CHAPTER ONE

Understanding development

Introduction

Humanity in the 21st century is facing various environmental, social and economic problems.
Almost every government, various international organizations and private stakeholders are
facing challenges. The climate change effects and resources scarcity are constantly increasing,
while their impact is not limited to a state but rather spread all around the world. This, non-
border parameter of environmental, social and economic problems, has rendered them into
collective problems demanding joint efforts in order to reach a solution, or at least to mitigate the
problems or their impact.

Different approaches concerning successful ways to tackle these problems exist. Most of these
approaches lead to joint efforts, which need a specific framework in order to reach fruitful and
solution-oriented policies. One successful approach is the sustainable development strategy
framework. According to Brundtland Commission sustainable development is the “development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs”. Sustainable development is a matter that primarily concerns states and
enterprises, but it also concerns citizens equally. For instance, we tend to speak regularly about
Corporate Social Responsibility while we undermine the value and importance of Personal
Social Responsibility in our efforts to ameliorate the quality of life for everyone.

The continuously increasing severity of environmental problems led to a series of reactions from
independent organizations over the years, from the International Union for Conservation of
Nature in 1948 to the Club of Rome and its report The Limits to Growth in 1972. Focusing
initially on environmental protection and natural resources’ conservation the movement
established, over the seventies and eighties, the links between the environmental, economic and
social dimensions. At the institutional level, the concept of Sustainable Development was coined
at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 and
subsequently defined through the World Conservation Strategy (1980), the Brundtland Report
(1987), and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (1992).

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1.1. Definition of development
The idea of development-here taken to be roughly equivalent to social progress-has undergone
many sharp changes through its evolution in human history and human consciousness.
Understandings of the meaning of development are closely linked with people's most
fundamental views of the place of humankind in the universe. That is, our understandings reflect
our cosmological frameworks.

We often forget that there was a long period in human history in which there was practically no
conception of progress at the social level. The cosmological/planetary view was that of a static
world, a world in which one's life task was to adjust to these unchanging conditions. If there was
any progress, it was in one's progression beyond this world to other worlds and other lives.

This static view prevails today in many corners of the world, but we tend to dismiss it,
relegating it to the past by describing it as pre-modern.

Development thinking centered on the idea of the progress of human communities did not really
begin until after World War I, and did not flourish until after World War II. The first published
long-term national development plan was the Soviet Union's First Five-Year Plan, adopted in
1929. According to Ivan Illich, the modern intellectual history of development began on January
10, 1949.

From that time onward, development efforts focused on the achievement of rapid economic
growth. The motivation for striving for economic growth was not originally to alleviate poverty,
but rather to achieve rapid industrialization. Attention was focused on capital accumulation and
central planning for the allocation of that capital, all to expedite growth through industrialization.
Industrialization was understood not so much as a means for reducing the number of poor
people, but as a means for strengthening the nation as a whole, particularly in its relationships
with other nations.

After World War II national development efforts focused on the achievement of rapid economic
growth. In the early stages the central purpose was the achievement of industrialization. Only

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later, beginning in the 1950s, did the alleviation of poverty become a central concern. It soon
became evident that there was little direct linkage between economic growth and the extent of
poverty. New strategies were designed to achieve growth-with-equity. Some efforts were made
to take account of non-economic, physical quality-of-Life indicators of development.

Emphasis has remained on the material aspects of development, but in the 1970s some writers
gave attention to the non-material dimensions of development. It is now argued that development
should be understood in terms of the condition of consciousness of individuals, particularly in
relation to their views of their capacities and rights to act in the world. Moreover, it now seems
increasingly evident that the natural unit of development is not the nation and not the individual
but the community. Social development requires the development of community consciousness.
At any level of society, development is best understood as the increasing capacity to identify,
analyze, and solve one's own problems.

Development should be understood in terms of "the realization of the potential of human

personality". (Dudley Seers).

Development involving a transformation of consciousness. With Freire, I understand this

transformation to involve individuals changing from seeing themselves as victims to seeing
themselves as being in control of their own worlds. I believe that the basic, natural unit of
development is not the individual, the nation, or the world, but rather the community. Ultimately,
then, the transformation of consciousness at issue is not merely that of separate individuals.
Rather, development means the transformation of community consciousness. (Paulo Freire).

‘Development’ encompasses ‘change’ in a variety of aspects of the human condition.

( Chambers’ (2004:)).
Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time, function of both
maturation and interaction with the environment.”( Libert, Poulos, and Manner(1979)).

“Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in orderly predictable pattern as
a result of maturation and experience.”( E.B. Hurlock(1959))

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“Development is the series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an
embryonic state to maturity.”(Webster’s Dictionary).

Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of
physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. The purpose of
development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and the creation or
expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without damaging the
resources of the environment. Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately,
and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that
change.

The international agenda began to focus on development beginning in the second half of the
twentieth century. An understanding developed that economic growth did not necessarily lead to
a rise in the level and quality of life for populations all over the world; there was a need to place
an emphasis on specific policies that would channel resources and enable social and economic
mobility for various layers of the population.

Through the years, professionals and various researchers developed a number of definitions and
emphases for the term “development.” Amartya Sen, for example, developed the “capability
approach,” which defined development as a tool enabling people to reach the highest level of
their ability, through granting freedom of action, i.e., freedom of economic, social and family
actions, etc. This approach became a basis for the measurement of development by the HDI
(Human Development Index), which was developed by the UN Development Program (UNDP)
in 1990. Martha Nussbaum developed the abilities approach in the field of gender and
emphasized the empowerment of women as a development tool.

In contrast, professionals like Jeffrey Sachs and Paul Collier focused on mechanisms that prevent
or oppress development in various countries, and cause them to linger in abject poverty for
dozens of years. These are the various poverty traps, including civil wars, natural resources and
poverty itself. The identification of these traps enables relating to political – economic – social

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conditions in a country in an attempt to advance development. One of the emphases in the work
of Jeffrey Sacks is the promotion of sustainable development, which believes in growth and
development in order to raise the standard of living for citizens of the world today, through
relating to the needs of environmental resources and the coming generations of the citizens of the
world.

Development is the result of society's capacity to organize resources to meet challenges and
opportunities. Society passes through well-defined stages in the course of its development. They
are nomadic hunting and gathering, rural agrarian, urban, commercial, industrial, and post-
industrial societies.

The word ‘development’ is widely used to refer to a specified state of advancement or growth. It
could also be used to describe a new and advanced idea or product; or an event that constitutes a
new stage under changing circumstances.

Generally, the term development describes good change. But how do you tell which change is
good?

In this regard, researchers explain three ways that the term ‘development’ is used:

Development as a vision:
Here, the term is used to describe how desirable a society or a region is, possibly with regard to
what it can become.

What type of development is vision?

Visual development is a key part of infant and child development. First, vision is the main
sensory channel for information about objects, space, and people beyond our body surface,
Visual capabilities develop rapidly in infancy, underpinning the child's developing understanding
of the physical and social world

Your Personal Development suggests that it is important to have a vision for your future. A
vision here means a picture of what and where you want to be in life. You might think of this as
identifying what success looks like for you in work, in your personal life, or perhaps in sport and
hobbies. This vision is a vital step on the way to identifying your personal development needs,
and then taking action to address them.

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In other words, your vision needs to give you a broad picture of where you are going: what sort
of life you want, how you want to live, what you want to achieve. It does not, however, have to
be in huge detail.

Development as a historical process:

This refers to social change that occurs over extended periods of time due to inevitable
processes. For instance, it is widely believed that both communism and capitalism are an
inevitable outcome of progress.
Development as action:
This refers to deliberate action to change things for the better, as with providing aid to alleviate
hunger
All of these are definitions of development, but when it comes to distinguishing between nations
that are more developed than others, or when describing some other international aspect, usually
more meaning is implied in the word.
The dimensions of development are extremely diverse, including economic, social, political,
legal and institutional structures, technology in various forms (including the physical or natural
sciences, engineering and communications), the environment, religion, the arts and culture. Some
readers may even feel that this broad view is too restricted in its scope. Indeed, one might be
forgiven for feeling that ‘there is just too much to know now (as, indeed, there always was)’
(Corbridge, 1995: x). We would argue that there are three discernable definitions of
‘development’ (see Figure 1.1).

The first is historical and long term and arguably relatively value free – ‘development’ as a
process of change. The second is policy related and evaluative or indicator led, is based on value
judgements, and has short- to medium-term time horizons – development as the MDGs, for
example. The third is post-modernist, drawing attention to the ethnocentric and ideologically
loaded Western conceptions of ‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative
conceptions.

