Greater Khorasan

Greater Khorāsān,[2] or Khorāsān (Middle

Persian: Xwarāsān; Persian: ‫خراسان‬

[xoɾɒːˈsɒːn] ⓘ) is a historical eastern
region in the Iranian Plateau between
Western and Central Asia.

The extent of the region referred to as

Khorasan varied over time. In its stricter
historical sense, it comprised the present
territories of northeastern Iran, parts of
Afghanistan and southern parts of
Central Asia, extending as far as the Amu
Darya (Oxus) river.
(Greater)
However, the name
Khorasan
has often been
)‫خراسان (بزرگ‬
used in a loose
Historical
sense to include a Khorasan or
wider region that Ancient Khorasan
included most of
Region
Transoxiana
(encompassing
Bukhara and
Samarqand in
Approximate map
present-day of Khorasan and
Uzbekistan),[3] its four main and
historical quarters,
extended which are:
westward to the Nishapur, Merv,
Herat, and Balkh
Caspian coast[4] (in Persian)
and to the Dasht-e
Kavir[5] southward
to Sistan,[6][5] and
eastward to the Map of Khorasan
and its
Pamir
surroundings in the
Mountains.[5][4] 7th/8th centuries
Greater Khorasan Countries Iran,
in Turkmen
is today Khorasan and
sometimes used Afghanis
Different
to distinguish the regions o
larger historical Tajikista
Uzbekist
region from the Kyrgyzst
former Khorasan and
Kazakhs
Province of Iran are also
(1906–2004), included
different
which roughly sources
encompassed the Demonym Khorasa
western portion of (Persian
the historical ‫خراسانی‬
Greater Ethnicities

Khorasan.[2]

The name Khorāsān is Persian (from

Bactrian Miirosan)[7] meaning "where the
sun arrives from" or "the Eastern
Province".[8][9] The name was first given
to the eastern province of Persia (Ancient
Iran) during the Sasanian Empire[10] and
was used from the late Middle Ages in
distinction to neighbouring
Transoxiana.[11][12][13] The province was
often subdivided into four quarters, such
that Nishapur (present-day Iran), Marv
(present-day Turkmenistan), Herat and
Balkh (present-day Afghanistan) were the
centers, respectively, of the westernmost,
northernmost, central, and easternmost
quarters.[3]

Khorasan was first established as an

administrative division in the 6th century
(approximately after 520) by the
Sasanians, during the reign of Kavad I
(r. 488–496, 498/9–531) or Khosrow I
(r. 531–579),[14] which comprised the
eastern and northeastern part of the
empire. The use of Bactrian Miirosan 'the
east' as an administrative designation
under Alkhan rulers in the same region is
possibly the forerunner of the Sasanian
administrative division of
Khurasan,[15][16][17] occurring after their
takeover of Hephthalite territories south
of the Oxus. The transformation of the
term and its identification with a larger
region is thus a development of the late
Sasanian and early Islamic periods. Early
Islamic usage often regarded everywhere
east of Jibal or what was subsequently
termed Iraq Ajami (Persian Iraq), as
being included in a vast and loosely-
defined region of Khorasan, which might
even extend to the Indus Valley and the
Pamir Mountains. The boundary between
these two was the region surrounding the
cities of Gurgan and Qumis. In particular,
the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Timurids
divided their empires into Iraqi and
Khorasani regions. Khorasan is believed
to have been bounded in the southwest
by desert and the town of Tabas, known
as "the Gate of Khorasan",[18]: 562 from
which it extended eastward to the
mountains of central Afghanistan.[4][5]
Sources from the 10th century onwards
refer to areas in the south of the Hindu
Kush as the Khorasan Marches, forming
a frontier region between Khorasan and
Hindustan.[19][20]

Geography
First established in the 6th century as
one of four administrative (military)
divisions by the Sasanian Empire,[21] the
scope of the region has varied
considerably during its nearly 1,500-year
history. Initially, the Khorasan division of
the Sasanian Empire covered the
northeastern military gains of the empire,
at its height including cities such as
Nishapur, Herat, Merv, Faryab, Taloqan,
Balkh, Bukhara, Badghis, Abiward,
Gharjistan, Tus and Sarakhs.[6]

