plants need to be avoided altogether.
Knowing the basics of herbal safety will allow you to work with more herbs with confidence and
compassion, communicate with other healthcare practitioners, and avoid any potential hazards when
working with herbs. We will also see that, by and large, many herbs may be considered safer than most
pharmaceutical agents in that any associated side effects tend to be minor, and fatalities are fewer
(Haller et al., 2008).
RISKS FROM OVER-THE-COUNTER AND PRESCRIPTION

DRUGS
A predominant assumption in Western scientific medicine is that if a drug has been approved by the
United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), then it is safe to use under the care of a qualified
physician. Medical doctors are well-educated and trained, and many times the drugs they prescribe
have noticeable, even life-saving benefits, but they can also have side effects, some quite serious. Some
express concern over the length of time that new pharmaceuticals are tested before being released in
the marketplace as well as the use of pharmaceuticals for off-label indications. As the system currently
stands, clinical trials often take several years, after which a pharmaceutical company applies for FDA
approval. Currently, 90% of applications are processed within 10 months (with priority given to certain
drugs deemed to be lifesaving, which are approved and acted on within six months) (United States Food
and Drug Administration, 2014).
In general, a drug must be clinically tested within the U.S. for 6 months. Once a drug has been
approved, it will continue to be monitored by the FDA and further information about safety that arises is
shared with the public on a “need to know” basis (United States Food and Drug Administration, 2012).
Under the authoritative umbrella of FDA-approved safety, many drugs which have short- and long-term
side effects are recommended and sold to the public. Research from the FDA’s Adverse Events
Reporting System (FAERS) indicates that, between 2006 and 2014, the number of deaths associated
with pharmaceutical drugs more than tripled, from 37,000 to 123,000 deaths per year (United States
Food and Drug Administration, 2015). Drug safety in infants is an additional concern, as babies may be
at increased risk of adverse effects from pharmaceuticals, particularly antibiotics (Lieber & Ribeiro, 2012;
Priyadarshini et al., 2011).
Many commonly used prescription and over-the-counter drugs can have adverse effects for a variety of
reasons (e.g., taking drugs incorrectly, taking drugs without proper monitoring, etc.). For example,
acetaminophen (Tylenol) overdose is the leading cause of acute liver failure, even surpassing hepatitis,
and requiring liver transplantation in some cases (Farrell, 2013; Larson et al., 2005). Other over-the
counter-analgesics such as ibuprofen can damage the kidneys, and in extreme cases can lead to acute
renal failure (Hörl, 2010; Wiegand, 2016). Many other drugs have adverse side effects as demonstrated
by the sometimes long list following a printed or televised advertisement for any prescription drug.
REPORTED CASES OF HERB TOXICITY

In comparison to reports of adverse reactions to pharmaceutical drugs, adverse reactions to herbs are
less common (even accounting for underreporting), and are more likely to be due to hypersensitivity or

allergic reaction than to toxicity (Mills & Bone, 2005). Even so, it is important to be aware that herbs can
have potent effects on the body, including unwelcome ones. In addition to being aware of which plants
are more likely to have adverse effects (or that interact with other herbs or with pharmaceuticals), it also
helps to be able to interpret the findings of clinical studies regarding herbal safety.
For example, the controversy over the safety of

comfrey (Symphytum officinale) due to its
pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) content is an example of
how the findings of clinical studies can be
interpreted in different ways to determine the
safety of an herb. Some early studies identified
comfrey toxicity in lab rats by administering high
doses of isolated constituents, inconsistent with
comfrey’s customary usage and doses. More
recent studies showing hepatotoxicity and other
adverse events have used extremely high doses
of comfrey in animal models (and/or used plant
parts such as the roots and very young leaves,
which have notably higher levels of PAs) (Mei et
al., 2005; Winship, 1991).
The link between PAs and liver toxicity when

PA-containing herbs such as comfrey are taken at
typical doses by healthy humans has not been
shown clinically. The most recent human study,
which was conducted for 28 days using comfrey
root at a dose of PA in excess of the limits
imposed by some countries, concluded that there
were “no hepatic and biliary toxic effects,” but
that longer studies are needed “in order to
determine the safety of plant extracts containing
PAs” (Seremet et al., 2016).
Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), which also contains

PAs, was originally implicated in one reported
case of toxicity in an 18-month old boy who was
given a tea of what the parents thought was coltsfoot and peppermint. As it turns out, the plant they
gathered was not coltsfoot, but a plant with similar flowers, alpendost (Adenostyles alliariae) (Mills &
Bone, 2005). Fortunately, the boy recovered within two months, but the mark on coltsfoot record
remains.
Regardless, based on extensive animal research there are reasons that warrant caution in consuming
PA-containing herbs such as comfrey, coltsfoot, and borage (Borago officinalis) . Until further studies are
conducted, these plants should not be taken long term or by people with liver disease (Mills & Bone,
2000) and anyone considering consuming them should become familiar with what is currently known
about PAs before deciding to do so.
Several other cases of liver toxicity (unrelated to PAs) from herb consumption have been reported, such
as an early 1900s French report of germander (Teucrium chamaedrys) causing liver damage and one
report of acute hepatitis from ingestion of ephedra (Ephedra sinica), which now has FDA limits on its
distribution and strength (however, it is possible that the ephedra was adulterated (Mills & Bone, 2000)).

Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) has also been associated with toxicity, including one fatal case in which
the essential oil was taken internally (note: many essential oils are toxic when taken internally) (Mills &
Bone, 2000). In the 1990s, many countries banned the use of kava (Piper methysticum) due to concern
about several reports of hepatitis and liver failure in those taking kava (Teschke et al., 2003). However,
after the World Health Organization analyzed 93 cases of supposed kava toxicity and concluded that
only eight were “probably” due to kava (Coulter et al., 2007), most countries lifted the ban. Eric Yarnell,
N.D. recommends that “out of an abundance of caution, [kava] should be avoided in combination with
known hepatotoxins (e.g., excessive alcohol, acetaminophen, metronidazole) or in patients with severe
liver disease until more information is available” (Yarnell, 2018).
Traditional herbal formulas coming from China and India have also been known to cause undesirable
effects. There are several Chinese herbal remedies that have reported toxicity, such as jin bu huan
(Atractylis gummifera) and guang fang chi (Aristolochia fangchi). A
s with ephedra, it is unclear if these
Chinese supplements were adulterated with other toxic herbs, pharmaceuticals, or chemicals (Mills &
Bone, 2000). There have also been multiple cases of ayurvedic formulas contaminated with toxic levels
of heavy metals (Lynch & Braithwaite, 2005).
These cases bring to light several points concerning herbal safety:
● Know and trust your source,

● Take care when taking herbs long term,
● Take extra care in pregnancy, with children, and with those with liver or kidney disease, and
● Never take essential oils internally unless under the close supervision of a qualified and
experienced professional.
With these precautions, most worry about herbal toxicity can be avoided.

HERB-DRUG INTERACTIONS (HDIs)
Although many herbs have a track record of safety, they have only within the past century been used
alongside more potent chemicals. We have come to understand that herbs, as active substances in our
bodies, have the potential to interact with and alter the effects of pharmaceutical drugs and vice-versa.
For this reason, it is important to disclose to doctors, herbalists, and other healthcare providers any
medications, herbs, and supplements you may be taking.
There are two ways in which herbs and drugs interact. Pharmacodynamic interactions are ones in which
the drug and active plant substance directly interact, changing the way they affect the body.
Pharmacokinetic interactions are interactions between herbs and drugs that change the way our bodies
process a drug—changing the uptake, utilization, or availability of a drug (Mills & Bone, 2000).
Pharmacodynamic HDIs fall into three categories: additive, antagonistic, and synergistic.
● An additive interaction happens when an herb and a drug share the same actions or
mechanisms, causing more of the same effect.
● An antagonistic interaction happens when an herb and a drug have opposing actions or
mechanisms in the body.
● A synergistic i nteraction happens when an herb and a drug increase their potency in the body
through their interaction.
One example of a pharmacodynamic interaction is between the Chinese herb dan shen (Salvia
miltiorrhiza) and blood pressure medication; dan shen lowers blood pressure and thus should only be
taken in conjunction with blood pressure medication under the close supervision of a doctor (Bunce,

2011). As another example, Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) root may have an additive effect
when taken alongside mefenamic acid, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) (Fong et al., 2015).
Pharmacokinetic HDIs are more common than pharmacodynamic HDIs and can happen in a number of
ways. For example, plants can affect assimilative functions outside the bloodstream, either on the skin or
in the gut, which can increase or decrease the body’s absorption of drugs (Mills & Bone, 2000).
Tannin-rich plants bind to and precipitate proteins. This allows them to produce the astringent activity
that we know and love them for, but this action can also cause reduced absorption of alkaloids,
vitamins, and minerals, whether they be from the diet, pharmaceutical drugs, or other herbs (Gardner &
McGuffin, 2013).
Fiber, especially insoluble fiber, can slow down the movement of food and drugs through the digestive
tract. Fiber also feeds gut flora, so a change in the amount of fiber in the diet or in herbal
supplementation can affect the microenvironment of the gut, resulting in a change in assimilation.
Fiber-rich herbs have been reported to decrease the concentration of pharmaceutical drugs, iron, and
vitamin B2 (Mills & Bone, 2000).
Along with tannin- and fiber-rich plants, herbs containing saponins, resins, and bitters may also change
the way the body assimilates drugs, because they alter assimilative function (Mills & Bone, 2000).
Another way that a pharmacokinetic HDI can occur is when a plant has an effect on the liver’s
metabolism of pharmaceutical drugs. The liver has many metabolic pathways through which chemical
substances are processed and broken down. When an herb shares a pathway with a drug, it can alter
the effectiveness of the drug. For example, St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) is metabolized by the
CYP450 pathway, which is the same pathway through which antidepressant drugs, and many others,
are processed. For this reason, it is not advisable to take St. John’s wort in combination with a great
many pharmaceuticals (Gardner & McGuffin, 2013).
There are many potential herb-drug interactions. If you are not sure about an HDI, consult a reliable
herbal reference such as The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety by Mills and Bone, Herbal Therapy and
Supplements by Winston and Kuhn, or The American Herbal Products Association’s Botanical Safety
Handbook, edited by Gardner and McGuffin. There are also many scientific studies on PubMed, an
online research database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed). PubMed also has a section specifically for
herb-drug interactions (https://nccih.nih.gov/health/providers/digest/herb-drug).
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: MEDICINE CABINET REVIEW