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The first conceptualization is that ‘development’ is a process of structural societal change.
Thomas (2000, 2004) refers to this meaning of development as ‘a process of historical change’.
This view, of ‘structural transformation’ and ‘long-term transformations of economies and
societies’, as Gore noted, is one that predominated in the 1950s and 1960s in particular. Today,
one might argue that this definition of development is emphasized by the academic or research
part of the development community but that there is less emphasis on this perspective in the
practitioner part of the development community (as has already been broached in our
Introduction).

The key characteristics of this perspective are that it is focused on processes of structural societal
change, it is historical and it has a long-term outlook. This means that a major societal shift in
one dimension, for example from a rural or agriculturebased society to an urban or industrial-
based society (what is sometimes called the shift from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ characteristics),
would also have radical implications in another dimension, such as societal structural changes in
the respective positions of classes and groups within the relations of production for example (by
which we mean the relationship between the owners of capital and labour). This means that
development involves changes to socio-economic structures – including ownership, the
organization of production, technology, the institutional structure and laws. In this
conceptualization development relates to a wide view of diverse socioeconomic changes. The
process does not relate to any particular set of objectives and so is not necessarily prescriptive.
Equally, it does not base its analysis on any expectations that all societies will follow
approximately the same development process.

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‘Development’ as a short- to medium-term outcome of desirable targets

A second perspective on ‘development’ can be seen in the light of some of the criticisms which
have been outlined above. Thomas (2000, 2004) characterizes this second approach as ‘a vision
or measure of progressive change’ and Gore (2000: 794) relates it to ‘performance assessment’.
This view is narrower in definition and is technocratic or instrumental – indeed, some might
argue that it is too technocratic. At its most basic level it is simply concerned with development
as occurring in terms of a set of short- to medium-term ‘performance indicators’ – goals or
outcomes – which can be measured and compared with targets (for example changes in poverty
or income levels). It therefore has a much more instrumental element which is likely to be
favored by practitioners within the development community notably in international
development agencies. Poverty reduction objectives in general, and the MDGs in particular, now
play a major role in the thinking of the international agencies such as the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (2001),
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank (2000) or the bilateral
aid agencies.

The key feature of this second perspective is that it is focused on the outcomes of change so that
it has a relatively short-term outlook, leading some commentators, such as Gore, to label it as
‘ahistorical’. This is somewhat problematic to many of the more academic members of the
development community because it presupposes a set of (essentially bureaucratic or government)
goals or objectives which may not be shared by many of the people who are supposedly
benefiting from development. This means that there is a paternalistic assumption as to what is
good for people’s wellbeing based on a set of universal values and characteristics. This raises the
question of ‘ownership’ not so much in the context of governments or of countries but more in
the context of peoples, and the poor in particular. In other words there is an issue over whose
objectives and values are expressed within the context of this second approach to development,
and whether the articulation of the objectives is in any sense democratic or involves the effective
participation of civil society (this issue is discussed in more detail in the edited collection of
PRSP country case studies in Booth (2004)). There is a concern that this short-term and
instrumental view of development loses the (grand) vision of societal transformation that Gore

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highlighted, and separates the conception of development from socio-economic structures, social
relations and politics.

Development as a dominant ‘discourse’ of Western modernity

A third conceptualization of development takes a radically different approach so that direct

comparison with the other two outlined in this chapter is difficult. For this reason we intend to
give it more attention than the previous approaches.

The first two of our characterizations of development are based, respectively, on visions of
change and on outcomes. The third definition is based on the view that development has
consisted of ‘bad’ change and ‘bad’ outcomes through the imposition of Western ethnocentric
notions of development upon the Third World. This is the ‘post-modern’ conceptualization of
development (one might also refer to this as the ‘post-development’, ‘post-colonial’ or ‘post-
structuralist’ position. This third perspective emerged as a reaction to the deliberate efforts at
progress made in the name of development since World War II and was triggered in particular by
the 1949 Declaration by the US President Truman that:

We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and
industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. (cited in
Esteva, 1992: 6)

According to Hahn-BeerrLee "Development is a process of acquiring a sustained growth of a

system's capability to cope with new, continuous changes toward the achievement of progressive
political, economic and social changes". Development means change plus growth. According to
Gerald M. Meier, the definition that would gain wide approval is one that defines economic
development as the process whereby the real per capita income of a country increases over a long
period of time, subject to the stipulation that the number below an "absolute poverty line" does
not increase, and that the distribution of income does not become more unequal.

