Protein Synthesis and Cell Growth & Reproduction Cheat Sheet

Please use the following information to prepare for the jeopardy game that we will play today (You will
be given 5 minutes to study this with your group) AND this will also be very important to use for your
preparation for the Academic Champions competition in December! Please note: This material will
NOT be heavily taught in the meeting so please make sure to read and understand the material!

Mutation and Codons:

• Mutations are changes in the genetic code.
• Types: Point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion) and frameshift mutations (insertion or deletion of
nucleotides).
• Codons:

• Codons are triplets of nucleotides in DNA or RNA.

• They code for amino acids in protein synthesis.
• Start codon: AUG (initiates protein synthesis).
• Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA (signal the end of protein synthesis).

• How to Read a Codon Chart:

• A codon chart lists all possible codons and the amino acids they code for.
• Start with the first nucleotide in the codon, then the second, and finally the
third.
• Find the codon in the chart to identify the corresponding amino acid.

• Example:

• Codon: CAC
• First nucleotide: C
• Second nucleotide: A
• Third nucleotide: C
• Locate CAC in the codon chart to find that it codes for the amino acid histidine (His).

Transcription and Translation:

Transcription:
• Transcription is the process where DNA is used as a template to synthesize RNA.
• It occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
• Key players: DNA, RNA polymerase, and nucleotide bases (A, U, C, G).
• Steps: a. RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at the promoter region. b. DNA unwinds, and complementary RNA
nucleotides are added. c. RNA strand is synthesized, creating a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. d. Termination
occurs when RNA polymerase reaches the terminator sequence.
Translation:
• Translation is the process of converting the information in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
• It takes place in the ribosomes of the cytoplasm.
• Key players: mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA, amino acids.
• Steps: a. Initiation: The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG), and a tRNA carrying
methionine binds to it. b. Elongation: Ribosome moves along the mRNA, tRNAs bring amino acids, and peptide
bonds form between amino acids. c. Termination: When a stop codon is reached, protein synthesis ends.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
• DNA is a molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms.
• It consists of two long chains (strands) of nucleotides running in opposite directions.
• The backbone of DNA is made up of deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups.
2. Nitrogenous Bases:

• There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA: a. Adenine (A) b. Thymine (T) c. Cytosine (C) d. Guanine (G)
3. Base Pairing:

• Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T).

• Cytosine (C) always pairs with Guanine (G).
• This complementary base pairing is fundamental for DNA's double helix structure.
4. DNA Double Helix:

• DNA is shaped like a double helix, resembling a twisted ladder.

• The nitrogenous bases form the ladder's rungs, while the sugar-phosphate backbone forms the sides.
• Base pairs are connected by hydrogen bonds.
5. DNA Replication:

• DNA can make exact copies of itself through a process called DNA replication.
• It ensures that each daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic information during cell division.
• DNA helicase unwinds the double helix, and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each strand.
6. Genetic Information:

• The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA encodes the genetic information.

• Genes are specific sequences of bases that provide instructions for building proteins, which are essential for various cellular
functions.

Mitosis & Meiosis:

• Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in the production of two identical daughter cells from a single
parent cell.
• It plays a crucial role in growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction.
• Key phases of mitosis: a. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle
fibers form. b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane (metaphase plate). c. Anaphase:
Sister chromatids are pulled apart and move to opposite poles of the cell. d. Telophase: Chromatids reach the
poles, the nuclear envelope re-forms, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).
2. Meiosis:

• Meiosis is the process of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in the formation
of specialized sex cells (gametes - sperm and eggs).
• It involves two successive divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
• Key differences from mitosis: a. Homologous chromosomes: Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes,
creating genetically diverse daughter cells. b. Crossing-over: A unique event in prophase I of meiosis, where
genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes, increasing genetic diversity.
3. Genetic Diversity:

• Meiosis is essential for genetic diversity because it shuffles genetic material and reduces the chromosome
number in gametes.
• Crossing-over and random assortment during meiosis contribute to unique genetic combinations.
4. Role in Reproduction:

• Mitosis is responsible for general cell division and tissue growth.

• Meiosis generates gametes for sexual reproduction, allowing offspring to inherit a combination of genes from
both parents.