Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and Applications: Lalla Btissam Drissi, El Hassan Saidi, Mosto Bousmina, Omar Fassi-Fehri

Chapter 1
arXiv:2207.02892v1 [cond-mat.mes-hall] 6 Jul 2022
Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and

Applications
Lalla Btissam Drissi1,2,∗ , El Hassan Saidi1,2 , Mosto Bousmina2,3 , Omar Fassi-Fehri2

1 LPHE, Modeling & Simulations, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco.
2 Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology, Rabat, Morocco.
3 Euromed Research Institute, Euro-Mediterranean University of Fes, Fes, Morocco.
∗
Corresponding Author E-mails: lalla-btissam.drissi@um5.ac.ma, b.drissi@academiesciences.ma
Abstract
Using the field theory method and coherent spin state approach, we investigate properties
of magnetic solitons in spacetime while focussing on 1D kinks, 2D and 3D skyrmions. We
also study the case of a rigid skyrmion dissolved in a magnetic background induced by the
electronic spins; and derive the effective rigid skyrmion equation of motion. We investigate
as well the interaction between an electron and a 3D skyrmion.
Keywords: Geometric phases, magnetic monopoles and topology, soliton and holonomy,
chiral magnets, skyrmion dynamics, numerical and experimental tests.
1
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Contents
1 Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and Applications 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Quantum SU(2) spin dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Quantum spin 1/2 operator and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Coherent spin states and semi-classical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Magnetic solitons in lower dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 One space dimensional solitons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Skyrmions in 2d space dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Three dimensional magnetic skyrmions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 From 2d skyrmion to 3d homologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Conserved topological current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Effective dynamics of skyrmions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.1 Equation of a rigid skyrmion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.2 Implementing dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Electron-skyrmion interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.1 Hund coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.2 Skyrmion with spin transfer torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7 Comments and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.1 Introduction
During the last two decades, the magnetic skyrmions and antiskyrmions have been subject to an
increasing interest in connection with the topological phase of matter [1, 2, 3, 4], the spin-tronics
[5, 6] and quantum computing [7, 8]; as well as in the search for advanced applications such as
racetrack memory, microwave oscillators and logic nanodevices making skyrmionic states very
promising candidates for future low power information technology devices [9, 10, 11, 12]. Ini-
tially proposed by T. Skyrme to describe hadrons in the theory of quantum chromodynamics
[13], skyrmions have however been observed in other fields of physics, including quantum Hall
systems [14, 15], Bose-Einstein condensates [16] and liquid crystals [17]. In quantum Hall (QH)
ferromagnets for example [18, 19], due to the exchange interaction; the electron spins sponta-
neously form a fully polarized ferromagnet close to the integer filling factor ν ≃ 1; slightly away,
other electrons organize into an intricate spin configuration because of a competitive interplay
between the Coulomb and Zeeman interactions [18]. Being quasiparticles, the skyrmions of
3
the QH system condense into a crystalline form leading to the crystallization of the skyrmions
[20, 21, 22, 23]; thus opening an important window on promising applications.
In order to overcome the lack of a prototype of a skyrmion-based spintronic devices for a
possible fabrication of nanodevices of data storage and logic technologies, intense research has
been carried out during the last few years [24, 25]. In this regard, several alternative nano-
objects have been identified to host stable skyrmions at room temperature. The first experimental
observation of crystalline skyrmionic states was in a three-dimensional metallic ferromagnet
MnSi with a B20 structure using small angle neutron scattering [26]. Then, real-space imag-
ing of the skyrmion has been reported using Lorentz transmission electron microscopy in non-
centrosymmetric magnetic compounds and in thin films with broken inversion symmetry, in-
cluding monosilicides, monogermanides, and their alloys, like Fe1−x Co x Si [27], FeGe [28], and
MnGe [29].
One of the key parameters in the formation of these topologically protected non-collinear spin
textures is the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) [30, 31]. Originating from the strong
spin-orbit coupling (SOC) at the interfaces, the DM exchange between atomic spins controls the
size and stability of the induced skyrmions. Depending on the symmetry of the crystal struc-
tures and the skyrmion windings number, the internal spins within a single skyrmion envelop a
sphere in different arrangements [32]. The in-plane component of the magnetization, in the Néel
skyrmion, is always pointed in the radial direction [33], while it is oriented perpendicularly with
respect to the position vector in the Bloch skyrmion [26]. Different from these two well-known
types of skyrmions are skyrmions with mixed Bloch-Néel topological spin textures observed in
Co/Pd multilayers [34]. Magnetic antiskyrmions, having a more complex boundary compared to
the chiral magnetic boundaries of skyrmions, exist above room temperature in tetragonal Heusler
materials [35]. Higher-order skyrmions should be stabilized in anisotropic frustrated magnet at
zero temperature [36] as well as in itinerant magnets with zero magnetic field [37].
In the quest to miniaturize magnetic storage devices, reduction of material’s dimensions as
well as preservation of the stability of magnetic nano-scale domains are necessary. One pos-
sible route to achieve this goal is the formation of topological protected skyrmions in certain
2D magnetic materials. To induce magnetic order and tune DMIs in 2D crystal structures,
their centrosymmetric should first be broken using some efficient ways such a (i) generate one-
atom thick hybrids where atoms are mixed in an alternating manner [38, 39, 40], (ii) apply bias
voltage or strain [41, 42, 43], (iii) insert adsorbents, impurities and defects [44, 45, 46]. In
graphene-like materials, fluorine chemisorption is an exothermic adsorption that gives rise to
stable 2D structures [47] and to long-range magnetism [48, 49]. In semi-fluorinated graphene, a
strong Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction has been predicted with the presence of ferromagnetic
skyrmions [50]. The formation of a nanoskyrmion state in a Sn monolayer on a SiC(0001) sur-
face has been reported on the basis of a generalized Hubbard model [51]. Strong DMI between
the first nearest magnetic germanium neighbors in 2D semi-fluorinated germanene results in a
potential antiferromagnetic skyrmion [52].
In this bookchapter, we use the coherent spin states approach and the field theory method
(continuous limit of lattice magnetic models with DMI) to revisit some basic aspects and proper-
ties of magnetic solitons in spacetime while focusing on 1d kinks, 2d and 3d spatial skyrmions/antiskyrmions.
We also study the case of a rigid skyrmion dissolved in a magnetic background induced by the
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Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and Applications Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and Applications
electronic spins of magnetic atoms like Mn; and derive the effective rigid skyrmion equation of
motion. In this regard, we describe the similarity between, on one hand, electrons in the electro-
magnetic background; and, on the other hand, rigid skyrmions bathing in a texture of magnetic
moments. We also investigate the interaction between electrons and skyrmions as well as the
effect of the spin transfer effect.
This bookchapter is organized as follows: In Section 2, we introduce some basic tools on
quantum SU(2) spins and review useful aspects of their dynamics. In Section 3, we investigate
the topological properties of kinks and 2d space solitons while describing in detail the under-
side of the topological structure of these low-dimensional solitons. In Section 4, we extend the
construction to approach topological properties to 3d skyrmions. In Section 5, we study the dy-
namics of rigid skyrmions without and with dissipation; and in Section 6, we use emergent gauge
potential fields to describe the effective dynamics of electrons interacting with the skyrmion in
the presence of a spin transfer torque. We end this study by making comments and describing
perspectives in the study of skyrmions.
1.2 Quantum SU(2) spin dynamics

In this section, we review some useful ingredients on the quantum SU(2) spin operator, its un-
derlying algebra and its time evolution while focussing on the interesting spin 1/2 states, con-
cerning electrons in materials; and on coherent spin states which are at the basis of the study of
skyrmions/antiskyrmions. First, we introduce rapidly the SU(2) spin operator S and the imple-
mentation of time dependence. Then, we investigate the non dissipative dynamics of the spin by
using semi-classical theory approach (coherent states). These tools can be also viewed as a first
step towards the topological study of spin induced 1D, 2D and 3D solitons undertaken in next
sections.
1.2.1 Quantum spin 1/2 operator and beyond

We begin by recalling that in non relativistic 3D quantum mechanics, the spin states |S z , S i
of spinfull particles are characterised by two half integers (S z , S ), a positive S ≥ 0 and an S z
taking 2S + 1 values bounded as −S ≤ S z ≤ S with integral hoppings. E For particles with
1 1
spin 1/2 like electrons, one distinguishes two basis vector states ± 2 , 2 that are eigenvalues
2 P
of the scaled Pauli matrix ~2 σz and the quadratic (Casimir) operator ~4 3a=1 σ2a , here the three
~ 1
σ with σa = σ
2 a
~ .~ea are the three components of the spin 1/2 operator vector D Eσ
~ . From these
~ ~
ingredients, we learn that the average < S z , S | 2 σz |S z , S >= ~S z (for short 2 σz ) is carried by
the z-direction since S z = S~ .~ez with ~ez = (0, 0, 1)T . For generic values of the SU(2) spin S ,
the spin operator reads as ~Ja where the three Ja ’s are (2S + 1) × (2S + 1) generators of the
SU(2) group satisfying the usual commutation relations [Ja , Jb ] = iεabc J c with εabc standing for
the completely antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor with non zero value ε123 = 1; its inverse is
εcba with ε123 = −1. The time evolution of the spin 12 operator ~ σ2a with dynamics governed
by a stationary Hamiltonian operator ( dH/dt = 0) is given by the Heisenberg representation
1
For convenience, we often refer to σ ~ .~ei = σi respectively by bold symbols as σ, ei , σ.ei = σi .
~ , ~ei , σ
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of quantum mechanics. In this non dissipative description, the time dependence of the spin 12
operator Ŝ a (t) (the hat is to distinguish the operator Ŝ a from classical S a ) is given by
i
σ i
a
Ŝ a = e ~ Ht ~ e− ~ Ht (1.1)
2
where the Pauli matrices σa obey the usual commutation relations [σa , σb ] = 2iεabc σc . For a
i i
generic value of the SU(2) spin S , the above relation extends as Ŝ a = e ~ Ht (~Ja ) e− ~ Ht . So, many
relations for the spin 1/2 may be straightforwardly generalised for generic values S of the SU(2)
spin. For example, for a spin value S 0 , the (2S 0 + 1) states are given by {|m, S 0 i} and are labeled
by −S 0 ≤ m ≤ S 0 ; one of these states namely |S 0 , S 0i is very special; it is commonly known as
the highest weight state (HWS) as it corresponds to the biggest value m = S 0 ; from this state
one can generate all other spin states |m, S 0i; this feature will be used when describing coherent
2
spin states. Because of the property σ2a = I, the square Ŝ a2 = ~4 I is time independent; and then
the time dynamics of Ŝ a (t) is rotational in the sense that ddtŜ a is given by a commutator as follows
dŜ a
= ~i (H Ŝ a − Ŝ a H). For the example where H is a linearly dependent function of Ŝ a like for
dt P
the Zeeman coupling, the Hamiltonian reads as HZ = a ωa Ŝ a (for short ωa Ŝ a ) with the ωa ’s are
constants referring to the external source2 ; then the time evolution of Ŝ a reads, after using the
commutation relation [Ŝ a , Ŝ b ] = i~εabc Ŝ c , as follows
d Ŝ a d Ŝ
= εabc ωb Ŝ c ⇔ = ω ∧ Ŝ (1.2)
dt dt
where appears the Levi-Civita εabc which, as we will see throughout this study, turns out to
play an important role in the study of topological field theory [53, 54] including solitons and
skyrmions we are interested in here [55, 56, 57, 58]. In this regards, notice that, along with this
εabc , we will encounter another completely antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor namely ǫ µ1 ...µD ; it is
also due to DM interaction which in lattice description is given by (S~ rµ2 ∧ S~ rµ1 ).d~µ3 ...µD−2 ǫ µ1 ...µD ;
and in continuous limit reads as εabc S b S µc 1 µ2 dµa3 ...µD−2 ǫ µ1 ...µD where, for convenience, we have set
S µc 1 µ2 = eµ1 µ2 .∇S c with eµ1 µ2 = eµ2 − eµ1 . To distinguish these two Levi-Civita tensors, we refer
to εabc as the target space Levi-Civita with SO(3)target symmetry; and to ǫ µ1 ...µD as the spacetime
Levi-Civita with SO(1, D − 1) Lorentz symmetry containing as subsymmetry the usual space
rotation group SO(D − 1)space . Notice also that for the case where the Hamiltonian H(Ŝ ) is a
general function of the spin, the vector ωa is spin dependent and is given by the gradient ∂∂H Ŝ
.
a
1.2.2 Coherent spin states and semi-classical analysis