The term development should not be equated with the term growth. Though growth is a
precondition to development; mere growth of an economy does not make it a developed
economy. Charles P. Kindleberger rightly asserts that economic growth I merely refers to a rise
in output whereas economic development implies changes in technical and institutional
organization of production as well as in distributive pattern of income. Compared to the

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objective of development, economic growth is easy to realize. By mobilizing larger resources
and raising their productivity, output level can be raised. The process of development is far more
extensive. Apart from a rise in output, it involves changes in the composition of output as well as
shift in the allocation of productive resources so as to ensure social justice. In some countries, the
process of economic growth has been accompanied by economic development. This, however, is
not necessary. Though development without growth is inconceivable, growth without
development is possible.

Generally Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional

process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic AND social system.

Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally
important aspects. These are:

1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services,
education through relevant growth processes.

2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the

establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human
dignity and respect.

3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables, e.g.
varieties of goods and services.

1.1.1. Alternative Interpretations of Development

A. Development as Economic Growth- too often commodity output as opposed to people is
emphasized-measures of growth in GNP. Note here the persistence of a dual economy where the
export sector contains small number of workers but draws technology as opposed to traditional
sector where most people work and is dominated by inefficient technology.

B. Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social change which is required to

produce economic advancement; examines changes in social, psychological and political
processes;

 How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in individuals; profit seeking rather
than subsistence and self-sufficiency.

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  Shift from commodity to human approach with investment in education and skill
training.

C. Development as Distributive Justice- view development as improving basic needs.

Interest in social justice which has raised three issues:

1. Nature of goods and services provided by governments

2. Matter of access of these public goods to different social classes.

3. How burden of development can be shared among these classes.

 Target groups include small farmers, landless, urban underemployed and

unemployed.
1.2. The objectives of development
Several objectives of development is:
 Self-reliance,
 industrialization,
 modernization,
 Economic growth and social justice.
Economic growth
Development Strategy and Planning have tried to increase the stock of capital goals, viz.,
machinery, tools, equipment and infrastructure facilities. This is essential as it helps labour force
to produce a steady flow of goods and services which ultimately leads to an increase in the rate
of savings and capital formation. Thus development through increase in production has become
the corner stone of Indian planning. It has featured in all our development policies and strategies.
The underlying objective behind the setting of plan targets and allocating the resources to various
sectors has been economic growth.

Seek to achieve a balanced rate of growth, that is, a balance between industry, agriculture, light
industry (industry producing consumer goods) and heavy industry (industry producing capital
goods).

Self-reliance

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 A country can be regarded as economically independent only if it follows the path of
development according to its own needs, resources and values. The developing countries such as
India cannot become self-reliant unless and until they are able to detach themselves from the
dependency relationship which they have with other countries in trade, investment and
technology.
Different dimensions of self-reliance:
i. Reduction in the dependence on foreign aid.
ii. Diversification of domestic production.
iii. reduction in imports for certain critical commodities ; and
iv. Promotion of exports to enable us to pay for imports from our own resources.

Through achievement of self-reliance, a country is able to ensure a more equal relationship with
the world economy and reduce its vulnerability to outside pressures and disturbances.

Industrialization
The development of capital good industries has been assigned a key role in the growth profile of
the country. Emphasis has been laid on the production of basic materials and goods like coal,
steel, machines, electricity, chemicals etc. This is essential for setting up of infrastructural
facilities end accumulation of capital. Despite the initial problems of industrialization such as
production of only heavy and basic goods, non-production of consumer goods and lack of
increase in employment opportunities, it is felt that emphasis on this objective ultimately leads to
expansion of capital and consumer goods, availability of job at higher levels of income, capital
formation ad increase in rate of growth.

Modernization
The term “modernization” means a variety of structural and institutional changes in the
framework of economic activity. A shift in the sectoral composition of production,
diversification of activities, advancement of technology and institutional innovation have all

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been a part of the drive for modernization. Application of science and technology in production
raises the output level and accelerates the pace of economic growth.

To bring out modernization, efforts have been made to promote industrial growth and
diversification. Besides this, the strategy for modernization, involves a shift in the industrial
sector towards industries producing basic materials and capital goods and the growth of the
public sector in industry.

Social Justice
One important cause of underdevelopment and backwardness is widespread and multi-
dimensional inequalities. Social, economic, political and cultural spheres are marked by serious
disparities in developing countries. There is no use of political rights (guaranteed in the
Constitution) if social inequalities continue to persist. For removing poverty, unemployment,
regional imbalances and income inequalities and for making democracy effective, it is very
essential to introduce greater equity.

