Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper – Geomorphology
Lesson- Earth Movements
Lesson Developer: Dr.Prabuddh Kr. Mishra
College /Department: Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
University of Delhi

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Table of Contents

Chapter 2.1: Theory of Plate Tectonics

 2.1.1 Introduction
 2.1.2 Inception of the Theory
 2.1.3 Development of the Theory
 2.1.4 Division of crust into plates
 2.1.5 Plate boundaries and plate margins
 2.1.6 Criticism
 Summery
 Glossary
 References

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2.1.1 Introduction

The entire landmass of the earth has been divided into several rigid lithospheric slabs or
rigid crustal layer known as plates. Plate tectonics is a broad term, the study of which consists
of mechanisms of evolution, nature and motions of the plate, deformation within plates and
interactions of plate margins with each other. The term ‘tectonics’ refers to the structure of the
earth and the forces that causes the change. Moving over the weak asthenosphere, individual
lithospheric plate’s glides slowly over the surface of the globe; much as a pack of ice of the
Arctic Ocean drifts under the dragging force of currents and winds.
Scientists have discovered that the land surface on the earth is growing slowly, so that
eventually we may end up with more land than ocean. As the answer why to this question (why
the land should be growing), it is chiefly because continental crust is lighter than the ocean
crust. This means once formed continental crust can never be pulled back, down into the
mantle and destroyed. At the same time new continents are being continually being formed by
volcanic actions and other igneous activities. However, the scientists also discovered that the
land that is being formed is also getting pulled back to aesthenosphere and hence the land is
not ever-growing.

Did You Know

 J.T. Wilson for the first time in 1965 coined the term plate.

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 Continental Drift to plate tectonics: the evolution of a theory
1620 Francis Bacon talked about ‘conformable instances’ along the mapped Atlantic coastlines.
1858 Antonio Snider-Pellegrini was the first one to suggest that once the continents were linked
together during Carboniferous Period.
1885 Austrian geologist Edward Seuss discovered the similarities between plant fossils from South
America, India, Australia, Africa and Antarctica. He was the one to coin the name ‘Gondwana’.
1912 Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift. According to Wegner, he discovered a
‘Jig-saw fit’ between the coastline of Africa and South America. He also collected evidences which
showed the remarkable similarity among their geological features and fossils. According to the theory,
all the continents that we see today were once (during late Permian era) assembled into a
supercontinent that he named Pangaea, meaning ‘all Earth’. He drew maps to show how the drifting
of the continents took place and in which directions. According to Wegner, the continents started
drifting apart just after the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, and with time slowly drifted into their
current positions.
1920–1960 The idea of continental drift theory remained under controversy. The credibility of the idea
as how could the continents drift across the ocean basins was seriously undermined.
1937 Alexander du Toit, a South African geologist, amidst controversies supported the theory and
drew a map of the northern super continent called Laurasia (i.e. the assembled land mass of what was
to become North America, Greenland, Europe and Asia).
1944 Arthur Holmes, an eminent British geologist and geomorphologist consistently supported
Wegener's theory throughout the 1930s and 1940s.
1940–1960 With improvements of sonar equipment, the complex researches in the ocean floor
topography were realized. In 1960’s The American geologists Robert Dietz, Bruce Heezen and Harry
Hess proposed the concept of Sea Floor Spreading.
1965 The Canadian J. Tuzo Wilson reinterpreted the Wegener's continental drift theory. He first used
the term ‘plate’ to describe several rigid lithospheric slabs and their relative movements. He also
proposed the tectonic cycle (the Wilson cycle).
1960s - Present day. The theory of Plate tectonics have been widely accepted and committed
research on the understanding of the major and minor lithospheric plates and plate boundaries was
made.
 The Plate include not only continents but oceans as well, hence, there are oceanic and continental plate.
Source: http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/geology/plate-
tectonics/content-section-2.1#box003_001

2.1.2 Inception of the theory

Plate tectonic theory, a significant scientific advancement of the decade of 1960’s is

based on two major scientific concepts; (1) Continental Drift theory and (2) The concept of sea
floor spreading. Tuzo Wilson coined the term ‘plate’ for the first time in his definition of
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transform faults in 1965. D.P Mackenzie of Cambridge and Parker of America had arrived at the
conclusion similar to those of Wilson on their research work (Mackenzie, D.P and Parker, R.L.,
1967). Thus, Wilson, Mckenzie and Parker through their published research findings laid the
foundation of this new hypothesis. However, the concept was initially proposed by William
Jason Morgan. It first came to be known as New Global Tectonics but latter the name Plate
Tectonics gained currency.