Herbs are generally safe and can provide deep support to the body in many ways. However, the same
active compounds which affect our body’s processes and functions can also interact with one another
and with pharmaceutical drugs as well. Sometimes, herbs used in conjunction with allopathic
medications can provide additional benefits. However, some combinations of herbs and drugs are
contraindicated because of safety concerns.
Take some time to review your medicine cabinet—what medications, herbs, and supplements do you
take regularly, and how do they support your health and wellness? Note these, then do a bit of
research to determine if there are any contraindications or potential side effects associated with their
combination.

Utilizing WebMD’s herb-drug interaction checker tool (at
https://www.webmd.com/interaction-checker/default.htm), identify whether there any known
interactions between any herbs, medications, or supplements you currently use. If you discover any
interactions or contraindications, consider any changes that you might make to your supplements or
herbal regimen in order to avoid adverse effects. On the other hand, you may find that a combination
of herbs and medications might work synergistically to support your health. Either way, be sure to
discuss herbs or supplements you are taking with your health care providers.
SOME HERBS ARE TOXIC
Some herbs can be highly toxic and should be taken with extreme caution in very small doses and only
after significant knowledge about risks and safety has been obtained and only under the expert
guidance of a qualified practitioner trained in the use of these herbs. Here is a list of some of the most
common herbs of this nature (Mills & Bone, 2000):
● Arnica (Arnica montana)*

● Belladonna/deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna)
● Dogbane (Rauwolfia spp.)
● Epazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides)
● Ephedra (Ephedra sinica)
● False jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens)

● Foxglove (Digitalis s pp.)
● Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus)
● Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
● Jimsonweed/devil’s snare (Datura stramonium)
● Lily of the valley (Convallaria majuscula)
● Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)
● Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum)
● Monkshood (Aconitum spp.)
● Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
● Poke (Phytolacca americana)
● Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans)
● Pulsatilla/pasque flower (Pulsatilla vulgaris)
● Quinine (Cinchona spp.)
● Savin/savin juniper (Juniperus sabina)
● Yohimbe (Corynanthe yohimbe)
*Can safely be used topically
Additionally, essential oils should not be taken internally unless under the guidance of an experienced
and qualified professional. When used topically, they should in general be applied in a carrier oil such as
jojoba or almond oil to dilute their strength (for more information on the safe use of essential oils, see our
Ultimate Essential Oils Guide on the Herbal Academy blog here:
https://theherbalacademy.com/the-ultimate-essential-oils-guide/).

SOME HERBS ARE TOXIC WHEN TAKEN LONG TERM
As discussed earlier, some herbs should only be taken for short periods of time because they contain
potentially toxic chemical constituents or because they are very potent. Herbs that contain pyrrolizidine
alkaloids such as coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) and comfrey (Symphytum officinale) , though traditionally
taken internally, are now generally suggested by herbalists for topical use only (Mills & Bone, 2005).
Laxative herbs such as senna (Cassia alexandrina), cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana) , and rhubarb
(Rheum rhabarbarum) contain a group of constituents called anthraquinones that are responsible for
their laxative action. These herbs should not be taken long term because, while not toxic, they will cause
dependency. They work in much the same way as pharmaceutical laxatives, and should only be taken
for temporary support. If someone has chronic constipation, the underlying problem should be
addressed (Mills & Bone, 2000).
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root has the potential to raise blood pressure when taken long term in large
doses. As an adaptogen, it can be taken in small doses over a longer period of time, but should be taken
with care in individuals with high blood pressure (Winston & Maimes, 2007). These cautions generally do
not apply to deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) products, which have removed the compound glycyrrhizin,
which is believed to be responsible for increasing blood pressure (Gardner & McGuffin, 2013).
HERBAL SAFETY IN PREGNANCY

Care should be taken when consuming herbal preparations during pregnancy, and one should research
which herbs are safe while pregnant or consult with an herbalist or healthcare practitioner for more
specialized advice. The safest way to approach this is to avoid all herbs in the first trimester unless
medically indicated (e.g., nausea and vomiting, threatened miscarriage), take herbs at the lowest dose
after the first trimester, and use herbs that are either scientifically or historically known to be safe during
pregnancy (Romm, 2014).
Herbs that are scientifically or historically considered safe in pregnancy include chamomile (Matricaria
chamomilla) flower, red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) leaf, echinacea (Echinacea spp.) root, ginger (Zingiber
officinale) rhizome, cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) fruit, oat (Avena sativa) straw or fruit, and nettle
(Urtica dioica) leaf (Romm, 2016).
Some herbs can compromise a pregnancy and/or development of the fetus. In general, herbs with the
following actions or chemistry should be avoided during pregnancy (Romm, 2017):
● High volatile oil content