The objective of Social Justice:

a) increase in the living standards of the poorest groups in society
b) reduction in inequalities in asset distribution
c) removal of Poverty and unemployment
d) bringing about balanced regional growth ; and
e) Uplift of backward classes.
The concept of development must incorporate the following elements:
i) Economic growth cannot be equated with development. In fact, there is no guarantee
that growth of investment, capital formation, industries and national income would by
themselves bring about overall development, which would lead to better lives for the
poor. Hence development must be viewed in its totality as one single, unified concept
incorporating social, political, cultural and economic dimensions.
ii) Social justice is basic to development
iii) Development has to be a participative exercise and. not one in which a select minority
of the elite controls and directs the process of development

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iv) Self-reliance is an integral part of development. It means that the developing countries
should be able to participate in the development process on the basis of full equality in
international relations for the mutual benefit of all concerned.
v) Due to scarcity of natural resources, it is essential that the pursuit of growth should lead
to neither excessive nor imbalanced use of those resources in order to maintain their
natural balance.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. Sustainable Development:
2.1. Definition & Main Principles of Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is becoming a watchword of recent times. Try: Google the word
“sustainable development” and you will get nearly 17 million results!!! Nowadays most policies
by various organizations are interested to achieve the goal of sustainable development. So, what
is sustainable development? How is it connected to what you have learned so far?
The root meaning:
Sustainable = able to maintain or stay in existence over a period of time.
Development = improving the economic and social conditions of countries.
Official definition:
"Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs“
(The Brundtland Report, 1987)
Other than the issue of inter-generational consideration, most definitions of sustainable
development has the view that sustainability depends three "interdependent and mutually
reinforcing pillars", which are:
(1) Economic development
(2) Social welfare
(3) Environmental protection
Environmental Protection: Protecting the environment (what we have covered in class!)
Economic Development: Increasing economic growth (production and distribution of goods).
Social Welfare: Ensuring the welfare or wellbeing of society at every level.

However, sustainable development is an ambiguous concept – it can mean different things to

different people. The concept remains weakly defined and contains a large amount of debate as
to its precise definition.

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Different conceptions also reveal a strong tension between different environmental worldviews,
especially between eco-centrism and anthropocentrism.
Some see it as a radical “green” call for a fundamental organization of social, economic, and
political life (particularly those that are more inclined to the worldview of eco-centrism,
individualism, and ecofeminism).

While others see it as a means to continue with the “business as usual’ patterns of economic
growth but with due consideration of social and environmental progress (those with the
worldview of anthropocentrism)

But most differences in interpretation still revolves around these two elements:
The intergenerational dimension
How do we balance the needs of present and future generations?
The three pillars of sustainability: How do we balance the quality of economic development,
social development and environmental protection?

 So, at least all versions of sustainable development seek to balance economic, social and
environmental goals (the three pillars) in ways that meets the needs of present without
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs (intergenerational
dimension).
Due to its broad definition, Sustainable Development has been used as a guiding principle for
various policy areas. The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development lists the
following areas within the scope of sustainable development:
Agriculture, Atmosphere, Biodiversity, Biotechnology, Capacity-building, Climate Change,
Consumption and Production Patterns, Demographics, Desertification and Drought, Disaster
Reduction and Management, Education and Awareness, Energy, Finance, Forests, Fresh Water,
Health, Human Settlements, Indicators, Industry, Information for Decision Making and
Participation, Integrated Decision Making, International Law, International Cooperation for
Enabling Environment, Institutional Arrangements, Land management, Major Groups,
Mountains, National Sustainable Development Strategies, Oceans and Seas, Poverty, Sanitation,

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Science, Sustainable tourism, Technology, Toxic Chemicals, Trade and Environment, Transport,
Waste (Hazardous), Waste (Radioactive), Waste (Solid), Water

There are many different definitions of sustainable development coming from various disciplines
and with different assumptions about the basic relationship between society and nature. Ideas of
sustainable development have a long history in the literatures of both development and
environmentalism. There have been a number of important international conferences within
which actions towards sustainable development have been debated (and contested) at the highest
levels of government. Sustainable development is widely accepted as a desirable policy objective
amongst many institutions concerned with the future development of the resources of the globe.
Ideas concerning the best way of achieving development have changed over time, but are rarely
replaced entirely. Mainstream environmentalism encapsulates the dominant ideas surrounding
society–environment relationships, but are not subscribed to by all interests, equally. Sustainable
development is currently being pursued in the context of an increasingly globalized world, but
one which is also characterized by poverty. The global challenge of sustainable development lies
in complex interdependencies of environment, social and economic development.