2.1.3 Development of the Theory

The plate tectonics theory was fully appreciated, recognized and

developed during the early 1960s, with the help of new instruments which
helped the scientists to study and map the ocean floor topography and to study
its geologic and paleomagnetic characteristics

Although the theory of continental drift was supported by some convincing evidence,
the data on which it was originally based came only from the continents because, before the
1950s, there was no effective means of studying the ocean floor. Before 1950, therefore,
geologists faced an almost total absence of data about the geology of three-fourths of earth’s
surface; then, in the 1950s and 1960s, new technology resulted in a burst of new data and new
ideas about the geology of the ocean floor and about paleomagnetism. The evidences obtained
from investigation of the sea floor points to the movement of large sections of the earth’s crust,
in relation to each other. This movement takes place primarily due to three factors- polar
wandering, continental drift and sea floor spreading.

Polar Wondering

Polar wandering is the relative movement of the earth’s crust and upper mantle with respect to
the rotational poles of the earth.

Continental Drift

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The idea of lateral movement of continents or continental drift was put forwarded by A.
Wegener. This theory claimed that the changes in the appearance of the earth were, largely
due to shifting of the continents.

Sea-floor Spreading (describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to each other)
In 1960, H. H. Hess, a noted geologist from Princeton University, proposed a theory of seafloor
spreading that took into account the new data from echo soundings and suggested a possible
mechanism for continental drift. During and just after World War II, the technological
improvement to submarines led to an improvement in underwater navigation and surveying
that revealed many intriguing underwater features. The most important of these were
immense, continuous chains of volcanic mountains running along the ocean basins. These
features are now termed mid-ocean ridges or more accurately, oceanic ridge systems.

Using this new information, three American scientists Hess, Dietz and Heezen proposed that
the sea floor was actually spreading apart along the ocean ridges where hot magma was oozing
up from volcanic vents. They further suggested that the oceanic ridges were the sites of
generation of new ocean lithosphere, formed by partial melting of the underlying mantle
followed by magmatic upwelling. They named the process sea-floor spreading. Moreover, they
proposed that the topographic contrast between the ridges and the oceanic abyssal plains was
as a consequence of the thermal contraction of the crust as it cooled and spread away from
either side of the ridge axis. Most importantly, because new oceanic crust is generated at the
ridge, the ocean must grow wider over time and, as a consequence, the continents at its margin
move further apart. The evidence to support this model was found, once again, in the magnetic
record of the rocks, but this time using rocks from the ocean floor. In the light of fresh
knowledge, Hess thus elaborated on the theory of continental drift and redefined it in the
scheme of seafloor spreading.
2.1.4 Division of Crust into Plates

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 Morgan divided the earth’s surface into 20 plates and determines their poles of rotation
by drawing great circles at right angles to the relevant groups of transform faults. According to
the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere of the earth can be divided into different
lithospheric slabs or plates. There are six major lithospheric plates and six minor plates. Major
Plates are:

1) Indian Plate

2) Pacific Plate

3) American Plate

4) Eurasian plate

5) African Plate

6) Antartica Plate.

Minor plates are: 1) Arabian plate; 2) Phillipines Plate; 3) Cocos Plate; 4) Carribean plate; and 5)
Nasca Plate or East Pacific Plate 6) Scotia plate.

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 Fig. 1 Map depicting various plate boundaries of the world (Source:
http://himselp.net.in/structureofearth.html)

The Pacific plate is the largest plate, composed almost entirely of oceanic crust and covers
about 1/5th of the entire earth’s surface. The other large plate contains both continental and
oceanic crusts. None of the major plates are composed entirely of continental crust. These
plates are continuously in motion with respect to each other. The plates are characterized by
seismic and volcanic activities or by orogenic belts. Each plate is about 70 to 100 km thick and
its configuration is not related to the distance of land and water. Most of the plates include
continental and oceanic crust. The plates are mobile and its mobility is due to the viscous
aesthenosphere. The plates are in continuous motion with respect to each other and to the
earth’s axis of rotation. The major types of plate motions are:
1) Separation or divergence
2) Closing together or convergence
3) Friction or Shearing