To deal with the semi-classical dynamics of Ŝ (t) evolved by a Hamiltonian H(Ŝ), we use the
algebra [Ŝ a , Ŝ b ] = i~εabc Ŝ c to think of the quantum spin in terms of a coherent spin state [59]
described by a (semi) classical vector S~ = ~S ~n (no hat) of the Euclidean R3 ; see the Figure 1.1-
(a). This ”classical” 3-vector has an amplitude ~S and a direction ~n related to a given unit vector
~n0 as ~n = R (α, β, γ) ~n0 ; and parameterised by α, β, γ. In the above relation, the ~n0 is thought of
as the north direction of a 2-sphere S2(n) given by the canonical vector (0, 0, 1)T ; it is invariant
2 qe
For an electron with Zeeman field Ba , we have ωa = −g 2m e
Ba with g = 2 and qe = −e.
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Figure 1.1: (a) Components of the spin orientation n; its time dynamics in presence of a magnetic field
is given by Larmor precession. (b) A configuration of several spins in spacetime.
under the proper rotation; i.e Rz (γ) ~n0 = ~n0 ; and consequently the generic ~n is independent of γ;
i.e: ~n = R (α, β) ~n0 . Recall that the 3×3 matrix R (α, β, γ) is an SO(3) rotation [SO(3) ∼ S U (2)]
generating all other points of S2(n) parameterised by (α, β). In this regards, it is interesting to recall
some useful properties that we list here after as three points: (1) the rotation matrix R (α, β, γ)

can be factorised like Rz (α) Ry (β) Rz (γ) where each Ra ψa is a rotation e−iψa Ja around the a-
axis with an angle ψa and generator Ja . (2) As the unit ~n0 is an eigen vector of e−iγJz ; it follows
that ~n reduces to e−iαJz e−iβJy ~n0 ; this generic vector obeys as well the constraint ~n ≡ |n| = 1 and
is solved as follows
n = (sin β cos α, sin β sin α, cos β) (1.3)
with 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π and 0 ≤ β ≤ π; they parameterise the unit 2-sphere S2(n) which is isomorphic to
S U (2) /U (1); the missing angle γ parameterises a circle S1(n) , isomorphic to U (1) , that is fibred
over S2(n) . (3) the coherent spin state representation gives a bridge between quantum spin operator
and its classical description; it relies on thinking of the average < Ŝ > in terms of the classical
vector S~ 0 = ~S ~n0 considered above ( S~ 0 ↔ HWS |S 0 , S 0i). In this regards, recall that the Ŝ a acts
on classical 3-vectors Vb through its 3×3 matrix representation like [Ŝ a , Vb ] = −~ (Jc )ab V c with
(Jc )ab given by −iεabc ; these Jc ’s are precisely the generators of the S U (2) matrix representation
R (α, β, γ); by replacing Vb by the operator Ŝ b , one discovers the SU(2) spin algebra [Ŝ a , Ŝ b] =
i~εabc Ŝ c . Notice also that the classical spin vector S~ = ~S ~n can be also put in correspondence
with the usual magnetic moment ~µ = −γS~ (with γ = 2m ge
the gyromagnetic ratio); thus leading
to ~µ = |µ| ~n. So, the magnetization vector describes (up to a sign) a coherent spin state with
amplitude ~S γ; and a (opposite) time dependent direction ~n (t) parameterizing the 2-sphere S2(n) .
n2x (t) + n2y (t) + n2z (t) = 1 ⇔ ~n (t) = 1 (1.4)
For explicit calculations, this unit 2-sphere equation will be often expressed like na na = 1; this
relation leads in turns to the property na dna = 0 (indicating that ~n and d~n are normal vectors); by
implementing time, the variation n.dn gets mapped into n.ṅ = 0 teaching us that the velocity ṅ
is carried by u and v; two normal directions to n with components;
ua = (cos β cos α, cos β sin α, − sin β) , va = (− sin α, cos α, 0) (1.5)
and from which we learn that dna = ua dβ + va sin βdα, [(u, v, n) form an orthogonal vector triad).
So, the dynamics of µa (and that of −S~ ) is brought to the dynamics of the unit na governed

by a classical Hamiltonian H na (α, β) . The resulting time evolution
is given by the so called
dna γ ∂H
Landau-Lifshitz (LL) equation [60]; it reads as dt = − |µ| εabc ∂ H nc with ∂b H = ∂n
b
b
. By using
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the relations dβ = ua dna and sin βdα = va dna with ua = ∂n ∂β
a
; and va sin β = ∂n ∂α
a
; as well as
a c a c
the expressions εabc u n = vb and ε
abc v n = −u b , the above
LL
equation splits into two time
dβ b dα b
evolution equations dt = −γvb ∂ H and sin β dt = γub ∂ H . These time evolutions can be
also put into the form
dβ ∂H dα ∂H
sin β +γ =0 , sin β −γ =0 (1.6)
dt ∂α dt ∂β
and can be identified
R with the Euler- Lagrange equations following from the variation δS = 0 of

an action S = Ldt. Here, the Lagrangian is related to the Hamiltonian like L = LB −H na (α, β)
where LB is the Berry term [61] known to have the form <n|ṅ>; this relation can be compared
with the well known Legendre transform pq̇ − H (q, p). For later interpretation, we scale this
hamiltonian as ~S γH such that the spin lagrangian takes the form Lspin = LB − ~S γH. To
determine LB , we identify the equations (1.6) with the extremal variation δS/δβ = 0 and δS/δα =
0. Straightforward calculations leads to
dα
LB = −~S (1 − cos β) (1.7)
dt
showing that α and β form a conjugate pair. By substituting sin β dα dt
= va dndta back into above LB ,
we find that the Berry term has the form of Aharonov-Bohm coupling LAB = qe Aa dndta with mag-
(1−cos β)
netic potential vector Aa given by Aa = ~S
qe sin β
va . However, this potential vector is suggestive
β)
as it has the same form as the potential vector A (monopole)
= q~Se r (1−cos
sin β
v of a magnetic monopole.
~ = qm ~r3 with magnetic charge qm = − ~S located at the
The curl of this potential is given by B r qe
centre of the 2-sphere; the flux Φ of this field through the unit sphere is then equal to −4π ~S
qe
; and
h
reads as −2S Φ0 with a unit flux quanta Φ0 = qe as indicated by the value S = 1/2. So, because
2S = −n is an integer, it results that the flux is quantized as Φ = nΦ0 .
1.3 Magnetic solitons in lower dimensions

In previous section, we have considered the time dynamics of coherent spin states with amplitude
~S and direction described by ~n (t) as depicted by the Figure 1.1-(a); this is a 3-vector having
with no space coordinate dependence, grad ~n = 0; and as such it can be interpreted as a (1 + 0) D
vector field; that is a vector belonging to R1,d with d = 0 (no space direction). In this section, we
first turn on 1d space coordinate x and promotes the old unit- direction ~n (t) to a (1 + 1)D field
~n (t, x). After that, we turn on two space directions (x, y); thus leading to (1 + 2)D field ~n (t, x, y) ;
a picture is depicted by the Figure 1.1-(b). To deal with the dynamics of these local fields
and their topological properties, we use the field theory method while focussing on particular
solitons; namely the 1d kinks and the 2d skyrmions. In this extension, one encounters two types
of spaces: (1) the target space R3n parameterised by na = (n1 , n2 , n3) with Euclidian metric δab
and topological Levi-Civita εabc . (2) the spacetime R1,1 µ
ξ parameterised by ξ = (t, x) , concerning
the 1d kink evolution; and the spacetime R1,2 µ
ξ parameterised by ξ = (t, x, y), regarding the 2d
skyrmions dynamics. As we have two kinds of evolutions; time and space; we denote the time
variable by ξ 0 = t; and the space coordinates by ξ i = (x, y). Moreover, the homologue of the
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tensors δab and εabc are respectively given by the usual Lorentzian spacetime metric gµν , with
signature like gµν ξµ ξν = x2 + y2 − t2 , and the spacetime Levi-Civita ǫ µνρ with ǫ 012 = 1.
1.3.1 One space dimensional solitons