Sustainable development ‘In principle, such an optimal (sustainable growth) policy would seek
to maintain an “acceptable” rate of growth in per-capita real incomes without depleting the
national capital asset stock or the natural environmental asset stock.’ (Turner, 1988: 12)

It is the net productivity of biomass (positive mass balance per unit area per unit time)
maintained over decades to centuries.’ (Conway, 1987: 96)

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.’ (World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987: 43)
Literally, sustainable development refers to maintaining development over time. By the early
1990s, it was suggested that there were more than 70 definitions of sustainable development in
circulation (Holmberg and Sandbrook, 1992).

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Evidently, different disciplines have influenced and contributed to the sustainability debate,
‘each making different assumptions about the relation between environment and the human
subject’ (Lee et al., 2000: 9). Differences are even more important when thinking about policy
development: how the human and environmental ‘condition’ is thought about, viewed or
understood underpins subsequent planning and interventions in the form of development and
conservation projects, yet different disciplines and philosophies may assign quite divergent
‘orders of priority’ to these policies and programmes.

The challenges of understanding what this idea of sustainable development may mean, and how
people can work towards it, are evident in a brief analysis of the definition of sustainable
development provided by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
Their apparently simple definition of sustainable development is immediately seen to contain a
distinction and a potential conflict between the interests of the present and those of future
generations. Further, very challenging notions can be identified such as those of needs and limits.
Questions emerge such as: what is it that one generation is passing to another? Is it solely natural
capital or does it include assets associated with human ingenuity, language or other aspects of
culture? What and how are the limits set – by technology, society or ecology, for example? What
of the fact that, currently, needs in one place or amongst particular groups are often fulfilled at
the expense of others? Fundamentally, ‘needs’ mean different things to different people and are
linked to our ability to satisfy them, i.e. are closely aligned to ‘development’ itself. So, society is
able to define and create new ‘needs’ within certain groups (that could be interpreted as ‘wants’),
without satisfying even the basic needs of others. These questions highlight the many sources of
conflict in the debates over the meaning of sustainable development: conflict between the
interests of present generations and those of the future; between human well-being and the
protection of nature; between poor and rich; and between local and global.

Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals
while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem
services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet
human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system.
Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental

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protection, and social well- being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable
development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic
development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.
Sustainable development requires six central capacities.

Six requirements of central capacities of sustainable development

Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO

formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of
as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the
many processes and pathways to achieve it." The concept of sustainable development has been
criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an oxymoron) and regard
development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has
been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined.

In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the
report Our Common Future, commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included a
definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used:

 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two
key concepts within it:
 The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and
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  The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs.
Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental
protection, and social well-being.

Sustainability

Several visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions: the left image shows
sustainability as three intersecting circles in the top right it is a nested approach, In the bottom
right it is three pillars 2 The schematic with the nested ellipses emphasizes a hierarchy of the
dimensions, putting environment as the foundation for the other two.

Sustainability is a social goal pertaining to the ability of people to co-exist on Earth over a long
time. Specific definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and
time. Experts often describe sustainability as having three dimensions (or pillars): environmental,
economic, and social dimension. In everyday use, sustainability often focuses on countering
major environmental problems, including climate change, loss of biodiversity, loss of ecosystem
services, land degradation, and air and water pollution. The idea of sustainability can guide
decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable living). A related concept
is sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO
distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more

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sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to
achieve it."

Sustainable development is a dynamic process in which communities anticipate and

accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance
local social, economic, and ecological systems, and link local actions to global concerns.

This definition provides a basis for deriving a more refined and comprehensive set of sustainable
development principles for guiding an evaluation of local comprehensive plans. Because plans
reflect substantive (or technical) policy outcomes of planning.

For evaluating local comprehensive plans, there is six basic principles.

Those principles are:

1) Work in harmony with nature. Land use and development activities should support the essential
cycles and life support functions of ecosystems. Whenever possible, these activities should mimic
ecosystem processes, rather than modify them to fit urban forms. These activities must respect and
preserve biodiversity, as well as protect and restore essential ecosystem services that maintain water
quality, reduce flooding, and enhance sustainable resource development.