2.1.5 Plate Boundaries and Plate Margins

1) Constructive Plate Boundaries are called as divergent plate boundaries or accreting plate
boundaries. On the mid oceanic ridge new crust is being formed and the plates are
growing. This is called constructive margins. Here there is divergence of plates (i.e.
movement of two plates in opposite direction). The new ocean crust that is formed on the
mid oceanic ridges slowly moves out on either side of the ridge and is finally consumed in
the ocean trench and disappears down into the mantle. Divergent Movement results in i)
volcanic activities of fissure flow of basaltic magma, ii) creation of new oceanic crust, iii)
formation of submarine mountain ridges and rises, iv) creation of transform faults, v)
occurance of shallow focus earthquake, vi) drifting of oceanic plate, etc. Mountain building
is not associated with this type of movement.

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 Fig: 2 Constructive plate margins/ boundaries
(Source: http://himselp.net.in/structureofearth.html)
2) Destructive Plate Boundaries – These plate boundaries are also known as convergent
plate boundaries or consuming plate margins. The reason is two plates converge or
move towards each other along a line (face to face) and collide. The collision results in
heavier plate to get subducted under the lighter plate. Thus, the heavier plate is thrust
into upper mantle and thus part of the crust (plate) is lost in the upper mantle. That’s
why convergent plate boundaries/margins are called destructive plate margins. This
zone of collision of convergent plates is also called as ‘collision zone’, ‘subduction zone’
and ‘Benioff zone’.
Convergence collision often leads to the occurrence of: i) explosive type of volcanic
eruptions, ii) deep foci earthquake, iii) formation of folded mountains, arcs, festoons,
oceanic trenches, etc. Plate collisions are of three types: a) continent-ocean plate
collision b) ocean-ocean plate collision c) continent-continent plate collision.
(a) Continent-Ocean plate collision – (Andes Type). This is the most common
type of collision and the mountain ranges encircling the Pacific ocean are all
located at places where there is collision of continental and oceanic plates.
Its simplest and best examples are found in Pacific coast of South America

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 (formation of Andes). This type of collision of oceanic crust and other one of
continental crust along the Benioff zone (subduction zone). The resultant
tectonic expressions are deformation of crustal rocks, metamorphism,
volcanic eruptions, formation of folded mountains and occurrence of deep
focus earthquake. Collision of American and Pacific plates is a typical
example of the category and formation of majestic cordillera of North
America and Andes of South America is significant examples. The advancing
continent over-rides the sea floor, which is thrust down under continental
plate. The down-going slab melts to produce andesitic magma which is
intruded and erupted as andesitic volcanoes. It is marked by ocean trench.
Continent – Ocean Collision – (obduction). In few collision zones the slab of
ocean floor gets over-ridden rather than under-ridden the continent. In
Papua New Guinea a slab of basic rock with patrology, lying and structure
exactly like those of thought to be typical of ocean crust make the
mountainous terrain of the Papua ultramatic belt. Obduction is the term for
this over riding in contrast to the subduction, when oceanic slab goes down
below continental mass.
(b) Continent-continent plate collision – This collision involves the two
continental plates along the Benioff zone and is responsible for the creation
of folded mountains and occurrence of earthquakes of varying magnitudes.
The collision of Asiatic – Indian plates and the European – African plates are
the typical example of such situation and the formation of Alpine and
Himalayan mountains provides the best examples of mountains formed as
result of this type of collision. India was once united with southern continent
of Gondwana land. With time it has drifted towards the north until it collided
with the Asian mainland (as explained by the continental drift theory). For a
while the great sea and Tethys was under the continent but later this was

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 crushed and uplifted as Indian plate drove under Asian plate. This also results
in formation of double thickness continental crust.
(c) Ocean-ocean plate collision – Where oceanic plates exist on both sides of a
convergent plate boundary, the oceanic crust of one plate (which is dense
and heavy) is subducted under the other plate and the resultant compression
leads to the formation of island festoons and arcs. It also leads to
deformation in crustal area, volcanism, formation of oceanic trench,
occurrence of earthquakes, etc. Such type of collision and subduction occurs
along the East Asia. Island festoons and arcs are found in the western coast
of the Pacific ocean and the north eastern coast of the Indian ocean. Suess
was the first to point out that these arc like island groups are tops of
drowned young folded mountain ranges and are extensions of the mountain
systems found in the continents. Between the island and the island arcs are
shallow seas which are called back-arc basins. The Sea of Japan is a good
example of back-arc basins.