In (1 + 1)D spacetime, the local coordinates parameterising R1,1 µ
(ξ) are given by ξ = (t, x); so the
metric is restricted to gµν ξ µ ξ ν = x2 − t2 . The field variable na (ξ) has in general three components
(n1 , n2 , n3 ) as described previously; but in what follows, we will simplify a little bit the picture
by setting n3 = 0; thus leading to a magnetic 1d soliton with two component field variable n =
(n1 , n2 ) satisfying the constraint equation n.n = 1 at each point of spacetime. As this constraint
relation plays an important role in the construction, it is interesting to express it as na na = 1.
Before describing the topological properties of one space dimensional solitons (kinks), we think
it interesting to begin by giving first some useful features; in particular the three following ones.
(1) The constraint (n1 )2 + (n2 )2 = 1 is invariant S O (2)n rotations acting as n′a = Rba nb with
orthogonal rotation matrix
!
a cos ψ sin ψ
Rb = , RT R = I (1.8)
− sin ψ cos ψ
The constraint na na = 1 can be also presented like N̄N = 1 with N standing for the complex
field n1 + in2 that reads also like eiα . In this complex notation, the symmetry of the constraint
is given by the phase change acting as N → UN with U = eiψ and corresponding to the shift
α → α + ψ. Moreover the correspondence (n1 , n2 ) ↔ n1 + in2 describes precisely the well known
isomorphisms S O (2) ∼ U (1) ∼ S1(n) where S1(n) is a circle; it is precisely the equatorial circle
of the 2-sphere S2(n) considered in previous section. (2) As for Eq(1.5), the constraint na na = 1
leads to na dna = 0; and so describes a rotational movement encoded in the relation dna = εab nb
where εab is the standard 2D antisymmetric tensor with ε21 = ε12 = 1; this εab is related to the
previous 3D Levi-Civita like εzab . Notice also that the constraint na na = 1 implies moreover
that dn2 = − nn2n dn1 ; and consequently the area dn1 ∧ dn2 , to be encountered later on, vanishes
identically. In this regards, recall that we have the following transformation
dn1 ∧ dn2 = Jdt ∧ dx , J = ǫ µν ∂µ n1 ∂ν n2 (1.9)
where ǫ µν is the antisymmetric tensor in 1+1 spacetime, and J is the Jacobian of the transfor-
mation (t, x) → (n1 , n2 ). (3) The condition na na = 1 can be dealt in two manners; either by
inserting it by help of a Lagrange multiplier; or by solving it in term of a free angular vari-
a
able like na = (cos α, sin α) from which we deduce the normal direction ua = dn dα
reading as
ua = (− sin α, cos α). In term of the complex field; we have N = eiα and N̄dN = idα. Though
interesting, the second way of doing hides an important property in which we are interested in
here namely the non linear dynamics and the topological symmetry.
Constrained dynamics
R
The classical spacetime dynamics of na (ξ) is described by a field action S = dtL with La-
R
grangian L = dxL and density L; this field density is given by − 21 ∂µ na (∂µ na ) − V (n) −
Page 9
∂
Λ (na na − 1) with ∂µ = ∂ξµ
; it reads in terms of the Hamiltonian density as follows
L = πa ṅa − H (1.10)
∂L
where πa = ∂ṅ a
. In the above Lagrangian density, the auxiliary field Λ (ξ) (no Kinetic term) is
a Lagrange multiplier carrying the constraint relation na na = 1. The V (n) is a potential energy
density which play an important role for describing 1d kinks with finite size. Notice also that the
δS δS
variation δΛ = 0 gives precisely the constraint na na = 1 while the δn a = 0 gives the spacetime
µ a ∂V
dynamics of n described by the spacetime equation ∂µ ∂ n − ∂na − Λna = 0. By substituting
a

na = (cos α, sin α), we obtain L = − 21 ∂µ α (∂µ α) − V (α). If setting V (α) = 0, we end up

with the free field equation ∂µ ∂µ α = 0 that expands like ∂2x − ∂2t α = 0; it is invariant under
spacetime translations with conserved current symmetry ∂µ T µν = 0 with T µν standing for the
energy momentum tensor given by the 2×2 symmetric matrix ∂µ α∂ν α+gµν L. The energy density
T 00 is given by 12 (∂t α)2 + 21 (∂x α)2 and the momentum density T 10 reads as ∂x ϕ∂ x ϕ. Focussing on
T 00 , the conserved energy E reads then as follows
Z
1 +∞ h i
E= dx (∂t α)2 + (∂ x α)2 ≥ 0 (1.11)
2 −∞
with minimum corresponding to constant field (α = cte). Notice that general solutions of
∂µ ∂µ α = 0 are given by arbitrary functions f (x ± t); they include oscillating and non oscil-
lating functions. A typical non vibrating solution that is interesting for the present study is the
solitonic solution given (up to a constant c) by the following expression
x + t
ϕ (t, x) = π tanh (1.12)
λ
where λ is a positive parameter representing the width where the soliton α (t, x) acquires a sig-
nificant variation. Notice that for a given t, the field varies from α (t, −∞) = −π to α (t, +∞) = π
regardless the value of λ. These limits are related to each other by a period 2π.
Topological current and charge

To start, notice that as far as conserved symmetries of (1.10) are concerned, there exists an exotic
invariance generated by a conserved Jµ (t, x) going beyond the spacetime translations generated
by the energy momentum tensor T µν . The conserved spacetime current Jµ = (J0 , J1 ) of this exotic
symmetry can be introduced in two different, but equivalent, manners; either by using the free
degree of freedom α; or by working with the constrained field na . In the first way, we think of the
charge density J0 like 2π1 ∂1 α and of the current density as J1 = − 2π1 ∂0 α. This conserved current
is a topological (1 + 1) D spacetime vector Jµ that is manifestly conserved; this feature follows
from the relation between Jµ and the antisymmetric ǫ µν as follows [56],
1
Jµ = ǫ µν ∂ν α (1.13)
2π
Because of the ǫ µν ; the continuity relation ∂µ Jµ = 2π1 ǫ µν ∂µ ∂ν α vanishes identically due to the
antisymmetry property of ǫ µν . The particularity of the above conserved Jµ is its topological
Page 10
nature; it is due to the constraint na na = 1 without recourse to the solution na = (cos α, sin α).
a
Indeed, Eq(1.13) can be derived by computing the Jacobian J = det( ∂n ∂ξµ
) of the mapping from
the 2d spacetime coordinates (t, x) to the target space fields (n1 , n2 ). Recall that the spacetime
area dt ∧ dx can be written in terms of ǫ µν like 21 ǫ µν dξµ ∧ dξν and, similarly, the target space area
dn1 ∧ dn2 can be expressed in terms of as εab follows 21 εab dna ∧ dnb . The Jacobian J is precisely
given by (1.9); and can be presented into a covariant form like J = 12 εµν ∂µ na ∂ν nb εab . This
expression of the Jacobian J captures important informations; in particular the three following
ones. (1) It can be expressed as a total divergence like ∂µ (πJ µ ) with spacetime vector
1 µν a b
Jµ = ε n ∂ν n εab (1.14)
2π
and where π1 is a normalisation; it is introduced for the interpretation of the topological charged
as
just the usual winding number of the circle [encoded in the homotopy group relation π1 S1 = Z].
(2) Because of the constraint dn2 = − nnn2 dn1 following from na na = 1, the Jacobian J vanishes
identically; thus leading to the conservation law ∂µ J µ = 0; i.e J = 0 andR then ∂µ J µ = 0. (3) The
+∞
conserved charge Q associated with the topological current is given by −∞ dxJ 0 (t, x); it is time
independent despite theR apparent t- variable in the integral (dQ/dt = 0). By using (1.13), this
1 +∞
charge reads also as 2π −∞
dx∂ x α (t, x) and after integration leads to
1
Q= [α (t, ∞) − α (t, −∞)] (1.15)
2π
Moreover, seen that α (t, ∞) is an angular variable parameterising S1n ; it may be subject to a
boundary condition like for instance the periodic α (t, ∞) = α (t, −∞) + 2πN with N an integer;
this leads to an integral topological charge Q = N interpreted as the winding number of the
circle. In this regards, notice that: (i) the winding interpretation can be justified by observing
that under compactification of the space variable x, the infinite space line Rx =R ]−∞, +∞[ gets
+∞
mapped into a circle S1(x) with angular coordinate −π ≤ ϕ ≤ π; so, the integral 2π1 −∞ dx∂x α (t, x)
1
R +π ∂α
gets replaced by 2π −π
dϕ ∂ϕ ; and then the mapping αt : ϕ → α (t, ϕ) is a mapping between two
circles namely S(x) → S1(n) ; the field α (t, ϕ) then describes a soliton (one space extended object)
1
wrapping the circle S1(x) N times; this propery is captured by πS1(x) (S1(n) ) = Z, a homotopy group
property [62]. (ii) The charge Q is independent of the Lagrangian of the system as it follows
completely from the field constraint without any reference to the field action. (iii) Under a scale
transformation ξ′ = ξ/λ with a scaling parameter λ > 0, the topological charge of the field (1.12)
is invariant; but its total energy (1.11) get scaled as follows
1
Q′ = Q , E′ = E (1.16)
λ
This energy transformation shows that stable solitons with minimal energy correspond to λ → ∞;
and then to a trivial soliton spreading along the real axis. However, one can have non trivial soli-
tonic configurations that are topologically protected and energetically stable with non diverging
λ. This can done by turning on an appropriate potential
density V (n) in Eq(1.10). An
energy
example of such potential is the one given by 8g n41 + n42 − 1 , with positive g = M 2 , breaking
Page 11
S O (2)n ; by using the constraint n21 + n22 = 1, it can be put g4 n21 n22 . In terms of the angular field
g
α, it reads as V (α) = 16 (1 − cos 4α) leading to the well known sine-Gordon equation [63, 64]
g
namely ∂µ ∂ α − 4 sin 4α = 0 with the symmetry property α → α + π2 . So, the solitonic solution
µ
is periodic with period π2 ; that is the quarter of the old 2π period of the free field case. For static
2 2
field α (x), the sine Gordon equation reduces to ddxα2 − M4 sin 4α = 0; its solution for M > 0 is

given by arctan exp Mx representing a sine- Gordon field evolving from 0 to π2 and describing a
kink with topological charge Q = 41 . For M < 0, the soliton is an anti-kink evolving from π2 to 0
with charge Q = − 41 . Time dependent solutions can be obtained by help of boost transformations
x → √x±vt
1−v2
.
1.3.2 Skyrmions in 2d space dimensions

In this subsection, we investigate the topological properties of 2d Skyrmions by extending the
field theory study we have done above for 1d kinks to two space dimensions. For that, we
proceed as follows: First, we turn on the component n3 so that the skyrmion field n is a real
3-vector with three components (n1 , n2, n3 ) constrained as in Eqs(1.4-1.5). Second, here we have
Figure 1.2: On left: a spin configuration with n21 + n22 + n23 = 1 dispatched on a 2-sphere. On right: a
two space dimensional magnetic skyrmion given by the stereographic projection of S2 to plane.
n = n (t, x, y); that is a 3-component field living in the (2 + 1) space time with Lorentzian metric
and coordinates ξ µ = (t, x, y). This means that dn = (∂µ n)dξµ ; explicitly dn = ∂n
∂t
dt + ∂n
∂x
dx+ ∂n
∂y
dy.
Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya potential
R
The field action S3D = dtL3D describing the space time dynamics of n (t, x, y) has the same
structure as eq(1.10); except that here the Lagrangian L3D involves two space variable like
R 2
dxdyL3D and the density L3D = − 12 ∂µ n − V (n) − Λ (n.n − 1); this is a function of the
constrained 3-vector n and its space time gradient ∂µ n; it reads in term of the Hamiltonian den-
sity as follows.
L3D = π.ṅ − H3D (n) (1.17)