2) Livable built environments. The location, shape, density, mix, proportion, and quality of
development should enhance fit by creating physical spaces adapted to desired activities of inhabitants;
encourage community cohesion by fostering accessibility among land uses; and support sense of place to
ensure protection of special physical characteristics of urban forms that support community identity and
attachment.

3) Place-based economy. A local economy should strive to operate within natural system limits. It should
not cause deterioration of the natural resource base, which serves as a capital asset for future economic
development. Essential products and processes of nature should be used no more quickly than nature can
renew them. Waste discharges should occur no more quickly than nature can assimilate them.

The local economy should also produce built environments that meet locally defined needs and
aspirations. It should create diverse housing, and infrastructure that enhances community livability and
the efficiency of local economic activities.

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4) Equity. Land use patterns should recognize and improve the conditions of low-income
populations, and not deprive them with basic levels of environmental health and human dignity.
Equitable access to social and economic resources is essential for eradicating poverty and in
accounting for the needs of the least advantaged.

5) Polluters pay. Polluters (or culpable interests) that cause adverse community-wide impacts
should be required to pay, taking into account that the polluter must bear the cost of pollution
and other harms, with due regard to the public interest.

6) Responsible regionalism. Communities should not act in their own interests and should
account for the consequences of their actions on others. Just as individual developers may be
subject to the polluter (or culpable) pays, a local jurisdiction has an obligation to minimize the
harm it imposes on other jurisdictions in pursuit of its own objectives.

Development of the concept

Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding sustainable forest management, which
were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing
awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662
essay Sylva that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every
landowner, in order to stop the destructive over-exploitation of natural resources."
Following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in 1962, the developing
environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and
environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding, in his influential 1966 essay The Economics
of the Coming Spaceship Earth, identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the
ecological system with its limited pools of resources. Another milestone was the 1968 article by
Garrett Hardin that popularized the term "tragedy of the commons".

The direct linking of sustainability and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the
early 1970s. "Strategy of Progress", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the
long- acknowledged sustainability concept of preserving forests for future wood production can
be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to
sustain the world for future generations. That same year, the interrelationship of environment and
development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the
classic report on Limits to Growth. It was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a

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group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are
searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden
and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its
people."

In 1975, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for
the Future" for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development.

In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world conservation
strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority
and introduced the term "sustainable development" Two years later, the United Nations World
Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting
nature is to be guided and judged.

Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the
initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially inclusive and
environmentally sustainable economic growth. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and
Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and
peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan Agenda 21 for sustainable
development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help
countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore,
Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental
prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.

2.2 Pillars (objectives) of Sustainable development

Sustainable development, like sustainability, is regarded to have three dimensions: the
environment, economy and society. The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions
should be achieved. Instead of calling them dimensions, other terms commonly used are pillars,
domains, aspects, spheres.

A. Social pillar

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The social pillar of a company's sustainable development refers to values that promote equality
and respect for individual rights. The social consequences of the company's social activity are
then assessed in accordance to these issues, such as gender equality.
The principles upon which this pillar is founded are as follows:
Combat social exclusion and discrimination: helping with reintegration, supporting gender
equality, reducing the gender pay gap, promoting training, encouraging dialogue, and applying
global social rights. In other words, the goal is to seek to aid the global population.

Promote solidarity: helping to reduce social inequalities by collaborating with local and
international associations and projects, and prioritizing fair trade products which guarantee an
appropriate income for farmers and help to promote sustainable agriculture.

Contribute to the well-being of stakeholders: developing social dialogue, encouraging the

exchange of information and transparency, adapting working hours according to employee
profile, and making premises accessible to people with reduced mobility.

B. Economic pillar
This pillar is based on companies’ ability to contribute to economic development and growth. In
other words, they must encourage and promote the protection of the environment by limiting the
risks posed by their production. The recycling of products and the use of renewable energy are
therefore fundamental aspects of the development of the economic pillar.

C. Environmental pillar
The environmental pillar is founded on a commitment to protect the environment by reducing
risks and measuring the environmental impacts of companies' activities. The challenges for
companies in this area are as follows:

Saving and preserving natural energy or agricultural resources

Assessing their carbon footprint and reducing total greenhouse gas emissions and further achieve
sustainable development goals.

Prevent water scarcity and reduce overall waste for current and future generations.

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Companies must set targets to improve their performance on environmental issues. These goals
are an integral part of Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility (CSER).

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