With the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate,

the designation was inherited and
likewise stretched as far as their military
gains in the east, starting off with the
military installations at Nishapur and
Merv, slowly expanding eastwards into
Tokharistan and Sogdia. Under the
Caliphs, Khorasan was the name of one
of the three political zones under their
dominion (the other two being Eraq-e
Arab "Arabic Iraq" and Eraq-e Ajam "Non-
Arabic Iraq or Persian Iraq"). Under the
Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates,
Khorasan was divided into four major
sections or quarters (rub′), each section
based on a single major city: Nishapur,
Merv, Herat and Balkh.[22] By the 10th
century, Ibn Khordadbeh and the Hudud
al-'Alam mentions what roughly
encompasses the previous regions of
Abarshahr, Tokharistan and Sogdia as
Khwarasan proper. They further report the
southern part of the Hindu Kush, i.e. the
regions of Sistan, Rukhkhudh, Zabulistan
and Kabul etc. to make up the Khorasan
marches, a frontier region between
Khorasan and Hindustan.[23][19][5]

A map of Persia by Emanuel Bowen showing the

names of territories during the Persian Safavid
dynasty and Mughal Empire of India (c. 1500–1747)

By the late Middle Ages, the term lost its

administrative significance, in the west
only being loosely applied among the
Turko-Persian dynasties of modern Iran
to all its territories that lay east and
north-east of the Dasht-e Kavir desert. It
was therefore subjected to constant
change, as the size of their empires
changed. In the east, Khwarasan likewise
became a term associated with the great
urban centers of Central Asia. It is
mentioned in the Memoirs of Babur that:

The people of Hindustān call

every country beyond their
own Khorasān, in the same
manner as the Arabs term all
except Arabia, Ajem. On the
road between Hindustān and
Khorasān, there are two great
marts: the one Kābul, the other
Kandahār. Caravans, from
Ferghāna, Tūrkestān,
Samarkand, Balkh, Bokhāra,
Hissār, and Badakhshān, all
 resort to Kābul; while those
from Khorasān repair to
Kandahār. This country lies
between Hindustān and
Khorasān.[20]

In modern times, the term has been

source of great nostalgia and
nationalism, especially amongst the
Tajiks of Central Asia. Many Tajiks regard
Khorasan as an integral part of their
national identity, which has preserved an
interest in the term, including its meaning
and cultural significance, both in
common discussion and academia,
despite its falling out of political use in
the region. According to Ghulam
Mohammad Ghobar, Afghanistan's
current Persian-speaking territories
formed the major portion of Khorasān,[24]
as two of the four main capitals of
Khorasān (Herat and Balkh) are now
located in Afghanistan. Ghobar uses the
terms "Proper Khorasan" and "Improper
Khorasan" in his book to distinguish
between the usage of Khorasān in its
strict sense and its usage in a loose
sense. According to him, Proper
Khorasan contained regions lying
between Balkh in the east, Merv in the
north, Sistan in the south, Nishapur in the
west and Herat, known as the Pearl of
Khorasan, in the center. Improper
Khorasan's boundaries extended to as far
as Hazarajat and Kabul in the east,
Baluchistan in the south, Transoxiana
and Khwarezm in the north, and
Damghan and Gorgan in the west.[24]

Names of territories during the Caliphate in 750

History

An 1886 map of the 10th century Near East

showing Khorasan east of the province of Jibal
Ancient era

During the Sasanian era, likely in the

reign of Khusrow I, Persia was divided
into four regions (known as kust Middle
Persian), Khwārvarān in the west, apāxtar
in the north, nīmrūz in the south and
Khorasan in the east. Since the Sasanian
territories were more or less remained
stable up to Islamic conquests, it can be
concluded that Sasanian Khorasan was
bordered to the south by Sistan and
Kerman, to the west by the central
deserts of modern Iran, and to the east
by China and India.[23]
In the Sasanian era, Khorasan was
further divided into four smaller regions,
and each region was ruled by a marzban.
These four regions were Nishapur, Marv,
Herat and Balkh.[23]

An early turquoise mine in the Madan

village of Khorasan during the early
20th century

Khorasan in the east saw some conflict

with the Hephthalites who became the
new rulers in the area but the borders
remained stable. Being the eastern parts
of the Sassanids and further away from
Arabia, Khorasan region was conquered
after the remaining Persia. The last
Sassanid king of Persia, Yazdgerd III,
moved the throne to Khorasan following
the Arab invasion in the western parts of
the empire. After the assassination of the
king, Khorasan was conquered by Arab
Muslims in 647 AD. Like other provinces
of Persia it became a province of the
Umayyad Caliphate.[25]