● Alkaloid content
● Teratogens
● Emmenagogues
● Strong bitters
● Stimulants and depressants
● Anthraquinone laxative content
● Phytoestrogen content
The first three groups of herbs on this list can damage a developing fetus, while all of them have the
potential to cause miscarriage. Stimulants can lower birth weight, as well. To be sure, the following
herbs should never be used in pregnancy (Romm, 2017):
● Aloe (Aloe vera)

● Barberry (Berberis spp.)
● Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa)
● Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)
● Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)
● Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus)
● Juniper (Juniperus communis)
● Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris)
● Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca)
● Oregano* (Origanum vulgare)
● Oregon grape (Berberis aquifolium)
● Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium)
● Poke root (Phytolacca americana)
● Quinine (Cinchona spp. )
● Rosemary* (Rosmarinus officinalis)
● Rue (Ruta graveolens)
● Sage* (Salvia officinalis)
● Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)
● Thuja (Thuja occidentalis)
● Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium)
*Culinary use is safe

Should alcohol-based tinctures be taken in pregnancy? During pregnancy, many feel that it is okay to
take tinctures in small quantities for short periods of time, because the quantity of alcohol being
consumed is very small. However, tincture use during pregnancy should be kept to a minimum. For the
most part, drinking teas and eating nourishing and supportive foods should be encouraged during
pregnancy. For those that are opposed to taking any alcohol at all while pregnant, vinegars and
glycerites are a good alternative to tinctures.
ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO HERBS

Idiosyncratic reactions to herbs can occur—individuals can respond in unique ways to any herb. You
might hear someone say, “tulsi makes my skin itch!” or “peppermint gives me a headache!” For this
reason, it is always best to start slowly and proceed mindfully when incorporating new herbs into your
life or recommending herbs to others.
Other reactions to herbs are more commonplace, such as skin reactions to herbs used topically. Nettle
(Urtica dioica) , rue (Ruta graveolens), and many members of the Apiaceae (parsley) family, for example,
can cause contact dermatitis. These are not immune-mediated reactions, but are due to chemical
irritants within the plant, though allergic dermatitis can occur, especially in individuals who handle herbal
material occupationally (Mills & Bone, 2005).
While there have been a few cases of anaphylaxis when individuals with severe allergic reactions take
herbs internally (e.g., chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), garlic (Allium sativum) , and echinacea
(Echinacea spp.)), most reactions to taking herbs internally are far milder. One type of herbal constituent
that is known to cause an allergic reaction in sensitive individuals is sesquiterpene lactones (Mills &
Bone, 2005). These are bitter phytochemicals present in many members of the Asteraceae (daisy) family,
including yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium).
QUESTIONS TO ASK BEFORE TAKING HERBS

Are you pregnant or nursing? Are you on any medications, prescription or otherwise? Do you have any
history of liver or kidney disease? Do you have any plant allergies or have you ever reacted to an herbal
preparation before?
CONCLUSION
The easiest way to ensure safety when working with plants is to start with more gentle and food-like
herbs in food-like preparations first (e.g., tonic root powder stirred into oatmeal or mushrooms added to
a soup stock), and move on to stronger herbs if needed. Part of the beauty and uniqueness of herbalism
as a wellness modality is that plants, while powerfully effective, can also be gentle, subtle allies that
nourish us and guide our bodies back to balance.
Always consume plants with intention. Plants give us their lives and their power so that we can benefit
our wellness with them. As such, they should be treated with respect. This is especially important for
stronger plants or ones that are potentially toxic. Get to know a plant before you take it. Never take more
than the recommended dose, and always take plants with reverence and gratitude for the plants,
yourself, and the earth, of which we and the plants are all a part.

AHPA Botanical Safety Handbook by Zoe Gardner and Michael McGuffin
Herbal Therapy and Supplements by David Winston and Merrily Kuhn
Herbal Contraindications and Drug Interactions: Plus Herbal Adjuncts with Medicines, 4th ed. by Francis
Brinker
The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety by Simon Mills and Kerry Bone
The Herbal for Mother and Child by Anne McIntyre
The Natural Pregnancy Book, 3rd ed. by Aviva Romm