Fig: 3. Destructive plate margins/boundary

(Source: http://croesy-gcse-geography.doomby.com )

To watch the video on plate tectonic click following link-

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JmC-vjQGSNM
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 3) Conservative Plate Margins – These boundaries are also called as shear plate margins
and parallel/transform fault boundaries. It occurs when two plates glide past one
another and there is neither creation nor destruction of the crust. These happen along
the transform faults. These are called conservative as the crust is neither create nor
destroyed. Transform faults offset mid-oceanic ridges. Besides oceanic transform faults
there are also continental transform faults, example are San Andreas fault (California,
USA), Alpine fault (Africa),etc. It may be mentioned that San Andreas fault ‘is ridge to
ridge transform fault’. The conservative plate margins are also associated with no
volcanic activity, seismic events, creation of ridge and valley, fracture zone, etc.

Fig: 4. Conservative Plate Margins (Source: http://croesy-gcse-geography.doomby.com )

2.1.6 Criticism

Objections to Plate Tectonics Theory

The principal objections pointed out against Plate tectonics may be stated as follows:

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 1. The length of spreading the ridge is much longer than the total length of subduction
zones. If the volume of the earth is consistent and assuming a continuity equation for
flow, the rate of subduction must be very much faster than that of spreading. There
must be some places, where plate motion accelerates, but we have not found them.
In other words, the rate of creation of new crusts appears to be much greater than its
rate of destruction.

2. Plate Tectonic Theory does not explain why subduction is almost entirely around the
Pacific coasts while spreading is found in all oceans.

3. Since spreading is symmetrical around some continents the mid – oceanic ridge move
over the globe. This conclusion is also inevitable when it is realized that some plates
have increased in area by 50% since the Mesozoic yet have no subduction sites, so
their bounding spreading sites have moved away from the continent on both sides
and therefore related to each other.

4. Plate tectonics mechanisms of mountain building depends on compressive folding,

later it will be shown that there are strong objectives to compressive folding and that
most folding results from gravity sliding rather than compression. It
remains possible that mountain building may result from such things as crustal
thickening, underplating, and more remote manifestations, but if crustal compression
is rejected many of the more elementary concepts of mountain building by plate
tectonics must also be rejected.

5. Plate tectonics has failed to provide satisfactory explanations for the mountain
building. As already noted, that the Appalachian mountain results from dissection of
an uplifted planted area. The tectonic processes that folded and faulted Appalachian
rocks might as explained in plate tectonics terms, but the cause of the latter uplift in

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 not. The Broad upreaching of areas like the Eastern High lands of Australia does not
appear to fit into known pattern of global tectonics.

6. It is not even certain that the plates do indeed act as single units. The number of
minor plates seems to be increasing suggesting at least complications to the simple
theory. Kahle & Werner (1975) have pointed out that gravity loves in the wake of
drifting continents suggest movement of the continent over the sea-floor, which
cools when the continent has passed with a resulting increase in density.

Summary

 Plate tectonics is a broad term, the study of which consists of mechanisms of evolution,
nature and motions of the plate, deformation within plates and interactions of plate
margins with each other.
 The term plate was first used by Tuzo Wilson in his definition of transform faults in
1965.
 Wilson, Mckenzie and Parker through their published research findings laid the
foundation of this new hypothesis.
 However, the concept was initially proposed by William Jason Morgan.
 According to the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere of the earth can be divided
into different lithospheric slabs or plates.
 Major Plates are: 1) Indian Plate 2)Pacific Plate 3) American Plate 4) Eurasian plate 5)
African Plate 6) Antartica Plate.
 Minor plates are: 1) Arabian plate 2) Phillipines Plate 3) Cocos Plate 4) carribean plate 5)
Nasca Plate or East pacific Plate 6) Scotia plate.
 The plates are characterized by seismic and volcanic activities or by orogenic belts.
 Most of the plates include continental and oceanic crust.
 The plates are in continous motion with respect to each other and to the earth’s axis of
rotation. The major types of plate motions are:

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 o Separation or divergence
o Closing together or convergence
o Friction or Shearing
 Constructive Plate Boundaries are called as divergent plate boundaries or accreting
plate boundaries as there are divergence of plates i.e. movement of two plates in
opposite direction.
 Destructive Plate Boundaries – These plate boundaries are also known as convergent
plate boundaries or consuming plate margins. The reason is two plates converge or
move towards each other along a line (face to face) and collide. Plate collisions are of
three types:
a) continent-ocean plate collision
b) ocean-ocean plate collision
c) continent - continent plate collision.
 Conservative Plate Margins are also called as shear plate margins and parallel/transform
fault boundaries. It occurs when two plates glide past one another and there is neither
creation nor destruction of the crust.