Medieval era

The first movement against the Arab

conquest was led by Abu Muslim
Khorasani between 747 and 750.
Originally from Isfahan, scholars believe
Abu Muslim was probably Persian. It's
possible he may have been born a slave.
According to the Ancient Persian
historian Al-Shahrastani, he was a
Kaysanite. This revolutionary Shi'a
movement rejected the three Caliphs that
had preceded Ali.[26]

Abu Muslim helped the Abbasids come

to power but was later killed by Al-
Mansur, an Abbasid Caliph. The first
kingdom independent from Arab rule was
established in Khorasan by Tahir
Phoshanji in 821, but it seems that it was
more a matter of political and territorial
gain. Tahir had helped the Caliph subdue
other nationalistic movements in other
parts of Persia such as Maziar's
movement in Tabaristan.[27]
Other major independent dynasties who
ruled over Khorasan were the Saffarids
from Zaranj (861–1003), Samanids from
Bukhara (875–999), Ghaznavids from
Ghazni (963–1167), Seljuqs (1037–
1194), Khwarezmids (1077–1231),
Ghurids (1149–1212), and Timurids
(1370–1506). In 1221, Genghis Khan's
son Tolui oversaw the Mongol
subjugation of Khorasan, carrying out the
task "with a thoroughness from which
that region has never recovered."[28]

Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth

century, the majority of Islamic
archaeological efforts were focused on
the medieval era, predominantly in areas
near what is today Central Asia.[29]

Rashidun era (651–661)

Under Caliph Umar (r. 634–644), the

Rashidun Caliphate seized nearly the
entire Persia from the Sasanian Empire.
However, the areas of Khorasan weren't
conquered until c. 651 during the
caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656). The
Rashidun commanders Ahnaf ibn Qays
and Abd Allah ibn Amir were assigned to
lead the invasion of Khorasan.[30] In late
651, the Rashidun army defeated the
combined forces of the Sasanian and the
First Turkic Khaganate in the Battle of the
Oxus River. The next year, Ibn Amir
concluded a peace treaty with Kanadbak,
an Iranian nobleman and the kanarang of
Tus. The Sasanian rebel Burzin Shah, of
the Karen family, revolted against Ibn
Amir, though the latter crushed the rebels
in the Battle of Nishapur.[31]

Umayyad era (661–750)

After the invasion of Persia under

Rashidun was completed in five years
and almost all of the Persian territories
came under Arab control, it also
inevitable created new problems for the
caliphate. Pockets of tribal resistance
continued for centuries in the Afghan
territories. During the 7th century, Arab
armies made their way into the region of
Afghanistan from Khorasan. A second
problem was as a corollary to the Muslim
conquest of Persia, the Muslims became
neighbors of the city states of
Transoxiana. Although Transoxiana was
included in the loosely defined
"Turkestan" region, only the ruling elite of
Transoxiana was partially of Turkic
origins whereas the local population was
mostly a diverse mix of local Iranian
populations. As the Arabs reached
Transoxiana following the conquest of
the Sassanid Persian Empire, local
Iranian-Turkic and Arab armies clashed
over the control of Transoxiana's Silk
Road cities. In particular, the Turgesh
under the leadership of Suluk, and
Khazars under Barjik clashed with their
Arab neighbours in order to control this
economically important region. Two
notable Umayyad generals, Qutayba ibn
Muslim and Nasr ibn Sayyar, were
instrumental in the eventual conquest. In
July 738, at the age of 74, Nasr was
appointed as governor of Khorasan.
Despite his age, he was widely respected
both for his military record, his
knowledge of the affairs of Khorasan and
his abilities as a statesman. Julius
Wellhausen wrote of him that "His age
did not affect the freshness of his mind,
as is testified not only by his deeds, but
also by the verses in which he gave
expression to his feelings till the very end
of his life". However, in the climate of the
times, his nomination owed more to his
appropriate tribal affiliation than his
personal qualities.[32]

In 724, immediately after the rise of

Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) to
the throne, Asad's brother Khalid al-Qasri
was appointed to the important post of
governor of Iraq, with responsibility over
the entire Islamic East, which he held
until 738. Khalid in turn named Asad as
governor of Khorasan. The two brothers
thus became, according to Patricia
Crone, "among the most prominent men
of the Marwanid period".[33][34] Asad's
arrival in Khorasan found the province in
peril: his predecessor, Muslim ibn Sa'id
al-Kilabi, had just attempted a campaign
against Ferghana and suffered a major
defeat, the so-called "Day of Thirst", at
the hands of the Turgesh Turks and the
Soghdian principalities of Transoxiana
that had risen up against Muslim
rule.[35][36]