OFFSHOOT: DRYING AND STORING
HERBS
INTRODUCTION
Using fresh, local herbs you’ve responsibly wildcrafted or grown in your own garden is delightfully
satisfying and rewarding. What’s not to love about feeling the fresh air and sun on your skin while
collecting your bounty? Knowing when to pick herbs and how to properly dry them will ensure their
preservation for use in the winter months or beyond the growing season.
GATHERING
Just as in most professions, there are ethical
considerations and choices that we can make as
herbalists. When we gather herbs from the wild, it
is important to consider the impact that doing so
will have on the ecosystem in which the plant is
growing. Can you take a small enough amount
that the plant population will continue to thrive
and no one will notice you’ve been there after
your harvest? Is the plant at-risk, threatened, or
endangered? Are the desired plants located on
protected land, such as a conservation area or
wildlife refuge? If so, leave them there so that
they may continue to thrive and so that the
ecosystem maintains its balance. It goes without
saying that it is a respectful practice to “leave no
trace”—that is, to leave the land you harvest from
in the condition that you’ve found it, if not better.
Be mindful not to leave litter or other waste when
you harvest. When you disturb the earth by
digging roots, it is a good practice to smooth over
the soil where you harvested, and when
appropriate, to replant a portion of the harvested
root.
Whether from a garden or wild spaces, the best

time to harvest most plants is in the late morning
after the early morning dew has dried and before
the sun burns away newly produced volatile oils.
Red clover (Trifolium pratense) flower is one
exception! When harvested while still slightly
damp and then dried, red clover will magically retain its lovely reddish purple color. However, when
drying red clover that has been harvested this way, pay careful attention to ensure quick and complete
drying, as moldy red clover may produce a potentially dangerous blood thinning chemical (Gardner &
McGuffin, 2013).

When harvesting flowers, such as calendula (Calendula officinalis), choose blooms that have recently
opened. When harvesting leaves, look for young leaves and avoid those that are turning brown or are
badly damaged by insects or infection. For some plants, like nettle (Urtica dioica) and peppermint
(Mentha x piperita), you can use pruners or sharp scissors to cut the top six inches off of the plant to
harvest the aerial parts. For other plants such as red clover and violet (Viola s pp.) you can simply break
off individual leaves or flowers with your hands. For herbs with small flowers and seeds, such as
meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) and nettle, the entire inflorescence (group of flowers or seeds) can
be harvested with pruners or sharp scissors. A flower rake can also be employed to harvest large
patches of small flowers—the perfect tool for gathering chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) blossoms.
Collecting roots, of course, involves quite a different process, but for the sake of keeping on track here,
we’ll revisit root harvesting later! In Unit 2, you’ll learn more about wildcrafting roots and the same
practices can be applied to harvesting roots from your garden.
When wildcrafting, remember to only take what you need and leave plenty behind. We aim for harvesting
no more than 5-10% of an individual plant or patch of plants in order to leave the plant population
vibrant and healthy even after harvest. And it’s always important to ask yourself, “Do I really need this
plant?”
Someone more experienced in plant identification should accompany beginning wildcrafters. If this isn’t
possible, cross-check identification in multiple reputable field guides such as Newcomb’s Wildflower
Guide, Peterson’s Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America, and
Peterson’s Field Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs. Always make sure that the plant you are
harvesting is the plant that you think it is! Check your references carefully, double check, and if there is

any doubt, leave it. The more you get outside and explore the fields and forests, the more you will begin
to know the plants and understand their botanical characteristics. Identifying plants will become easier
with each venture.
Some herbalists will take a moment to express gratitude before actually harvesting a plant and others
may ask for permission from the plant. In some cultures it is customary to reciprocate when taking
anything from the earth—leaving a strand of hair, sprinkling an offering of tobacco leaf, singing a song,
or leaving some other precious plant to give thanks for the harvest. Whatever act of gratitude feels right
to you is the right thing to do.
PROCESSING
Once you have gathered your herbs, check them over for any spoiled parts, soil, or parts of other plant
species. If there are any precious bees or other beneficial insects clinging to your harvest, gently escort
these creatures back outside to continue their work. You can clean your harvested plants by gently
shaking them, or even brush sturdier leaves off with a clean dry cloth. Leaves should not be washed with
water unless absolutely necessary to remove debris, but roots can be thoroughly scrubbed with a
vegetable brush.
Garbling is a term used by herbalists for the process of removing desired plant material (e.g., flowers
and leaves) from undesired plant material (e.g., stems). For flowers and leaves that have been picked
individually, this step is unnecessary. For those that have been harvested on the stem, some herbalists
choose to garble before drying, while many prefer to garble after drying. Garbling can happen by hand

(simply pulling leaves and flowers off of stems) or the dried plant material can be rubbed across a screen
so that small pieces of leaves and flowers fall through the screen onto a collecting vessel, while stems
do not pass through.
DRYING
The easiest way to dry herbs is to simply lay them out in a single layer in a dry, well-ventilated space
away from direct sunlight. Roots should be chopped before drying while they still have some flexibility.
Some roots need peeling before drying, such as marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root. When the
moisture has evaporated from the leaves, flowers, roots, or seeds, the plant material can then be
transferred to airtight glass jars and stored in a cool, dark place, such as a cupboard or closet.
Dried herbs will last for approximately one year, but check stored herbs after about six months just to
make sure that they have retained their characteristic color, smell, and taste. If there is any sign of
moisture or mold, discard the herb. Dried herbs should still have a vibrancy that you can detect by
touching, smelling, and tasting.
Following are several ways in which to air-dry harvested herbs:
1) Spread the plant material over a perforated surface (like a screen or basket) that allows air to
circulate around it. This method is best for flowers, plants with short stems, and plants (like rosemary)
that have heavily leaved stems that easily mold if bunched together. This method is also a good option
for drying hardier leaves like bay leaves that are separated from the stem and laid individually to dry.
When using the flat drying method, do not pile the plants on top of each other! Spread them out to give