In this expression, the H3D (n) is the continuous limit of a lattice Hamiltonian Hlatt ([na rµ ]
involving, amongst others, the Heisenberg term, the Dyaloshinskii- Moriya (DM) interaction
and the Zeeman coupling. The V (n) in the first expression of L3D is the scalar potential energy
density; it models the continuous limit of the interactions that include the DM and Zeeman ones
[see eq(1.22) for its explicit relation]. The field Λ (ξ) is an auxiliary 3D spacetime field; it is a
Lagrange multiplier that carries the constraint n.n = 1 which plays the same role as in subsection
Page 12
3.1. By variating this action with respect to the fields n and Λ; we get from δSδΛ3D = 0 precisely the
field constraint n.n = 1; and from δSδn3D = 0 the following Euler-Lagrange equation n = ∂V ∂n
+Λn.
For later use, we express this field equation like
∂V
∂µ ∂µ na = + Λna (1.18)
∂na
The interest into this (1.18) is twice; first it can be put into the equivalent form ∂µ ∂µ na = εabc Db nc
where Db is an operator acting on nc to be derived later on [see eq(??)]; and second, it can be
used to give the relation between the scalar potential and the operator Db . To that purpose, we
start by noticing that there are two manners to deal with the field constraint na na = 1; either by
using the Lagrange multiplier Λ; or by solving it in terms of two angular field variables as given
by eq(1.5). In the second case, we have the triad na = (sin β cos α, sin β sin α, cos β) and
ua = (cos β cos α, cos β sin α, − sin β) , va = (− sin α, cos α, 0) (1.19)
but now β = β (t, x, y) and α = α (t, x, y) with 0 ≤ β ≤ π and 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π. Notice also that
the variation of the filed constraint leads to na dna = 0 teaching us interesting informations, in
particular the two following useful ones. (1) the movement of na in the target space is a rotational
movement; and so can be expressed like
dna = εabc ωb nc ⇔ dn = ω ∧ n ⇔ ω ∼ n ∧ dn (1.20)
where the 1-form ωb is the rotation vector to be derived below. By substituting (1.20) back
into na dna , we obtain εbca ωb nc na which vanishes identically due to the property εbca nc na = 0. (2)
Having two degrees of freedom α and β, we can expand the differential dna like ua dβ+va sin αdα
with the two vector fields ua = ∂n ∂β
a
and va = ∂n
∂α
a
as given above. Notice that the three unit fields
(n, u, v) plays an important role in this study; they form a vector basis of the field space; they
obey the usual cross products namely n = u ∧ v and its homologue which given by cyclic
permutations; for example,
ua = εabc vb nc , va = −εabc ub nc (1.21)
Putting these eqs(1.21) back into the expansion of dna in terms of dα, dβ; and comparing with
Eq(1.20), we end up with the explicit expression of the 1-form angular ”speed” vector ωb ; it
reads as follows ωb = vb dβ − ub sin αdα. Notice that by using the space time coordinates ξ, we
can also express eq(1.20) like ∂µ na = εabc ωbµ nc with ωbµ given by vb (∂µ β)−ub sin α(∂µ α). From this
µ
expression, we can compute the Laplacian ∂ ∂µ na ; which, by using the above relations; is equal
to εabc ∂µ ωbµ nc reading explicitly as εabc [(∂µ ωbµ )nc + ωbµ (∂µ nc )] or equivalently like ∂µ ∂µ na =
εabc Db nc with operator Db = ωbµ ∂µ + (∂µ ωbµ ). Notice that the above operator has an interesting
geometric interpretation; by factorising ωbµ , we can put it in the form ωdµ (Dµ )bd where (Dµ )bd
appears as a gauge covariant derivative (Dµ )bd = δbd ∂µ + (Aµ )bd with a non trivial gauge potential
(Aµ )bd given by ωµd (∂ν ωbν ). Comparing with (1.18) with ∂µ ∂µ nRa = εabc Db nc , we obtain
R
∂V
∂na
=
b c a b c a
εabc D n − Λna ; and then a scalar potential energy V given by εabc (dn D n ) − Λ na dn . The
second term in this relation vanishes identically because na dna = 0; thus reducing to
Z
V= εabc (dna Db nc ) (1.22)
Page 13
containing εabc (na Db nc ) as a sub-term. In the end of this analysis, let us compare this sub-
term with the εabc nb ncµ1 µ2 ∆aµ1 µ2 with ∆aµ1 µ2 = dµa3 ...µD−2 ǫ µ1 ...µD giving the general structure of the
DM coupling (see end of subsection
2.1). For (1 + 2)D spacetime, the general structure of DM
interaction reads εabc d0 n ∇n .eµν ǫ ; by setting e0 = eµν ǫ 0µν and da = d0a e0 as well as Da =
a b c 0µν

da .∇, one brings it to the form εabc na Db nc which is the same as the one following from (1.22).
From kinks to 2d Skyrmions

Here, we study the topological properties of the 2d Skyrmion with dynamics governed by the
Lagrangian density (1.17). From the expression of the (1 + 1)D topological current (J µ )2D dis-
1 µν a
cussed in subsection 2.1, which reads as 2π ǫ n ∂ν nb εab , one can wonder the structure of the
(1 + 2)D topological current (J µ )3D that is associated with the 2d Skyrmion described by the
3-vector field na (ξ). It is given by
1 µνρ a b c
(J µ )3D = ǫ n ∂ν n ∂ν n εabc (1.23)
8π
where εabc is as before and where ǫ µνρ is the completely antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor in
the (1 + 2)D spacetime. The divergence ∂µ (J µ )3D of the above spacetime vector vanishes iden-
tically; it has two remarkable properties that we want to comment before proceeding. (1) The
∂na
∂µ (J µ )3D is nothing but the determinant of the 3 × 3 Jacobian matrix ∂ξ µ relating the three field
a
variables na to the three spacetime coordinates ξ µ ; this Jacobian det( ∂n
∂ξµ
) is generally given by
1 µνρ a b b 3
3!
ǫ ∂µ n ∂ν n ∂ν n εabc ; it maps the spacetime volume d ξ = dt ∧ dx ∧ dy into the target space
volume d 3 n = dn1 ∧ dn2 ∧ dn3. In this regards, recall that these two 3D volumes can be expressed
in covariant manners by using the completely antisymmetric tensors ǫ µνρ and εabc introduced ear-
lier; and as noticed before play a central role in topology. The target space volume d 3 n can be
expressed like 3!1 εabc dna ∧ dnb ∧ dnc ; and a similar relation can be also written down for the
spacetime volume d 3 ξ. Notice also that by substituting the differentials dna by their expansions
∂na µ 3 3 3
( ∂ξ µ )dξ ; and putting back into d n, we obtain the relation d n = J3D d ξ where J3D is pre-
∂na µ
cisely the Jacobian det( ∂ξ µ ). (2) The conservation law ∂µ (J )3D = 0 has a geometric origin; it
follows from the field constraint relation n21 + n22 + n23 = 1 degenerating the volume of the 3D
target space down to a surface. This constraint relation describes a unit 2-sphere S2(n) ; and so a
vanishing volume d 3 n S2 = 0; thus leading to J3D = 0 and then to the above continuity equa-
(n)
tion. Having the explicit expression (1.23) of the topological current J µ in terms ofR the magnetic
texture field n (ξ), we turn to determine the associated topological charge Q = dxdyJ 0 with

1
charge density J 0 given by 8π εabc ǫ 0i j ∂i nb ∂ j nc na . Substituting ǫ 0i j dx ∧ dy by dξi ∧ dξ j , we have

1
J 0 dx ∧ dy = 8π εabc na dnb ∧ dnc . Moreover using the differentials dnb = ub dβ + vb sin αdα, we
b c
dn ∧ dn in terms of the angles α and β; we find 2na (sin α)dβ
can calculate the area R ∧ dα where
b c c b 1
we have used εabc u v − u v = 2na . So, the topological charge Q reads as 4π S2n
(sin β) dαdβ
which is equal to 1. In fact this value is just the unit charge; the general value is an integer Q = N
with N being the winding number π2 (S2n ); see below. Notice that J 0 can be also presented like
!
0 εabc a ∂nb ∂nc ∂nb ∂nc
J = n − (1.24)
8π ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Page 14
Replacing na by their expression in terms of the angles (sin β cos α, sin β sin α, cos β), we can
β ∂β ∂α
bring the above charge density J 0 into two equivalent relations; first into the form like sin
4π ∂x ∂y
− ∂β ∂β
∂y ∂x
;
∂[α,cos β]
and second as 4π1 ∂[ x,y] which is nothing but the Jacobian of the transformation from the (x, y)
space to the unit 2-sphere with angular variables (α, β). The explicit expression of (n1 , n2, n3 ) in
terms of the (x, y) space variables is given by
2x 2y x2 + y2 − 1
n1 = , n2 = , n3 = (1.25)
x2 + y2 + 1 x2 + y2 + 1 x2 + y2 + 1
but this is nothing but the stereographic projection of the 2-sphere S2ξ on the real plane. So, the
field na defines a mapping between S2ξ towards S2n with topological charge given by the winding
number S2n around S2n ; this corresponds just to the homotopy property π2 (S2n ) = N.
1.4 Three dimensional magnetic skyrmions

In this section, we study the dynamics of the 3d skyrmion and its topological properties both
in target space R4n (with euclidian metric δAB ) and in 4D spacetime R1,3ξ parameterised by ξ =
µ
(t, x, y, z) (with Lorentzian metric gµν ). The spacetime dynamics of the 3d skyrmion is described
by a four component field nA (ξ) obeying a constraint relation f (n) = 1; here the f (n) is given
by the quadratic form nA nA invariant under SO(4) transformations isomorphic to SU(2) ×SU(2).
The structure of the topological current of the 3d skyrmion is encoded in two types of Levi-
Civita tensors namely the target space εABCD and the spacetime ǫ µνρτ extending their homologue
concerning the kinks and 2d skyrmions.
1.4.1 From 2d skyrmion to 3d homologue

As for the 1d and 2d solitons considered previous section, R the spacetime dynamics of the 3d
skyrmion in RR1,3 is described by a field action S4D = dtL4D with Lagrangian realized as the
space integral dxdydzL4D . Generally, the Lagrangian density L4D is a function of the soliton

n (t, x, y, z) which is a real 4-component field [n = (n1 , n2 , n3 , n4)] constrained like f n (ξ) = 1.
2
For self ineracting field, the typical field expression of L4D is given by − 12 ∂µ n − V (n) −

Λ f (n) − 1 where V (n) is a scalar potential; and where the auxiliary field Λ (ξ) is a Lagrange
multiplier carrying the field constraint. This density L4D reads in terms of the Hamiltonian as
Π. ∂n − H (n) . Below, we consider a 4-component skyrmionic field constrained as n.n = 1; and
∂t
focuss on a simple Lagrangian density L◦ = − 12 ∂µ n (∂µ n) − Λ [n.n − 1] to describe the degrees
of freedom of n. Being a unit 4-component vector, we can solve the constraint n.n = 1 in terms
of three angular angles (α, β, γ) ; by setting
n = (m sin γ, cos γ) , m = (sin β cos α, sin β sin α, cos β) (1.26)
where m is a unit 3-vector parameterising the unit sphere S2[α] . Putting this field realisation back
2 2
into L◦ , we obtain − cos2 2γ ∂µ γ − 1−cos
4
2γ
∂µ m −Λ [m.m − 1] . Notice that by restricting the 4D
spacetime R to the 3D hyperplane z=const; and by fixing the component field γ to π2 , the above
1,3
Page 15
Lagrangian density reduces to the one describing the spacetime dynamics of the 2d skyrmion.
Notice also that we can expand the differential dnA in terms of dγ, dβ, dα; we find the following
dna = ma cos γdγ + sin γ (ua dβ + va sin βdα) , dn4 = − sin γdγ (1.27)
For convenience, we sometimes refer to the three (α, β, γ) collectively like αa = (α1 , α2 , α3 ) ; so
A
we have dnA = E aA dαb with E aA = ∂n
∂αa
.
1.4.2 Conserved topological current