Glossary

Plate - The entire landmass of the earth has been divided into several rigid lithospheric
slabs or rigid crustal layer known as plates.

Tectonic - The term tectonics refers to the structure of the earth and the forces that causes
the change.

Plate Tectonics - The study of whole mechanisms of evolution, nature and motions of the
plate, deformation within plates and interactions of plate margins with each other is
collectively called Plate Tectonics.

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 Constructive plate boundaries are called as divergent plate boundaries or accreting plate
boundaries. On the mid oceanic ridge new crust is being formed and the plates are growing.
This is called constructive margins. Here there is divergence of plates (i.e. movement of two
plates in opposite direction). The new ocean crust that is formed on the mid oceanic ridges
slowly moves out on either side of the ridge and is finally consumed in the ocean trench and
disappears down into the mantle.

Destructive plate boundaries are also termed as convergent plate boundaries or consuming
plate margins because two plates converge or move towards each other along a line (face
to face) and collide. This collision leads to edge of one plate (of relatively lighter material)
overrides the other plate (of relatively denser material) and the overridden plate is
subducted or thrust into upper mantle and thus part of the crust (plate) is lost in the upper
mantle. That’s why convergent plate boundaries/margins are called destructive plate
margins.

Benioff zone - The zone of collision of convergent plates is also called as ‘collision zone’,
‘subduction zone’ and ‘Benioff zone’.

Conservative plate boundaries – These boundaries are also called as shear plate margins
and parallel/transform fault boundaries. It occurs when two plates glide past one another
and there is neither creation nor destruction of the crust. These happen along the transform
faults. These are called conservative because crust is neither create nor destroyed.

Review Questions

 The plate tectonics theory is simple, clear, and straightforward. Why wasn’t it developed
earlier?
 Briefly explain the theory of plate tectonics.
 Name and elaborate the types of plate margins, giving example of each.

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  Where can we expect to find the youngest oceanic lithosphere?

References

McKenzie, D. & Parker, R. L. (1967 ). “The North Pacific: an example of tectonics on a

sphere”. Nature 216, 1276-1280.

Wilson, J. Tuzo (1965). "A new Class of Faults and their Bearing on Continental Drift".
Nature 207 (4995): 343–347

Morgan, W. J. (1968, 1991 reprint). "Rises, Trenches, Great Faults, and Crustal Blocks.
Journal of geophysical Research Vol.73(6),pp.1959-1982

Benioff, H., 1954, Orogenesis and deep crustal structure: additional evidence from
seismology: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 65, p. 385-400

S. Singh (1998), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.

Dayal,P. (1976), A Text Book of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Dept, Patna.

Selby, M.J. (1986).Earth's Changing Surface: An Introduction to Geomorphology , Oxford

University Press, USA.

Le Pichon, X., 1968, Sea-floor spreading and continental drift: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 73, p. 3661-3697.

Bird, J. M., ed. 1980. Plate Tectonics. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union.

Condie, K. C. 1997. Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, 4th ed. Oxford.: Butterworth-
Heineman.

Cox, A., and R. B. Hart. 1986. Plate Tectonics: How It Works. Palo Alto, Calif.: Blackwell.

Kearey, P., and F. J. Vine. 1996. Global Tectonics, 2nd ed. Boston: Blackwell Scientific.
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 Bloom, Arthur L., (2003) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic
Landforms. First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd.

Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E., (1984) Geomorphology.
London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Engeln, O. D. von, Geomorphology. (1960) New York: The Macmillan Company.

Suggested Readings

Hamblin, W. K. and Christiansen, E.H. (2001) Earth’s Dynamic Systems, Prentice- Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Judson, S. and Kauffman, M. E. (1990) Physical Geology, Prentice-Hall, New

Jersey.

Web Links

1. http://www.earthds.info/pdfs/EDS_17.PDF

2. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/

geology/plate-tectonics/content-section-2.1#box003_001

3. http://www.doeacckolkata.in/piyali-geography/critism.html

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