each part its own space, and every day or two turn the plants over to make sure that they are drying on
all sides.
2) Bundle up the herbs and tie by the stems with a cotton string or rubber band and hang upside down
from a pole or hook that allows for air to flow around the bundle. This method can be a little tricky, as
bunching the stems together can prohibit air flow around the stems and mold may start to grow. Bunch
stems together as loosely as possible while still keeping them intact for hanging. Do not hang in direct
sunlight as it can degrade volatile plant constituents and result in a less potent and less aromatic dried
herb. This is a lovely way to dry herbs and many find it aesthetically beautiful.
3) Place the herbs in a paper bag in which you have punched a few holes. Tie the top of the bag with
string around the plant stems and then suspend the bag from a rack or pole. This method allows for any
small plant parts that may dry and fall from the stem to be collected in the bottom of the bag. It also
keeps the plants free from dust. If using this method to dry herbs, be sure to fill the bag loosely to ensure
that air can circulate around the plants.

DIY Drying Rack For Herbs
Supplies
1 large wooden picture frame
Metal screen material
Small wood blocks or wood that can be cut into small squares
Glue, small nails and a hammer, and/or a staple gun
Instructions
● Remove the glass and any cardboard backing from the picture frame. Save and use the
cardboard as a template to measure and cut the screen that will fit over one side of the picture
frame. Be sure to cut the screen a bit larger than the cardboard piece.
● Attach the metal screen to the picture frame by centering it on top of the frame and stapling it or
nailing it down using a hammer and small nails.
● Cut a small wooden block for each corner of the frame. This will make legs for the drying rack so
air can easily circulate around the herbs as they dry. These can be nailed or glued on.
● The racks can also be piled one on top of the other, provided that the wood used to fashion the
“legs” is thick enough to allow for air to flow between the racks.
● This is a very simple idea, but you can take it to the next level by using a larger wooden frame
structure. Use your imagination to create a hanging herb dryer using poles, bamboo, curtain
rods or even old ladders and lattice! For those of you handy with carpentry and power tools, find
another DIY drying rack tutorial here on the Herbal Academy blog
(https://theherbalacademy.com/how-to-make-an-herb-and-flower-drying-screen/).
When air-drying herbs, it can be difficult to control the temperature and moisture of the space in which
they are drying. Using a fan to promote air flow and a dehumidifier to keep the moisture content down
are both beneficial, though not necessary to produce dried herbs of optimal quality.
Drying herbs in a dehydrator or a conventional oven are two methods that provide more control over
temperature and moisture. Dehydrators range from standard home food dehydrators (choose one with
an adjustable thermostat) to larger, specially designed cabinets in which herbs are layered on racks and
can dry relatively quickly. In the oven method, herbs are spread on trays or cookie sheets, placed in an
oven that can be set to below 100 degrees Fahrenheit or 38 degrees Celsius (gas ovens can be kept off
with only the pilot light lit; the light bulb in some ovens may provide enough heat), and monitored for
dryness. If needed, the oven door can be left ajar to increase air circulation and ensure that the
temperature doesn’t rise too high.
All drying methods have their pros and cons and it will be up to you to decide what works best for your
unique situation. Remember that to produce high quality dried herbs, you’ll need to start with fresh herb
full of vitality and be sure that the herb is properly processed and dried in a space that is not too hot and
not too moist. Once you’ve found a method that works for you, we know you’ll love having access to
dried herbs that maintain their vitality all year round!

CONCLUSION
Drying herbs is one of the simplest and oldest ways to preserve plants. It can be a fairly straightforward
process requiring minimal equipment, and offers an easy way to put by the abundance the green world
offers in the growing seasons of the year for later use in herbal preparations such as teas, tinctures,
poultices, and bath blends. Beyond the practicality of preserving the harvest, drying your own herbs (be
they grown in your garden, wildcrafted from local lands, or purchased from the farmers market) offers a
deeper connection to the seasons and the plants in your herbal cupboard, inspiring confidence and a
sense of resilience, as well.
Homegrown Herbs by Tammi Hartung
The Chinese Medicinal Herb Farm: A Cultivator’s Guide to Small-scale Organic Herb Production by Peg
Schafer
The Medicinal Herb Grower by Richo Cech
The Organic Medicinal Herb Farmer: The Ultimate Guide to Producing High-quality Herbs on a Market
Scale by Jeff Carpenter and Melanie Carpenter
WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants:
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42783/9241546271.pdf;jsessionid=DDB19AC102122D9
179A91D75713AFF94?sequence=1
CONGRATULATIONS!
You have reached the end of Unit 1 in the Intermediate Course! This course is comprised of 10 units.
To move on to the next unit, please take the quiz. You can find the “Take A Quiz” button at the bottom
of the navigation bar on the right side of the screen. If you do not see the “Take A Quiz” button, click
through the lessons in the navigation bar to make the button pop up!
Happy studies!