First, we investigate the topological properties of the 3d skyrmion from the target space view;
that is without using the spacetine variables (t, x, y, z) = ξ µ . Then, we turn to study the induced
topological properties of the 3d skyrmion viewed from the side of the 4D space time R1,3 .
Topological current in target space

The 3d skyrmion field is described by a real four component vector nA subject to the constraint
relation nA nA = 1; so the soliton has SO(4) ∼ S O (3)1 × S O (3)2 symmetry leaving invariant
the condition nA nA = 1 that reads explicitly as (n1 )2 + (n2 )2 + (n3 )2 + (n4 )2 = 1. The algebraic
condition f [n] = 1 induces in turns the constraint equation d f = 0 leading to nA dnA = 0 and
showing that nA and dnA orthogonal 4-vectors in R4(n) . From this constraint, we can construct

nA dnB − nB dnA /2 which is a 4×4 antisymmetric matrix Ω[AB] generating the SO(4) rotations;
this Ω[AB] contains 3+3 degrees of freedom generating the two S O (3)1 and S O (3)2 making
SO(4); the first three degrres are given by Ω[ab] with a, b = 1, 2, 3; and the other three concern
Ω[a4] . Notice also that, from the view of the target space, the algebraic relation nA nA = 1 describes
a unit 3-sphere S3n sitting in R4n; as such its volume 4-form d 4 n, which reads as 4!1 εABCD dnA ∧
dnB ∧ dnC ∧ dnD , vanishes identically when restricted to the 3-sphere; i.e: d 4 n S3 = 0. This
n
vanishing property of d 4 n on S3n is a key ingredient in the derivation of the topological current J
of the 3D skyrmion and its conservation d J = 0. Indeed, because of the property d 2 = 0 (where
we have hidden the wedge product ∧), it follows that d 4 n can be expressed as d J with the 3-form
J given by
1
J = εABCD nA dnB dnC dnD (1.28)
4!
This 3-form describes precisely the topological current in the target space; this is because on
S3n, the 4-form d 4 n vanishes; and then d J vanishes. By solving, the skyrmion field constraint
nA nA = 1 in terms of three angles αa as given by Eq(1.26); with these angular coordinates, we
have mapping f : R4n → S3n with S3n ≃ S3α . By expanding the differentials like dnA = E aA dαa with
A
E aA = ∂n
∂αa
; then the conserved current on the 3-sphere S3α reads as follows
1
J= εABCD (nA E bB E Cc E dD )εabc d 3 α (1.29)
4!3!
where we have substituted the 3-form dαb dαc dαd on the 3-sphere R S3α by the volume 3-form
2
ε d α. In this regards, recall that the volume of the 3-sphere is S3 d 3α = π2 .
abc 3
(n)
Page 16
Topological symmetry in spacetime

In the spacetime R1,3 with coordinates ξ µ = (t, x, y, z), the 3d skyrmion is described by a four
component field nA (ξ) and is subject to the local constraint relation nA nA = 1. A typical static
configuration of the 3d skyrmion is obtained by solving the field sonctraint in terms of the space
coordinates; it is given by Eq(1.26) with the local space time fields m (ξ) and γ (ξ) thought of as
follows
x y z 2rR r 2 − R2
m (ξ) = , , , γ (ξ) = arcsin 2 = arccos (1.30)
r r r r + R2 r 2 + R2
p
with r = x2 + y2 + z2 , giving the radius of S2ξ , and R associated with the circle S1ξ fibered over
S2ξ ; the value R = r corresponds to γ = π2 and R >> r to γ = π. Notice that γ (ξ) in eq(1.30)
has a spherical symmetry as it is a function only of r (no angles α, β, γ). Moreover, as this
configuration obeys sin γ (0) = 0 and sin γ (∞) = 0; we assume γ (0) = n0 π and γ (∞) = n∞ π.
Putting these relations back into (1.26), we obtain the following configuration
!
2xR 2yR 2zR r2 − R2
ñ = 2 , , , (1.31)
r + R2 r 2 + R2 r 2 + R2 r 2 + R2
describing a compactification of the space R3ξ into S3ξ which is homotopic to S3n. From this view,
the ñ : ξ → ñ (ξ) is then a mapping from S3ξ into S3n with topological charge given by the winding
number characterising the wrapping S3n on S3ξ ; and for which we have the property π3 (S3n ) = Z. In
this regards, recall that 3-spheres S3 have a Hopf fibration given by a circle S1 sitting over S2 (for
short S3 ∼ S1 ⋉ S2 ); this non trivial fibration can be viewed from the relation S3 ∼ S U (2) and the
factorisation U (1)×S U (2) /U (1) with the coset S U (2) /U (1) identified with S2 ; and U (1) with
S1 . Applying this fibration to S3ξ and S3n, it follows that ñ : S3ξ → S3n; and the same thing for the
bases S2ξ → S2n and for the fibers S1ξ → S1n. Returning to the topological current and the conserved
R
topological charge Q = R3 d 3 rJ 0 (t, r), notice that in space time the differential dnA expands like

∂µ nA dξµ ; then using the duality relation J[νρτ] = ǫ µνρτ J µ , we find, up to a normalisation by the
volume of the 3-sphere π2 /2, the expression of the topological current J µ (ξ) in terms of the 3D
skyrmion field
1 µνρτ a b c c
Jµ = ǫ n ∂ν n ∂ρ n ∂τ n εabcd (1.32)
12π2
In terms of the angular variables, this current reads like N∂ν α∂ρ β∂τ γǫ µνρτ with N = 2π12 (sin β) (sin γ)2 .
From this current expression, we can determine the associated topological charge Q by space in-
tegration over the charge density
sin2 γ dγ
J 0 (t, r) = − (1.33)
2π2 r2 dr
Because of its spherical symmetry, the space R volume d 3 r can be substituted by 4πr2 dr; then
4π γ(∞) 2
the charge Q reads as the integral − 2π 2 γ(0) sin γdγ whose integration leads to the sum of
two terms coming from the integration of sin2 γ = 12 − 12 cos 2γ. The integral first reads as
1
π
γ (0) − γ (∞) ; by substituting γ (0) = n0 π, it contributes like Nπ. The integral of the second
Page 17
1
tem gives 2π
sin 2γ (0) − sin 2γ (∞) ; it vanishes identically. So the topological charge is given
by
γ (0) − γ (∞)
Q= =N (1.34)
π
1.5 Effective dynamics of skyrmions

In this section, we investigate the effective dynamics of a point- like skyrmion in a ferromagnetic
background field while focussing on the 2d configuration. First, we derive the effective equation
of a rigid skyrmion and comment on the underlying effective Lagrangian. We also describe the
similarity with the dynamics of an electron in a background electromagnetic field. Then, we
study the effect of dissipation on the skyrmion dynamics.
1.5.1 Equation of a rigid skyrmion

R effective equation of motion of a rigid skyrmion, we start by the spin (0 + 1) D action
To get the
S spin = dtLspin describing the time evolution of a coherent spin vector modeled by a rotating
magnetic moment n (t) with velocity ṅ = dn dt
; and make some accommodations. For that, recall
that the Lagrangian Lspin has the structure LB −~S γH where LB is the Berry term having the form
LB = qe A.ṅ with geometric (Berry) potential A ∼ hn|ṅi; and where H is the Hamiltonian of the
magnetic moment n (t) obeying the constraint n2 = 1. This magnetisation constraint is solved
by two free angles α (t) , β (t) ; they appear in the Berry term LB = −~S (1 − cos β) dα
dt
. Below, we
think of the above magnetisation as a ferromagnetic background n (r) filling the spatial region of
R1,d
ξ with coordinates ξ = (t, r); and of the skymion as a massive point- like particle R (t) moving
in this background.
Rigid skyrmion
We begin by introducing the variables describing the skyrmion in the magnetic background field
n (r). We denote by M s the mass of the skyrmion, and by R and Ṙ its space position and its
velocity. For concreteness, we restrict the investigation to the spacetime R1,2 ξ and refer to R by
the components Xi = (X, Y) and to r by the components xi = (x, y). Because of the Euclidean
metric δi j ; we often we use both notations X i and Xi = δi j X j without referring to δi j . Furthermore;
we limit the discussion to the interesting case where the only source of displacements in R1,2 ξ is
due to the skyrmion R (t) (rigid skyrmion). In this picture, the description of the skyrmion R (t)
dissolved in the background magnet n (r) is given by
n (r, t) = n [r − R (t)] (1.35)
In this representation, the velocity ṅ of the skyrmion dissolved in the background magnet can
∂n i ∂n ∂ ∂
be expressed into manners; either like −Ẋ i ∂X i ; or as Ẋ ∂xi ; this is because ∂X i = − ∂xi . With
R
this parametrisation, the dynamics of the skyrmion
R is described by an action S s = dtLs with
~s 2
Lagrangian given by a space integral Ls = a2 d rL s and spacetime density as follows
L s = γ~S H − ~S LB (1.36)
Page 18
In this relation, the density LB = − (1 − cos β) ∂α ∂t

where now the angular variables are spacetime
fields
h β (t, r)i and α (t, r). Similarly, the density H is the Hamiltonian density with arguments as
H n, ∂µ n, r and magnetic n as in Eq(1.35). In this field action S s , the prefactor a−2 is required
by the continuum limit of lattice Hamiltonians Hlatt living on a square lattice with spacing pa-
P P
rameter a. Recall that for these Hlatt ’s, one generally has discrete sums like µ (...), µ,ν R (...) and
−2
so on; in the limit where a is too small, these sums turn into 2D space integrals like a d 2 r (...).
To fix ideas, we illustrate this limit on the typical hamiltonian HHDMZ , it describes the Heisenberg
model on the lattice Z2 augmented by the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya and the Zeeman interactions
[65, 66]
X X h i X
µνρ
HHDMZ = −J n rµ n (rν ) − D dµ . n (rν ) ∧ n rρ ǫ − B.n rµ (1.37)
hµ,νi µ,ν,ρ µ
with rν = rµ + aeνµ ; that is eνµ = (rν − rµ )/a where a is the square lattice parameter. So,
the continuum limit H of this lattice Hamiltonian involves the target space metric δab and the
topological Levi-Civita tensor εabc of the target space R3n ; it involves as well the metric gµν and
the completely antisymmetry ǫ µνρ of the space time R1,2ξ . In terms of δab and εabc tensors, the
continuous hamiltonian density reads as follows
Ja2
H= δab ∂i na ∂i nb + aεabc dµa nb Dνρ nc ǫ µνρ − B.n (1.38)
2
with ∇νρ = eνµ .∇. Below, we set J=1 and, to factorise out the normalisation factor a2 , scale the
parameters of the model like dµa = ad̃µa and B = a2 B̃. For simplicity, we sometimes set as well
a= 1.
Skyrmion equation without dissipation