From the early days of the Muslim

conquests, Arab armies were divided into
regiments drawn from individual tribes or
tribal confederations (butun or ‘asha‘ir).
Despite the fact that many of these
groupings were recent creations, created
for reasons of military efficiency rather
than any common ancestry, they soon
developed a strong and distinct identity.
By the beginning of the Umayyad period,
this system progressed to the formation
of ever-larger super-groupings,
culminating in the two super-groups: the
northern Arab Mudaris or Qaysis, and the
south Arabs or "Yemenis" (Yaman),
dominated by the Azd and Rabi'ah tribes.
By the 8th century, this division had
become firmly established across the
Caliphate and was a source of constant
internal instability, as the two groups
formed in essence two rival political
parties, jockeying for power and
separated by a fierce hatred for each
other.[37][38] During Hisham ibn Abd al-
Malik's reign, the Umayyad government
appointed Mudaris as governors in
Khorasan, except for Asad ibn Abdallah
al-Qasri's tenure in 735–738. Nasr's
appointment came four months after
Asad's death. In the interim, the sources
report variously that the province was run
either by the Syrian general Ja'far ibn
Hanzala al-Bahrani or by Asad's
lieutenant Juday' al-Kirmani. At any rate,
the sources agree that al-Kirmani stood
at the time as the most prominent man in
Khorasan and should have been the clear
choice for governor. His Yemeni roots (he
was the leader of the Azd in Khorasan),
however, made him unpalatable to the
Caliph.[39][40]

Abbasid era (750–861)

Khorasan became the headquarters of

the Abbasid Revolution against the
Umayyads. It was led by Abu Muslim,
who himself belonged to Khorasan. This
province was part of the Iranian world
that had been heavily colonised by Arab
tribes following the Muslim conquest
with the intent of replacing Umayyad
dynasty which is proved to be successful
under the sign of the Black Standard.[41]
Modern era

The village of Madan in 1909

Between the early 16th and early 18th

centuries, parts of Khorasan were
contested between the Safavids and the
Uzbeks.[42] A part of the Khorasan region
was conquered in 1722 by the Ghilji
Pashtuns from Kandahar and became
part of the Hotaki dynasty from 1722 to
1729.[43][44] Nader Shah recaptured
Khorasan in 1729 and chose Mashhad as
the capital of Persia. Following his
assassination in 1747, the eastern parts
of Khorasan, including Herat were
annexed with the Durrani Empire.
Mashhad area was under control of
Nader Shah's grandson Shahrukh Afshar
until it was captured by the Qajar dynasty
in 1796. In 1856, the Iranians, under the
Qajar dynasty, briefly recaptured Herat;
by the Treaty of Paris of 1857, signed
between Iran and the British Empire to
end the Anglo-Persian War, the Iranian
troops withdrew from Herat.[45] Later, in
1881, Iran relinquished its claims to a
part of the northern areas of Khorasan to
the Russian Empire, principally
comprising Merv, by the Treaty of Akhal
(also known as the Treaty of Akhal-
Khorasan).[46]
Cultural importance

Timurid conqueror Babur exiles his

treacherous relative Muḥammad
Ḥusaym Mīrzā to Khorasan.

Khorasan has had a great cultural

importance among other regions in
Greater Iran. The literary New Persian
language developed in Khorasan and
Transoxiana and gradually supplanted
the Parthian language.[47] The New
Persian literature arose and flourished in
Khorasan and Transoxiana[48] where the
early Iranian dynasties such as Tahirids,
Samanids, Saffirids and Ghaznavids (a
Turco-Persian dynasty) were based.

Until the devastating Mongol invasion of

the 13th century, Khorasan remained the
cultural capital of Persia.[49] It has
produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-
Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar Khayyam, Al-
Khwarizmi, Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (known
as Albumasar or Albuxar in the west),
Alfraganus, Abu Wafa, Nasir al-Din al-
Tusi, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, and many
others who are widely well known for
their significant contributions in various
domains such as mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, physics, geography,
and geology.[50]

There have been many archaeological

sites throughout Khorasan, however
many of these expeditions were illegal or
committed in the sole pursuit of profit,
leaving many sites without
documentation or record.[51]

See also
Ariana
Bactria
Dahistan
Khwarazm
Khurasan Road
 Margiana
Parthia
Sogdia
Tokharistan
Transoxiana
Turkestan

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