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British Herbal Medicine Association. (1983). British herbal pharmacopoeia. Bournemouth, UK: British Herbal Medicine Association.
Ellingwood, F. (1919). American materia medica, therapeutics, and pharmacognosy. Evanston, IL: Ellingwood’s Therapeutist.
Felter, H. (1922). The eclectic materia medica, pharmacology and therapeutics. Cincinnati, OH: John K. Skudder.
Gladstar, R. (2001). Rosemary Gladstar’s family herbal: A guide to living life with energy, health, and vitality. North Adams, MA:
Storey Books.
Groves, M.N. (2016). Body into balance. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing.
Kuhn, M., & Winston, D. (2008). Winston & Kuhn’s herbal therapy and supplements: A scientific and traditional approach.
Philadelphia, PA: Wulters Kluwer Health and Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2005). The essential guide to herbal safety. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Niemeyer, K.J. (2013). Personalizing Western herbal medicine: Weaving a tapestry of right relationships, a grounded theory study
[DISSERTATION]. Retrieved from
http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/293447/1/azu_etd_12669_sip1_m.pdf
Phillips, N., & Phillips, M. (2005). The herbalist’s way: The art & practice of healing with plant medicines. White River Junction, VT:
Chelsea Green.
Rasoanaivo, P., Wright, C.W., Willcox, M.L., & Gilbert, B. (2011). Whole plant extracts versus single compounds for the treatment
of malaria: Synergy and positive interactions. Malaria Journal, 10( S4), 1475-1481. http://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S4
Scholey, A.B., & Kennedy, D.O. (2002). Acute, dose-dependent cognitive effects of Ginkgo biloba, Panax ginseng and their
combination in healthy young volunteers: Differential interactions with cognitive demand. Human Psychopharmacology, 17(1),
35–44. http://doi.org/10.1002/hup.352
Spinella, M. (2002). The importance of pharmacological synergy in psychoactive herbal medicines. Alternative Medicine Review,
7(2), 130-137.
Trickey, R. (2004). Women, hormones, and the menstrual cycle. Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Wang, X., Xu, X., Tao, W., Li, Y., Wang, Y., & Yang, L. (2012). A systems biology approach to uncovering pharmacological synergy
in herbal medicines with application to cardiovascular disease. Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 29,
1151-1155. http://doi.org/10.1155/2012/519031
Wheatley, D. (2001). Stress-induced insomnia treated with kava and valerian: Singly and in combination. Human
Psychopharmacology, 16( 4), 353–356. http://doi.org/10.1002/hup.299
Winston, D., & Maimes, S. (2007). Adaptogens: Herbs for strength, stamina, and stress relief. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
Wood, M. (2003). William LeSassier 1948-2003: A tribute to the man and his work. Journal of the American Herbalists Guild,
Fall/Winter 2003, 38-41. Retrieved from http://www.williamlesassierarchive.org/WILLIAML.PDF
LESSON 6:
Bunce, L. (2011). Herb-drug interactions [ Lecture Notes]. Montpelier, VT: Vermont Center for Integrative Herbalism.
Coulter, D., Tamayo, C., Sotheeswaran, S., & Ulbricht, C. (2007). Assessment of the risk of hepatotoxicity with kava products.
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Farrell, S. (2013). Acetaminophen toxicity. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/820200-overview