To get the effective field equation of motion of the point- like skyrmion without Rdissipation, we
calculate the vanishing condition of the functional variation of the action; that is δ( dtd 2rL) = 0.
General arguments indicate that the effective equation of the skyrmion with topological charge
q s in the background magnet has the form
M s Ẍi = q s Ei + q s ǫ i jz Ẋ j Bz (1.39)
from which one can wonder the effective Lagrangian describing the effective dynamics of the
skyrmion. It is given by
Ms
Ls = δi j Ẋ i Ẋ j − q s ǫ zi j Bz X i Ẋ j − q s V (X) (1.40)
2
Notice that the right hand of equation (1.39) looks like the usual Lorentz force (qe E + qe ṙ ∧ B)
of a moving electron with qe in an external electromagnetic field (E i , Bi) ; the corresponding La-
grangian is m2 ṙ2 + qe B.(r ∧ ṙ)−qe E.r. This similarity between the skyrmion and the electron in
background fields is because the skyrmion has a topological charge q s that can be put in cor-
respondence with qe ; and, in the same way, the background field magnet Ei , Bi can be also put
in correspondence with the electromagnetic field (E i , Bi ). To rigourously derive the spacetime
Page 19
eqs(1.39-1.40), we need R toRperform some manipulations relying on computing the effective ex-
pression of S s = ~S dt( d 2rL s ) and its time variation δS s = 0. However, as L s has two
terms like γ~S R H − ~S LB, the h calculations
i can be split in two stages; the first stage concerns the
2
block γ~S d rH with H n, ∂µ n, r which is a function of the magnetic texture (1.35); that is
R
n (r − R). The second stage regards the determination of the integral ~S d 2rLB . The compu-
tation of the first term is straightforwardly h i by performing a space shift r → r + R,
identified;
the Hamiltonian density becomes H n, ∂µ n, r + R with n (r) and where the dependence in R
R
becomes explicit; thus allowing R to think of the integral γ~S d 2 rH as nothing but the scalar
energy potential V (R) = ~S γ d 2 rH (t, r, R) . So, we have
Z !
δ 2 ∂V
~S γ d rH = (1.41)
δX a ∂X a
R
Concerning the calculation of the R ~S d 2 rLB , the situation is somehow subtle; we do it in two
steps; first we calculate the (δ d 2 rLB ) because we Rknow the variation δL δna
B
which is equal to
1 b c 2
ε n ṅ . Then, we turn backward to determine ~S d rLB by integration. To that purpose,
2 abc
δL B ∂na
recall also that the Berry term LB is given by − (1 − cos β) ∂α R
∂t
; and its variation δna ∂X j
∂X j is
Requal δL to 21 εabc nb ṅc . To determine the time variation δLB = Rδ d 2rδLB , we first expand it like
∂na a
d 2 r δna δna ; and use δna = − ∂X j
j ∂X to put it into the form - d 2 r δL B ∂n
δna ∂X j
∂X j . Then, substituting
δL B c
∂n
δna
by its expression 21 εabc nb ṅc with ṅc expanded like - ∂X i
i Ẋ , we end up with
Z c a
!
2 1 b ∂n ∂n ij
δLB = 2~S d r εabc n ǫ ẊδY − ẎδX (1.42)
2 ∂xi ∂x j
R
Next, using the relation ǫ i j d 2 r = dxi ∧ dx j , the first factor becomes 21 εabc na dnb ∧ dnc gives pre-

cisely the skyrmion topological charge q s . So, the resulting δLB reduces to 2q s ~S ẊδY − ẎδX
that reads also like
δLB = −2q s ~S ǫ i j Ẋ i δX j (1.43)
This variation is very remarkable because it is contained in the variation of the effective coupling
Lint i j int i
B = −2q s ~S ǫ i j Ẋ X which can be presented like LB = −q s Ai Ẋ where we have set Ai =
j
2~S ǫ zi j X ; this vector can be interpreted as the vector potential of an effective magnetic field
Bz = 21 ǫ zi j ∂i Ai . By adding the kinetic term M2s Ẋ i Ẋi , we end up with an effective Lagrangian LB
associated with the Berry term; it reads as follows LB = M2s δi j Ẋ i Ẋ j − q s Ai Ẋ i . So, the effective
Lagrangian Le f f describing the rigid 2d skyrmion in a ferromagnet is
Ms 2
Le f f = Ṙ − q s A.Ṙ−V (R) (1.44)
2
From this Lagrangian, we learn the equation of the motion of the rigid skyrmion namely M s Ẍ j =
f j + 4q s ~S ǫ zi j Ẋ i ; for the limit M s = 0, it reduces to Ẋ i = 4qs1~S ǫ z ji f j .
1.5.2 Implementing dissipation

So far we have considered magnetic moment obeying the constraint n2 = 1 with time evolution
given by the LL equation ṅ = −γf ∧ n where the force f = − ∂H
∂n
. Using this equation, we deduce
Page 20
the typical properties n.ṅ = f.ṅ R= 0 from which we learn that the time variation dH dt
of the
2 ∂H a
Hamiltonian, which reads as ~S γ d r ∂na ṅ , vanishes identically as explicitly exhibited below,
Z
dH
= −~S γ d 2 r (f.ṅ) (1.45)
dt
In presence of dissipation, we loose energy; and so one expects that dH
dt
< 0; indicating that the
rigid skyrmion has a damped dynamics. In what follows, we study the effect of dissipation in the
ferromagnet and derive the damped skyrmion equation.
Landau- Lifshitz- Gilbert equation

Due to dissipation, the force F acting on the rigid skyrmion R (t) has two terms, the old conser-
vative f = − ∂H∂n
; and an extra force δf linearly dependent in magnetisation velocity ṅ. Due to
this extra force δf = − αγ ṅ, the LL equation gets modified; its deformed expression is obtained by
shifting the old force f like F = f− αγ ṅ with α a positive damping parameter (Gilbert parameter).
As such, the previous LL relation gives the so called Landau-Lifschitz-Gilbert (LLG) equation
[67, 68]
ṅ = −γf ∧ n + αṅ ∧ n (1.46)
where its both sides have ṅ. From this generalised relation, we still have n.ṅ = 0 (ensuring
n2 = 1); however f.ṅ , 0 as it is equal to the Gilbert term namely −α (f ∧ n) .ṅ. Notice that
eq(1.46) still describe a rotating magnetic moment in the target space (dn = 0); but with a
different angular velocity Ω which, in addition to f, depends moreover on the Gilbert parameter
and the magnetisation n. By factorising eq(1.46) like ṅ = Ω ∧ n, we find
−γ
Ω= [f + α(f ∧ n)] (1.47)
1 + α2
Notice that in presence of dissipation (α , 0), the variation of the hamiltonian dH dt
given by (1.45)
is no longer non vanishing; by first replacing f.ṅ = − α (f ∧ n) .ṅ and putting back in it, we get
Z
dH
= α~S d 2 rγ (f ∧ n) .ṅ (1.48)
dt
R
then, substituting γf ∧ n = αṅ ∧ n − ṅ; we find that dHdt
is given by −α~s d 2 r.ṅ2 indicating that
dH
dt
< 0; and consequently a decreasing energy H (t) (loss of energy) while increasing time.
Damped skyrmion equation

To obtain the damped skyrmion equation due to the Gilbert term, we consider the rigid mag-
netic moment n [r − R (t)]; and compute the expression of the skyrmion velocity Ṙ in terms of
the conservative force f and the parameter α. To that purpose we start from eq(1.46) and mul-
tiply both equation sides by ∧dn while assuming f.n = 0 (the conservative force transverse to
magnetisation), we get ṅ∧dn = −γ (f.dn) n + α (dn.ṅ) n. Then, multiply scalarly by n, which
corresponds to a projection along the magnetisation, we obtain
n. (ṅ∧dn) = −γ (f.dn) + α (dn.ṅ) (1.49)
Page 21
Substituting dn and ṅ by their expansions dxi (∂i n) and −Ẋ i (∂i n) , then multiplying by ∧dxl ; we
end up with a relation involving dx j ∧ dxl (which reads as ǫ z jl d 2 r); so we have
2
Ẋ l 4πJ 0 d 2 r = −γǫ 0l j f.∂ j n d 2 r + αǫ 0l j Ẋ j ∂ j n d 2 r (1.50)
h i
1 zi j
where we have set J 0 = 2π ǫ n. (∂i n) ∧ ∂ j n , defining the magnetization density, and where
R
we have replaced ∂i n.∂ j n by δi j (∂k n)2 . By integrating over the 2d space while using J 0 d 2 r =
R 2
1
4πq s and setting η j = 4π d 2 r ∂ j n ≡ η, we arrive at the relation
Z
0l j
l
4πq s Ẋ = γǫ f.∂ j n d 2 r − 4πηαǫ 0l j Ẋ l (1.51)
∂H
with ǫ zxy = −ǫ zxy = −1. The remaining step is to replace the conservative force f by − ∂n and
proceeds in performing the integral over f.∂ j n . Because of the explicit dependence into r, the
exp exp
f.∂ j n can be expressed like ∂ j H − ∂tot j H; the explicit derivation term ∂ j H has been added
h i
because the Hamiltonian density has an explicit dependence H n, ∂µ n, r . Recall that ∂tot j H is
exp ∂H exp exp
given by ∂ j H + ∂n .∂ j n which is equal to ∂ j H − f.∂ j n. Notice also that the term ∂ j H can

be also expressed like − ∂H . Therefore, the integral f.∂ j n d 2 r has two contributions namely the
R ∂R R exp
2
(∂tot
j H)d r which, being a total derivative, vanishes identically; and the term (∂ j H)d 2 r that
gives − ∂V∂R
. Putting this value back into (1.51), we end up with
!
l zl j ∂V 4πηα l
4πq s Ẋ = γǫ + Ẋ (1.52)
∂X j γ
Implementing
the kinetic
term of the skyrmion, we obtain the equation with dissipation M s R̈ =
∂V ηα 4π~S qs
− ∂R + G z ∧ Ṙ − qs Ṙ where the constant G = a2 stands for the gyrostropic constant.
1.6 Electron-skyrmion interaction

In this section, we investigate the interacting dynamics between electrons and skyrmions with
spin transfer torque (STT) [69]. The electron-skyrmion interaction is given by Hund coupling
JH (Ψ† σa Ψ).na which leads to emergent S U (2) gauge potential that mediate the interaction be-
tween the spin texture n (t, r) and the two spin states (Ψ↑ , Ψ↓) of the electron. We also study other
aspects of electron/skyrmion system like the limit of large Hund coupling; and the derivation of
the effective equation of motion of rigid skyrmions with STT.
1.6.1 Hund coupling

We start by recalling that a magnetic atom (like iron, manganese, ...) can be modeled by a
localized magnetic moment n (t, r) and mobile carriers represented by a two spin component field
Ψ (t, r); the components of the fields n and Ψ are respectively given by na (t, r) with a=1,2,3; and
by Ψα (t, r) with α =↑↓. Using the electronic vector density j(e) = Ψ† σΨ, the interaction between
Page 22
localised and itinerant electrons of the magnetic atom are bound by the Hund coupling reading
as He−n = −JH n. j(e) with Hund parameter JH > 0 promoting alignment of n and j(e) . So, the
dynamics of the interacting electron with the backround n is given by the Lagrangian density
i∂
Le = ~Ψ† ∂t Ψ − He−n expanding as follows
!
† i∂ † P2
Le [Ψ, n] = ~Ψ Ψ−Ψ − JH σ.n Ψ (1.53)
∂t 2m
where P = ~i ∇ and σ.n = σ x n x + σy ny + σz nz .
Emergent gauge potential