Fong, S.Y., Wong, Y.C., Xie, C., & Zuo, Z. (2015). Herb-drug interactions between Scutellariae Radix and mefenamic acid:
Simultaneous investigation of pharmacokinetics, anti-inflammatory effect and gastric damage in rats. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 170, 106-116. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.04.036
Gardner, Z., & McGuffin, M. (Eds.) (2013). American Herbal Products Association’s botanical safety handbook. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.
Haller, C.A., Kearney, T., Bent, S., Ko, R., Benowitz, N.L., & Olson, K. (2008). Dietary supplement adverse events: Report of a
one-year poison center surveillance project. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 4(2), 84-92.
Hardy, K., Buckley, S., & Huffman, M. (2013). Neanderthal self-medication in context. Antiquity, 87(337), 873-878.
http://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00049528
Hardy, K., Buckley, S., Collins, M.J., Estalrrich, A., Brothwell, D.R., Copeland, L.,...Rosas A. (2012). Neanderthal medics? Evidence
for food, cooking, and medicinal plants entrapped in dental calculus. Naturwissenschaften 99, 617–626.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-012-0942-0
Hörl, W.H. (2010). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the kidney. Pharmaceuticals, 3(7), 2291–2321.
http://doi.org/10.3390/ph3072291
Huffman, M., & Vitazkova, S.K. (2018). Primates, plants, and parasites: The evolution of animal self-medication and ethnomedicine.
Ethnopharmacology, Vol II. Retrieved from http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c03/e6-79-19.pdf
Kaptchuk, T. (2000). The web that has no weaver: Understanding Chinese medicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Lad, V. (2002). Textbook of Ayurveda (Vol. 1). Albuquerque, NM: The Ayurvedic Press.
Larson, A.M., Polson, J., Fontana, R.J., Davern, T.J., Lalani, E., Hynan, L.S., … Lee, W.M. (2005). Acetaminophen-induced acute
liver failure: Results of a United States multicenter prospective study. Hepatology, 42, 1364–1372.
http://doi.org/10.1002/hep.20948
Lieber, N.S.R., & Ribeiro, E. (2012). Adverse drug reactions leading children to the emergency department. Bra
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Lynch, E., & Braithwaite, R. (2005). A review of the clinical and toxicological aspects of ‘traditional’ (herbal) medicines adulterated
with heavy metals. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 4( 4), 769-778. http://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.4.4.769
Mei, N., Guo, L., Fu, P.P., Heflich, R.H., & Chen, T. (2005). Mutagenicity of comfrey (Symphytum officinale) in rat liver. British
Journal of Cancer, 92(5), 873–875. http://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6602420
Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2000). Principles and practice of phytotherapy. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone.
Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2005). The essential guide to herbal safety. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Ody, P. (2000). Complete guide to medicinal herbs. New York: Dorling Kindersley.
Priyadharsini, R., Surendiran, A., Adithan, C., Sreenivasan, S., & Sahoo, F.K. (2011). A study of adverse drug reactions in pediatric
patients. Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, 2( 4), 277-280. http://doi.org/10.4103/0976-500X.85957
Rodriguez, E., & Wrangham, R. (1993). Zoopharmacognosy: The use of medicinal plants by animals. Phytochemical Potential of
Tropical Plants. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry (Proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of North America), vol 27. Boston,
MA: Springer
Romm, A. (2014). The natural pregnancy book (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Ten Speed Press.
Romm, A. (2016). Herbal medicines in pregnancy: What’s safe & what’s not. Retrieved from
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Romm, A. (2017). Botanical medicine for women’s health. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Seremet, O., Barbuceanu, F., Ionica, F., Margina, D., Gutu, C.M., Olaru, O., ... Chirita, C. (2016). Oral toxicity study of certain plant
extracts containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Romanian Journal of Morphology and Embryology, 2016, 1017-1023.

Shurkin, J. (2014). News feature: Animals that self-medicate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 111(49), 17339–17341. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419966111
Teschke, R., Gaus, W., & Loew, D. (2003). Kava extracts: Safety and risks including
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Weyrich, L.S., Duchene, S., Soubrier, J., Arriola, L., Llamas, B., Breen, J., …Cooper, A. (2017). Neanderthal behaviour, diet, and
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Winship, K.A. (1991). Toxicity of comfrey. Adverse Drug Reactions and Toxicological Reviews, 10, 47-59.
Winston, D. & Maimes, D. (2007). Ad

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OFFSHOOT:
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CRC Press.

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Unit 1

© Copyright Herbal Academy

24 South Road . Bedford, MA 01730

HERE’S HOW THE COURSE WORKS

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Visit the course to download the Herbal Recipes PDF.

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What’s with All the Anatomy?

Visit the course to download the Herbal Monographs PDF.

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Everything is Printable (Except the Videos!)

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Whether we are aware of it or not, we are part of

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HOW HERBS WORK

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The Doctrine of Signatures

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EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES

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The Four Humors is a notion developed by Galen in the

While modern science has disproved the existence of the

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HERBAL FIRST AID: SAFETY NOTES

GETTING STARTED…THE METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

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● Buying and gathering herbs

Buying and Gathering Herbs

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Growing and Gathering Herbs – Some Guidelines

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● Fresh or dried herbs

Hot Water Infusion Directions

1. Bring water to a boil in a teapot or pot.

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Solar Infusion Directions

Cold Water Infusion Directions

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1. Decoct the roots/barks as instructed above.

Fresh or Dried Herbs?

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● Fresh or dried herbs

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Shelf life: 6 months

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Shelf life: 6-12 months

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60 mL (2 fl oz) aloe (Aloe vera) gel

Shelf life: 1 month

Shelf life: 1 week

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Shelf life: 1-2 days

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1 g (0.04 oz) violet (Viola spp.) aerial parts

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2 g (0.07 oz) chickweed (Stellaria media) leaf

Shelf life: 2 months

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15 g (0.5 oz) yarrow (Achillea millefolium) aerial parts

Shelf life: 2 years+

Safety Notes: If irritation develops, stop using immediately.

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Shelf life: 1 month

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Shelf life: 2+ years

60 g (2 oz) dried elder (Sambucus nigra or S. canadensis) berry

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Dosage: Typical adult dose is ½ – 1 tablespoon, daily for immune support.

Shelf life: Approximately 3 months