Because of the ferromagnetic Hund coupling (JH > 0), the spin observable Ŝ ez = 2~ σz of the
conduction electron tends to align with the orientation σn = σ.n of the magnetisation n — with
angle θ = (ed
z , n)—; this alinement is accompanied by a local phase change of the electronic wave
function Ψ which becomes ψ = UΨ where U (t, r) = eiΘ(t,r) is a unitary S U (2) transformation
mapping σz into σn ; that is σn = U † σz U. For later use, we refer to the new two components of
the electronic field like ψ+n , ψ−n (for short ψα̇ with label α̇ = ±) such that the gauge transforma-
tion reads as ψα̇ = Uα̇α Ψα ; that is ψ± = U±↓ Ψ↑ + U±↑ Ψ↓ . This local rotation of the electronic spin
wave induces a non abelian gauge potential with components Aµ = −iU∂µ U † mediating the in-
teraction between the electron and the magnetic texture. Indeed, putting the unitary change into
Le [Ψ, n], we end up with an equivalent Lagrangian density; but now with new field variables as
follows !
h i a 2
† a † (P + ~A σa ) z
Le ψ, Aµ = ~ψ i∂0 − A0 σa ψ − ψ − JH σ ψ (1.54)
2m
Here, the vector potential matrix Aµ is valued in the S U (2) Lie algebra generated by the Pauli
y y 1
a x x z z a
matrices σ ; so it can be expanded as Aµ σ + Aµ σ + Aµ σ with components Aµ = 2 T r σa Aµ .
h i
Notice that in going from the old Le [Ψ, n] to the new L̃e ψ, Aµ , the spin texture n has disap-
peared; but not completely as it is manifested by an emergent non abelian gauge potential Aµ ; so
everything is as if we have an electron interacting with an external field Aµ . To get the explicit
relation between the gauge potential and the magnetisation, we use the isomorphism S U (2) ∼ S3
and the Hopf fibration S1 × S2 to write the unitary matrix U as follows
! !
iγ cos 2θ e−iϕ sin 2θ Zµ Wµ−
U=e , Aµ = (1.55)
e+iϕ sin 2θ − cos 2θ Wµ+ −Zµ
where the factor eiγ describes S1 and where, for later use, we have set Wµ± = A1µ ± iA2µ and
Zµ = A3µ . So, a specific realisation of the gauge transformation is given by fixing γ = cst ( say
γ = 0); it corresponds to restricting S3 down to S2 and SU(2) reduces down to SU(2)/U(1). In this
parametrisation,
we can also express the unitary matrix U like m.σ with magnetic vector m =
sin 2 cos ϕ, sin 2 sin ϕ, cos 2θ obeying the property m2 = 1; the same constraint as before. By
θ θ
putting back into Uσ.nU † , and using some algebraic relations like εabd εdce = δac δbe − δbc δae , we
obtain [2 (m.n) m − n] .σ. Then, substituting n by its expression (sin θ cos ϕ, sin θ sin ϕ, cos θ),
we end up with the desired direction σz appearing in eq(1.54). On the other hand, by putting
Page 23
U = m.σ back into −iU∂µ U † , we obtain an explicit relation between the gauge potential and
the magnetic texture namely Aaµ = εabc mb ∂µ mc . From this expression, we learn the entries of the
potential matrix Aµ of eq(1.55); the relation with the texture n is given in what follows seen that
m (θ) = n(θ/2).
Large Hund coupling limit
We start by noticing that the non abelian gauge potential Aaµ obtained above can be expressed in
a condensed form like εabc ma ∂µ mb (for short m ∧ ∂µ m); so it is normal to m; and then it can be
expanded as follows
1 θ
Aaµ = ea ∂µ θ − f a sin ∂µ ϕ (1.56)
2 2
where we have used the local basis vectors m(θ), e(θ) and f(θ). This is an orthogonal triad which
turn out to be intimately related with the triad vectors given by eq(1.5); the relationships read
respectively like n(θ/2), u(θ/2) and v(θ/2) involving θ/2 angle instead of θ. Substituting these
basis vectors by their angular values, we obtain
 1     
 Aµ   − sin ϕ   sin θ cos ϕ 
 2  1   1  
 Aµ  =  cos ϕ  ∂µ θ −  sin θ sin ϕ  ∂µ ϕ (1.57)
2 2
A3µ 0 cos θ − 1
from which we learn that the two first components combine in a complex gauge field Wµ± =
A1µ ± iA2µ which is equal to 2i eiϕ w± ∂µ n with w± = u ± iv; and the third component A3µ has the re-
markable form 12 (1 − cos θ) ∂µ ϕ whose structure recalls the geometric Berry term (1.7). Below,
we set A3µ = Zµ as in eq(1.55); it contains the temporal component Z0 and the three spatial ones
Zi — denoted in section 2 respectively as a0 and ai —.
In the large Hund coupling (JH >> 1), the spin of the electron is quasi- aligned with the mag-

netisation n; so the electronic dynamics is mainly described by the chiral wave function ψ+ , 0
denoted below as χ = (χ, 0). Thus, the effective properties of the interaction between the electron
and the skyrmion can be obtained by restricting the above relations to the polarised electronic
spin wave χ. By setting ψ− = 0 into eq(1.54) and using χ† σx χ = χ† σy χ = 0 and χ† σz χ = χ̄χ as
2 2 2
well as replacing Aµx σ x + Ayµ σy by 14 ∂µ n , the Lagrangian (1.54) reduces to the polarised
(pol) h i
Le = Le χ, n, Zµ given by
 
 Pi + ~Za σa 2 2 
(pol)  i ~ 2 
Le = ~χ† (i∂0 − Z0 σz ) χ − χ†  + ∂µ n − JH σz  χ (1.58)
 2m 8m 
where (Z0 , Zi ) define the four components of the emergent abelian gauge prepotential Zµ as-
sociated with the Pauli matrix σz ; their explicit expressions are given by Z0 = 12 (1 − cos θ) ϕ̇
and Zi = 12 (1 − cos θ) ∂i ϕ; their variation with respect to the magnetic texture are related to the
δZ
magnetisation field like δnµ = 12 ∂µ n ∧ n.
Page 24
1.6.2 Skyrmion with spin transfer torque

Here, we investigate the full dynamics of the electron/skyrmion system {e− , n} described by the
Lagrangian density Ltot containing the parts Ln + Le−n ; the electronic Lagrangian Le−n is given
by eq(1.54). The Lagrangian Ln , describing the skyrmion dynamics, is as in eqs(??-1.7) namely
2
~2
−~S Z0 − Hn with Z0 = 12 (1 − cos θ) ϕ̇. By setting H̃n = Hn + 8m ∂µ n ψ† ψ, the full Lagrangian
h i
density Ltot with can be then presented like L̃ ψ,Zµ − H̃n like
h i ! z 2
!
† ∂ z † (Pi + ~Zi σ )
L̃ ψ,Zµ = −~S Z0 + ~ψ i − Z0 σ ψ − ψ ψ (1.59)
∂t 2m

with (Pi + ~Zi σz )2 expanding as P2i +~2i Z2 +~ Pi Zi + Zi Pi σz . The equations of motion of ψ and
n are obtained as usual by computing the extremisation of this Lagrangian density with respect to
the corresponding field variables. In general, we have δLtot = (δLtot /δn) .δn+(δLtot /δψ) .δψ+hc
which vanishes for δLtot /δn = 0 and δLtot /δψ† = 0.
Modified Landau- Lifshitz equation

Regarding the spin texture n, the associated field equation of motion is given by δLtot /δn = 0;
the contributions to this equation of motion come from the variations L̃ and H̃n with respect to
δn namely
δH̃ δL̃ δZµ
− =0 (1.60)
δn δZµ δn
The variation δHδn
n
depends on the structure of the skyrmion Hamiltonian density H̃; its contri-
bution to the equation of motion can be presented like λ∂µ ∂µ n = F with some factor λ. How-
δL δZµ
ever, the variation δZ µ δn
describes skyrmion-electron interaction; and can be done explicitly
δL δZ0
into two steps; the first step concerns the calculation of the time like component δZ ; it gives
h i 0 δn
~ † z
− 2 2S + ψ σ ψ (ṅ ∧ n); it is normal to n and to velocity ṅ and involves the eletron spin density
̺ze = ψ† σz ψ.
δL δZi δL
The second step deals with the calculation of the space like component − δZ i δn
; the factor δZ i
gives −~J i with a 3-component current vector density reading as follows
1 † z ~
Ji = ψ σ Pi ψ − Pi ψ† σz ψ + (ψ† ψ)Zi (1.61)
2m m
This vector two remarkable properties: (1) it is given by the sum of two contributions as it it
reads like Ji(+n) + Ji(−n) with

Jl(+n) = m~ (ψ̄+n ψ+n )Zl + 2m
1
ψ̄+n ~i ∂l ψ+n − ~i ∂l ψ̄+n ψ+n
(1.62)
Jl(−n) = m~ (ψ̄−n ψ−n )Zl − 2im
~
ψ̄−n ~i ∂l ψ−n − ~i ∂l ψ̄−n ψ−n
These vectors are respectively interpreted as two spin polarised currents; the Ji(+n) is associated
with the ψ+n wave function as it points in the same direction as n; the Ji(−n) is however associated
Page 25
with ψ−n pointing in the opposite direction of n. (2) Each one of the two J (+n) and J (−n) are in
turn given by the sum of two contributions as they can be respectively split like m~ (ψ̄+n ψ+n )Z+jψ+n
1 ← →
and m~ (ψ̄−n ψ−n )Z + jψ−n with vector density jψ standing for the usual current vector jψ = 2m ψ̄ P ψ.
The contribution m~ (ψ̄ψ)Z is proportional to the emergent gauge field Z; it defines a spin torque
transfert to the vector current density Ji .
Regarding the factor δZ δn
i δL δZi
, it gives 12 (∂i n ∧ n); by substituting, the total contribution of δZi δn
leads
~ i ~
to − 2 (J ∂i n)∧n that reads in a condensed form like − 2 (J.∇n)∧n. Putting back into eq(1.60),
we end up with the following modified LL equation
~h i ~ δHn
− 2S + ψ† σz ψ (ṅ ∧ n) + (J.∇n)∧n − =0 (1.63)
2 2 δn
To compare this equation with the usual LL equation (~S ṅ = δH δn

n
∧ n) in absence of Hund
coupling (which corresponds to putting ψ to zero), we multiply eq(1.63) by ∧n in order to bring
it to a comparable relation with LL equation. By setting ̺ze = ψ† σz ψ, describing the electronic
spin density |ψ+n |2 − |ψ−n |2 ; we find
" #
S ̺ze δHn
− ~ −d + ṅ = ∧ n − ~ [(J.∇) n] (1.64)
a 2 δn
where, due to n2 = 1, the space gradient J.∇n is normal to n; and so it can be set as Ω(e) ∧ n
with Ω(e) = J i ωi(e) . The above equation is a modified LL equation; it describes the dynamics of
the spin texture interacting with electrons through Hund coupling. Notice that for ψ → 0, this
equation reduces to ~ aS−d ṅ = ω(n) ∧ n showing that the vector n rotates with ω(n) = − δH δn
n
. By
turning on ψ, we have ṅ ∼ (ω + Ω ) ∧ n indicating that the LL rotation is drifted by Ω(e)
(n) (e)
coming from two sources: (i) the term ~ [(J.∇) n] which deforms LL vector ω(n) drifted by the
n ∧ (J.∇n); and (ii) the electronic spin density ̺ze = aN−de ; this term adds to the density aS−d of the
magnetic texture per unit volume; it involves the number Ne = Ne+n − Ne−n with Ne±n standing for
the filling factor of polarized conduction electrons. Moreover, if assuming n (t, r) = n (r − V s t)
a a
with a uniform V s , then the drift velocity ṅ = − (∂i n ) V s and Je ∂i n = Jea . Putting back
i i a
into the modified LLG equation, we end up with the following relation between the V s and ve
velocities (S + n2e )vas = ne vae where we have set (∂i na ) V si = vas and Jea = ne vae .
Rigid skyrmion under spin transfer torque

Here, we investigate the dynamics of a 2D rigid skyrmion [n = n (r − R)] under a spin trans-
fer torque (STT) induced by itinerant electrons. For that, we applyR the method, used in sub-
subsection 5.1.2 to derive Ls from the computation space integral of d 2rL s and eqs(1.36). To
begin, recall that in absence of the STT effect, the Lagrangian Ls of the 2D skyrmion’s point-
Ms 2 G
R = (Ẋ, Ẏ), is given by 2 Ṙ − 2 z.(R
particle, with position R = (X, Y) and velocity Ṙ ∧ Ṙ) − V(R)
4π~
2
with effective scalar energy potential V(R) = d rH (r, R) and a constant G = a2 q s S . Under
STT induced by Hund coupling, the Lagrangian Ls gets deformed into L̃s = Ls + ∆Ls , that is
Ms 2 G
L̃s = Ṙ − z.(R ∧ Ṙ) − V(R) + ∆Ls (1.65)
2 2
Page 26
R
To determine ∆Ls , we start from L̃s = d 2 rL̃tot with Lagrangian density as L̃tot = L̃ − H̃n with
L̃ given by eq(1.59). For convenience, we set L̃ = −~S Z0 + L̃e−n and set
! z 2
!
† ∂ z † (Pi + ~Zi σ )
L̃e−n = ~ψ i − Z0 σ ψ − ψ ψ (1.66)
∂t 2m
The deviation ∆Ls with respect to Ls in (1.65) comes from those terms in eq(1.66). Notice
R the† wave function1ψR coupled
that this expression involves
†
to the emergent gauge potential field
Zµ = (Z0 , Zi ); that is −~ d rψ σ ψZ0 and − 2m d rψ [(Pi + ~Zi σz )2 ]ψ. Thus, to obtain ∆Ls ,
2 z 2
δZ
we first calculate the variation δ(∆L δZµ
s)
δZµ and put δZµ = δRµ .δR. Once, we have the explicit
expression of this variation, we turn backward to deduce the value of ∆Ls . To that purpose, we
proceed in two steps as follows: (i) We calculate the temporal contribution δ(∆L s ) δZ0
.δR; and (ii)
δ(∆L s ) δZi
δZ0 δR
1 j
we compute the spatial δZi δR .δR. Using the variation δZ0 = 2 δn. n ∧ ∂ j n Ẋ , the contribution
of the first term can be put as follows
δ (∆Ls ) δZ0 l ~ z h i
i j
δX = − J ǫ zi j Ẋ δX (1.67)
δZ0 δX l 2 0
R z
where we have set ̺z = ψ† σz ψ and J z0 = d 2 r ̺2 ǫ zkl n. (∂k n∧∂l n) . Notice that the right hand side
h i h i
in above relation can be also put into the form 2~ J z0 ǫ zi j δẊ i X j − δ 2~ ǫ zi j J z0 Ẋ i X j indicating that

∆Ls must contain the term ~2 ǫ zi j J z0 Ẋ i X j which reads as well like 2~ J0 z. Ṙ ∧ R . Regarding the
spatial part δ(∆L s ) δZi
. δX l , we have quite similar calculations allowing to put it in the following
δZi δX l
form
δ (∆Ls ) δZi l
. δX = −~εzi j J zi δX j (1.68)
δZi δX l
R
where we have set J zi (t) = d 2 rJ zi (t, r) with J zi (t, r) given by eq(1.61). Here also notice
h i
that the right hand of above equation can be put as well like δ −~εzi j J zi X j indicating that ∆Ls

contains in addition to ~2 J0 z. Ṙ ∧ R , the term −~εzi j J zi X j which reads also as −~z.J ∧ R with
two component vector J = (J zx , J zy ). Thus, we have the following modified skyrmion equation
Ms 2 1
L̃s = Ṙ − (G + ~J0 ) z.(Ṙ ∧ R) + ~z. (J ∧ R) − V(R) (1.69)
2 2
from which we determine the modified equation of motion of the rigid skyrmion in presence of
spin transfer torque.
1.7 Comments and perspectives

In this bookchapter, we have studied the basic aspects of the solitons dynamics in various (1 + d)
spacetime dimensions with d = 1, 2, 3; while emphasizing the analysis of their topological prop-
erties and their interaction with the environment. After having introduced the quantum SU(2)
spins, their coherent vector representation S = R (α, β, γ) S0 with S0 standing for the highest
weight spin state; and their link with the magnetic moments µ⋉S n, we have revisited the time
Page 27
evolution of coherent spin states; and proceeded by investigating their spatial distribution while
focusing on kinks, 2d and 3d skyrmions. We have also considered the rigid skyrmions dissolved
in the magnetic texture without and with dissipation. Moreover, we explored the interaction be-
tween electrons and skyrmions and analyzed the effect of the spin transfer torque. In this regard,
we have refined the results concerning the modified LL equation for the rigid skyrmion in con-
nection with emergent non abelian SU(2) gauge fields. It is found that the magnetic skyrmions,
existing in a ferromagnetic (FM) medium, show interesting behaviors such as emergent elec-
trodynamics [70] and current-driven motion at low current densities [71, 72]. Consequently,
the attractive properties of ferromagnetic skyrmions make them promising candidates for high-
density and low-power spintronic technology. Besides, ferromagnetic skyrmions have the poten-
tial to encode bits in low-power magnetic storage devices. Therefore, alternative technology of
forming and controlling skyrmions is necessary for their use in device engineering. This investi-
gation was performed by using the field theory method based on coherent spin states described
by a constrained spacetime field captured by f (n) = 1. Such condition supports the topological
symmetry of magnetic solitons which is found to be characterised by integral topological charges
Q that are interpreted in terms of magnetic skyrmions and antiskyrmion; these topological states
can be imagined as (winding) quasiparticle excitations with Q > 0 and Q < 0 respectively.
Regarding these two skyrmionic configurations, it is interesting to notice that, unlike mag-
netic skyrmions, the missing rotational symmetry of antiskyrmions leads to anisotropic DMI,
which is highly relevant for racetrack applications. It follows that antiskyrmions exist in certain
Heusler materials having a particular type of DMI, including MnPtPdSn [35] and MnRhIrSn
[73]. It is then deduced that stabilized antiskyrmions can be observed in materials exhibiting D2d
symmetry such as layered systems with heavy metal atoms. Furthermore, the antiskyrmion show
some interesting features, namely long lifetimes at room temperature and a parallel motion to
the applied current [74]. Thus, antiskyrmions are easy to detect using conventional experimental
techniques and can be considered as the carriers of information in racetrack devices.
To lift the limitations associated with ferromagnetic skyrmions for low-power spintronic de-
vices, recent trends combine multiple subparticles in different magnetic surroundings. Stable
room-temperature antiferromagnetic skyrmions in synthetic Pt/Co/Ru antiferromagnets result
from the combination of two FM nano-objects coupled antiferromagnetically [75]. Compared
to their ferromagnetic analogs, antiferromagnetic skyrmions exhibit different dynamics and are
driven with several kilometers per second by currents. Coupling two subsystems with mutually
reversed spins, gives rise to ferrimagnetic skyrmions as detected in GdFeCo films using scan-
ning transmission X-ray microscopy [76]. At ambient temperature, these skyrmions move at a
speed of 50 m/s with a reduced skyrmion Hall angle of 20◦ . Characterized by uncompensated
magnetization, the vanishing angular momentum line can be utilized as a self-focusing race-
track for skyrmions. Another technologically promising object is generated by the coexistence
of skyrmions and antiskyrmions in materials with D2d symmetry. The resulting spin textures
constitute information bits 0’ and ‘1’ generalizing the concept of racetrack device. Insensitive
to the repulsive interaction between the two distinct nano-objects, such emergent devices are
promising solution for racetrack storage applications.
Page 28
Acknowledgement
L. B. Drissi would like to acknowledge ”Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques-
Morocco”. She also acknowledges the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for financial sup-
port via the George Forster Research Fellowship for experienced scientists (Ref 3.4 - MAR -
1202992).
Page 29
Page 30
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Chapter 1

arXiv:2207.02892v1 [cond-mat.mes-hall] 6 Jul 2022

Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and

Lalla Btissam Drissi1,2,∗ , El Hassan Saidi1,2 , Mosto Bousmina2,3 , Omar Fassi-Fehri2

1 Magnetic Skyrmions: Theory and Applications 1

1.2 Quantum SU(2) spin dynamics

1.2.1 Quantum spin 1/2 operator and beyond

1.2.2 Coherent spin states and semi-classical analysis

n2x (t) + n2y (t) + n2z (t) = 1 ⇔ ~n (t) = 1 (1.4)

ua = (cos β cos α, cos β sin α, − sin β) , va = (− sin α, cos α, 0) (1.5)

1.3 Magnetic solitons in lower dimensions

1.3.1 One space dimensional solitons

dn1 ∧ dn2 = Jdt ∧ dx , J = ǫ µν ∂µ n1 ∂ν n2 (1.9)

Topological current and charge

1.3.2 Skyrmions in 2d space dimensions

From kinks to 2d Skyrmions

1.4 Three dimensional magnetic skyrmions

1.4.1 From 2d skyrmion to 3d homologue

n = (m sin γ, cos γ) , m = (sin β cos α, sin β sin α, cos β) (1.26)

1.4.2 Conserved topological current

Topological current in target space

Topological symmetry in spacetime

1.5 Effective dynamics of skyrmions

1.5.1 Equation of a rigid skyrmion

n (r, t) = n [r − R (t)] (1.35)

In this relation, the density LB = − (1 − cos β) ∂α ∂t

Skyrmion equation without dissipation

1.5.2 Implementing dissipation

Landau- Lifshitz- Gilbert equation

Damped skyrmion equation

n. (ṅ∧dn) = −γ (f.dn) + α (dn.ṅ) (1.49)

1.6 Electron-skyrmion interaction

1.6.1 Hund coupling

where P = ~i ∇ and σ.n = σ x n x + σy ny + σz nz .

Emergent gauge potential

Large Hund coupling limit

1.6.2 Skyrmion with spin transfer torque

Modified Landau- Lifshitz equation

To compare this equation with the usual LL equation (~S ṅ = δH δn

Rigid skyrmion under spin transfer torque

1.7 Comments and perspectives

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